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ARRESTED PRE-OEDIPAL DEVELOPMENT IN BRIONY’S PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY: A PSYCHOANALYTIC ANALYSIS ON IAN MCEWAN’S ATONEMENT

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.) Degree in English Language Studies

Teti Apriyanti Student Number: 146332001

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2017 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ARRESTED PRE-OEDIPAL DEVELOPMENT IN BRIONY’S PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY: A PSYCHOANALYTIC ANALYSIS ON IAN MCEWAN’S ATONEMENT

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.) Degree in English Language Studies

Teti Apriyanti Student Number: 146332001

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2017

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ARRNSTED PRE-OEDIPAL DEYELOPMENT IN BRIONY'S PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY: A PSYCHOANALYTIC ANALYilS ON IAN MCEWAN'S ATONEMENT

Paulus Sa l7lJnr2ol7 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A THESIS

ARRESTEI} PRE-OEDIPAL DEVELOPMENT IN BRIONY' S PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY: A PSYCHOANALYTIC ANALYSIS

ffiakarta, July 3 1't, 2017 he Graduate School Director Dharma University

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless oflierwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer ulderstands the firll consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else's ideas, phrases, or sentences, without proper reference.

Yoryakarta, July 3ft,2017 {d rtt Teti Apriyanti

lv PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

LEMBAR PERIWATAAN PERSETUJAAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAII UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Teti Apriyanti NIM :146332001 Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuarU saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharrna karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

Arrested Pre-Oedipal Development in Briony's Psychological Complexity: A Psychoanalytic Analysis on Ian McEwan's Atonement beserta perangftat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpusatakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyrmpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pang[

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yoryakarta PadaTanggal 31 Juli 2017

Yang menyatakan {t lVil Teti Apriyanti PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are so many people to thank for helping and supporting me during the writing of this thesis. However, first and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to God for the blessing that He has been bestowed upon me during this thesis project and throughout my existence.

My sincere gratitude goes to my advisor Paulus Sarwoto, S.S., M.A.,

Ph.D. for the continuous guidance of my master thesis. My sincere gratitude also goes to my lecturers Patrisius Mutiara Andalas SJ, S.S., S.T.D., Dr. Novita

Dewi, M.S.,M.A (Hons) and all lecturers in English Language Studies of Sanata

Dharma University from whom I learned a lot during my study. I would also like to convey my gratitude to my thesis examiners, Th. Enny Anggraini, Ph.D. and

Arti Wulandari, Ph.D.

I would like to thank all of my friends in English Language Studies of

Sanata Dharma University who have been helping me during my study. My sincere appreciation goes to Dian Natalia Sutanto, Kristiawan Indriyanto,

Kreszens Aditya Cahyo Nugroho, Pratama Ahdi and Melania Priska Mendrofa for their support and the stimulating discussions we have shared.

Last but not the least, I am deeply grateful to my family for their unconditional compassion and support. I am indebted my husband, Mesut

Basaran, my children, Suzan Basaran and Deniz Can Basaran who blessed me with a life full of love and joy.

Teti Apriyanti

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LEMBAR PERIWATAAN PERSETUJAAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAII UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Teti Apriyanti NIM :146332001 Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuarU saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharrna karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

Arrested Pre-Oedipal Development in Briony's Psychological Complexity: A Psychoanalytic Analysis on Ian McEwan's Atonement beserta perangftat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpusatakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyrmpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pang[

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yoryakarta PadaTanggal 31 Juli 2017

Yang menyatakan {t lVil Teti Apriyanti PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... i APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii THESIS DEFENCE APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... iv LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ...... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vii ABSTRACT ...... ix ABSTRAK ...... x CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2. Thesis Questions ...... 9 1.3. Objectives of the Study ...... 9 1.4. Significance of the Study ...... 9 1.5. Thesis Outline ...... 11 CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 13 2.1. Review of Related Studies ...... 13 2.2. Review Of Related Theories ...... 27 2.2.1. Theory of Object Relations ...... 27

2.2.2. Theory of Thirdness ...... 42

2.2.3. Theory of Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) ...... 46

2.3. The Manifestations of Narcissistic Personality Disorder ...... 59 CHAPTER III : THE CONSTITUTION OF BRIONY’S EARLY PSYCHOLOGICAL DISPOSITION: ARRESTED PRE-OEDIPAL STAGE62 3.1. Absent Maternal Care ...... 62

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3.2 Family Dysfunction ...... 68 CHAPTER IV : THE MANIFESTATION OF BRIONY’S PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPLEXITY ...... 72 4.1. Briony‘s Inability of Reflexive Awareness ...... 72 4.2. Manifestations of Narcissistic Personality Disorder in Briony ...... 78 CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION ...... 97 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 102

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ABSTRACT

Teti Apriyanti. Arrested Pre-Oedipal Development in Briony’s Psychological Complexity: A Psychoanalytic Analysis on Ian McEwan’s Atonement. Yogyakarta: Graduate Program on English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University, 2017.

This thesis is a study on Ian McEwan‘s Atonement. This thesis attempts to present how psychological complexity of Atonement‘s main character, Briony, is influenced by an arrested pre-Oedipal. It also provides the consequences of experiencing an arrested pre-Oedipal stage for Briony. The consequences of an arrested pre-Oedipal development are manifested as her psychological complexity. In this context, the psychological complexity refers to a term introduced by psychoanalysis theory as the false Self. In this regard, it is noted that the stage of pre-Oedipal plays a significant role in determining the representation of Briony‘s Self. Object Relations theory of the psychoanalysis explains that the interpersonal relationship between mother and child influences the embodiment of the Self. This thesis reveals that the absence of a satisfying maternal care can wreak havoc in the character‘s manifestation of the Self. The discussion of the thesis spesifically focuses on the presentation of each character‘s mind as they are presented in the novel, as well as their contribution to the story of the novel. However, the major focus of the presentation of mind is on Briony‘s. Furthermore, the discussion of the thesis attempts to address the novel‘s psychological issues that provides an analysis of Briony‘s psychological complexity. Reflecting on the significant influence of the interpersonal relationship between mother and child, this thesis concludes that Briony‘s psychological complexity is convincingly connected to her interpersonal relationship with her mother. Briony experiences an arrested pre-Oedipal stage due to the absence of a satisfying maternal care. The absence of a satisfying maternal care results in the absence of an intense bonds between Briony and her mother. Therefore, the manifestation of Briony‘s Self is distorted into the false Self that is her psychological complexity. The manifestations of Briony‘s false Self as the outcome of her arrested pre-Oedipal development are manifested as the inability of reflexive awareness and Narcissistic Personality Disorder. The hallmark traits of the inability of reflexive awareness and Narcissistic Personality Disorder are the inability to recognize other‘s feelings and needs, as well as a grandiose sense of self- importance. The fundamental origin of the inability of reflexive awareness and Narcissistic Personality Disorder is a lack of empathy for other people as the result of the absence of an intense bonds between Briony and her mother during pre-Oedipal stage. Consequently, Briony grows as a person with an exaggerated self-importance because her world is revolved only around her.

Keywords: Complexity, false Self, pre-Oedipal stage, Object Relations, interpersonal relationship, maternal care, psychology

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ABSTRAK

Teti Apriyanti. Arrested Pre-Oedipal Development in Briony’s Psychological Complexity: A Psychoanalytic Analysis on Ian McEwan’s Atonement. Yogyakarta: Graduate Program on English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University, 2017.

Thesis ini mengkaji novel karya Ian McEwan, Atonement dengan upaya menampilkan bagaimana kompleksitas psikologis yang diderita karakter utama, Briony Tallis dipengaruhi oleh tahap pra-Oedipal yang tidak rampung. Thesis ini juga menyajikan konsekuensi dari mengalami tahap pra-Oedipal yang tidak rampung bagi Briony. Pada konteks ini, kompleksitas psikologis mengacu pada satu istilah yang diperkenalkan oleh teori psikoanalisa yaitu keberadaan diri semu. Dalam hal ini, tercatat bahwa tahap pra-Oedipal memainkan peran yang signifikan dalam penentuan representasi keberadaan diri semu dari Briony. Mengacu pada teori Object Relations dari psikoanalisa menjelaskan bahwa hubungan antar- perseorangan antara ibu dan anak mempengaruhi terwujudnya keberadaan diri semu. Thesis ini mengungkapkan bahwa ketiadaan perawatan ibu yang memuaskan dapat mendatangkan malapetaka pada perwujudan keberadaan diri semu dari karakter tersebut. Diskusi thesis ini secara spesifik terpusat pada presentasi dari setiap pikiran masing-masing karakter sebagaimana dipresentasikan di novel, juga kontribusinya pada cerita novel tersebut. Meskipun demikian, fokus utama adalah pada presentasi pikiran dari Briony. Selanjutnya, diskusi thesis ini mengusahakan untuk mengarah pada persoalan psikologi terdapat di novel yang menyajikan analisa kompleksitas psikologis pada Briony. Bercermin pada pentingnya pengaruh dari hubungan antar-perseorangan antara ibu dan anak, thesis ini menyimpulkan bahwa kompleksitas psikologis pada Briony secara meyakinkan berkaitan dengan hubungan antar-perseorangan antara dia dan ibunya. Briony mengalami tahap pra-Oedipal yang tidak rampung, dikarenakan ketiadaan perawatan ibu yang memuaskan. Ketiadaan perawatan ibu yang memuaskan berakibat pada ketiadaan ikatan yang intens antara Briony dan ibunya. Oleh karena itu, perwujudan dari keberadaan diri Briony menyimpang dalam wujud keberadaan diri yang semu yaitu kompleksitas psikologisnya. Perwujudan dari keberadaan diri semu Briony sebagai hasil dari tahap pra- Oedipal yang tidak rampung adalah berupa ketidakmampuan akan kesadaran diri untuk berefleksi dan gangguan kepribadian narsistik. Ciri khas sifat-sifat dari ketidakmampuan akan kesadaran diri untuk berefleksi dan gangguan kepribadian narsistik adalah ketidakmampuan untuk mengenali perasaan dan kebutuhan orang lain dan rasa kepentingan diri sendiri yang berlebihan. Sumber dasar dari ketidakmampuan untuk mengenali perasaan dan kebutuhan orang lain dan rasa kepentingan diri sendiri yang berlebihan adalah ketiadaan empati kepada orang lain yang berasal dari ketiadaan ikatan yang intens antara Briony dan ibunya pada tahap pra-Oedipal. Akibatnya, Briony tumbuh menjadi orang dengan rasa kepentingan diri sendiri yang berlebihan dikarenakan dunianya yang berkisar hanya pada dirinya.

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Kata kunci: kompleksitas, keberadaan diri semu, tahap pra-Oedipal, Object Relations, hubungan antar-perseorangan, perawatan ibu, psikologi

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides basic information related to the study of this thesis, as well as the literary work that is used. This chapter covers the conceptual background of the study which explains why this thesis explores the study of the development of psychological state during early age or pre-Oedipal stage. This chapter also presents thesis questions, objective of the study, significance of the study and thesis outline.

1.1. Background of the Study

Role of parents is irreplaceable in the lives of their children. This pivotal role is the fundamental influence for the development of the children‘s physical and emotional well-being. Thus, it is preferable that children are nurtured by both of their parents who love and care for them. However, in some instances, this is not the case. Some children are growing up with an absent role of a mother, or a father, even with the absence role of both parents. The nonexistent role of parents refers on how they are not available physically or emotionally. This parental absence may place the children in a state of psychological disturbances. Heinz

Kohut as cited in Richard S. Sharf argues that personality disorders or disturbances are due to problems in not getting sufficient attention from a parent in early childhood (the grandiose self) or not having sufficient respect for the parents.1 This is because their physical and emotional needs, such as to receive love and to be encouraged to develop a sense of self-worth are unmet.

1 Richard S Sharf. Theories of Psychotherapy and Counseling. (Belmont: Brooks/Cole, 2004), p.59

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The psychological disturbances on children due to parental absence might cause personality disorders such as Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Narcissistic

Personality Disorder happens as a result of unmet children‘s physical and emotional needs. Clearly, children have both physical and emotional needs i.e. nourishment, sleep, warm clothes, love, attention, and empathy. These needs are pivotal. However, the emotional needs are most pivotal for the healthy development of a child‘s self.

The parents supply an essential component in the development of a child‘s sense of self. The parents are needed most in helping their children to regulate their inner states. Essentially, what parents do is to help their children see themselves by providing positive reflection i.e.feeling emphaty. Without empathy, children inevitably grow up with self-worth issues which has a detrimental effect.

Children with self-worth issues may become overly confident, arrogant, exploitive and so forth. Overly confident or inflated sense of grandiosity, arrogant, exploitive, overly fantasizing of unlimited success, believes that he or she is special, craving for attention, has a sense of entitlement, envious of others and lacks of empathy are nine manifestations of Narcissistic Personality Disorder.

These nine manifestations of Narcissistic Personality Disorder are detrimental psychological effects associated with early development of one‘s Self.

These detrimental psychological effects associated with early development of one‘s Self are depicted in Briony Tallis, the main character of Atonement , a novel written by Ian McEwan. Atonement is McEwan's work of fiction which emphasizes Briony‘s psychological conflicts, particularly in relation to her

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reconciliation with the Self manifested in her atonement for what she did in the past. It is Briony‘s wrongdoing in the past that affects her and the people around her.

This thesis argues that early developmental of one‘s Self or in psychoanalysis is known as pre-Oedipal stage has a significant relation with Briony‘s psychological conflicts, one of the characters in Atonement. Atonement fictionally represents the influence of one‘s pre-Oedipal development on his or her psychological state. This thesis seeks to explore how Briony‘s early psychological disposition is created by associating her experience during pre-Oedipal stage with parental care. On the basis of Object Relations theory, pre-Oedipal stage is a crucial stage for the development of a child‘s sense of Self. The core concept of

Object Relations theory is emphasized on the mother and child relationship. Sara

E. Quay describes that:

The focus of object relations theory is the mother-child relationship, upon which the healthy development of the child rests. That development depends upon the child‘s ability to project inner images of the self and others first onto external people—―objects‖—especially the mother, and then to reintegrate them into his or her own psychic structure.2

Object Relations puts the mother as the pivotal key of a formative developmental saga that was initiated before Oedipal stage or pre-Oedipal stage. The emphasis of

Object Relations on habitual patterns of early interpersonal relations is stressed significantly on the mother‘s roles: the intimacy and nurturing of the mother have great impact on the development of the psychology of the child.

2 Sara E. Quay. Encyclopedia of Feminist Literary Theory. Ed. Wallace, Elizabeth Kowaleski. (New York:Routledge, 2009), p.415

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Furthermore, this thesis briefly explores the manifestations of Briony‘s psychological state as the outcome of Briony‘s arrested pre-Oedipal stage. The emphasis on the role of a mother to a child‘s formative development during pre-

Oedipal stage gives a significant place to the mother. A child‘s posture towards other matters and his or her mother as his or her significant other has an important role in how that posture is developed during pre-Oedipal stage.

However, this significant role can be fatal when it is absent. A child grows up and experiences an arrested pre-Oedipal development without having the basic qualities of caring, intimacy and emotional needs towards his or her significant other.

The concept of arrested pre-Oedipal development in psychoanalysis is associated with fixation in one‘s personality development. Margaret S. Mahler as cited in Salman Akhtar describes that ―infantile symbiotic psychosis‖ as a condition where the mental representation of the mother remains fixated or becomes regressively fused with the mental representation of the Self.3 The outcome of an arrested pre-Oedipal development has a great impact on one‘s personality as his or her identity because one‘s personality is shaped during this crucial period.

On the basis of the studies on a personality disorder, an arrested pre-

Oedipal development results in a psychological disturbance as the negative consequence. In fact, early narcissistic experiences and anxieties inevitably result in intertwined concerns with both arrested (or warped) growth and intrapsychic

3 Salman Akhtar. The Electrified Mind: Development, Psychopathology, and Treatment in the Era of Cell Phones and the Internet. (Plymouth: Jason Aronson. 2011), p. 89

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conflict, that is, in persisting residuals of unmet developmental narcissistic needs

(e.g., mirroring or idealizing needs) and in learned patterns of defensive narcissism.4 The depiction of a fictional character with his or her psychological disturbance is prominent in the works of Ian McEwan, as it is depicted in

Atonement.

Atonement is Ian McEwan‘s fiction which was first published in 2001.

This novel is considered as McEwan‘s most remarkable literary works. As Julie

Ellam puts it:

Ian McEwan‘s work was highly regarded before the publication of Atonement (2001 a),but this particular novel continues to stand out as one of his greatest achievements to date and is an exaggerated testament to how he is a rarity in the literary establishment. That is, Atonement highlights how he is both celebrated as a writer of literary fiction and also massively popular with the reading public.5

As soon as Atonement is published, the novel is regarded as McEwan‘s masterpiece and short-listed for the Booker Prize. The movie adaptation of the novel was made in 2007.

Atonement is a novel narrated by third person point of view but in the last section, it is revealed that Briony from the beginning is the narrator of the novel.

Throughout three sections of the novel, the readers regard that the narrator is a reliable narrator and untied to the events in the novel. It is in the last section of the novel when the narrator exchanges into first person. This has an effect to the

4 John Fiscalini. Coparticipant Psychoanalysis. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), p.105-106 5 Julie Ellam. Ian McEwan’s Atonement. (London:Continuum International Publishing Group, 2009), p.2

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readers that Briony is an unreliable narrator because the entire events are narrated based on her point of view.

The majority of the novel‘s scenes occur in the first and second sections of the novel which depicts Briony as a thirteen-year-old girl. The third section of the novel is Briony as an eighteen-year old girl. She studies to become a nurse following Cecila‘s footsteps. The last section is Briony in her old days. She is a famous writer at this section, as what she always dreams about since she was a little girl. Regrettably, she is diagnosed with illness of dementia which will cause a memory loss. In this section, Briony explains that she has been rewriting

Atonement for years.

Atonement starts with a narration of Briony Tallis, the youngest child in

Tallis family, preparing a play titled The Trials of Arabella to welcome her big brother who is coming from the city the next day. Briony in the first part of the novel is a thirteen year old girl who is a greatly talented writer. She has an elder sister, Cecilia, and an eldest brother, Leon. Besides her siblings, there is also

Robbie Turner. Robbie is the son of a servant employed by the Tallis. He and his mother live in a separate house which is not far from the Tallis mansion. Cecilia and Robbie are in their early twenties and just finish their degrees at Cambridge

University. Robbie is able to attend a study in University with the help of Jack

Tallis. During that summer, Robbie manages himself as a landscape gardener for the Tallis. Living with the Tallis are three cousins, namely Lola and her twin brothers, namely Jackson and Pierrot.

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Briony is identified as a child with an extremely high ability of imagination and a curiosity about secrets. Moreover, she is recognized as a child who possesses a strange mind and a facility with words. She can spend hours to browse through dictionary and discovers some new uncommon words, then encloses the words into sentences. Thus, she is entertained by mixing imagination and words into written form. At the beginning pages of the novel, she fantasizes about being an outstanding writer in the future. She writes her first story at the age of eleven. It turns out that writing does not only facilitate her desire of imagination and words, but she also finds out that her skill at writing is a useful for her another desire of a power. She realizes the fact that as a writer she gets an absolute power of deciding the outcomes. Briony describes that: ―Writing stories not only involved secrecy, but it also gave her all the pleasures of miniaturization‖.6 As the writer of her stories, she can arrange everything as she pleases:

A world could be made in five pages, and one that was more pleasing than a model farm. The childhood of a spoiled prince could be framed within half a page, a moonlit dash through sleepy villages was one rhythmically emphatic sentence, falling in love could be achieved in a single word-a glance.(Atonement, 7)

Briony‘s desire of a power to control the outcomes of her stories is not only limited in the world of fiction. She discovers the beauty and enjoyment of a power to control the outcomes of the events in reality by deducing that real life is some other stories that should be orderly organized. When things do not run as

6 Ian McEwan. Atonement. (New York:Anchor Books, 2001), p.7

All subsequent references to this novel will be used in this thesis with pagination only.

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she expects the world should be, she has the right to interfere and make them fit.

Briony‘s world is the world that fits her overview about life, in which how the world she wants to be. This can be inferred from her character as a child who is possessed by a desire to have the world just so, that is the world with a neatness as in the world of her imaginary she creates. A neatness as she believes is an orderly scenario whereas a prince should marry a princess and a marriage is a happily ever after story. Contrarily, a divorce is seen as a chaos for a story. A chaos is offended her sense of orderly. By this worldview, she obsesses about things that should be in order. She is very detailed in organizing something, and she craves for tidiness. When things are not as she expects, she will cheer herself up with a self pity. Whereas, she expects too much from people and the world around her to constantly notice and love her.

This thesis describes the tendency of Briony‘s desire for being the center of attention and love of people around her represents her psychological state as a pathological disturbance. Briony‘s pyschological state is considerably complex.

This complexity is motivated by her tendency of excessive self-importance. The tendency of excessive self-importance is relevant to narcissism. The works of two contemporary psychoanalysts i.e. Heinz Kohut and Otto Kernberg on Narcissism are seen as the most adequate concepts in correlating the etiology of Briony‘s psychological state and analyzing the behavioural manifestations on Briony that are categorized as traits for Narcissictic Personality Disorder.

The study of narcissism is first integrated into psychoanalysis by Sigmund

Freud. The study of narcissism is continued and revised by Heinz Kohut and Otto

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Kernberg on the basis of Object Relations theory. The revised concepts of both theorists are further criticized by a feminist psychoanalyst, Jessica Benjamin.

Consequently, it is proposed that psychoanalytic feminist reading results in the analysis on Briony‘s psychological personality disorder as her complexity.

1.2. Thesis Questions

This thesis addresses two research questions as follows:

1. How is Briony‘s early psychological disposition formed?

2. What is the consequence of an arrested pre-Oedipal stage for Briony?

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to analyze the behavioral symptoms of Briony‘s psychological complexity, and subsequently to correlate her complexity to her early experience of mother and child relationship. This study is conducted under the assumption that the history of Briony‘s pre-Oedipal stage was arrested. In order to explore this issue, Object Relations theory is considered as the most appropriate approach that enables this study to examine the origin of Briony‘s psychological complexity.

1.4. Significance of the Study

The study of this thesis is conducted with the aim to read Atonement analytically from psychoanalytic feminist perspective. The study of this thesis aims to reveal how the developmental of Briony‘s Self is influenced by her experience during pre-Oedipal stage. When this thesis applies the principal

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concept that asserting Briony‘s psychological state has its roots in her experience during pre-Oedipal stage as the interpretation of the novel, this thesis engages in psychoanalytic feminist criticism. The theory enables the readers to seize the meaning of the text.

It is considered significant to analyze the developmental of Briony‘s Self in order to disclose her secret desires. According to the novel, Briony is the author of the novel. The story is told based on her perception. Understanding Briony‘s pschological state leads to the key of Atonement‘s author principal motivation in order to grasp the nature of Atonement, as a piece of literature. Therefore, this thesis asserts that psychoanalytic feminist theory has the power to disentagle the riddle of a literary text. The study of this thesis contributes to re-evaluation the interpretation of McEwan‘s Atonement. Moreover, psychoanalytic feminist theory allow people to achieve a relevant comprehension on the development of human‘s

Self and the world.

As previously discussed, the behavioural of Briony‘s psychological complexity is the manifestation of a Narcissistic Personality Disorder. One manifestation of a Narcissistic Personality Disorder that is recognized in Briony is her view about herself of being superior than others. A view that is at the core of narcissism. It is an inability to see the self as a part of a larger narrative.

It is a harmful view that a person can have when he believes that he is superior to others. Narcissism is characterized by feelings of superiority over other people, and so simple disregard for the rights and feelings of others could

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result in higher aggression, even in the absence of threat.7 This problem is closely linked to the global current issue: my race is better than your race, my religion is superior to your religion. This issue has been on the rise in most parts of the world in manifestations of racism and radicalism. Racism and radicalism potentially trigger aggression or violence in terms of verbal or physical against others. It is plausible that narcissists perceive social life as a series of struggles for dominance, so they may attack others regardless of direct threat, simply as a means of establishing themselves in a superior position by conquering or intimidating other individuals.8 Therefore, racism and radicalism may lead to acts of terrorism and intolerance. This is because a person with a view that his race is better than other races, his religion is superior to other religions believes that he is part of an exclusive group. In this regard, this study asserts the urgency of scrutinizing the origin of narcissism. Thus, this study hopes that it may help the future researchers to improve their knowledge about the origin of narcissism and perhaps contribute to stem the tide.

1.5. Thesis Outline

The study of this thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter one is to provide the basic knowledge on the principal issue which comprises of the background of the study, thesis questions, objectives of the study, significance of

7 Brad J. Bushman & Roy F. Baumeister. ―Threatened Egotism, Narcissism, Self-Esteem, and Direct and Displaced Aggression: Does Self-Love or Self-Hate Lead to Violence?‖. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75. 1. (1998) pp.219-229. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8db0/272c1faf00a55d8be068c44f049ce26edc37.pdf. Accessed on 12 March 2017. p.221

8 Brad J. Bushman & Roy F. Baumeister.p.221

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the study and thesis outline. Chapter two consists of review of studies that presents a brief synopsis of related foregoing studies conducted toward Ian

McEwan‘s Atonement and review of related theories employed in the study.

Chapter three and four are chapters provided for analysis. Chapter three provides the answer for thesis question number one that is the origin of Briony‘s psychological complexity. Chapter four examines the manifestations of Briony‘s psychological complexity, in this case is her pathological disturbances. The final chapter provides the conclusion of the study by presenting a brief of the thesis findings.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The previous chapter presents background of the study that includes thesis questions, objectives of the study, significance of the study and thesis outline. In this section, the focus of the chapter is to provide a summary of several previous studies related to Atonement and Briony. Furthermore, this chapter gives a description of related theories used in analyzing Briony‘s arrested pre-Oedipal and her psychological complexity.

2.1. Review of Related Studies

Atonement is the most appreciated and popular literary work produced by

Ian McEwan. Thus, it attracts some critics and scholars to respond and discuss the novel. Most of the reception and reviews for the novel are positive. As Julie Ellam puts it:

Reviews of Atonement in the broadsheets and literary journals were, with the odd exception, positive bordering on congratulatory. At this point in his career, McEwan was a mainstay of British fiction and had come to be regarded as a respected author and one of the key writers of his generation. With this novel, he impressed the fans and non-committed alike and it was quickly spotted as his most compelling work to date. 9

Many elements of Atonement have been reviewed by different literary critics and scholars. General reviews tend to flatter Atonement and argue that the novel is the most compelling work of Ian McEwan‘s. Tom Shone, for instance, as cited in

Ellam has reviewed Atonement for The New York Times and he describes the novel as McEwan‘s most complete and compassionate work to date.10 Peter Kemp

9 Julie Ellam. p.61 10 Julie Ellam. p.62

13

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praises Atonement as a richly intricate book.11 The novel, he contends, intricately displays the border between facts and fictions. However, not all reviews praise

Atonement in a positive way. Anita Brookner‘s review for The Spectator is dissimilar with most reviews criticizing Atonement as being unconvincing.

Brookner points out that the atonement in which Briony attempts to reconcile is unconvincing since Briony‘s conscience cannot be so clear.12 In relation to this point, Brookner adds that Briony, the narrator of the novel, is unreliable since she is as the narrator and she is also in the position as the originator of the character‘s perspectives. Moreover, she criticizes that the attempts of McEwan to illustrate

Briony‘s atonement as an inspiration for a life‘s work - and for that work to be crowned with success – are unconvincing.13 Brookner sees Briony‘s moral as an ambivalent one; however, Frank Kermode and Peter Kemp have different views about this. On the contrary, Kemp and Kermode observe the moral ambivalence exhibited by Briony as a central element of the novel.14 Both of them praise the edge that is maintained by the ambivalence displayed through Briony.

Conclusively, Atonement has been successfully acknowledged in literary world and considered as the most impressive work of Ian McEwan‘s to date.

Atonement is straightforwardly categorized as a metafictional literary work. Metafiction is a term given to fictional writing which self-consciously and systematically draws attention to its status as an artifact in order to pose questions

11 Julie Ellam. p.64 12 Julie Ellam. p.65 13 Julie Ellam. p.65 14 Julie Ellam. p.66

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about the relationship between fiction and reality.15 In Atonement, the narrator draws attention to the constructed nature of the narrative by employing figures of references of previous great literary works. The figures which are used as references can be in the forms of allusion and quotation. The act of narration that frequently cites other literary texts is called intertextuality. Metafiction novels often employ intertextual references. Intertextual references are made in the novels both explicitly and implicitly to influence the reader in a particular way, and to generate more meaning and depth to the text.16 Intertextuality was first coined by Julia Kristeva. Kristeva asserts that any text refers to other pre- existence texts; therefore, it is a permutation of texts, an intertextuality: in the space of a given text, several utterances, taken from other texts, intersect and neutralize one another.17

This metafictional literary device in Atonement has been analyzed by different literary scholars. Brian Finney in his article, ―Briony‘s Stand Against

Oblivion‖ concentrates on the self-conscious use of narrative and metafictional writing techniques in Atonement since Atonement is about the making of fiction that gradually hints its identity as a fiction. It can be detected by recognizing some quotations cited from other literary texts that have come before Atonement. For instance, a quotation cited by Robbie in Malvolio‘s lines from Twelfth Night:

―Nothing that can be, can come between me and the full prospect of my hopes‖.

15 Patricia Waugh. Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction. (London: Routledge, 1984), p.2 16 Pernille B. Nielsen. ―The Making of Fiction in Ian McEwan‘s Atonement‖ (M.A Thesis, Aalborg University, 2015), p.1 17 Julia Kristeva. Desire in Language: A semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Ed. Leon S. Roudiez. Trans. Thomas Gora, Alice Jardine, Leon S. Roudiez. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), p.36

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Finney states that this narrative device is used to alert the readers to the status of the text as a literary artifact.18 Self-conscious use of narrative is a significant process in the novel as an attempt to make readers establish the constructed nature of the characters in the novel.

A pivotal intertextual device that is employed in Atonement is the epigraph. Atonement‘s epigraph inserts a quote from Jane Austen‘s Northanger

Abbey:

―Dear Miss Morland, consider the dreadful nature of the suspicions you have entertained. What have you been judging from? Remember the country and the age in which we live. Remember that we are English: that we are Christians. Consult your own understanding, your own sense of the probable, your own observation of what is passing around you. Does our education prepare us for such atrocities? Do our laws connive at them? Could they be perpetrated without being known in a country like this, where social and literary intercourse is on such a footing, where every man is surrounded by a neighbourhood of voluntary spies, and where roads and newspapers lay everything open? Dearest Miss Morland, what ideas have you been admitting?‖ They had reached the end of the gallery; and with tears of shame she ran off to her own room.(Atonement, xi)

The decision to feature this quotation has an effect to the reader in viewing this narrative. This quotation is addressed to the protagonist in Austen‘s novel,

Catherine Morland by Henry Tilney for being naïve about the events happening around her. She is portrayed as the victim of literary works she has read by not being able to distinguish between the real and the fictive. Finney states that this quotation is inserted in order to guide the readers into considering Briony the same way as Catherine Morland. Both characters are unable to disentangle life from literature. From the beginning of the novel, it is portrayed how deep

18 Brian Finney. "Briony's Stand Against Oblivion: The Making of Fiction in Ian McEwan's Atonement." Journal of Modern Literature, 27. 3, (2004). http://lists.lib.keele.ac.uk/items/8EA29B11-BCF8-5F7C-9991-8B1472D52182.html. Accessed on 8 June 2016.p.74

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Briony‘s immersion in the world of fiction really is. The intention of the author, in this case is Briony, to feature this intertextual reference provokes a curiosity to the readers.

Intertextual references in the novel: explicit and implicit, Briony uses her narrative as an apology for the damage she caused as a child. By having the narrator of her narrative portray Briony in a particular way, she is able to construct her plot in a way that makes her achieve an effect of atonement.19 Briony implicitly disposes a message to the readers by featuring Austen‘s plot. Briony deliberately portrays herself as a naïve girl, who is the victim of literary works she has read, similar to Catherine Morland. As a result of this, she controls her own autobiographical story in order to portray it in a way that makes her look innocent.20 Ultimately, this intertextual reference functions as a justification for her false accusation. Related to this, Briony is far too subjective to any events she encounters. She deliberately manipulates the narrative of her novel.

It is argued that Briony suffers from a symptom of peculiarity when she underestimates reality that she encounters. Briony builds facts based on her own perspective for her own personal need. Finney stresses out that Briony is growing up passionately interested in writing fictions. Thus, it influences her complexity in determining what imaginary is and what real is.21 Furthermore, Finney argues

Briony‘s unawareness of correcting her mistake in the past through a fiction that she writes as her confusion to distinguish between life in the reality and life in the

19 Pernille B. Nielsen. p.61 20 Pernille B. Nielsen.p.61 21 Brian Finney. p.79

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fiction.22 Finney‘s study correlates to the purpose of this thesis which is to explain

Briony‘s incompetence to distinguish between life in the reality and life in the fiction as a complexity classified as a personality disorder. Finney claims that

Briony‘s powerful imagination works to confuse the real with the fictive.

Furthermore, it indicatively has been suffered by Briony since she is in her early age which this study agrees with his argument. However, Finney‘s argument is built on the basis of his theory that Briony‘s powerful imagination is shaped by a melodramatic imagination which is derived from the books she has read. Her observation of life around her is conditioned by the fictive world that holds her in its grip.23 Related to this issue, Martin Jacobi in his article ―Who Killed Robbie and Cecilia, Reading and Misreading Ian McEwan‘s Atonement‖ shares the same argument with Finney. Jacobi argues that Briony has immersed herself in literature her entire young life and seems to see the world through the lens of romantic melodrama.24 Thus, Briony‘s misreading of the scenes which she witnesses when she is a young girl is the result of her literary logic developed from her reading. Responding to this argument proposed by the two scholars above, this study rejects the claim that Briony‘s imagination is influenced and shaped by the books that she reads. The argument that someone‘s powerful imagination is shaped by a melodramatic imagination as a result of immersing herself in literature since a young age might be valid, yet there is another factor that can be the major cause which is rooted much earlier. This study refers to the

22 Brian Finney. p.69 23 Brian Finney. p.78 24Martin Jacobi. ‗Who Killed Robbie and Cecilia, Reading and Misreading Ian McEwan‘s Atonement‖. Critique, 52. 1, (2011). pp.55-73. http://aspire.aber.ac.uk/items/41EF4AF7-7D93- D491-6F22-D6A3AE34E289.html. Accessed on 5 August 2016. p.59

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age when she is not able to read yet, even further back earlier. This study‘s argument indicates that the origin of an excessive imagination that Briony suffers has something to do with the influence of family relations, her primary caretaker in particular. For this claim, Colleen M. Hennesey who has conducted a study about the influence of the family systems as a unit determining one‘s ability to shape and define one‘s self by analyzing the main characters of eight major

McEwan‘s novels, entitled ―A Sacred Site: Family in Ian McEwan‘s Novels‖ shares the same idea on this issue. Hennesey‘s study endorses the claim that the excessive imagination suffered by Briony is the product of an immoderate issue originating in her family. As Hennesey puts it:

Briony is the product of disordered and disconnected family. Thus, it is not surprising that the youngest Tallis, Briony, would retreat into a world of fantasy, where she can control events, and people, and emotions. Like the rest of the family, she is invested her world as she wishes it to be, and through her fantasy she actively sets about creating, if only in her mind, the ideal.25

However, Hennesey‘s study is conducted based on a theory that sees the family as a unit that bonds emotionally and strongly connect. Consequently, individual‘s value and identity are shaped through relation to other members of the family. Whereas, this study focuses on the relationship of primary care taker, the mother in particular and the child from early age initiated by Object Relations theory. In this point, this thesis proposes that the origin of an excessive imagination suffered by Briony is correlated with her early childhood

25 Colleen M. Hennessey. ―A Sacred Site: Family In The Novels Of Ian McEwan‖ (Doctoral Dissertation, Drew University, 2004), http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/31890781. Accessed on 30 April 2016. p.127

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development, in psychoanalytic term, it is known as pre-Oedipal stage. Therefore, early childhood development plays an important role in shaping one‘s identity because it reflects personality. In other words, pre-Oedipal stage determines whether someone suffers from mental disorder or not. In this case, an excessive imagination is not the only psychological complexity suffered by Briony. Other symptoms seen in Briony can be indicated as a personality disorder. These symptoms which are implicitly or explicitly indicated within the novel are argued to have significant correlation to Briony‘s arrested pre-Oedipal stage. During her pre-Oedipal stage, Briony did not experience parental bonding due to the absence of both parents. The role of Briony‘s mother is absent due to her long illness, and her father is also absent because of his job

The absence of parents contributes to Briony‘s personality disorders, one of which is her false accusation against Robbie Turner. Eventually, her false accusation leads to Briony‘s guilty feeling about what she does in the past.

However, the real motive of her atonement, whether her guilt is purely as a moral reconciliation or there is a hidden agenda behind it, has been questioned. Her motive of atonement is still questionable since she has not done enough for her crime. She could have clarified about what happened virtually at that night, about the fact that she only catches a glimpse, without knowing the true culprit. Instead, she testifies that she is fully aware of the incident of rape. She claims she witnesses it clearly, although, it is actually not obvious to her. Before she convinces Lola and her-self of the identity of the offender rapist, she frequently asks Lola about who the culprit is. Moreover, it is too dark and distance for her to

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identify the real rapist clearly. What she witnesses from a far is a figure, a person who is backing away from her. Nevertheless, she convinces everyone that she is certain of what and who she witnesses.

Briony is an immature thirteen-year old girl, but she is able to realize that she is not sure about what she witnesses that night. Instead of clarifying her testimony, she postpones too long to confess her crime. It takes 59 years for her to write her book in which she assumes as her atonement, explaining what really happens the night when she accuses Robbie falsely of raping Lola. Johanna

Kumpulainen in her thesis ―Challenging the Notions of Atonement and Guilt in

Ian McEwan‘s Atonement‖ questions the genuine motive of Briony‘s atonement.

Kumpulainen argues that by investigating Briony‘s character, she uncovers

Briony‘s genuine motive of atonement. In this point, this study tends to agree with Kumpulainen‘s notion that someone‘s character can tell plentiful illumination about someone‘s acts. Since according to Social Cognitive Theory of

Personality theorized by Albert Bandura, it is believed that human, as the agency is engaged proactively in his own development and capable of making things happen through his actions. Thus, people have the power to influence their own actions to produce certain results.26 Kumpulainen concludes that Briony‘s atonement is disputable, or even invalid.

It can be argued that Briony‘s atonement is purely out of selfish motives.

Instead of an attempt to make atonement, it is rather viewed as an effort of giving

26 Albert Bandura. A Social Cognitive theory of Personality.(New York: Guilford Publications, 1999) p.2

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explanation in order to relieve her sense of guilt.27 On the other hand, David K.

O‘Hara in his article, ―Briony‘s Being-For: Metafictional Narrative Ethics in Ian

McEwan‘s Atonement‖ shares the same opinion as Kumpulainen, stating that

Briony‘s atonement is merely being done for her own interest. It is essentially selfish motive. In this point, this study shares the same opinion as Kumpulainen and O‘Hara. It is because essentially there is no literal apology statement from

Briony in the novel. She indeed states that she cannot be forgiven but she never states explicitly that she apologizes. Moreover, the fact that she postpones her clarification about the exact event after 59 years shows the absence of conflict of interest inside her. Robbie‘s imprisonment for years does not make her guilty. She could have clarified it right away. It is assumed that she is lack of an ability to empathize with others due to the postponing of the clarification about what really happens with the assault experienced by her cousin, Lola, her false accusation against Robbie. Moreover, Kumpulainen argues that the essential cause of

Briony‘s atonement is concluded as inadequate to be rooted in her developed character.

The discussion about the development of the character or personality of someone enables people to identify someone‘s identity by considering that character is a portrait of identity. Briony‘s identity is argued to be complex.

Indeed, it is argued that she suffers a mental disorder as manifests in her personality. In addition, it is proposed to be rooted from her arrested pre-Oedipal

27 Johanna Kumpulainen. ―Challenging the Notions of Atonement and Guilt in Ian McEwan‘s Atonement‖ (M.A Thesis, University of Tampere, 2014), p.93

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stage that results a pathological narcissism as the outcome. It is believed that the experience of pre-Oedipal plays a significant role in shaping personality as the reflection of one‘s identity. In this case, the concept offered by Object Relations theory is argued to be appropriate for this study. Therefore, Object Relations study focuses on the developing relationship between the child and the care taker, mother in particular. Object Relations theory believes that the formulation of the psychological or intra psychic of a child starts at the very beginning of relationship between mother and child emotionally. Moreover, it is argued that a complete pre-Oedipal development results in a healthy personality. On the contrary, an incomplete or arrested pre-Oedipal development results in a narcissistic personality disorder as the outcome. This argument is made on the basis of the concepts that are theorized by Heinz Kohut and Otto Kernberg, two psychoanalysts who are experts in the field of narcissism through developing the work of Freud on narcissism.

It is significant to recognize Briony‘s personality in order to perceive the intention of her atonement, since Atonement‘s main theme is her guilt in which she has been longing to atone for. It is argued that it can be perceived by investigating the mother and child relationship during pre-Oedipal stage along with the consequence of the experience of Briony‘s pre-Oedipal stage.

Unfortunately, there are no studies that investigate the mother and child relationship during pre-Oedipal stage along with the consequence of the history of pre-Oedipal development stage on Atonement. However, Object Relations theory has been applied on Ian McEwan‘s another novel. This related study applies a

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close reading through the lens of Object Relations on Ian McEwan‘s another novel, Enduring Love conducted by Roohollah Reesi Sistani, Ruzy Suliza

Hashim, and Shahizah Ismail Hamdan, ―A Perpetual Search For The Idealized

Lost Loved Object: An Object Relations Reading of Ian McEwan's Enduring

Love‖

Enduring Love is mainly about the journey of mental suffering experienced by the major character, Jed Parry. Jed Parry is depicted as a character with a complexity. Jed is depicted having an obsession with another character,

Joe. Jed attempts to convince Joe that they are in love. Consequently, Jed starts to stalk Joe and insists that Joe is actually has the same feeling as him. Jed‘s struggle of seeking the idealized loved object is believed as the result of his arrested pre-

Oedipal development stage. Similarly, the mother in Enduring Love is also absent.

For Object Relations, the role of the mother, as a responsive mother to the need of her child is significant in shaping the child‘s inner world and later adult relationship.

In accordance with Briony‘s psychological complexity, in terms of being possessed as the center of love and attention, excessively imaginative mind, Jed‘s thirst for loved object is argued as the residues of early child-mother relationships.

Similar to Briony, Jed also experiences a not good enough mothering environment. It might be suggested that Jed‘s lack of ego development has its roots in his unsatisfactory childhood anxieties owing to experience of having an

―unsupportive mother‖ with whom ―he had virtually no contact with‖ and an

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absent ―father‖ all through his childhood.28 This study shares the same opinion, considering that the mother as the primary caretaker of the infant is supposed to be the person that the infant can depend and rely on the most. The relationship between primary care taker and the child during early years determine the shaping of the child‘s personality. There have been studies about the importance of natural bonding between the mother or the primary care taker and the child in the early age. Mokhtar Malekpour argues that there is no doubt that early experience influences later development. This influence might account for individual differences in many aspects such as cognition, behaviour, social skills, emotional responses and personality.29 According to a study about a relationship between mother and child conducted by Klaus and Kennell as cited in Cynthia, A. Sauchuk describes that:

The bonding experience is the beginning for the process of attachment between the mother and her infant which leads to the creation of the most beneficial and supportive environment possible for the infant. Those bonds, according to Klaus and Kennell (1976), are the springboard for the infants future subsequent attachments and a positive development of the infant's sense of self.30

28 Reesi Roohollah. Sistani, Ruzy Suliza Hashim, and Shahizah Ismail Hamdan. ―A Perpetual Search For the Idealized Lost Loved Object: An Object Relations Reading of Ian McEwan‘s Enduring Love‖. Review of European Studies, 6. 3, (2014). pp.142-150. http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/res/article/viewFile/39863/22120. Accessed on 18 September 2015. p.145.

29 Mokhtar Malekpour. ―Effects of Attachment On Early and Later Development‖. The British Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 53. 105, (2007). pp.81-95. http://www.bjdd.org/new/105/81to95.pdf. Accessed on 7 December 2015. p.81

30 Cyntia A. Sauchuk. ―A Comparative Study of Maternal-Infant Bonding and Attachment as it Exists in Traditional Hospital Birthing Approaches and Certified Nurse-Midwifery Approaches‖ (M.A Thesis, University of North Florida, 1984), p.7

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As stated by Klaus and Kennell, attachment is the initial cause of the bonding interaction between the child and the mother. The bond is seen as the most significant experience for a positive development of the child‘s sense of self.

These aforementioned researches are relevant to the purpose of this study.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the correlation between Briony‘s psychological complexity by analyzing her early psychological development with

Object Relations theory, as theorized by Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott and

Nancy Chodorow. In addition, the purpose of this study is to explain that Briony‘s psychological complexity is the outcome of the history of her pre-Oedipal development stage which is identified as a pathological disorder on the basis of the concepts of etiology of adult narcissism conceptualized by Heinz Kohut and

Otto Kernberg. All the previous studies discussed above have not yet analyzed child and mother relationship in Atonement with Object Relations theory. In addition, those studies have not yet correlated the pre-Oedipal stage with the shaping of the child‘s personality on the basis of the concepts of narcissism.

Unlike the previous study, which emphasizes only on Object Relations, this study does not only discuss the concept of Object Relations theory but also the concepts of Thirdness and Narcissism. This study focuses on the role of

Briony‘s mother as a primary care taker in determining Briony‘s psychological state . It is argued that by analyzing the role of Briony‘s mother, the origin of

Briony‘s psychological complexity can be uncovered. Whereas, Briony‘s psychological complexity identified as a pathological narcissism are assured as

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the consequence of parents and child relationship during her pre-Oedipal stage. It is in this aspect that the research is original in its analysis.

2.2. Review Of Related Theories

In this section, this thesis gives an in-depth view on related theories used in analyzing Briony‘s arrested pre-Oedipal stage and her psychological complexity. The theories used in this thesis are Object Relations theory, Thirdness and Narcissism. The fundamental concepts of these three theories are further described below.

2.2.1. Theory of Object Relations

Object relations theory is rooted in psychoanalysis theory that stresses strongly on interpersonal relations, substanstially in the family, the relationship between mother and child during the child‘s early development in particular.

Object relations theorists believe that early interpersonal relations of a child to

―others‖ influence strongly the personalities of the child as he or she becomes an adult. Everyone‘s adult life is considerably affected by their childhood experiences with their principal love objects, especially with their mothers. Thus, for Object Relations theorists, pre-Oedipal object relations have become a major issue in the psychological development of a person. However, the focus of this study is not merely on the relationship of mother and child, but on the psychological or intrapsychic processes of the child as well. The process whereby

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a child separates from the primary caretaker, particularly the mother, and becomes an independent person is known as an individuation process.

The concept of Object Relations stems from psychoanalytic theory about human‘s Drive or Instinct. Drive is basic elements of instinctual desire, or the motivating force which seeks for pleasure or gratification. Thus, Drive or Instinct is a form of energy-transformed physiological energy-that connects the body‘s needs with the mind‘s wishes.31 The body‘s needs include hunger, thirst, the elimination of waste, the attainment of comfort and sex. The classical Drive theory originated by Freud proposes that we are born with instinctual drives that require discharge.32 It is the basic need to discharge the mind‘s wishes. For instance, a thirsty person will act to satisfy his need by drinking liquid refreshment. When the body is in a situation of a need, the person feels a tension.

Thus, he will seek to discharge the tension. For Freud, our instinctual life is centered on the pursuit of pleasure, which he defined as the discharge of stimulation.33 The bodily instinctual drive according to Freud needs to be satisfied.

Distinguished from Freud‘s argument about Drive, Jacques Lacan argues that a satisfactory of Drive‘s needs can never be fulfilled because Lacan‘s Drive does not aim at an object. Instead, it circles perpetually around. The subject moves continuously towards an object to satisfy its unfulfilled needs and contains its

31 Duane P. Schultz & Sydney E. Shcultz. Theories of Personalities. (Belmont: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009), p.54 32 Anne Hockmeyer. ―Object Relations Theory and Feminism: Strange Bedfellows‖. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 10. 1, (1988). pp. 20-28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3345935. Accessed on 19 May 2015. p.21 33 Guido Mascialino. ―A Critical Appraisal of Relational Approaches to Psychoanalysis‖ (Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, 2008), p.23

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anxiety because it ‗lacks‘ an object that can satisfy it. The Lacanian Drive is, therefore, conceived of a repetitive ‗circuit‘ which is pursued simply for the enjoyment of pursuing it.34 For instance, a hungry person will act to satisfy his need by looking for food. However, a satisfactory over being full lasts only temporarily. He will get hungry again and will act to satisfy his need again.

Therefore, it is conceptualized as a repetitive ‗circuit‘.

Although Object Relations is an offspring of Freud‘s Drive theory, nevertheless, the emphasis of the concept about Drive of Object Relations is different from Freud‘s. The focus of the concept about Drive according to Object

Relations is emphasized on the mother and child relationship. The emphasis of

Object Relations on habitual patterns of early interpersonal relations is stressed significantly on the mother‘s roles. The intimacy and nurturing of the mother have great impact on the development of the psychology of the child. On the other hand, Freud‘s Drive theory emphasizes strongly on biologically-based Drive and tends to be paternalistic because it strongly stresses on the power and the control of the father. The center of Freud‘s Drive is deeply centered in biological needs. It is a manifestation of bodily need transformed into a wish which seeks for pleasure gratifications by instinct. On the contrary, Object Relations theory believes that from the beginning our instinct is to seek object rather than pleasure. Thus, the

34 Ayla M. Demir. ―The Drive: A comparative Analysis of Freudian, Object Relations, and Lacanian Theory‖. Academia Edu. 2013. https://www.academia.edu/2428306/. Accessed on 5 March 2015. p.6

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instinctual forces for Object Relations are allusions to the fantasies about inter- subjective relationships.35 Sara E. Quay explains that:

Object relations theory differs from its Freudian roots in several important ways. It locates the origins of development in the child‘s primary relationship rather than in biological drives; sees developmental stages in terms of interpersonal relationships rather than biosexual stages such as the oral, anal, and phallic; and considers adult psychopathology to be a result of unsatisfying primary relationships rather than conflicts between competing aspects of the mind such as the id, ego, and superego. The focus of object relations theory is the mother-child relationship, upon which the healthy development of the child rests. That development depends upon the child‘s ability to project inner images of the self and others first onto external people—―objects‖—especially the mother, and then to reintegrate them into his or her own psychic structure.36

From the perspective of Object Relations, the term Drive does not refer to bodily needs that seek to discharge, but it is an allusion to the fantasies about interpersonal relationship of a child with a significant other during developmental stages. It is generally agreed that the significant other of a child is the mother.

Object Relations theorists describe that the interpersonal relation of a child towards the primary caretaker, in particular, the mother does not merely determine the development of a child, but it also determines the capability of the child to recognize and later separate the self of the child and others. Therefore, the child is able to construct his or her own ―self‖ if the primary caretaker runs her roles such as intimacy and nurture.

Object Relations theory was proposed by several prominent theorists such as Melanie Klein, Michael Balint, Wilfred Bion, Gertrude Blanck and Rubin

Blanck, Ronald Fairbairn, Harry Guntrip, Edith Jacobson, Otto F. Kernberg,

35 Ayla M. Demir. p.5 36 E. Sara E. Quay. p.415

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Margareth Mahler, and Donald Winnicott. Nevertheless, there are both similarities and differences in their notions of Object Relations theory. The study of this thesis specifically draws upon the theories proposed by Donald Winnicott and Nancy

Chodorow. Chodorow‘s conception of parenting relies strongly on Winnicott‘s notion of the ―good-enough mother‖. She adopts Object Relations in order to draw the importance of how family structure influences psychic structure.

The study of this thesis focuses on investigating Briony‘s psychological complexity which is implicitly described in the novel, and it can be inferred from her pre-Oedipal insufficiency. This thesis emphasizes Briony‘s psychological incompetence; therefore the concept of Object Relations theory is adequate to investigate the roots of such conflicts.

Atonement lends itself to a psychoanalytic feminist reading by utilizing

Object Relations theory in particular. Briony, the protagonist of the novel, has a psychological problem. The study of this thesis is conducted by examining the manifestations of Briony‘s psychological complexity and applying the foregrounds of Winnicott, and Chodorow‘s Object Relations theory in order to find out the origin of her psychological complexity. The manifestations of

Briony‘s psychological complexity are argued significantly rooted from her arrested pre-Oedipal development as a result of the absence of good enough mothering.

As discussed previously, Object Relations theory is an offspring of

Freud‘s Drive theory, and the emphasis of Object relations theory is different from

Freud‘s Drive theory. Freud‘s Drive theory emphasizes the internal drives and

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instincts. On the other hand, Object Relations theory emphasizes the development of the relationships between the child and significant others or the caretaker, mother in particular upon the healthy development of the child. Richard S. Sharf describes that:

Object relations refers to the developing relationships between the child and significant others or love objects in the child‘s life, especially the mother. The focus is not on the outside view of the relationship but on how the child views, or internalizes consciously or unconsciously, the relationship. Of particular interest is how early internalized relationships affect children as they become adults and develop their own personalities. Examining not merely the interaction between mother and child, object relations theorists formulate the psychological or intrapsychic processes of the infant and child. They are interested in how individuals separate from their mothers and become independent persons, a process referred to as individuation.37

The main motivation of the child is to search the object rather than Drive‘s gratification. In Object Relations theory, the most significant object for child‘s development is the mother related to her roles i.e. mothering and nurturing. On the other hand, Freud‘s drive is rather paternalistic emphasizing the influence of power and control of the father.

According to Object Relations theory, the healthy child development relies on the child‘s ability to construct inner images of the self and others beginning from external figures or the object, mother in particular, and afterward reintegrate them into the child‘s psychic structure. The relationship of child and mother consists of two phases in which the child must come through what are identified as Attachment and Separation. Attachment and Separation are several phases initiated by the child‘s sense of being in bond with the mother in which the child

37 Richard S. Sharf. p.42

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feels as a union of the mother afterward gradually becomes conscious of the mother‘s absence, and eventually identifies himself as a separate being. If these phases are accomplished appropriately, the child will be an independent ―self‖, thus he will be able to cope with competing aspects of the psyche such as love and hate. Conversely, if the child fails to attach to and separate from the child‘s object relations i.e. the primary caretaker, as consequence ―the self‖ of the child fails to develop appropriately. Furthermore, the failure of attachment and separation results in the formation of the false self. The false self is an unreal behavior, a defense that is used as a mask of behavior that satisfies the others‘ expectations.

Whereas, individuals who possess the false self mostly refer to varied personality disorders such as Borderline Personality Disorder and Narcissistic Personality

Disorder.

In spite of the fact that the notions of the theories proposed by Melanie

Klein, Donald Winnicott and Nancy Chodorow are based on Object relations theory, somehow they differ in some aspects. Although Winnicott‘s theory is originated from Klein, he emphasizes more on the role of the mother who provides the external environment for the child. On the other hand, Klein believes that psychic is working at the level of unconscious phantasy, consequently disengaging from the outer world. Whereas, Chodorow adopts the foregrounds of

Object Relations theory for the interest of feminist perspective confirming the role of mothering as well as gender differences, without neglecting the role of the father for the development of the child, in which both Klein and Winnicott do not emphasize this issue. However, the principle that unites Klein, Winnicott and

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chodorow is that they share the same foreground on the importance of pre-Oedipal interpersonal relations. They believe that the child‘s need is the mother nurturance both physiological and emotional relation with the mother.

Melanie Klein, the principal theorist of Object relations has different view about the emphasis of Freud‘s theory on phallus. She puts the mother as the central figure in the oedipal stage instead. Furthermore, she theorizes that the mother‘s breast mostly becomes the object of interest of the child. As Naomi J.

Miller puts it:

In the 1920s, British psychoanalyst Melanie Klein revised the Freudian emphasis on the phallus through her development of object-relations theory, identifying the mother as the central figure in the oedipal drama, and arguing that infants of both sexes identify most intensely with the prototypical object of the maternal breast. Klein theorized that the infant directs feelings of gratification and love toward the ―good‖ breast, and destructive impulses toward the frustrating ―bad‖ breast, and concluded that the deprivation of the breast, rather than the mother‘s lack of a penis, was the most fundamental cause of children‘s turning to the father.38

Based on Klein‘s theory about the maternal breast, the ―good‖ breast represents a case when the child‘s needs are met by the object ―the mother‖, on the contrary the ―bad‖ breast represents a frustration when the child‘s needs are not met.

Consequently, the ―bad‖ breast is the shift of the object to the father.

Donald Winnicott‘s work stresses on the formative relationship between early years of children or infants and their mothers. He explicitly asserts that if no one is there to be the mother or the primary caretaker of the infant, consequently

38 Naomi J. Miller. Encyclopedia of Feminist Literary Theory. Ed. Elizabeth Kowaleski. (New York:Routledge, 2009), p.79

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the infant‘s developmental task is infinitely complicated.39 Winnicott‘s ideal mother figure is a mother who focuses fully on her child, recognizing no boundaries between the self and other, ―me‖ and ―not me‖. However, the presence of mother who fulfills her child‘s needs is the most significant factor for the child, and therefore he learns gradually to separate himself from the mother. As a consequence, the child is able to construct his own self. Winnicott explains that children are only able to tolerate the absence of the mother for a certain time.

Otherwise, the child will find a difficulty of holding himself or herself together and consequently will result in ego-disintegration. Winnicott as cited in Mark

O‘Connell argues that:

When the mother‘s care for and attention to the infant‘s needs are excessively erratic, the infant‘s own mind rushes in to fill this vacuum and becomes hypertrophied, prematurely overdeveloped. The developing intellect, in Winnicott‘s view, begins ―to take over and organize the caring,‖ and mental activity becomes dissociated at a crucial stage from environmental reality.40

Thus, Winnicott proposes a notion of ―the good enough mothering‖ as a means of stressing out the mother‘s role in developing the child‘s self. The good enough mother is not necessarily the perfect mother, but good enough. He asserts the role of the mother as an emphatic mother, not a mechanic mother. The mother is suggested to enjoy herself as being a mother. The good enough mother is able to provide an ideal environment for the child. In this context, satisfactory

39 Donald W. Winnicott. "Mirror-Role of Mother and Family in Child Development." In Playing and Reality. (London and New York: Routledge, 2005), p.1

40 Mark O’Connell. ―On Not Being Found:A Winnicottian Reading of John Banville‘s ‗Ghosts‘ and ‗Athena‘‖. Studies in The Novel, 43.3, (2011)pp.328-342. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41289429. Accessed on 12 January 2016. p.331

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mothering includes: Holding, Handling and Object-presenting. The child‘s fundamental needs are to be held and handled satisfactorily by an object. In this case it is the primary care taker, especially the mother with a condition that the baby‘s legitimate experience of omnipotence is not violated.41 Consequently, the child feels comfortable of being connected to the mother.

The good enough mothering refers to the ability of the mother to adapt to the child‘s needs. Although, the infant is growing, the mother has to adjust gradually to adapt less and less in order to develop the child‘s sense of right and wrong as well as failure. As Winnicott puts it:

The good enough ‗mother‘ (not necessarily the infant‘s own mother) is one who makes active adaptation to the infant‘s needs, an active adaptation that gradually lessens, according to the infant‘s growing ability to account for failure of adaptation and to tolerate the results of frustration.42

The mother encourages the child to develop a healthy sense of the self which refers to the true self of the child, if the mother separates gradually from the child.

Therefore, the child is able to distinguish between the ―not me‖ and the ―me‖.

Conversely, if the mother fails in any of these processes, the child is not able to distinguish between the ‗not me‖ and the ―me‖. As a consequence, the child is incompetent to develop the real self or the true self, the child constructs a compliant on the false self instead. The false self appears as a defensive function in order to hide and protect the true self. Furthermore, the false self is represented by the whole organization of the polite and mannered social attitude, a 'not

41 Donald W. Winnicott.p.1 42 Donald W. Winnicott. Transitional Objects & Transitional Phenomena. Playing and reality. (London and New York: Routledge, 2005), p.7

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wearing the heart on the sleeve', as might be said.43 A child who is grown with the false self then for Winnicott is identified as a person with inauthentic identity.

Essentially, Nancy Chodorow‘s notion about a child care relies strongly on

Winnicott‘s notion about the good enough mothering. Chodorow affirms

Winnicott‘s theoretical perspective that puts the mother as the central figure, yet she also asserts on the father‘s participation in parenting. In her feminist perspective, the role of parenting that merely relies on the mother is a gendered social construct.

Nancy Chodorow is a feminist psychologist and sociologist who dedicates her work specifically to the mother and child relationship and employs Freudian psychoanalysis, yet she revises it through her feminist perspective. Chodorow employs Freud‘s pre-Oedipal drama to propose her own clinical opinion. She highlights her observation on the phase of Oedipal separation. Chodorow theorizes differently from Freud‘s pre-Oedipal stage. She argues that girls experience a complex separation to their mothers more than boys do. The girls tend to identify themselves with their mother and do not experience penis envy as the way boys do. The girls do not shift completely their affection of love to the fathers. The affection for the father is a secondary love after a primary love that is the mother. As a result, Oedipus complex is never fully completed. Conversely, it remains permanent. On the other hand, boys identify and separate themselves as

43 Donald W. Winnicott. "Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self." The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment:Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development. (London:Hogarth, 1972), p.143

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more completely from their mothers. Thus, from this triangular structure, girls‘ psyches are more complex compared to boys.44

Despite that Chodorow adopts Object Relations to confirm her notion about equal parenting and the mother‘s relationship with the child is primary, there have been criticisms argued by several feminists toward Object Relations.

They argue that by putting the importance of mother‘s role in developing child‘s self, it is somehow confirming the assumption that the infant primary care taker is always the biological mother. Consequently, the theory confirms a state that women are naturally ―mothers‖ and men as ―fathers‖ exist only as peripheral figures in parenting. Thus, it is argued that the theory confirms gender roles dichotomy and legitimizes the cultural tendency of devaluing motherhood and sees that it is the mothers who are to blame for all problems and failures of someone when he or she becomes adults. Moreover, it is argued that the theory forms a negative perception against women who decide to have careers instead of having children. Another issue is related to a depiction of the individual of the theory in a limited term that is Western, white family where mothers are full-time mothers. As a result, the theory is considered inadequate in acknowledging alternative approaches of parenting, considering the existence of the reality of class and racial differences.

In spite of the criticisms on Object Relations theory, this study finds

Object Relations theory is useful to investigate the root of Briony‘s psychological

44 Eleanor Ty. Encyclopedia of Feminist Literary Theory. Ed.Elizabeth Kowaleski. (New York:Routledge, 2009), p.105

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complexity. In spite of the weakness of the theory that is strictly theorized based on the category of Western and white family, it is considered still compatible for this thesis. It is compatible since Atonement is revolved around the Western and white family and takes place in the West, England and France in particular.

Responding to the critic of some feminists related to their argument that motherhood for women is socially constructed, this thesis offers to view this standpoint from a different perspective. Even though some feminist theory calls motherhood is oppressive, many women experience fulfillment and happiness in mothering.45 Instead of conceptualizing motherhood as oppressed by and victims of patriarchy, it is preferable to recognize motherhood as part of a woman‘s identity, as it is equal to other identities that a woman may obtain. Instead of viewing that the theory confirms gender roles dichotomy and legitimizes the cultural tendency of devaluing motherhood, it is proposed to view motherhood in a more positive light.

Women, who are mothers, are not subordinates of any other identities. The identity of a mother is equal to other identities that are men or non-mothers. At the same time, it is suggested to view women who choose not to have children as their commendable option. It is also suggested to identify motherhood as one of various options of women self-defined, empathetically. This argument is built upon a notion theorized by Nancy Chodorow who argues that caring and nurturing the infants as the roles of the mothers begin because of the allocation of work roles.

The roles of caring and nurturing the children are originally identified as the work

45 Dorothy E. Roberts. ―Motherhood and crime‖. Faculty Scholarship. 854. (1993). pp.95-141. http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/854. Accessed on 27 May 2017. p.97

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roles of the female parents. Thus, the child‘s first a close one on one relationship is experienced with the mother. As a result, the child is able to develop senses of his own self and become separate self from his mother.

However, the separation of identity from the mothers of the girls is different from the boys. The boys achieve their sexual identity as heterosexual identity by separating themselves from their mothers and defining themselves in opposition to the femininity of their mothers. On the other hand, the girls are never completely separated from their mothers in order to achieve their sexual identity. In addition, the girls are not situated in position to deny femininity of their mothers socially. Consequently, the intense bonds between the mothers and the daughters continue into adulthood. Nevertheless, as the result of not being forced to separate emotionally from their mothers, the daughters keep seeking for the emotional intimacy provided by close relationships. This unconscious desire of a tendency to form attachments to others, as Chodorow argues, leads women to suffer greater dependency needs, as their self-identity is tied to their relationships with others.46 Furthermore she adds that this lack of differentiation explains why women become preoccupied with the very relational issues at the heart of motherhood: intimacy and a lack of ego separation.47 This explains why women long for a re-create the early child-mother relationship by becoming mothers themselves in order to fulfill their unconscious desire for intimacy. This process becomes the cycle that continues into future generation, as what Chodorow calls

―the Reproduction of Mothering‖.

46 Scott Applerouth & Laura Desfor Edles. Sociological Theory in The Contemporary Era. (Washington DC:Pine Forge Press, 2011), p.349 47 Scott Applerouth & Laura Desfor Edles.p.349

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Chodorow‘s notion of Reproduction of Mothering is distinguished from

Freud‘s notion about the origin of why women become mothers. Freud argues that the origin of why women become mothers is triggered by penis envy. He explains that as girls are aware of their lack of penis, then believe that they have lost theirs.

The lack of penis is seen as their inferior condition to male. Freud as cited in

Duane P. Schultz and Sydney Ellen Schultz argues that an adult woman‘s love for a man is always tinged with penis envy, in which she can compensate partially by having a male child.48 For Freud then, women are seen as sexually passive since he believes that they engage in a sexual relationship merely because of wanting children, male children in particular.

Furthermore, the work of Chodorow about the Reproduction of Mothering has been reinforced by Daphne de Marneffe, a feminist who is also a clinical psychologist. She has proposed a notion of what is known as maternal desire. She argues that the tendency of women to be mothers is identified as maternal desire.

De Marneffe points out that in general women‘s decision to become mothers is derived from their longing to nurture their children. In addition, de Marneffe argues that it is the longing felt by the mother to nurture her children: the wish to participate in their mutual relationship: and the choice, so far as it is possible to put her desire into practice.49 Moreover, de Marneffe adds that the authentic mother is felt by a woman herself, a desire not derived from a child‘s need, though responsive to it; a desire not constructed by social role, though potentially supported by it; rather, a desire anchored in her experience of herself as an agent,

48 Duane P. Schultz & Sydney E Schultz. p.69 49 Daphne De Marneffe. Maternal Desire: On Children, Love, and the Inner Life. New York:Back Bay Books. 2004.p.3

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an autonomous individual, a person.50 Motherhood, as argued by de Marneffe, is viewed in a positive standpoint that suggests to embrace the desire for caring and mothering as a strength in which women should try to re-legitimize in their life rather than disapprove it.

Ultimately, in spite of the criticisms on Object Relations, it is considered that the theory is convenient for this thesis. It is argued that the foundation of a belief in the importance of the relationship between mother and child is still taken into account for many people, even governments. Several countries in

Scandinavian regions such as Sweden and Norway even apply progressive paid parental-leave policies in order to support women who decide to have children so that they can stay and look after their children without worrying of being fired from their jobs. As the fathers, they get one month paid parental-leave. The policies are applied by the reason to encourage paternal bonding and care-giving.

Noticing this fact, therefore it is argued that the presence of the care taker or the mother as well as the father in parenting from early age is significant. The fact presented above emphasizes on the importance of the presence of a nurturing mother‘s figure for a healthy development of a child‘s psychology; therefore,

Object Relations theory is relevant for this thesis.

2.2.2. Theory of Thirdness

In psychoanalysis, the term of thirdness comes from the term of the third that is coined by Jacques Lacan. Thirdness is a contention of Lacan‘s third that is

50 Daphne De Marneffe. p.4

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proposed by a psychoanalyst feminist, Jessica Benjamin. Unlike Lacan‘s concept of the third which elaborates more on the oedipal process, Benjamin‘s thirdness concept refers to pre-Oedipal process. Lacan‘s concept of the third puts the emphasis on the father as the law of the oedipal triangle. In the oedipal triangle, the father‘s ―No‖ is the paradigmatic third, and so the prohibition of incest

(castration) the model for thirdness.51 The thirdness according to Lacan is constituted by recognition through speech, the speech of the father in particular as the symbolic order in the model of the oedipal triangle. Thus, Lacan sees the father‘s speech that symbolizes the space of the third within the oedipal triangle.

Conversely, the concept of the third according to Benjamin does not require the father as the law or the symbolic order within mother and child dyad.

Thirdness according to Benjamin emerges within the pre-Oedipal mother and child dyad. Benjamin explicitly asserts that thirdness is instituted not by the father as the Third but is developed through experiences in which the mother holds in tension between her subjectivity/desire and the needs of the child.52 Moreover,

Benjamin underlines the subjectivity of the mother in order to assert the significance of intersubjective relationship between mother and child, it is crucial for the child to acknowledge mother as another subject instead of an object in terms of mutual recognition.

51 Jessica Benjamin. ―Beyond Doer and Done to: An Intersubjective View of Thirdness‖. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, LXXIII. 1. (2004). pp.5-46. https://sasps.wildapricot.org/resources/Documents/Benjamin-- Beyond%20Doer%20and%20Done%20to-- An%20Intersubjective%20View%20of%20Thirdness.pdf. Accessed on 17 February 2016. p.7 52 Jessica Benjamin. p.8

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Mutual recognition according to Benjamin refers to a process of needs that begins between mother and child dyad. During this process, the mother is supposed to balance the recognition of needs of the child‘s and her own. Thus, the mutual respect of each other‘s subjectivity is encouraged through the process of a balanced recognition of both mother and child needs. In order to explain how the process of mutual recognition works, Benjamin illustrates a portrayal of an interpersonal rhythm of the feeding interaction from a mother to her child. It is the mother‘s role to identify and accommodate the child‘s need to be fed. There is no conflict when the mother responds the child‘s need of feeding, but what happens when the child wants to be fed and at the same time the mother deeply feels the need to sleep? Many mothers experience a frustrating moment in adjusting this reality of interpersonal rhythm. Both the child and the mother cannot impose their desire upon the other.

Now enters the need for a third to transcend the mother and child dyad that is the reality that the mother and the child is separate subjects with distinct needs and desires. At this point, it is necessary for the mother to have the knowledge that the child distress is natural and ephemeral, thus she does not have to feel anxious about it. Therefore, Benjamin proposes that ideally, the mother is able to respond to the baby‘s call as surrender to necessity rather than submission to a tyrannical demand.53 In this sense, surrender for Benjamin means a deep acceptance of the necessity of becoming involved in enactment.54 The term surrender is a part of recognition which refers to an ability to connect to the

53 Jessica Benjamin. Beyond Doer and Done to: An Intersubjective View of Thirdness.p.8 54 Jessica Benjamin. p.17

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other‘s mind while accepting her separateness and difference. On the basis of this perspective, thus, surrender is distinct from the feel of submission. Whereas, submission implies an absolute obligation that the other‘s demand appears to be the only choice. On the other hand, surrender in this context refers to follow the child‘s rhythm rather than to restrain herself out of mother‘s duty. Surrender enables one to respect another‘s need eventhough it conflicts with the need of her own, yet at the same time accepting her difference. The parental ability to contain and suspend her or his immediate need without denying the difference is the form of thirdness within mother and child dyad. Therefore, the form of thirdness according to Benjamin is felt as a shared reality.

A shared reality between mother and child is then confirmed as a distinctiveness between the two that they face together. This distinctiveness is experienced through recognition as two different subjects with separate needs and desires. The separation in this context, enables the child to comprehend the idea about his/her non-oneness with the mother. Thus, he or she is not omnipotence.

Rather, he or she is able to recognize the mother as another subject outside him or her. This process is argued by Benjamin remains important as the foundation of one to be able to identify with the other‘s position and becomes reflexive. As

Benjamin puts it:

The medium of shared feeling remains as important to intersubjectivity in later phases as in early ones, but it is now extended to symbolic understanding of feeling so that "You know what I feel, even when I want or feel the opposite of what you want or feel." This advance in

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differentiation means that "We can share feelings without my fearing that my feelings are simply your feelings."55

Through examining the concept of thirdness according to Benjamin, it can be identified that third space between mother and child dyad is different from

Lacan‘s. Thirdness according to Benjamin does not include language of the father that is symbolized as the law. Even, thirdness according to Benjamin does not refer to any subject at all. But rather, it refers to a mental space, the mental space that is resulted from surrender.

2.2.3. Theory of Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)

Narcissistic personality disorder which is shortened as NPD is categorized as a pathological narcissism. Pathological narcissism is a life-long pattern of traits and behaviours signifying infatuation and obsession with one‘s self to the exclusion of all others and the egotistic and ruthless pursuit of one‘s gratification, dominance and ambition.56 Personality itself, according to American Psychiatric Association as cited in Karen Kernberg Bardenstein, is defined as enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to and thinking about environment and oneself…when they are maladaptive and inflexible, they constitute personality disorder.57 Thus, one who is diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder, possesses a persisting of self-obsession and functional impairment behaviours such as, egotistic, ruthless,

55 Jessica Benjamin. Like subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference. New haven: Yale University Press. 1995. p.42 56 Sam Vaknin. Malignant Self Love:Narcissism Revisited. Ed. Lidija Rangelovska. (Prague & Skopje: Narcissus Publishing, 2005), p.19 57 Karen K Bardenstein. ―The Cracked Mirror: Features of Narcissistic Personality Disorder in Children‖. Psychiatric Annals, 39. 3, (2009). pp.147-155. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Karen_Bardenstein. Accessed on 8 December 2015. p.147

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ambitious, and dominant. Therefore, the sufferers of Narcissistic Personality

Disorder are mostly recognized as personality with inability to empathize with others.

The term Narcissism has been inspired from Ovid‘s myth of Narcissus in

Metamorphoses. Narcissus is told as an exceptionally good looking young Greek who falls in love with the beauty of his own image that is reflected on the surface of water. Narcissus is depressed and frustrated by the impossibility of uniting with his love object that is his own image. The Ovid‘s myth has inspired the psychoanalysis theories to use the character‘s name: Narcissus as a term for a concept in psychoanalysis known as Narcissism referring to a self-love. The term narcissism was has been introduced originally into the psychiatric discussion at the turn of the 19th/20th centuries by Henry Havelock Ellis (1898) and Paul Nacke

(1899) as a neologism to describe an autoerotic disorder.58 Later on, the concept of narcissism has been developed by Sigmund Freud in his paper On narcissism:

An introduction (1914). Furthermore, the concept of narcissism has been developed by two contemporary psychoanalysis theories namely Heinz Kohut and

Otto Kernberg.

The concept of narcissism according to Freud is a part of his libido theory that explains human sexual development. It is explained by Freud that every individual has a quantity of libido at his system. The libido is classified into two types of libidinal cathexis: libidinal cathexis of the subject is object love and libidinal cathexis of the self is narcissism. Freud‘s human sexual development theory starts

58 Kathrin Ritter. ―The Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Empirical Studies‖ (Doctoral Dissertation, Universitat zu Berlin, 2013), p.1

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with primary narcissism where all libido is invested in the self-representation. As when ego as part of elements of human personality is developed, libidinal cathexis of the object emerges, although some libido stays attached to the self and remains as residual. Secondary narcissism happens when libidinal cathexis which is previously attached to the object is withdrawn and reinvested in the self.

Secondary narcissism might refer to a pathological condition since there is a withdrawal of libidinal cathexis from the object on to the self. When some of libido is invested in an object, then the amount of libido is less available to be invested in one‘s self ego. On the other hand, when the libido which is previously attached to the object is withdrawn and reinvested on one‘s self ego, consequently he has less libido to attach to the others. As the outcome, he becomes less related to others. Thus, he becomes an individual with a grandiose sense of self-adoration that is referred as a pathological narcissism.

Building upon the concept of Freud‘s narcissism, two psychoanalysts: Otto

Kernberg and Heinz Kohut develop their own theories on narcissism. Kernberg and Kohut develop the concept of pathological narcissism which is known as

Narcissistic Personality Disorder that explains about the clinical manifestations of individuals with Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Both Kernberg and Kohut postulate a notion that disturbances in early parent and child relationship are as the source of adult Narcissistic Personality Disorder.

Narcissism is seen as a universal phenomenon since every individual is born as narcissists. Although somehow, the infantile narcissism habitually gets mature and turns into a healthy adult narcissism. A narcissism that is referred as a clinical

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disorder occurs when this process is interrupted. Therefore, theoretically narcissism theories assert that adult narcissism is rooted in early childhood experiences. Narcissism is noted as a malformation outcome during a disrupted development of the self. As it is explained by Kohut, the child builds his or her sense of the self and gains maturity by means of interactions with the external world, primarily the mother who provides facilities for the child dealing with reality. Narcissism, as previously discussed, as a normal stage of development, disappears as the child develops. However, if there is an absence of support from the parents or primary caregivers, this can make the child insufficiently reconciled with reality, so that the ideal images of the self and the parents remain in place and express themselves in pathologically narcissistic behavior.59

Parents who are empathetic are capable of assisting the child in building healthy sense of the self in two ways. Initially, the parents facilitate the child with mirroring stage that fosters a realistic sense of the self. Then, parents facilitate the child with the facts that they also have limitations in themselves, in order to allow the child to internalize or assume a realistic idealized image or role model, thus it is possible to attain.

As previously discussed, both Kernberg and Kohut share the same argument about the origin of secondary narcissism or adult narcissism i.e. the disturbances in the family relationship and the disturbances in the parent and child relationship, in particular before the child turns three. However, they disagree on the etiology or the detail description of the process of how the adult narcissism is formed.

59 Kathrin Ritter. p.1-2

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Kohut conceptualizes that the primary narcissism is formed through three processes of parent and child relationship during pre-Oedipal stage.

The three processes are mirroring, idealization, and twinship. Mirroring is a need to be admired for one‘s qualities and accomplishments. Kohut as cited in

Banai, Mikulincer, and Phillip argues that children need a caregiver who admires them, celebrates their progress, and applauds their accomplishments.60 Therefore, mirroring is a need for the child to be valued by the significant others or the primary caregiver. The second process is idealization, in which it means a need to form an idealized image of significant others and to experience a sense of merging with the resulting idealized self-objects. Kohut‘s view as cited in Banai,

Mikulincer, and Phillip shows that children need to hold an image of one or more idealized parental figures toward whom they can feel admiration and with whom they can identify to the point of feeling they are associated with, or a part of, those people‘s highly admirable qualities.61 Idealization in Kohut‘s term is used or needed for the children as a media to experience idealizing an image or a figure to look up as a role model so that the children internalize particular qualities of the idealized figure on the road to maturation. The last process is twinship, in which it is a need to feel similar as others and to be included in relationship with them.

According to Kohut, as cited in Banai, Mikulincer, and Phillip, children need a parental figure to whom they are allowed to feel similar and to whom they encouraged to feel ―part of‖ a group (e.g., family) that surrounds and protects

60 Erez Banai, Mario Mikulincer and Phillip R. Shaver. ―‗Selfobject‘ Needs In Kohut‘s Self Psychology‖. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 22. 2, (2005). pp.224-260 https://www.academia.edu/2888802/. Accessed on 12 April 2016. p.227 61 Erez Banai, Mario Mikulincer and Phillip R. Shaver. p.227

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them.62 Twinship process is needed to develop the sense of connectedness to others so that the children are able to empathize with others.

Through these three processes, the parents provide an opportunity for the children to acquire a realistic sense of the self, the image of an idealized image and the moral values that are needed to stand as an independent self. In this case, when the parents fail to provide an appropriate opportunity of the three processes, the self-formation results an inability of the children in developing the sense of the self, thus the children become embedded at their developmental stage in which the sense of the self persists as grandiose and unrealistic and the self-esteem is subjected to the other‘s approval.

Another concept of the process of the adult narcissism is proposed by Otto

Kernberg. Kernberg postulates that adult narcissism is resulted throughout a period when the children are confronted a cold, emotionally unresponsive, and unempathetic parents, generally the mother. Kernberg as cited in Kenneth N.

Levy, William D. Ellison and Joseph S. Reynoso argues that:

Narcissism develops as a consequence of parental rejection, devaluation, and an emotionally invalidating environment in which parents are inconsistent in their investment in their children or often interact with their children to satisfy their own needs. Furthermore, this parental devaluation hypothesis states that because of cold and rejecting parents, the child defensively withdraws and forms a pathologically grandiose self- representation. This self-representation, which combines aspects of the real child, the fantasized aspects of an ideal, loving parent, serves as an internal refuge from the experience of the early environment as harsh and depriving.63

62 Erez Banai, Mario Mikulincer and Phillip R. Shaver. p227 63 Kenneth N. Levy, William D. Ellison, and Joseph S. Reynoso. The Handbook Of Narcissism and Narcissistic Personality Disorder:Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Findings, and Treatment. Ed. Campbell, K. W., and Joshua D. Miller. (New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), p.6

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Thus, the children are grown as emotionally hungry and angry at the parents who fail to care properly. As a compensatory, the children build a defense that they use for their self-esteem such as intellectual ability, talent, or other skills. The negative impact is that the part of the self of the children as they grow become hyperinflated and grandiose. Consequently, the children develop a perception that they are superior to others and are immune of criticism and failure.

Despite the diversity of concepts about the etiology of adult narcissism known as a pathological disorder, namely narcissistic personality disorder, both Kohut and Kernberg confirm the idea that the individuals with a Narcissistic Personality

Disorder are emerged from a history of unsatisfactory relationship with their significant others, the parents in particular as the primary caretakers. The works of the two theorists contribute considerably to understand the etiology and treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Both theorists have been influential in the field of psychoanalysis in identifying and developing the concept and treatment of

Narcissistic Personality Disorder.

Nevertheless, the concept of narcissism that is embarked on the dynamic interaction between the parent and the child is seen problematical in one aspect by feminist theories. Regarding that this particular theory puts the primary caretaker, the mother in particular as the object of the early relationship between the parent and the child. The term ―object‖ in this relationship is seen problematical and consequently crucial on the phase of conceptualizing the etiology of narcissism. It is described by feminist theorist, Jessica Benjamin in the articles, The Bonds of

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Love: Rational Violence and Erotic Domination and Recognition and

Destruction: an Outline of Intersubjectivity that she wrote.

Jessica Benjamin is a feminist psychoanalyst who is well known for her work developing intersubjectivity theory by conceptualizing the concept of mutual recognition. Benjamin problematizes the position of the primary caretaker or the other significant that is conceptualized as the object in term of the parent and the child early relationship by Object Relations and Self- Psychology theories.

Benjamin proposes her own notion about the position of the other as another subject who is as equal as the child, instead of as the object. Benjamin emphasizes the fundamental rationale concerning the notion of the position of the other as the subject in terms of the parent and the child relationship. In order to defend her argument about this notion, she proposes a contrast definition between subject and object on the basis of the concept of intersubjectivity that is theorized by a

German philosopher, Jurgen habermas. As Jessica Benjamin puts it:

The idea of intersubjectivity, which has been brought into psychoanalysis from philosophy is useful because it specifically addresses the problem of defining the other as object. Intersubjectivity was formulated in deliberate contrast to the logic of subject and object, which predominates in Western philosophy and science. It refers to that zone of experience or theory in which the other is not merely the object of the ego‘s need/drive or cognition/perception but has a separate and equivalent center of self.64

Benjamin emphasizes the signification concerning with the ―I‖ as the subject to consider that the ―other‖ is not merely an object of the subject‘s ego, but the ―other‖ is also another subject who has his or her own right, thus he or she is equal as the ―I‖. Furthermore, Benjamin explains that intersubjective theory

64 Jessica Benjamin. p.185

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postulates that the other must be recognized as another subject describing the self to experience fully his or her subjectivity in the other‘s presence.65 In order to make this concept works, Benjamin asserts that ones have a need for recognition and have a capacity to recognize others in return that is referred as mutual recognition.

The issue of recognition is linked to the ability to view the world inhabited by equal subjects, thus explicitly the issue of recognition is tied to the issue of gender. Benjamin, from her feminist perspective, criticizes the concept of the intrapsychic theory that the postulates the self or the mind is gained within the individual through the early interaction between individual and object i.e. mother- child dyad. Benjamin‘s argument over her criticism towards the intrapsychic theory is proposed on the basis of the belief of relational theories perspective of the self-conceptualized by Morris Eagle and Stephen A. Mitchell. They state that human mind is dynamic rather than monadic. Therefore, the self should be seen as an occurence between subjects, instead of within the individual through the interaction between individual and object. The process of shaping the psychic world of the self is seen from the intersubjective perspective.

Obviously the term object is seen as a troublesome from the perspective of the intersubjective theory as well as from the lens of feminists. The usage of the term object for the mother as the other is defined as an unreal other. The mother is the object of the desire who is the provider, the significant other, the empathic person who understands and also the mirror for the child, yet she is rarely

65 Jessica Benjamin. p.186

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regarded as another subject with a purpose apart from her existence for her child.66 Benjamin asserts that the theories of the self that put the parent, the mother in particular as the object in the parent and the child relationship have fallen short.

Specifically, she refers to Heinz Kohut‘s theory of Self-Psychology that emphasizes attunement and empathy, as she argues that Kohut has been implicitly one-sided in understanding the parent-child relationship.67 The disposition of the other as the object contradicts the principle of the theory that underlines the significance of attunement and empathy in the mother-child relationship. It concerns that there is no reciprocal equality in this particular relationship between subject and object. The object for the subject is managed consistently as an unreal other, thus the object is never be the ―I‖ as equal as the subject. At this point,

Benjamin attests her argument that the subject-object model human relationship is misleading. Although the goal of Kohut‘s Self-Psychology was to enable individuals to open ―new channels of empathy‖ and ―in-tuneness between self and self-object‖, the self was always the recipient, not the giver of empathy.68 The object can never be mirrored as another subject who owns his or her own will and as another subject with his or her own autonomy. Thus, the child as the subject might fail in recognizing the other‘s rights or feelings.

66 Jessica Benjamin. ―The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination‖. The Women and Language Debate. Ed. Camille Roman, Suzanne Juhasz, Cristanne Miller. (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1994), p.171 67 Jessica Benjamin. Like Subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference. p.187 68 Jessica Benjamin. Like Subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference. p.187

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On the other hand, intersubjective, the subject-subject model human relationship puts the other as another subject and as another the ―I‖. The other subject who has his or her own will is a separate independent subject with an equivalent center of self. An equivalent center of self between two subjects is required so that the mutual reciprocity of recognition can be achieved. As

Benjamin puts it:

Recognition between persons-understanding and being understood, being in attunement begins to be an end in itself. Recognition between persons is essentially mutual. By our very enjoyment of the other's confirming response, we recognize her in return. I think that what the research on mother-infant interaction has uncovered about early reciprocity and mutual influence is best conceptualized as the development of the capacity for mutual recognition.69

Furthermore, Benjamin explains the importance of mutual recognition of intersubjective model relationship by adopting a psychoanalyst, Elsa First‘s famous words ―I know you know what I feel‖. Benjamin affirms that recognition between two persons makes the mirroring process become possible with reference that the two persons as the two equal subjects are able to share the same feelings and at the same time, they are able to identify themselves as the oppositions. She argues that:

Elsa First, a child psychoanalyst influenced by Winnicott, has offered a picture of how the rapprochement struggle for control may yield to mutual respect. Observing toddlers, she suggests how the post-rapprochement child may begin to apprehend mutuality in relation to the mother's leaving. The toddler's initial role-playing imitation of the departing mother is characterized by the spirit of pure retaliation and reversal "I'll do to you what you do to me." But gradually the child begins to identify with the mother's subjective experience and realizes that "I could miss you as you miss me," and, therefore, that "l know that you could wish to have your

69 Jessica Benjamin. Like Subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference.p.188

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own life as I wish to have mine." First shows how, by recognizing such shared experience, the toddler actually moves from a retaliatory world of control to a world of mutual understanding and shared feeling. From the intersubjective standpoint, this movement is crucial. By accepting the other's independence, the child gains something that replaces control renewed sense of connection with the other.70

By adopting First‘s notion on the subject-subject relationship, Benjamin portrays the way how a reflexive process in terms of mutual recognition as the basis of the development of the child‘s sense of self is gained. This notion is argued on the basis that mutual recognition cannot be achieved through obedience, through identification with the other‘s power, or through repression.71 Mutual recognition can only be achieved through a reciprocal appreciation. Therefore, intersubjective model that emphasizes a reciprocal relation between two subjects helps the development of child‘s capacity enjoy recognition of others. Consequently, mutual recognition builds the development of the child‘s senses of responsiveness, empathy, and concern that are absolutely considered as crucial matter for the sake of a healthy narcissism.

Moreover, the usage of the term object that is referred to the significant other, the mother in particular has been considered fallacious by feminists.

Feminist critics of psychoanalysis have suggested that the conceptualization of the first other, the mother, as an object underlies this theoretical lacuna: cultural antithesis between male subject and female object contributed much to the failure

70 Jessica Benjamin. ―The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination‖. The Women and Language Debate.p.181 71 Jessica Benjamin. ―The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination‖. The Women and Language Debate..p.181

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to take into account the subjectivity of the other.72 Psychology in general and psychoanalysis in particular too often partake of this distorted view of the mother, which is so deeply embedded in the culture as a whole.73 Feminist critics address specifically to the view of women as non-subjects rooted within the traditional family structure in which primarily it puts child rearing as women‘s responsibilities. Ironically, the mother who is in charged of a numerous responsibilities such as the caretaker, the provider and the interlocutor, is merely as the object. Through intersubjectivity, in this case is a model of mother and child relationship, it is revealed clearly that Benjamin evokes the subjectivity of the mother. She asserts the subjectivity of the mother as another independent other with a different purpose from her child, and she is not merely her baby‘s vehicle for growth. Regarding that the denial of the mother‘s subjectivity, in theory and practice, profoundly impedes our ability to see the world as inhabited by equal subjects.74

Although Benjamin problematizes the lack of subjectivity of the mother in subject-object model relationship showing that she refers specifically to Kohut‘s self-psychology notion of the origin of narcissism, nevertheless, Benjamin‘s intersubjectivity and Kohut‘s self-psychology should not be seen in opposition to each other. It is preferably to see them as complementary to understand the inner world of the psyche. The mother in both terms of subject-object relationship and

72 Jessica Benjamin. Like Subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference. p. 186 73 Jessica Benjamin. The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, & the Problem of Domination. New York: Pantheon Books. 1988. PDF. p.23 74 Jessica Benjamin. Like Subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference.p.186

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subject-subject relationship is required as the empathetic and attunement mother for the interest of the child‘s healthy narcissism.

Benjamin‘s ‗empathic attunement‘ in the dialectic of mutual recognition, which is comparable to Kohut‘s empathic resonance, has added the focus on the experience of the mothering person in an attempt to re-establish his/her subjectivity. With this addition, Kohut‘s and Benjamin‘s theories can be seen as complementary.75

Kohut with his theory believes that it is precisely in the failure of the empathic parental response in which the origins of narcissistic disturbances, a failure with the consequence of an unsuccessful modification of the infants‘s original narcissistic traits resulting in the unstable establishment of the self.76 In addition to Kohut‘s theory, Benjamin with her concept of mutual recognition demonstrates another dimension of mother and child relationship. Benjamin‘s work contributes in understanding the development of the self in terms of a healthy narcissism by asserting the significance of the subjectivity of the mother as the core of the emergence of the senses of empathy, responsiveness, and concern.

2.3. The Manifestations of Narcissistic Personality Disorder

The diagnostic criteria for narcissistic personality disorder have been made and also revised for several times by American Psychiatric Association, based in

Washington D.C., USA. After several revisions, the newest diagnostic criteria for

Narcissistic Personality Disorder have been assigned as Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders (DMS-5). The specific diagnostic criteria for

75 Anastasios Gaitanidis and Polona Curk. Narcissism: A Critical Reader. (London:Karnac, 2007), p.79 76 Anastasios Gaitanidis and Polona Curk. p.77

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narcissistic personality disorder as assigned by American Psychiatric Association are as follows:

― A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following: (1) Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (e.g. exaggerates achievements and talents, expects to be recognized as superior without commensurate achievements), (2) Is preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love, (3) Believes that he or she is ―special‖ and unique and can only be understood by, or should associated with, other special or high-status people (or institutions), (4) Requires excessive admiration, (5) Has a sense of entitlement (i.e., unreasonable expectations of especially favorable treatment or automatic compliance with his or her expectations), (6) Is interpersonally exploitative (i.e., takes advantage of others to achieve his or her own ends), (7) Lack of empathy: is unwilling to recognize or identify with the feelings and needs of others, (8) Is often envious of others or believes that others are envious of him or her, and (9) Shows arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes.‖77

In a normal condition, normal individuals do have expectation of being successful, superior or unique in some ways. Some individuals in normal condition may possess some of traits of narcissistic manifestations diagnosed as

Narcissistic Personality Disorder above. However, the distinguishing feature that differentiates normal narcissism from pathological narcissism is the awareness showing that desire and hope are expectation and others can be superior and competent of being unique as well. Being aware of the limitations in life, distinguishing between realistic and unrealistic, giving appreciation and empathy to others are significant features that do not belong to narcissistic personality

77 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2013), p.696

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disorder sufferers. Nine diagnostic criteria of Narcissistic Personality Disorder above are applied to analyze Briony Tallis. Therefore, this study intends to discuss and analyze the behavioural manifestations of the traits of narcissistic personality disorder endured by Briony Tallis and to relate her pathological narcissism to the history of her early year parents and child relationship. Whereas, the concept of

Narcissistic Personality Disorder that is theorized by both Kohut and Kernberg affirms that the etiology of Narcissistic Personality Disorder substantially concerns the early years of parents and child relationship.

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CHAPTER III

THE CONSTITUTION OF BRIONY’S EARLY PSYCHOLOGICAL

DISPOSITION: ARRESTED PRE-OEDIPAL STAGE

This chapter aims at disclosing the first question of this thesis, which is how Briony‘s early psychological development influences Briony‘s psychological complexity by employing the concept of Object Relations theory. The emphasis on the importance of early mother and child relationship that is conceptualized by

Object Relations theories is proposed to be adequate to uncover the origin of

Briony‘s psychological complexity. It is because the child‘s experience in relationship with the mother is the determinant of the child‘s self formation. It is the relationship between mother and child that is supported by the presence of father‘s role. Therefore, this thesis asserts that the origin of Briony‘s psychological complexity is able to be discovered by analyzing the depiction of

Briony and her mother early relationship which is exhibited in the novel.

3.1. Absent Maternal Care

Central to Object Relations is that an early infant is in a state of absolute dependency on the mother. It does not only refer to a dependency in terms of biological needs, but it is rather the idea of an internal world. The mother as the primary caretaker provides a facilitating environment which is fundamental for the development of the infant‘s psyche. Reflecting on the importance of maternal care during infancy or pre-Oedipal stage which is proposed by Object Relations, it is crucial to pay attention to the notion of what happens if the internalised maternal care is absent or impaired. Young children who do not have a

62

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relationship with at least one emotionally invested, predictably available, caregiver - even in the presence of adequate physical care and cognitive stimulation - display an array of developmental deficits that they endure over time.78 Those developmental deficits in Object Relations are referred to as the false self. Winnicott uses the term ―false self‖ to describe the defensive organization formed by the infant and child as a result of inadequate mothering or failures in empathy.79 Aforementioned, this thesis argues that Briony Tallis exhibits those developmental deficits or the false self. Furthermore, it is proposed that Briony‘s false self is significantly interlinked to her pre-Oedipal stage. The absence of mother‘s presence is argued contributing to Briony‘s false self.

Briony‘s mother, Emily Tallis is present, yet is inadequate in facilitating the environment of maternal care. Emily Tallis constantly suffers migraine shortly after Briony‘s labor. She is mostly described as lying down in bed, nurturing her migraine. Thus, she could not perform her role as an actively involved mother who physically or emotionally nurtures her infant. She is mostly absent during important period that is infancy period. Whereas, Object Relations theory proposes that infancy period is a significant period, for a child is being attached and gradually separated from her primary caretaker, the mother in particular, in order to build the sense of the self of the child.

From the perspective of Object Relations, mother is the source of identification of the child. The role of early identification is concepted to be the

78 Mokhtar Malekpour. p.86 79 Christal Daehnert. ―The False Self as a Means of Disidentification: A Psychoanalytic Case Study‖. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 34. 2, (1998). pp. 251-271 http://icpla.edu/wp- content/uploads/2013/02/Daehnert-C-The-False-Self-Contemp.-Psychoa.-34-251-271.pdf. Accessed on 15 June 2017. p.251

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beginning of separation for the child from the mother. However, Nancy Chodorow proposes that girl‘s identification with the mother is different from boy‘s.

Therefore, it is significant to take into account that Briony‘s crucial period of identification with her mother is absent.

As it has previously discussed, girls, according to Chodorow, experience pre-Oedipal relationship with their mothers longer than boys. While boys achieve their adult sexual identity as opposite to their mothers‘ femininity through separating themselves from the emotional intimacy that their mothers represent, girls achieve their adult sexual identity by ceaselessly identifying with their mothers. As girls have the same sex with their mothers, they do not feel the need to repress or cut off the capacity for experiencing the primary identification and primary love which are the basis of parental empathy.80 In other words, girls experience a need for intense longing and bonds towards their mother and as they grow, girls recreate an emotional intimacy that is mother-infant relationship by becoming mothers themselves. Through the relationship with their mother, the child comes to define himself/herself as a person. It is due by internalizing the most important aspects of their relationship : its stance toward itself and the world—its emotions, its quality of self-love (narcissism), or self-hate

(depression)—all derive in the first instance from this earliest relationship.81.

80 Nancy Chodorow. ―The Cycled Completed: Mothers and Children‖. Feminism Psychology, 12. 1. (2002). pp.11-17. http://lakatos.free.fr/Tanitas/Intro/1stsem/files/page57_3.pdf. Accessed 28 September 2016. p.15 81 Nancy Chodorow. The Reproduction of Mothering: Pyschoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999), p.78

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However, this process of identification is not experienced by Briony due to the absence of her mother.

As the result of the absent maternal care provided by the mother, Emily

Tallis, Briony has not experienced empathic identification with her, initially during pre-Oedipal period. Briony does not experience an intense bonds of mother-daughter relationship. The absence of Emily‘s role as the mother produces an imbalance in the mental health of Briony and also in the relationship between her and her children.

Afflicted with migraine, Emily is not able to perform her duties as

Briony‘s primary caretaker and as the matriarch of the house. As Emily describes herself about her condition: ―Illness had stopped her giving her children all a mother should. Sensing this, they had always called her by her first name.‖

(Atonement, 62-63). Emily is mostly incapacitated in providing love as the vital emotional nourishment that her daughter needs. Briony depicts this through the eyes of her mother:

She had vanished into an intact inner world of which the writing was no more than the visible surface, the protective crust which even, or especially, a loving mother could not penetrate. Her daughter was always off and away in her mind, grappling with some unspoken, self-imposed problem, as though the weary, self-evident world could be re-invented by a child. (Atonement, 68)

Furthermore, Briony describes Emily as a mother who had always lived in an invalid‘s shadow land.(Atonement, 96) It is obvious that Briony is not given much attention from her mother. Thus, she starts to create fictional characters, imaginary worlds and invents her own reality. She is deeply immersed in her own

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reality, thus allowing a misleadingness in grasping a borderline between reality and imagination.

Writing favors her fondness for the worlds of imaginary. Through writing, she finds a way of creating and controlling her world. She is delighted by the fact that everybody acts according to her will.

A story was direct and simple, allowing nothing to come between herself and her reader-no intermediaries with their private ambitions or incompetence, no pressures of time, no limits on resources. In a story you only had to wish, you only had to write it down and you could have the world: in a play you had to make do with what was available: no horses, no village streets, no seaside. It seemed so obvious now that it was too late: a story was a form of telepathy. By means of inking symbols onto a page, she was able to send thoughts and feelings from her mind to her reader‟s. It was a magical process, so commonplace that no one stopped to wonder at it. (Atonement, 37)

It is obvious that she cares very much for controlling things and people. Her tendency for controlling things and people is not only limited to the world of fiction she creates but also continues in real life. However, she has to manipulate reality or other‘s perspective in order to satisfy her need for controlling.

Briony‘s tendency for controlling other people and her incompetence for grasping a borderline between reality and imagination are two manifestations of developmental deficits or the false-self previously discussed above. The detailed analysis of the manifestations of Briony‘s false-self will be discussed in the next chapter. However, this thesis argues that the origin of Briony‘s false-self is strongly influenced by her arrested pre-Oedipal development, due to the absence of her significant other during pre-Oedipal stage, in this case is her mother.

Furthermore, this thesis argues that the absence of adequate identification with the mother during pre-Oedipal stage results in Briony‘s lack of a sense of empathy.

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Briony grows up in her own world without an adequate identification with her mother. It should be emphasized that a continuation of intense bonds between mother and daughter according to Chodorow as explained above results in a stronger sense of empathy than a son can have. A complete separation of a boy from his mother due to boy‘s sense of masculinity as an opposite gender results in a sense of less bonds of a mother and a son. Chodorow contends that boys are more likely to have been pushed out of the pre-Oedipal relationship, and to have had to curtail their primary love and sense of empathic tie with their mother.82

Furthermore, Chodorow asserts that girls emerge from this (pre-Oedipal) period with a basis for ‗empathy‘ built into their primary definition of self in a way that boys do not. Girls emerge with a stronger basis for experiencing another‘s needs or feelings as one‘s own ( or of thinking that one is experiencing another‘s needs and feelings.83

The absence of identification with the mother produces the absence of

Briony‘s sense for experiencing another‘s needs and feelings. She is unable to perceive that there is another larger narrative outside her, that are the other‘s perspective and reality. Briony‘s inability for experiencing another person‘s needs and feelings is triggered by the lack of sense empathy due to the absence of intense bonds with her mother.

82 Nancy Chodorow. The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender.p.166 83 Nancy Chodorow .p.167

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3.2 Family Dysfunction

The absence of the parental role does not merely impact one member of the family, but it also breaks the structure of the family as a whole. A dysfunctional family relationships is rooted in the role of parents, who are absent

The theme of a dysfunctional family relationships is frequently portrayed in most of McEwan‘s works.

The center role of the parents is significant in developing a healthy communication and compassion among the family members. In this novel, there are several families whose relationships suffer from poor communication and lack of compassion.84 Although both parents are alive and present, they do not run their roles as parents who are physically and emotionally availabe for their children. Lola Quincey and her twin brothers are abandoned children due to their parents‘ divorce. They are left to deal with their own problems without support from both parents at their aunt‘s house, Emily Tallis. In point of fact, Emily herself is incapacitated to perform the parental function.

Emily herself is indicated the product of a dysfunctional family. It is indicated through her feeling about herself compared to her younger sister,

Hermione, the mother of Lola Quincey. As Emily describes her own state in the family: ―Wronged child, wronged wife. But she was not as unhappy as she should be. One role had prepared her for the other.‖ (Atonement, 148) Emily describes herself as a dysfunctional person. Her husband, Jack Tallis is depicted as an

84 Joyce Hart. A Study Guide For Ian McEwan’s “Atonement”. Ed. Sara Constantakis. (London:Gale Cangage Learning, 2010), p.9

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unsupportive husband as he is mostly absent caused by work. Whenever he is at home, he is described as a dysfunctional father and husband. As Briony describes that:

When her farther was home, the household settled around fixed point. He organized nothing, he didn‘t go about the house worrying on other people‘s behalf, he rarely told anyone what to do-in fact, he mostly sat in the library. (Atonement,122) Jack Tallis prefers spending time alone in the library, rather than having some quality interactions with his family.

Moreover, the relationship between Emily and Jack is inharmonious.

Emily believes that her husband is having an affair, yet she does not mention it.

Emily convinces herself that it was only a temporary infidelity: ― But she did not mind, for he would be back at the weekend, and one day he would be home forever and not an unkind word would be spoken‖. (Atonement, 144) A disharmonious relationship of the parents and the absence of the parental function create a lack of emotional bonds between the members of family. In return, the

Tallis‘s children feel a disconnection to their parents as it is mentioned by Cecilia:

― But her father is always remained in town, and her mother, when she wasn‘t nurturing her migraines, seemed distant, even unfriendly‖. (Atonement, 20) The Tallis‘s children also have a lack of respect for their parents. It is indicated as they always address their mother by her first name and their father as the Old

Man:

―Emily‘s lying down.‖

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It was hardly necessary to say it. As children they claimed to be able to tell from across the far side of the park whenever their mother had a migraine by a certain darkening at the windows. ―And the Old Man‘s staying in town?‖ ―He might come later.‖ (Atonement, 48) As the product of a disordered family, the Tallis‘s children grew up with a lack of sense of connection to their parents. The Tallis‘s children are used to live with their lives without intervention of the adults, the parents as mediators and also role models to look up to. They are simply left to fend for themselves with a lack of an authoritative adult to guide them to the right direction. This situation provides the Tallis‘s children a large scope for doing whatever they desire to do, including making a fatal mistake.

The absence of both parental roles and a superficial display of a marriage of the Tallis symbolize how dysfunctional this family is. This thesis asserts that dysfunctional family has a great contribution to the existence of Briony‘s personality disorder. Otto Kernberg as cited in Sonia G. Austrian argues that people with personality disorder come from dysfunctional families where there is profound and chronic mother-child conflict and often severe personality in the mother.85 It is affirmed in Briony‘s case as she grows in a dysfunctional family.

It is previously mentioned that Emily Tallis is incapacitated in providing maternal care. Although Object Relations theory puts the central role of parental care to the mother; however, the role of parental care actually may fall into the father. Preferably, the role of the father with the infant is to protect the mother and

85 Sonia G. Austrian. Mental Disorders, Medications, and Clinical Social Work. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p.177.

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the infant relationship. Winnicott asserts the importance of father‘s function in providing a secure environment for mother and child dyad.86 Thus, the mother is able to build a close relationship with the infant. Furthermore, Winnicott argues that father is needed to give moral support, to be the backing for her authority, to be the human being who stands for the law and order which mother plants in the life of the child.87 The support of the father develops the subjectivity of the mother.

Briony experiences pre-Oedipal stage without parental care from both parents. Briony lives in a large mansion that is facilitated by everything, but she lacks of the presence of parental care from both parents. In the perspective of

Object Relatons Theory, Briony is regarded as having personality disorder since she is deeply immersed in her own world with her own version of reality as the result of dysfunctional family. Briony‘s mother fails at developing emotional bonds with her. On the other hand, Briony‘s father neglects his role at providing a secure environment and a support for mother and child dyad.

86 Donald W. Winnicott. “The Theory of the Parent-Infant Relationship”. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 41. (1960).pp.585-595 http://icpla.edu/wp- content/uploads/2012/10/Winnicott-D.-The-Theory-of-the-Parent-Infant-Relationship-IJPA-Vol.- 41-pps.-585-595.pdf. Accessed on 10 November 2016.p.589 87 Donald W. Winnicott. The Child, the Family and the Outside World. (Cambridge: Perseus Publishing, 1964), p.115.

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CHAPTER IV

THE MANIFESTATION OF BRIONY’S PSYCHOLOGICAL

COMPLEXITY

This chapter addresses the second research question of this thesis on the consequence of an arrested pre-Oedipal stage for Briony. In this case, the developmental deficits or Briony‘s false-self are resulted from the absence of maternal care as elaborated in the previous chapter. This chapter aims to elaborate the manifestations of Briony‘s false-self which are identified as Briony‘s psychological complexity.

4.1. Briony’s Inability of Reflexive Awareness

As previously addressed in previous chapters, Briony has grown up into a young girl with a strong sense of imagination. Her ability to imagine things, stories, and events is considerably influenced on her reflection about life. She has the power of making herself into anything she pleases which unfortunately affects her inability to distinguish between what she really is and what she is not.

Besides, she also can not distinguish whether it is real or fiction. She is trapped in her own world that she creates.

Although Briony is unable to differentiate between fact and fiction, she is obviously gifted in the field of turning imagination into written forms. The power of creative mind is the most essential source for her fictions. The baby of the family possessed a strange mind and a facility with words.(Atonement, 6)

Moreover, for Briony, as the creator of the stories she writes, she gets the power of composing her own versions of reality:

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The world could be made in five pages, and one that was more pleasing a model farm. The childhood of a spoiled prince could be framed within half a page, a moonlit dash through sleepy villages was one rhythmically emphatic sentence, falling in love could be achieved in a single word- a glance. (Atonement, 7)

Briony‘s creative mind is the reality in the printed form. Briony is fully aware of the power one could has with a pen. As the writer, she understands that she has an absolute autonomy to determine the narration of her fictions. The pages of recently finished story seemed to vibrate in her hand with all the life they contained.( Atonement, 7) The fact that she owns the power over the characters and the plot line that she creates is extremely excites her.

Writing for Briony means her whole world. A fondness for writing that is supported by her another desire that is a desire for secrecy:

Another was a passion for secrets: in a prized varnished cabinet, a secret drawer was opened by pushing against the grain of a cleverly turned dovetail joint, and here she kept a diary locked by a clasp, and a notebook written in a code of her own invention. In a toy safe opened by six secret numbers she stored letters and postcards. ( Atonement, 5)

Briony believes that writing and secrecy are strongly interlinked. As she believes that the imagination itself was a source of secrets. (Atonement, 6)Secrecy allows her to develop her own imagination and thus has inspired her in writing.

Therefore, once she encounters secrecy, she pursues it, as it was essential for her to know everything.( Atonement, 106) At this point where she potentially misleads the incidents which she only interpretes from a distance.

When Briony encounters an affair, she pursues and interpretes it according to her own standpoint. It is Briony‘s interpretation that is triggered by her wild imagination causes Robbie get imprisoned. He is imprisoned for the crime he does

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not commit. Accidently, Briony encounters certain scenes and creates her own interpretations. Furthermore, she decides to believe her own interpretations as the reality.

One day Cecilia takes family‘s valuable vase out to the fountain and intends to fill it with water. Robbie offers an assistance, but unintentionally breaks a piece of it instead. The piece of it fell into the water. Out of anger towards

Robbie‘s mistake, Cecilia insists to get the piece of the vase out of the water by herself, so thus she takes off her dress in front of Robbie and dives into the water.

By chance, Briony witnesses this fountain scene from the nursery‘s window which is quite distant and puts it this way:

What was less comprehensible, however, was how Robbie imperiously raised his hand now, as though issuing a command which Cecilia dared not disobey. It was extraordinary that she was unable to resist him. At his insistence she was removing her clothes, and at such speed. She was out of her blouse, now she had let her skirt drop to the ground and was stepping out of it, while he looked on impatiently, hands on hips. What strange power did he have over her? Blackmail? Threats? ( Atonement, 36)

On the basis of the scene that Briony witnesses from a distance, she composes her own version of an interpretation. Briony presumes that Robbie intentionally commands Cecilia to undress herself and to dive into the water. Out of fear of

Robbie‘s threats, Cecilia unwillingly does what Robbie tells her to do. The reality is that Briony misinterprets the whole actions of the scene she witnesses from a distance. Most importantly, she fails to recognize that there is a retained romance between the two youngsters.

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Following the awkward fountain scene, Robbie feels that he owes an apology to Cecilia. Thus, he decides to write an apology letter and a confession about his passionate feeling towards Cecilia:

The crucial lines now read: ―You‘d be forgiven for thinking me mad- wandering into your house barefoot, or snapping your antique vase. The truth is, I feel rather lightheaded and foolish in your presence, Cee, and I don‘t think I can blame the heat! Will you forgive me? Robbie.‖ Then, after few moments‘ reverie, tilted back on his chair, during which time he thought about the page at which his Anatomy tended to fall open these days, he dropped forward and typed before he could stop himself, ―In my dreams I kiss your cunt. In my thoughts I make love to you all day long‖. (Atonement, 80)

After spending quite some time having trouble finding the right words for the letter to Cecilia, unintentionally he adds and types his deepest desire of sexual attraction about Cecilia. However, Robbie puts aside this letter and writes an appropriate one instead. Mistakenly, he puts the wrong letter. The previous letter he writes into the envelope and asks Briony to deliver the letter to Cecilia.

Triggered by curiosity, Briony opens and reads the letter which she is not supposed to read. She soon discovers the obscene words at the end of the letter and afterwards identifies Robbie as a maniac. Regardless any possibility of misconception, she concludes that Robbie is a dangerous sexual maniac.

The culmination of one-sided interpretation made by Briony is the love making scene between Robbie and Cecilia that she witnesses in the library. The same day when Briony reads Robbie‘s letter, she accidentally enters the library and finds Robbie is pinning up Cecilia in the corner. The love making between

Robbie and Cecilia is assumed by Briony as an assault, and Cecilia is being pressed in the corner against her will. Briony does not consider about any

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possibility that there can be another version of the incidents she witnesses that day. Briony is obviously unaware that her version of interpretation can be distinct from the other‘s interpretation and reality. She is unaware of the danger of misconception and imagination.

The problematic issue occurs afterward is that how one can become so immersed in their fantasies that they lose sight of reality. The answer of this issue can be traced through scrutinizing the perspective of psychoanalyst feminist about intersubjectivity. Psychoanalytic feminist theory introduces a term known as thirdness that evokes the ability of reflexive awareness or mentalization.

Thirdness, or the concept of the third according to psychoanalyst feminist, Jessica

Benjamin is gained through a relationship in which each person experiences the other as a like subject with a distinct, separate center of feeling and perception.88

One is able to relate to the fact that the other‘s independent consciousness is distinct and outside his or her control, through experiencing the other as a like subject, which is known as the ability of reflexive awareness or mentalization.

Benjamin asserts that the ability of reflexive awareness only can be achieved through a mutual recognition of the other‘s subjectivity within mother and child dyad. Moreover, she argues about the significance of recognizing the mother as the other subject, not as the object of the ego‘s need of the child.

The subjectivity of the mother postulates the notion that the child develops through recognizing the mother‘s independent aims and desires. Regarding that recognition allows one to connect to the other‘s mind while accepting his or her

88 Jessica Benjamin. ―Beyond Doer and Done to: An Intersubjective View of Thirdness‖. p.5

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separateness and differences. Through signifying the other as a separate being, in this case, it is when the child is attuned with experiences and senses that the mother‘s real emotion is not identical to the child. This process provides the child an ability to sense a realistic response and a reality within mother and child dyad.

The reality functions as a different point of view which is known as the term mental space. The mental space is the form of thirdness that is referred by

Benjamin. Thirdness is felt as mental space to negotiate meaning.89 Thirdness thus emerges from within the dyad without needing a literal third subject to intervene and separate mother from the child.90 This form of thirdness is what Benjamin described as the origin of the awareness of self-reflexivity and mentalization.

Building upon the concept of thirdness according to Jessica Benjamin, it can be concluded that Briony‘s misconception which is supported by her wild imagination is due to her lack capacity for reflexive awareness or mentalization.

The origin of her lack of capacity for reflexive awareness appears to be connected with care-giving environment. It is a care-giving environment provided by her mother as her significant other. Based on the concept of thirdness by Benjamin, it is concluded that Briony‘s lack of capacity for reflexive awareness has its root in the role of her mother in providing herself as a like subject with a distinct, separate center of feeling and perception.

It is discussed previously that Briony‘s mother is inadequate in facilitating the environment of maternal care, due to her long illness. The absence of Briony‘s maternal care causes the absence of an experience of mutual recognition as two

89 Jessica Benjamin. ―Beyond Doer and Done to: An Intersubjective View of Thirdness‖. p.10 90 Lewis Aron & Adrienne Harris. Relational Psychoanalysis, Volume 5: Evolution of Process. (New York: Routledge, 2014), p.216

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persons with a distinct needs and desires through surrender. In this context, surrender refers to a capacity of letting go herself to a sense of reality that her mother is a distinct subject with her own point of view or reality. Hence, mutual recognition through surrender is able to sustain connectedness to the other‘s distinct reality: distinct feelings and needs. The failure of Briony‘s mother in accommodating an experience of mutual recognition results in Briony‘s inability to sustain connectedness to the other‘s distinct feelings and needs. To sustain connectedness to the other‘s distinct feelings and needs is the basic ability for reflexive awareness.

This thesis concludes that Briony‘s misconception of the events that she witnesses has its root in her lack of capacity for reflexive awareness as the result of the absence of an experience of mutual recognition with her mother. Therefore, she is unable to understand that the other subjects outside her have their own point of views and truth. She obviously neglects the fact that there is another point of view of a story, the reality which lies behind what she witnesses. At this point, what Briony does not understand is the difference between fictionally invented characters and plot line toward reality. The false accusation she testifies against

Robbie is based on her one sided perspective.

4.2 Manifestations of Narcissistic Personality Disorder in Briony

Adult narcissism is acknowledged as Narcissistic Personality Disorder and is a form of pathological narcissism. Essentially, one who is identified as a narcissistic signifies manifestations of infatuation and obsession with one‘s self to

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the exclusion of all others and the egotistic and ruthless pursuit of one‘s gratification, dominance and ambition.91 However, a certain list of traits for narcissistic personality disorder has been published by the American Psychiatric

Association, based in Washington D.C., USA. The American Psychiatric

Association specifies nine traits for narcissistic personality disorder. Five (or more) of these traits must be met for a diagnosis of Narcissistic Personality

Disorder to be rendered.92 Thoroughly, these nine traits are manifested in Briony

Tallis and thus will be analyzed below.

One certain trait for narcissistic personality disorder manifested in Briony is a grandiose sense of self-importance that leads to her belief that she is special and unique. Thus, it makes her entitled to behave the way she wants. An inflated, grandiose sense of self-importance is a central hallmark of the narcissistic personality disorder. Whereas in this case, Briony assumes that the world is revolved around her. It is indicated through the narrative that she composes within her mind. It is portrayed in a form of an unrealistic sense of superiority. She tends to have grandiose view of her own superiority. She somehow refers herself as a better one in terms of her integrity as human compared to others:

Was everyone else really as alive as she was? For example, did her sister really matter to herself, was she as valuable to herself as Briony was? Was being Cecilia just as vivid an affair as being Briony? Did her sister also have a real self- concealed behind a breaking wave, and did she spend time thinking about it, with a finger held up to her face? Did everybody, including her father, Betty, Hardman? If the answer was yes, then the world, the social world, was unbearably complicated, with two billion voices, and everyone‘s thought striving in equal importance and everyone‘s claim on life as intense, and everyone thinking they were

91 Sam Vaknin. Malignant Self Love:Narcissism Revisited. p.1 92 Sam Vaknin. p.2

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unique, when no one was. One could drown in irrelevance. But if the answer was no, then Briony was surrounded by machines, intelligent and pleasant enough on the outside, but lacking the bright and private inside feeling she had. (Atonement, 34)

This particular narrative clearly portrays the way Briony confidently pictures herself. She believes that she is better and special compared to others. She somehow is wondering to herself whether her sister and other people are as special as she is as well. Nevertheless, she tends to conceive that no one else as special as she is and as real as she is. She tends to see them as inferiors, not as alive as she is. She even portrays them as characters who are lack of emotion just like in fictions she creates. This is because she is used to assigning roles for people into her fictions. She is simply not certain about the fact that other people might be conscious of their existences and that other people might be as real and valuable as her self. Nevertheless, she is convinced that she is real and valuable.

Thus, she believes that she is superior than others.

Moreover, one feature that indicates Briony as one with a grandiose of self-importance is the way she thinks that writing is the matter she concerns most in this life. It does not occur to her that fictions she writes may not be important for other people. She thinks that she has the right to interfere other‘s business in order to achieve her goal as a good writer. For example, without feeling guilty, she opens and reads Robbie‘s letter which is not addressed to her. It was wrong to open people‘s letters, but it was right, it was essential, for her to know everything.

(Atonement, 106) She is aware that it is not right to open and read other people‘s letter. Yet, she makes a privileged exception for herself and justifies her own act about opening and reading other people‘s letter by arguing that it is acceptable and

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a priority for her to intrude into other people‘s affairs. Briony‘s own justification in terms of narcissism refers to a sense of entitlement i.e. unreasonable expectations of especially favorable treatment or automatic defense with her expectations on a basis of a thought that she is special. Thus, she thinks that she deserves a special treatment compared to others. She is determined that she is allowed to control and direct the scenario of her existence as well as other‘s. For

Briony, life is a show stage in which she is the center of the show and validated to play as God.

Thus, writing is the most matter thing for Briony. The fact that she uses events and other people around her as the source of inspiration for her fictions, serves her as one with a grandiose sense of self importance. She believes that she is special. She also believes that she deserves a special treatment. Her arrogance leads her to recognize herself as superior than others. Thus, she underestimates other‘s privacy and interests.

When it comes to feeling their superiority upon others, what follow is the tendency of being arrogant. Briony‘s inflated sense of grandiosity results in a tendency of arrogance or self- importance. One of Briony‘s narcisisstic manifestations is definitely rendered this particular trait. It is reflected in the course of the novel. It is not only the way she sees others as inferiors, but also the way she puts her need above others. She personally argues that neither Lola nor both twins fit to take the roles in the play she writes. As Briony depicts that: ―Lola does not fit the role to play as Arabella because Briony thinks Arabella is not a freckled person‖.(Atonement, 13) Briony also thinks the same about Lola‘s

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younger brothers, Jackson and Pierrot, that they are not appropriate for the roles as

Arabella‘s father and mother: ―Jackson is Arabella‘s disapproving father‖.

(Atonement, 30) Furthermore, she describes, ―Pierrot does not look much like

Arabella‘s mother‖. (Atonement, 15) Nevertheless, she insists them playing their roles. The twins, Jackson and Pierrot explicitly assert that: ―they hate plays and all that sort of thing‖.(Atonement, 11) However, they are assigned into the roles because Briony needs them to play their parts. So, the play she writes can be performed. Therefore, she gets the credit. Briony simply sees her cousins as casts, not as other people with their own will and perspective. This scene portrays

Briony‘s self-importance in which she expects too much from others, but she does not put herself in their shoes.

Briony‘s inflated self-image or inflated grandiosity leads her to have not only senses of being special, arrogant and entitlement but also a dream world of exceptional success and power. Since adolescence, Briony has been preoccupied with her fantasy of becoming a famous writer. She fantasizes about being a famous writer and becomes the pride of the family:

There were moments in the summer dusk after her light was out, when she burrowed in the delicious gloom of her canopy bed, and made her heart thud with luminous, yearning fantasies, little playlets in themselves, every one of which featured Leon. In one, his big, good-natured face buckled in grief as Arabella sank in loneliness and despair. In another, there he was, cocktail in hand at some fashionable city watering hole, overheard boasting to a group of friends: Yes, my younger sister, Briony Tallis the writer, you must surely have heard of her. (Atonement, 4)

This particular narrative was a stream of consciousness made by Briony after she wrote her first play, The Trials of Arabella which she dedicates to Leon‘s

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homecoming. At such young age, she has already pictured herself as a famous writer to be. She even believes that she is destined to be a writer.

There is nothing wrong for being ambitious at such young age. However, it becomes a complication when there is a sinister motive behind the agenda and justifying any means in order to achieve it. As Karen Kernberg Bardenstein puts it:

Normal children do have fantasies of being powerful, famous, and highly successful. They imagine themselves as president, a famous actress or athlete, or even a hero with superpowers. The distinguishing feature of such wishes from pathological narcissism, however, is the awareness that the wish is an aspiration and that others have the ability to be special as well. The narcissistic child is convinced that he is already endowed with unique and special abilities and becomes envious if anyone else becomes successful. (Atonement, 41)

In this context, Briony is convinced that others are not as special as she is. As she thinks that everyone else is not as real as she is. She even thinks that her cousins have no intelligence and talents. As Briony says:

The cousins are stupid. But it‘s not only that. It‘s…‖ She trailed away, doubtful whether she could confide her recent revelation. (Atonement, 41)

Furthermore, Briony argues that the twins could not act, nor even speak, and Lola had stolen Briony‘s rightful role. (Atonement, 35) Based on these quotations,

Briony is astoundingly dismissive of others in which she obviously only feels satisfied with herself.

Briony is determined to be a succesful writer not simply only because she is aware that she is gifted in composing stories, but also because she is motivated by the beneficials for being a writer. As a young girl, Briony has come to a realization that writing is beneficial for her in terms of power and admiration.

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Writing provides her different kinds of power. Being a writer certainly provides her the power to compose stories as how she wants to see them. Regarding this issue, she can be manipulative and exploitative in order to get stories the way she wants, even in real life. As real life and the members of her immediate circle are the source of her stories, she interpretes that she has the power to be involved and manipulate other‘s privacy, including other‘s perspectives. Briony is fully aware of the benefit for being the person who holds the power over other people‘s privacy. This argument stands out in one narrative is made by Briony: ―What power one could have over the other‖. (Atonement, 39)

In the practice of exploiting and manipulating the lives of others for the sake of her writing, Briony insists a reality according to her own version of fact, even though she has to lie. Briony is convinced about her side of story of the fountain scene between Robbie and Cecilia. She considers immediately that she can use it for her fiction. She sensed that she could write a scene like the one by the fountain and she could include a hidden observer like herself. (Atonement,38)

In validating her false accusation against Robbie, she manifestly exploits Lola to convince her family and the police that the sexual abuser is Robbie. Before Lola has a chance to confirm who it is, Briony disrupts her and says:

Briony whispered, ―Who was it?‖ and before that could be answered, she added, with all the calm she was capable of, ―I saw him. I saw him.‖ Meekly, Lola said, ―Yes.‖ (Atonement, 155) Furthermore Briony added, ―It was Robbie, wasn‘t it?‖ ( Atonement, 156)

For the sake of her interpretation in which it is misleading and for the sake of her story, she manipulates and lies about what she actually witnesses.

Regardless the fact that it is too dark too recognize the figure of the abuser.

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Moreover, she only sees the figure from the back. The vertical mass was a figure, a person who was now backing away from her and beginning to fade into the darker background of the trees. (Atonement, 154) What Briony sees is a glimpse of a figure in the dark. However, she is determined to convince everyone, including the police, that Lola‘s abuser is Robbie:

―You saw him then.‖ ―I know it was him.‖ ―Let‘s forget what you know. You‘re saying you saw him.‖ ―Yes, I saw him.‖ ―Just as you see me.‖ ―Yes.‖ ―You saw him with your own eyes.‖ ―Yes. I saw him. I saw him.‖ (Atonement, 169)

Without a doubt, Briony testifies against Robbie for a scene in which she actually barely notices. Accordingly, she justifies any means for her best interest. As she narrates that:

So many seconds had passed-thirty? Forty-five?-and the younger girl could no longer hold herself back. Everything connected. It was her own discovery. It was her story, the one that was writing itself around her. (Atonement, 156)

Briony‘s obsession with being a writer is dangerous when it is related to her poor interpretation between reality and fiction as well as her need to interfere other people‘s privacy, including other people‘s perspective. Moreover, she justifies any means, whatever it takes, even a fatal lie in order to achieve her goal. Bardenstein who particularly studies narcissism on children argues that the narcissistic child justifies personal deficits, irresponsible behavior or defeats through blaming

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others, evasively responding or outright lying.93 In terms of a trait for narcissistic personality disorder, she is interpersonally exploitative, i.e. taking advantage of others to achieve her own end. She simply does not have the ability to distinguish the concept between artistic and exploitative manifestation.

Another power that writing provides for Briony is the power for being the heart of her fictions. Briony‘s fictions are to be performed under her direction and to be starred by herself as the protagonist. Briony should be the shining star in every stories she creates. She feels offended when Lola inevitably asks her to play the role as Arabella, instead of Briony herself. Due to Lola‘s usurpation of the protagonist role as Arabella, it immediately disenchants Briony. Thus, she decides to cancel the rehearsal and the performance. It is not an option for her to role as a co-star in her own play. As she argues that the role was her rightful role.

(Atonement, 35) But, how could she tell them that Arabella was not a freckled person? Her skin was pale and her hair was black and her thoughts were Briony‘s thoughts. (Atonement, 13) Briony is even severely more offended when her mother supports the idea about Lola to play as Arabella:

Not only Leon to consider, but what of the antique peach and cream satin dress that her mother was looking out for her, for Arabella‘s wedding? That would now be given to Lola. How could her mother reject the daughter who loved her all these years? As she saw the dress make its perfect, clinging fit around her cousin and witnessed her mother‘s heartless smile,… (Atonement, 14)

Briony‘s rejection to see an option about another people who can be another leading role as well, is a manifestation of an envy. Her decision to cancel the play just because her cousin gets the protagonist role, is out of a sense of envy.

93 Bardenstein K. Karen.p.148

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She also envious of Lola‘s appearance. As she thinks about how she should take more care of her appearance, like Lola. ( Atonement, 33) One thing that she lacks of compared to Lola is spending time and putting more attention on appearance.

Ultimately, Briony‘s envy leads to a false accusation with a fatal end.

Briony‘s deceitful testimony results in an innocent man is imprisoned for a crime he does not commit. Briony‘s accusation is partly motivated by her envy of the intimacy between Cecilia and Robbie. It is implicitly grasped that Cecilia does not only mean a sister for Briony. Apparently, Cecilia is the one who wakes up at nights to bring Briony back from her nightmares:

She wanted to comfort her sister, for Cecilia had always loved to cuddle the baby of the family. When she was small and prone to nightmares- terrible screams in the night-Cecilia used to go to her room and wake her. Come back, she used to whisper. It’s only a dream. Come back. And then she would carry her into her own bed. (Atonement, 41)

This narrative displays the relationship between Briony and Cecilia. Therein,

Cecilia has always been the big sister, the comforter and the protector for Briony.

Cecilia used to fulfill her role more than just a sister. The intimacy between

Cecilia and Robbie can be conceived as a threat for Briony in gaining the love and attention of her sister. She might consider Robbie as a competitor. This is because in most cases, a narcissist envious others as competitors in gaining attention.

A perpetual admiration, an adulation or even a notoriety is required as a basic need for narcissists because their primary narcissistic supply is attention.

The narcissist is utility – driven, obsessed with his overwhelming need to reduce his anxiety and regulate his labile sense of self-worth by securing a constant

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supply of his drug – attention.94 Whereas, narcissistic supply is defined as any form of attention, both positive and negative and it is instrumental in the regulation of the narcissist's labile sense of self-worth.95

There are two classifications of narcissists according to Sam Vaknin i.e. cerebral and somatic narcissists. The cerebrals derive their narcissistic supply from their intelligence or academic achievements and the somatic derive their narcissistic supply from their physique, exercise, physical or sexual prowess and romantic or physical "conquests".96 In this context, Briony is arguably a cerebral narcissist.

Briony is skilled at writing. Writing is a cerebral activity which requires a high intelligence. She is proven to be a successful writer. Although, she obviously uses her talent at writing to exhibit herself as the center stage. Her talent in writing plays and fictions provides the need for admiration from others, the sources of her narcissistic supply:

Briony said reasonably. ―How can you hate plays?‖ ―It‘s just showing off.‖ Pierrot shrugged as he delivered this self-evident truth. Briony knew he had a point. This was precisely why she loved plays, or hers at least; everyone would adore her. (Atonement, 11)

For Briony, her fiction does not only mean as an artwork but also a narcissistic source for an admiration. For example is when she intends to provoke his brother‘s admiration by preparing a performance of a play. As Briony describes that: ―Her play was not for her cousins, it was for her brother, to celebrate his return, provoke his admiration‖. (Atonement, 4) Obviously, Briony is an attention

94 Vaknin, Sam. p.32 95 Vaknin, Sam. p.74 96 Vaknin, Sam. p.75

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seeker. She craves for an admiration. She achieves the attention she craves for through writing. Writing is assuredly used as an instrumental to regulate her thirst for admiration.

A narcissist is identified as one with a grandiose sense of self, a belief of being special, a sense of entitlement, envy, arrogance, and a need of an excessive admiration that leads to a preoccupation about being successful and powerful. In addition, it is interpersonally exploitative because he or she lacks of empathy. The ability to empathize with others is the core feature for one to grow as one with a healthy narcissism. On the contrary, one grows with a pathological narcissism by the reason of lacking in the ability to empathize with others. Empathy is central to an understanding of that aspect of the self which involves we-ness, transcendence of the separate, disconnected self.97 Moreover, Heinz Kohut describes, ―empathy as a fundamental mode of human relatedness; that it is not only a powerful basic psychological bond between individuals, but that indeed it constitutes the very matrix of man‘s psychological survival‖.98 Without empathy, there will be no ability to put one self in another person‘s shoes, to recognize another as a self in his or her own will. Thus, one with inability to empathize would act only out of his or her self-interest.

Briony‘s tendencies of a grandiose sense of self, a belief of being special, a sense of entitlement, envy, arrogance, a need of an excessive admiration, a preoccupation about being successful and powerful, and interpersonally

97 Judith V. Jordan. “Empathy and Self Boundaries” from Women’s Growth in Connection: Writings from the Stone Center. Ed. Camille Roman, Suzanne Juhasz and Cristanne Miller. (New Jersey: Rutgers, 1994), p.154 98 Kohut, Heinz. The Search for the Self: Selected Writings of Heinz Kohut. Ed. Paul Ornstein. (New York: International Universities Press, 2011), p.704

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exploitative are proofs that she is unable to empathize with others. Ultimately, she justifies her act of giving a testimony on the basis of a lie for the sake of her best interest. She is aware that she deceives everyone. Nevertheless, for the sake of her interest, she does not let Robbie go as the hero of her story. Instead, she performs as the heroine by testifying that she sees the culprit in order to impress everyone and for the sake of the order of the story she wants . She insists persistently that

Robbie is the villain of her story:

If it was brave to have identified a thoroughly bad person, then it was wrong of him to turn up with the twins like that, and she felt cheated. Who would believe her now, with Robbie posing as the kindly rescuer of lost children? All her work, all her courage and clear-headedness, all she had done to bring Lola home-for nothing. They would turn their backs on her, her mother, the policemen, her brother, and go off with Robbie Turner to indulge some adult cabal. (Atonement, 172)

Briony refuses to see a fact and sticks to her own version of perspective.

She refuses to see what reality shows. She cannot let everyone think that she is wrong and makes Robbie look innocent in front of everyone. She is afraid of losing the love of her family. She cannot resist the thought of not being the center of attention anymore. Therefore, she lies conveniently to everyone. Briony ruins the life of Robbie and Cecilia on the basis of a fraud testimony she makes.

Briony‘s fraud testimony signifies a manifestation of inability to empathize with others. She lies conveniently out of envy and inability to put herself in another person‘s shoes. Although, later in the novel, she admits that she falsely accuses

Robbie. Thus, she attempts to atone for her sin.

Throughout the novel, Briony admits that she attempts to atone for her sin.

However, she has not done enough to mend her sin. Yes, she was thirteen years

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old when she made a false accusation, but she does not remain as a thirteen year old girl for her entire life. As Robbie tempestuously asks her about the reason why she does not clarify her testimony immediately:

―Growing up,‖ he echoed. When he raised his voice, she jumped. ―Goddamnit! You‘re eighteen. How much growing up do you do need to do? (Atonement, 324) Cecilia also asks her the same issue by saying that: ―I‘ll go to Surrey and speak to Emily and the Old Man. I‘ll tell them everything.‖ ―Yes, you said that in your letter. What‘s stopping you? You‘ve had five years. Why haven‘t you been?‖ (Atonement, 318)

Briony postpones her clarification of the fraud testimony for exceedingly long.

She does not only postpone it for five years, but also postpone it for her lifetime.

The novel she writes which is dedicated as her atonement and clarifies her testimony, will be not published as long as she lives. In this point, the sincerity of her atonement is questionable. If she really means to atone for her sin out of guilty feeling, she does not wait that long. Instead, she may confess her sin and clarify of what really happens publicly as soon as possible, if she earnestly empathizes

Robbie.

Furthermore, one thing that contributes to the trait of Briony‘s inability to empathize with others is when she can not see herself as a liar. This is the most consequential sin of all. Instead, she defenses herself by arguing that she was weak, stupid, confused, cowardly, evasive. She had hated herself for everything she had been, but she had never thought of herself as a liar.(Atonement, 318)

Briony admits that she attempts to achieve an atonement. Howevere, she is not being honest to everyone and to herself. She is fully aware about what she does not see clearly. Nevertheless, she convinces everyone that she does. She testifies

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on the basis of a lie by stating that she is certained of who she sees. She actually only catches a glimpse of a person However, she does not concern herself as a liar. In this point, the sincerity of what she claims as an atonement is questionable.

Simply put, Briony once again misinterprets a deed, or worse, she once again manipulates a deed, in this case is her atonement.

Instead of making her novel as an atonement to mend her sin because of a quilty feeling, she uses it as a means to further her career. She is diagnosed with vascular dementia which causes a gradual memory loss. It means she will eventually lose her identity, herself as Briony and the successful writer. She is terrified with the fact about losing her best ability i.e. the power of creating orderly stories. She intentionally advances her desire for being the center stage of her stories through publishing her masterpiece, Atonement, after her death. To draw a conclusion, Briony‘s atonement is ultmately achieved for her own interest that is sustaining her legacy through writing.

The manifestations of Narcissistic Personality Disorder rendered in Briony is a depiction of Narcissus at the time when he gazes his own reflection and gets fascinated with it. Similarly, Briony mirrors her own reflection and also becomes fascinated with herself. Thus, she becomes too obsessed with her own image. She sees her own image as superior than others. Thus, she tends to act selfisly and tends to make unethical decisions. A reflection of a self as a superior or in terms of narcissism is an inflated, grandiose image of self is the landmark criteria of

Narcissistic Personality Disorder. What makes narcissistic a sincere personality disorder is that the narcissists take over other people‘s lives by causing significant

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troubles for the sake of their own interest. This is because they are strikingly self- centered. Instead of being concern about their immediate family circle, they use them as the source of admiration or attention. Since, the narcissists constantly seek for admiration.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder or pathological narcissism is the false self of a self. It is the distorted of the true self that is formed during pre-Oedipal phase. Narcissistic Personality Disorder is stemmed from an insufficient relationship between infant and significant other, generally mother, during pre-

Oedipal phase. Thus, the role of mothering is crucial in shaping one‘s self. Otto

Kernberg asserts that such a self with extremely unrealistic and idealized pathological grandiose self is the result from massive shortcomings in mothering, in which case the parents who are cold and rejecting.99

In accordance with Kernberg‘s argument on asserting mothering‘s role in fostering the development of the self, Heinz Kohut postulates that the genesis of the disorder can, for instance, be the insufficient mirroring of the child's self by the mother (her lack of empathy for her child's need for mirroring through the gleam in the mother's eye). The child's self can therefore not establish itself securely (the child does not build up an inner sense of self-confidence; it continues to need external affirmation).100 Kohut emphasizes the necessity of maternal empathy for the development of a healthy self. The mother allows the infant to experience the sense of empathy that comes from being valued, associated with through mirroring and idealization. Thus, the child is able to sense

99 Otto F. Kernberg. Aggressivity, Narcissism, and Self-Destructiveness in the Psychotherapeutic Relationship. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), p.54 100 Heinz Kohut. p.557

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of connectedness to others. Consequently, the child is able to empathize with others.

As previously discussed above, the sense of empathy is the core feature of the self with a healthy narcissism. In order to build the sense of empathy, it is important to account that the mother is another subject, instead of an object in relationship of mother and child. Regarding this issue, Jessica Benjamin postulates a notion of intersubjectivity relationship between mother and child. She emphasizes the importance of the subjectivity of the mother in the mother-child dyad, on the basis consideration that the sense of empathy is able to be achieved only through mutual recognition that is subject-subject relationship. Whereas, mutual recognition is able to be achieved only by recognizing the other as another subject in his or her own will. The intersubjective perspective observes that the other whom the self meets is also a self, a subject in his or her own right.101Thus, the mother does not merely appear as the object in fulfilling the child‘s need, but rather as another independent subject instead. In this context, mutual recognition according to Benjamin is defined as the ability to affirm, validate, acknowledge, know, accept, understand, empathize, take in, tolerate, appreciate, see, identify with, find familiar….love.102

To draw a conclusion, a pathological narcissism is therefore conditioned, in the case when the child is not permitted to experience the sense of empathy that comes from being valued, associated with through mirroring and idealization in

101 Jessica Benjamin. ―The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination‖. The Women and Language Debate.p.169 102 Jessica Benjamin. ―The Bonds of Love: Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and the Problem of Domination‖. The Women and Language Debate.p.167

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mother-child dyad. On the contrary, healthy narcissism is shaped when the child is permitted to experience the sense of empathy that comes from being valued and associated with through mirroring and idealization. On the condition, the relationship between mother and child is on the basis of mutual recognition that is subject-subject relationship. Briony‘s pathological narcissism is considered strongly related to her pre-Oedipal stage experience that is mother-child dyad.

As discussed in the previous chapters, the absence of maternal care during pre-Oedipal stage has a great impact on the existence of the false Self: the distortion of true Self. In Briony‘s case, her false Self is manifested as Narcissistic

Personality Disorder. The absence of maternal care during Briony‘s pre-Oedipal stage causes the absence of the experience to sense empathy that comes from being valued through an interpersonal relationship between her and her mother.

Her mother fails at providing adequate opportunities for idealization and mirroring. Thus, basically, she is unable to build up an inner sense of self- confidence. To compensate this, she is unconsciously and continuously dependent on approval from others for self-esteem. Therefore, Briony keeps seeking for an attention. Whatever Briony does is aimed at getting an approval from others. An excessive need for attention is a characterized pattern of a Narcissistic Personality

Disorder. In Briony‘s pre-Oedipal experience account, her traits of Narcissistic

Personality Disorder emerging into adult life, which is caused by a history of unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship between her and her mother.

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CHAPTER V CONCLUSION

This thesis focuses on interpersonal relationship between Briony and her mother. The interpersonal relationship between mother and child is the core of

Self-concept or internal representation of one‘s Self which is initiated by Object

Relations theory. The emphasis of Object Relations on habitual patterns of early interpersonal relations is stressed significantly on the mother‘s roles. The intimacy and nurture of the mother have great effect on the development of the psychology of the child. Briony‘s pre-Oedipal experience is essential on the attention needs to be paid, on account of the etiology that motivates the origin of Briony‘s mental representation, in this case is Briony‘s psychological complexity. The relationship between Briony and her mother is crucial to be examined because mother is the primary caretaker who usually falls into this role. However, the father or others can be an alternative of this role.

Based on the foregoing discussion, Briony‘s mother plays a significant role in determining Briony‘s Self, whereas, the Self is obtained through an intense bond between mother and child. The intense bond between mother and child is achieved during phases of Attachment and Separation. Attachment and Separation are two crucial phases in which a child must experience during infancy period that is the period spanning birth to three year old.

The absence of Attachment and Separation phases for a child during pre-

Oedipal stage results in a difficulty with early developmental stages, in the form of distorted of the true Self, namely the false Self. The sense of one‘s false Self is claimed to occur when the sense of the false Self dominates the sense of true Self.

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The main function of the false Self is to hide or arrest the true Self. The false Self refers to a pathological disturbance or Self-disorder that is an inability to relate to others and how the Self views himself or herself. This inability is the genesis of pathological disturbances that is inability of reflexive awareness and narcissistic personality disorder.

A narcissistic in terms of personality disorder occurs when one experiences an inadequate pre-Oedipal stage in terms of maternal care during infancy. Briony‘s mother, Emily Tallis was incapable of providing an adequate maternal care during Briony‘s infancy. As mentioned in previous chapter 3 and 4,

Emily avoids her role as the matriarch of the house due to her health problem, soon after Briony‘s birth. Emily‘s avoidance from her role provides an absence of the environment of maternal care for Briony. Therefore, Briony is concluded to experience an inadequate pre-Oedipal stage in terms of maternal care during infancy.

The absence of the environment of maternal care is argued to be the origin of Briony‘s complexities, those are, the inability of reflexive awareness and

Narcissistic Personality Disorder. This argument is built upon traits of Narcissistic

Personality Disorder which are exhibited by Briony. It is genuinely dominated by her exaggerated sense of self-importance.

It is mentioned in the previous chapters that Briony lives in the world of her own. Thus, she cares only about any aim that advantages her interest. Briony is a self-involved person. She merely concentrates on herself that she is

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incapacitated to sense other‘s feelings and needs. This trait is displayed throughout the narrative of the novel.

In the first chapter of the novel, Briony‘s self-importance is displayed when she shows no sense of empathy towards her cousins. When she asks her cousins to perform for a play that she writes, she only cares about the admiration she may achieve from her family when presenting them her piece of work. She disregards the fact that her cousins actually refusing to be part of the play. Instead of feeling empathy towards her cousins, she feels being victimized, as the play is cancelled out. Briony describes her cousins‘ fallacy:

―And so they went on, the cousins from the north, for a full half an hour, steadily wrecking Briony‘s creation.‖ (Atonement, 17)

Ultimately, Briony exhibits a trait of exaggerated sense of self-importance when she convincingly accuses Robbie for a sexual harassment. The major issue of the novel is about Briony‘s guilt over her false accusation against Robbie.

However, the genuine motive of the Atonement that she dedicates as her redemption for making a false accusation tends to advantaging herself.

Briony obviously does not show a sense of shame when she never reflects upon of the events she witnesses at the age of thirteen. What she sees in the dark is a glimpse of a man. However, she manipulates reality by convincing everyone that the culprit is Robbie. She attempts to revoke her accusation by writing

Atonement as a clarification. However, she decides to postpone the publication of the novel. Briony‘s clarification is inscribed only in the novel. Yet, she rejects the publication of the novel while she is alive. The reality remains secretive in her own lifetime. Therefore, there are no legal nor social consequences for her crime.

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On the other hand, she remains as a highly respected and appraised author after death.

As previously discussed in chapter 4, Briony‘s exaggerated sense of self- importance is rooted in her lack of sense to empathize with others. Her lack of sense of empathy is the reason why she is incapacitated to sense other‘s feelings and needs. The sense of empathy is gained through an empathetic interpersonal relationship between mother and child. The lack of sense of empathy causes pathological disturbance, in this case is Briony‘s inability of reflexive awareness and Narcissistic Personality Disorder. The absence of maternal care contributes to the existence of Briony‘s pathological disturbances due to her mother‘s illness which prevents her mother from giving Briony the things a mother should give.

Briony is recognized to the readers of Atonement as a character with an intricate representation. Readers might have different interpretation toward

Briony‘s character. Some readers may find her as an innocent victim due to her naivety as an adolescent girl, when she misinterprets a series of events. On the contrary, some other readers consider her as a deceitful character for the misinterpretation that she often makes, and consequently cost the imprisonment of

Robbie.

A number of previous studies focus on the representation of Briony‘s misinterpretation. As their findings, they conclude that her misinterpretation emerges as the influence of the literary works that she reads. Distinct from previous studies, the finding of this thesis discloses that Briony‘s misinterpretation is a manifestation of her inability to sense others as separate

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subjects with their own feelings and needs. It is the basic ability required to develop the ability of self-reflexive awareness and a healthy narcissism. Briony‘s misinterpretation is one of manifestations of her psychological complexity as the result of an unsatisfying maternal care. Psychoanalytic feminist reading allows the study of this thesis to uncover the origin of Briony‘s misinterpretation. It is true that the misinterpretation that Briony often makes is influenced by her passion for literary works. However, based on psychoanalytic feminist approach, the study of this thesis reveals that fundamentally the origin of Briony‘s misinterpretation has its root in her arrested pre-Oedipal development.

Atonement is fundamentally a narration about each character‘s psychological state. Although, the narration about character‘s psychological state is centered on Briony. However, the psychological state of the other characters can be appealing, as well as challenging to be explored. Although this thesis only focuses on Briony‘s self, psychoanalytical reading on other character, such as

Emily is an avenue for future researchers.

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