ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY of CALGARY UNIVERSITY of LETHBRIDGE SONGWRITING in THERAPY by JOHN A. DOWNES a Final Project

ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE

SONGWRITING IN THERAPY

JOHN A. DOWNES

A Final Project submitted to the

Campus Alberta Applied Psychology: Counselling Initiative

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF COUNSELLING

Alberta

August 2006

iii Abstract

Songwriting addresses therapy on multiple levels: through the process, product, and experience of songwriting in the context of a therapeutic relationship. A literature review provides the background and rationale for writing a guide to songwriting in therapy. The resource guide illustrates 18 techniques of songwriting in therapy. Each technique includes details regarding salient features, clinical uses, client prerequisites, therapist skills, goals, media and roles, format, preparation required, procedures, data interpretation, and client/group-therapist dynamics. An ethical dilemma illustrates the need for caution when implementing songwriting in therapy. Examples of consent forms are included in the guide. The author concludes by reviewing what he has learned in the process of researching and writing the guide, and evaluates his research.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I – Songwriting in Therapy………………………………………….………..1

Rationale………………………………………………………………………….……...1

Identifying the Need…………………………………………………………….1

Creating a resource……………………………………………………..………2

Data analysis…………………………………………………………….………2

An ethical question…………………………………………………….………..3

Implications………………………………………………………………………3

Chapter II –Songwriting: A Useful Therapeutic Tool….……………………………..5

Chapter III – Writing and Its Impact………………………………………………….11

Narrative Influences…………………………………………………….……..11

Poetry and Journals…………………………………………………………...15

Facilitating Songwriting………………………………………………………..18

Summary………………………………………………………………………..20

Chapter IV – Methodology: Searching for How To… …………………………….22

Design…………………………………………………………………………..23

Data Collection and Analysis…………………………………………………23

The Final Product……………………………………………………………………...24

Chapter V – Songwriting in Therapy: A Guide for Music Therapists and

Counsellors………………..…………………………………….……………….….…25

Introduction………………………………………………………..……………26

Contents………………………………………………………………...………27

Chapter VI – Conclusion…………………………………………………………….145

v Learning Upon Completion……………………………………………….…145

Research Evaluation…………………………………………………….…..148

Recommendations…………………………………………………………...157

At Last…………………………………………………………………………………159

References……………………………………………………………………………160

CHAPTER I

Songwriting in Therapy

This final project resulted in the creation of a guide for songwriting in therapy. For the purposes of this project, songwriting in therapy is defined as songwriting that is guided by the goals of therapy as agreed upon by the client and music therapist or counsellor in a music therapy or counselling setting.

This chapter explains the rationale behind the project, identifies the problem and includes a literature review. This is followed by an exploration of songwriting in research and theoretical issues. The final section of this chapter explains the methodology for obtaining material for the project.

Rationale

Identifying the Need

Research that includes songwriting as a means of intervention appears to demonstrate the beneficial results of its use. Though numerous methods exist for songwriting in therapy (Wigram, 2005), no single resource has been developed that brings many of the techniques together in one document. When such a document exists, music therapists and counsellors will have a valuable resource that uses a common language for songwriting in therapy and gives explanations of various techniques. A thorough exploration of songwriting in therapy techniques in terms of required skills and materials, client characteristics, ethical issues, and data analysis will help standardize practice and provide more opportunities for researching the benefits of songwriting as a therapeutic tool.

Creating a resource. A precedent exists for presenting an overview of

diverse music therapy methodology in a single resource (Bruscia, 1987). In his

book, Bruscia provides a form of documentation that explains more than a dozen

improvisational methods of music therapy as well as their variations in form and technique. In doing so, Bruscia encapsulates the diversity represented by various improvisational techniques into one succinct resource. This provides music therapy practitioners with a resource to guide and inspire their clinical work or research using the tool of musical improvisation in therapy. A resource written for songwriting in therapy may serve a similar purpose.

Data analysis. Currently, using clients’ creative writing as data presents a challenge for music therapists and counsellors (Shapiro, 2004). The guide for songwriting in therapy identifies factors that affect interpretation of the data and suggests means for avoiding or reducing the chances of misinterpretation. A

constructivist framework (Mertens, 1998) for implementation and analysis will be

helpful in this area of research. Constructivism “emphasizes the subjective ways

in which each individual creates a perception of reality” (Mertens, 1998, p. 463).

Therefore, the primary suggestion for data analysis focuses on the meanings

clients bring to their own work, and respect for their individual worldviews. The

emancipatory paradigm (Mertens, 1998) is also important when suggesting

means for measuring data. Instructions for all the songwriting techniques emphasize the voices of clients and the lessening of power differentials between clients and therapists so that voices of oppressed individuals are heard and represented. Data that is created in songwriting in therapy aims to be a true

representation of the clients’ voices. Their voices must also be represented when analysis of that data takes place. This means that clients’ voices are equal to, if not more important than, the voice of therapists, as clients remain the experts on their lives, from the beginning of the songwriting in therapy process until the very end and beyond.

An ethical question. Finally, this project explores ethics in songwriting so music therapists and counsellors have an understanding of the implications of co-creating what is traditionally thought of as a work subject to copyright. When co-creating works with artistic merit, the parties involved need to understand the limits and freedoms placed on the creation itself and the co-creators. Agreements regarding how songs are to be treated and used will need to be in place so as to avoid misunderstandings and ethical dilemmas. Documents such as consent and release forms, as well as advice that assure protection for both music therapists/counsellors and clients are presented as part of this final project.

Implications

The potential exists for songwriting to be accessible, meaningful and purposeful for many clients. This guide for songwriting in therapy presents information and techniques for bringing that potential to fruition with various client populations in many settings. Exploration of songwriting in therapy techniques along with suggestions for use helps standardize practice and provide more opportunities for researching the effectiveness of songwriting as a therapeutic tool. Clients who consult counsellors and music therapists can benefit from this guide, as it increases the accessibility to songwriting in therapy. Ethical

considerations included in the project can help guide professionals in their use of songwriting techniques. Discussion of the options for managing the resulting product according to professional standards and copyright law is also presented.

The Canadian Association for Music Therapy (CAMT) can benefit from the research on the ethical and copyright implications in songwriting in therapy since the CAMT Code of Ethics (CAMT, 1999) does not address these issues.

Therapists and clients remain at risk for litigious actions if attention to ethical and copyright issues is not taken into consideration when cooperatively creating what could be termed expressive works of art within a therapy setting.

CHAPTER II

Songwriting: A Useful Therapeutic Tool

Suggestions to use songwriting as a therapeutic method abound in the music therapy literature. The examples included in this section present work by various practitioners and the limited instructions they have provided for using songwriting as a therapeutic intervention.

Priestley (1985) suggests that therapists encourage clients to speak their lyrics or a poem aloud, and then use the inflection of speech as a guide in constructing melody. O’Callaghan (1996) requests that patients make as many choices as possible to guide the songwriting process through choosing topics, keys, rhythms, moods, melodic elements, accompaniment patterns, and titles.

Ficken (1976) approaches songwriting in a psychiatric setting through steps of approximations. His approach utilizes popular songs with lyrical substitutions as a means of introducing songwriting. In writing original songs Ficken suggests

beginning with the pitch of speech, and then exploring those pitches through

improvisation. Melodic fragments, harmonies and words can then be joined

together to produce a finished song.

Mayers (1995) also uses the modification of existing songs and choice-

making procedures to write songs with children who have experienced trauma.

She recognizes that some children may be threatened by writing from personal

experience, and therefore suggests the use of projective techniques.

Rickson and Watkins (2003) rely on the standard form of the 12-bar blues

when songwriting with aggressive adolescent boys. They suggest that the

advantage of this structured format is that it requires only minimal input from the boys, allowing them to take the risk of sharing a simple idea.

The literature suggests that songwriting is a valuable tool in therapy.

Creative experiences help people remember, feel emotions, drop their defenses, and become willingly engaged in the therapeutic process (Carson & Becker,

2004). Songwriting encourages verbal sharing, emotional experiences, and issue resolution in a flexible, creative and approachable framework (Curtis, 2000;

Hatcher, 2004). Additionally, songwriting can provide the motivation for some clients to work through and resolve their issues in an expedient manner (Miles,

1993). Songwriting may be a valuable intervention to offer those clients who respond well to creative approaches in therapy. It may help clients engage in the therapeutic process from initial assessment to termination of their treatment.

Goldstein (1990) performed a pilot study with eight adolescents to test the effectiveness of her Songwriting Assessment for Hopelessness (SAH). She adapted the true/false questions from the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS; Beck,

Weissman, Lester & Trexler, 1974) by using a fill-in-the-blank lyrical structure paired with a twelve bar blues musical form. Goldstein recognized the limitations of her study due to the small sample size; therefore generalization of the findings may only be applied to psychiatric inpatient adolescents with “depression and/or a history of suicidal ideation or attempts” (Goldstein, 1990, p. 188). Both the

SAH and BHS were administered to the adolescents in the pilot study. To confirm the validity of the SAH, scores from the assessment were correlated to the scores of the BHS. Goldstein (1990) concluded that the “significance of the

statistical correlation between the SAH and the BHS suggests that the SAH may

have potential as a tool for assessing hopelessness” (p. 121).

Robb and Ebberts (2003) presented an exploratory case study where they

examined how anxiety and depression levels vary with phase of bone marrow

transplantation and how a music therapy protocol affected anxiety and

depression levels. A descriptive case study design with quantitative measures

was used to examine changes in anxiety and depression levels according to

phase of treatment. Random assignment to the conditions of music therapy or

no-music contact controlled for possible effects of attention. The State-Trait

Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC) developed by Speilberger (as cited in

Robb & Ebberts, 2003) and the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) developed

by Kovacs (as cited in Robb & Ebberts, 2003) served as outcome measures for

both groups.

Songwriting played an important role in the brief model of music therapy

intervention constructed by Robb and Ebberts (2003). Songwriting afforded the patients the opportunities to “make independent choices and decisions, express feelings related to self-identity and/or hospitalization, provide multisensory stimulation, and engage in a goal-oriented intervention that encourages mastery”

(Robb & Ebberts, 2003, p. 6). Although the authors warned readers not to make generalizations from their study due to the small sample size, they reported that four of the six bone marrow transplant patients experienced decreased anxiety following a majority of the music therapy sessions.

Curtis (2000) used a case study approach to assess the effectiveness in increasing the self-esteem of women abused by their male partners. The feminist approach to music therapy included gender-role socialization through lyric analysis and songwriting. Six women from a treatment group of 35 met criteria for inclusion in the data-collection part of the study. Criteria were the completion of at least eight of the feminist music therapy sessions and completion of the final evaluation and interview. Effects of feminist music therapy were assessed through the analysis of individual interviews and pre- and post- test scores on the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) written by Fitts (as cited in Curtis, 2000) as well as by analyzing the content of the women’s original compositions. TSCS measures indicated a distinct increase in self-esteem for four or the six women, and a moderate increase for one. However, Curtis notes,

“because of the nature of the case-study approach, it is not possible to definitively identify any single factor as solely responsible for this increased self- esteem in the case of the TSCS results alone” (Curtis, 2000, p. 366).

Content analysis of the women’s final interviews and the lyrics or their self- composed songs indicated an increase in self-esteem for all six participants

(Curtis, 2000). Curtis was particularly impressed by the ability of their songs to reflect the growth in power and other changes experienced by the women.

Recently, Baker and Wigram (2005) published an edited book on songwriting in music therapy in which several authors share methods and techniques that they use. Reference to the work of some of these authors appears in this guide to songwriting in therapy techniques. One article stands out

because it discusses multicultural issues regarding ethnicity and race. Dileo and

Magill (2005) write,

the use of songwriting with multicultural patients may be enhanced when

the patient’s cultural issues are understood and acknowledged, when the

music therapist is knowledgeable of song forms with which the patient

may feel familiar and comfortable, and when the music therapist is flexible

in addressing diverse clinical needs. (p. 228)

Not only do Dileo and Magill (2005) outline the difference in musical forms that exist between individualistic and collectivist cultures, but they also give examples of specific song forms from various cultures. These song forms, such as Latino music, the Klezmer doina, African songs, and East Indian chants will likely not be familiar to most therapists who have been raised and educated in western culture and universities. These forms will also not be easily found in the style and rhythm repertoires of electronic keyboard instruments, so replicating these song forms requires some research and the learning of new skills. These skills in combination with awareness of one’s own cultural attitudes and biases can allow therapists to “facilitate and witness unforgettably poignant and transformative experiences that impact deeply upon the critical … moments of patients’ lives” (Dileo & Magill, 2005, p. 245).

The research presented above demonstrates how songwriting in therapy has been used both as a tool for assessment as and an intervention for therapeutic growth and development. Although these uses sound somewhat clinical and dry, one can also appreciate that the lyrical content of songs serve as

narrative devices, thus communicating stories of clients’ experiences and worldviews. This topic is explored in the following chapter.

CHAPTER III

Writing and Its Impact

Narrative Influence

A song, with its combination of emotive music and lyrics, offers the listener a glimpse into the perceptions and reality of the writer or performer. In effect, songs tell stories of emotions and events, past, present and future. As such, the act of songwriting is a creative act of storytelling. Songwriting is a process of using words and music to discover meaning and understanding, much as

Anderson and Goolishian (1992) suggest in regards to language use in counselling. Meaning and understanding may be expressed in words, and those words make up a narrative.

Many concepts from narrative therapy may influence the practice of songwriting in therapy. Narrative therapy suggests a process of re-authoring one’s life, beginning with the externalization of problems (Muntigl, 2004; White &

Murray, 2002). Song lyrics encourage the poetical and fanciful, thus, creating narrative in lyrics allows for the externalization of problems. For example, instead of relating oneself to an illness such as cancer (I am sick), one might externalize it (this growth within me) thereby allowing it to be a part of the whole, yet not allowing it to be the source of one’s identity. In effect, it can have a separate voice because creativity in expressive works of art such as songs can accommodate such perspective shifts and even normalize them as common creative expressions.

Muntigl (2004) outlines the generic stages of narratives as proposed by

Labov and Waletsky, and identifies three stages as being obligatory: these are the complication (problem), the evaluation (the client’s attitude toward the story) and the resolution. This narrative process suggests topical material for songwriting in therapy. These stages can conceivably be addressed through a sequence of songs, or even within a single song. Music itself often reflects a similar sequence of opening statements (an expositional theme or verse), exploration/expansion (the development section or a chorus) and resolution

(recapitulation, coda and resolution section or a bridge and repeated chorus).

The role that therapists play is that of a facilitator of movement between each stage, gradually accompanying clients toward the resolutions of their problems.

Both Muntigl (2004) and Hatcher (2004) suggest that using open questions helps clients progress in their therapy. Questions provide “the resource for scaffolding clients in using new meaning making resources” (Muntigl, 2004, p. p. 120), or as others note, the questioning technique encourages clients to delve deeper into the meaning of their lyrical narratives (Dalton & Krout, 2005; Hatcher,

2004). Songwriting in therapy can describe the past, present and a hoped-for future with the possibility of building a sequence toward problem resolution, healing, and perspective change.

In counselling work, White (2001) suggests that therapy can facilitate a re- authoring process in which clients are empowered to discover their active role and influence in problem maintenance and resolution. Such a process helps clients create “a wide range of possibilities for action in a world that were not

previously visible” (White, 2001, p. 3). Tracking the progress toward re-authoring one’s life may be evidenced through the client’s use of language in the construction of lyrics and process of therapy. Clients may no longer require the scaffolding provided by a therapist, and they may “deploy the linguistic resources made available from prior therapist/client interactions” (Muntigl, 2004, p. 122).

The client’s independent ability to utilize new meaning making resources may indicate that therapy is no longer needed. Muntigl (2004) is interested in the development of clients’ semiotic potential and he views progress as something that can be measured through analysis of language. This topic will be revisited later in this project paper as a possible tool for analysis of data.

The benefits of writing are numerous. Whether writing is done by a counsellor or client, the simple fact that information has been transcribed and recorded in a tangible form means that the material can be revisited, pondered, and explored further (White & Murray, 2002; Yalom, 2003).

Putting these traces into writing not only seizes the fleeting moments

and gives them some permanency, but, given the power differential

between spoken and written languages (and the higher status afforded

to written text, outside of therapeutic exchanges, in modern society),

it may also lend more authority to the stories being told. (Speedy,

2005, p. 286)

David Epston suggests that using therapeutic documents “increases the impact of talking therapy fourfold” (White, cited in Speedy, 2005, p. 285). These documents can take the form of counsellor-written summary letters, poetry, or

songs. Each of these forms takes the conversation that is ephemeral, and gives it

solid form, thus allowing future reflection as well as demonstrating progression

and change. Speedy (2005) suggests that writing holds images and ideas, giving

clients and counsellors a focus for pondering meaning. A poem can open up

considerable conversational space and encourage more poetic exchange

(Speedy, 2005). White and Murray encourage clients on their therapeutic journey

by writing letters to them and having clients write letters to themselves from their

imagined future selves. Both of these techniques are used as a means of

instilling hope and allowing clients to notice possibilities for positive changes.

DeSalvo (1999) states that writing and therapy “are mutually beneficial; my work

deepens because of my therapy; but my therapy progresses because of my

work” (p. 41).

Writing for personal reasons is a common activity for adolescents,

according to Roscoe, Krug and Schmidt (1985). They reason that at a time when

adolescents struggle with identity formation, writing is the safest form of self-

expression as it is an act of expressing oneself to oneself. Writing thus “allows greater articulation and clarification of thoughts and feelings, and is safe in that it avoids hurt and rejection by others” (Roscoe, Krug, & Schmidt, 1985, p. 843).

Writing can take many forms such as journals, poetry, stories, and lyrics.

Perhaps what makes writing able to contain the emotions and thoughts of the writer in a vessel of safe containment is the fact that writing is socially sanctioned as an approved and revered method of self-expression. So although one might write to oneself, one might also take some comfort in sharing the written form

with others because our literary history allows a certain amount of creative and expressive freedom.

Poetry and Journals

Roscoe, Krug, and Schmidt (1985) report that 37.5% of adolescents use poetry as a means of self-expression, followed by 33% using journals, 26% using short stories, and 12.5% using songwriting. Alexander (1990) concluded in her literature review that “adolescents find poetry writing a safe way to express feelings and that the arts may open a way for adults to listen to young people” (p.

126). Given the percentages of adolescents who write, we might assume that many adults have a history of writing down their experiences, thoughts and feelings, and that these forms may be explored once again in a therapeutic context. Bolton (1999) suggests that any life crisis may bring about a renewed desire to write. Intense emotions seem to facilitate the desire for self-expression, and here once again, the written word can safely hold the experience while also helping to provide clarity and understanding.

Like any artistic form of self-expression, poetry speaks from the interior of human experience. It provides a deep understanding of subjective experience and multiple realities and relationships (Shapiro, 2004). A value of expressive writing is that it provides a window into the writer’s point of view, thus exposing the beliefs and emotions that contribute to behaviour. Such insight, if shared with a therapist, can be grist for the therapeutic mill. Poetry or journal entries may provide therapists with a deeper understanding of clients’ past and present experiences. This, in turn, can lead to exploration and movement toward healing

and resolution through explorations of how clients may envision change and growth happening in their lives. For example, Mann (2001) suggests that based on research findings, optimism about the past and future may be trained. She states, “writing tasks have been shown to be powerful in affecting people’s emotions, cognitions, and behaviors” (p. 27). Her study found that “writing about a positive future leads not only to changes in optimism, but also to changes in self-reports of behaviors associated with optimism” (p. 27). For those participants in her study who were low in optimism scores, writing about a positive future raised their level of optimism and changed their health-related behaviours (Mann,

2001). It is interesting to note that it was the writing task alone that precipitated these changes. I imagine that the results could have been even better had clients been working with therapists as part of the intervention.

Writing in a poetic or journal format can help clients explore all possibilities that are open to them (Stone, 1998). “Journaling can be the means by which clients engage in wholesome reflections about life, by which they make decisions, and by which they evaluate their behavior” (Stone, 1998, p. 537). So often people do not take the time for reflection and exploration of possibilities.

Journaling encourages one to make the time. To do so offers writers an advantage over just talking about the issues in life. Writing gives our thoughts solid form, unlike speech, which is transient and often glib. Another advantage of journaling is that the journal content can remain private. This allows writers to be uninhibited and free in their self-expression. Also, the thought of artistic merit can be disregarded in writing a journal. Creating poetry or song lyrics may cause

clients to be too focused on creating a product. Journaling is likely less subject to

the inner critic (Cameron, 1992) than poetry or songwriting is.

However, how one approaches any creative task will affect how beneficial the task may be. Music therapy, unlike music performance, has few expectations of right or wrong ways of participating within a music therapy context. Quite likely, poetry and songwriting can be approached in a similar manner, thus negating the effects of the inner critic. Also, creative writing such as poetry or songwriting has the advantage of being sonorous to the ear, succinct, and stimulating to the mind’s eye. Although the songs of songwriting in therapy may not conform to standards of modern musical aesthetics, they may still give some enjoyment and present potent emotional content with each listening. To listen to one’s self- composed song is easy. Re-reading journals might be more like a task or chore in comparison. A particular characteristic of a song is the link between lyrical message and melody. As any jingle writer knows, melody helps internalize the message of the lyrics; therefore songs can be potent tools for encouraging messages of hope, motivation and conviction, or healing and resolving problems and issues of one’s life. Perhaps the greatest gift of a song is the link between music and emotion. DeSalvo (1999) believes that the healing power of writing is only experienced if cognitions and memory are linked to emotions. She states,

“We must write in a way that links detailed descriptions of what happened with feelings – then and now – about what happened” (DeSalvo, 1999, p. 25). A song would certainly meet these criteria for writing in that both narrative and emotion are addressed within the one expressive form.

Poetry and journaling can be seen as being potential stepping-stones toward songwriting. Journaling may offer the first glimpse of important issues that are weighing on the minds of clients, and poetry may offer the lyrical components of rhythm, rhyme, and metaphor. Everyone has stories and the words to tell them, a rhythmical body, a tonality of voice, and a natural and encultured understanding and responsiveness to music. In the field of music therapy this makes everyone a potential musician and songwriter. The one component that clients may need is a facilitator who helps them give form and voice to their songs.

Facilitating Songwriting

As a facilitator of songwriting in therapy, the music therapist or counsellor plays an important role. This facilitative role allows clients to explore and express themselves and their ideas in a creative context that may be new and somewhat awkward for them. There is a balancing act that needs to take place in order for the facilitator to draw out and channel clients’ creativity and input without crossing the line of controlling, leading, or otherwise marking the resulting song with too much of his or her own ideas and preferences. Specific techniques of songwriting in therapy are explained later in this document, and each one demonstrates how facilitators can give as much choice and control to clients as possible. This section reviews what some other authors have stated in regards to the facilitative process.

Assessment is the first process that is required before embarking on the therapeutic journey with a client (Hiebert, 1996). The next step in the process is

building a relationship of trust. “A trusting patient-therapist relationship will need

to be established before in-depth sharing of patient concerns can begin” (Robb,

1996, p. 31). In addition to the necessary trust that encourages sharing, trust is

also an important precursor for cooperative creative acts. For many people the

simple act of verbal sharing is accompanied by thoughts of wondering what the

other thinks of them and what they have said. This feeling is perhaps even more

intense when the self-expression is creative in nature. It could be that many

societal factors such as the belief that artistic expression is the domain of trained

artists and writers, and the belief that what one produces through creativity is no

good results in such self-consciousness. Such beliefs and statements illustrate

what Julia Cameron calls the inner critic (Cameron, 1992). A sensitive facilitator

of songwriting in therapy needs to be aware of the inner critic that most people

carry with them as part of their psyche. DeSalvo (1999) warns that we can derail

our creative process “if we think about the product rather than the process; if we judge and criticize our work and ourselves” (p. 111). Creating a safe, trusting and non-judgmental environment helps facilitate creative expression and thus quiet the voice of the inner critic while allowing the creative voice of the client to emerge.

One last important theoretical aspect of cooperative songwriting in therapy addresses the issue of de-centering musical practice (Denborough, 2002). As a

facilitator with musical skill, one might find the power differential between the two

parties involved in the creative process is unequal due to the difference in skill

and comfort level with the medium. As this might be the case, the facilitator

needs to be aware of this and attempt to level the playing field by giving as much

control as possible to clients. Denborough (2002) states, “The ways in which

music is related to in current western culture often privilege and separate the role

of ‘performer’ from the listener” (p. 3). He suggests that the facilitator can de-

center from the songwriting and performance process by, a) using only clients’

words for lyrics, b) facilitating the process of having clients choose the chords

and melody for the song, c) including as much flexibility as possible throughout

the creative process, d) matching the musical style to the skill level of the clients,

e) inviting client feedback throughout the creative process, and f) deflecting any

praise directed toward the facilitator’s performance back toward the song and the

clients themselves. The secret of de-centering then is to make the clients and

their songs the focus of attention. This is done by making the creative process

dependent on the clients’ input and involving them as much as possible in

performance and recording. Although these are practical tips, they are important to remember in regards to theory. The client remains the focus in therapy. This is stated emphatically only because of the nature of musical performance and how it is viewed in western culture. It is all too easy for a facilitator to slip into the artist

as performer mode, thus taking the spotlight and allowing his or her ego to be the

focus of attention.

Summary

The preceding sections of this paper summarized key research-based and

theoretical concepts related to songwriting in therapy. The use of songwriting in

therapy was illustrated in a brief literature review. This was followed by related

theoretical and practical applications of expressive writing used in therapy. It is hoped that the connection between various expressive forms in writing can be seen and appreciated. The inclusion of narrative theory, journaling and writing poetry provide a rationale for the use of therapeutic song writing when client characteristics and circumstances warrant its use.

There is an assumption made in the music therapy literature that those who wish to implement songwriting procedures already have the required knowledge base and skills. The music therapy literature contains little guidance regarding the procedures for implementing songwriting in therapy. Moreover, how to treat the resulting product in an ethical manner, how to analyze the product as data, and what specific skills are required for the therapist and client are rarely if ever addressed.

A resource for therapists and counsellors that outlines various techniques for songwriting in therapy and addresses the concerns stated above will be helpful for both music therapists and therapists interested in the use of songwriting in therapy in practice or research. The argument for including creative work such as songwriting in therapy is a strong one. As DeSalvo (1999) writes, creative work “permits us to pass from numbness to feeling, from denial to acceptance, from conflict and chaos to order and resolution, from rage and loss to profound growth, from grief to joy” (p. 57). This optimistic view of the potential of supported creative writing aligns with this author’s views of counselling and the power of creativity.

CHAPTER IV

Methodology: Searching for How To…

A literature review was performed in an attempt to gather and synthesize all possible information regarding songwriting as a creative treatment procedure in music therapy and counselling. Search terms for the literature review included: songwriting, therapy, music therapy, journaling, poetry, lyrics, chord progressions, music, writing, songs, counselling, art therapy, copyright, creativity, research, and data analysis. The search terms used included related disciplines and activities as they contributed valuable information that was not contained in the music therapy literature alone. For example, the field of art therapy has addressed how artistic products are treated in regards to ownership and confidentiality in a therapeutic context.

Search methods included: internet search engines such as Google, and the data bases Academic Search Premier, Proquest, PsycArticles, PsycInfo,

ERIC, Ingenta, as well as the catalogues of the Universities of Calgary,

Lethbridge, and Athabasca libraries.

Information gleaned from the literature review informed the writing of a guide for songwriting in therapy by presenting an overview of various approaches used for songwriting in therapy and research projects. It also helped define the need for specific instructions, suggestions and procedural techniques for songwriting in therapy that were largely missing in the literature. There was no other data collection other than the literature review.

Design

The design of the research is qualitative because it focuses on the process, implementation and development of therapeutic techniques (Patton, as cited in Mertens, 1998). A literature review was completed. Most often the literature mentioned songwriting techniques as part of overall treatment plans, but the instructions for implementing the techniques were missing or unclear. The guide for songwriting in therapy acknowledges the source of each technique as presented in the literature, and uses deductive reasoning to provide a more thorough explanation for implementing the techniques so they may be successfully implemented by others. Additionally, the author presents self- created techniques for songwriting in therapy based on his fifteen years of clinical experience in the field of music therapy.

Data Collection and Analysis

An initial literature review of the subject of songwriting in therapy resulted in a paucity of documents devoted exclusively to the topic. Therefore it was not unrealistic to search for all available writings, publications, and materials pertaining to songwriting in therapy techniques. Sources of information were identified through a comprehensive search of the music therapy literature, including journals, books, conference proceedings, and dissertations.

Similarly to Bruscia’s (1987) book on improvisational methods, each songwriting technique is described according to a basic outline that provides a uniform way of organizing the information. This also provides a framework for synthesizing different techniques according to common goals or client needs.

Each technique is described according to: salient features, clinical uses, client prerequisites, therapist skills, goals, media and roles, format, preparation required, procedures, data interpretation, and client-therapist dynamics or group dynamics.

The Final Product

The final product for this project is a guide for songwriting in therapy that may be published and act as a resource for music therapists and counsellors who wish to include songwriting as a therapeutic treatment procedure. The format of the guidebook follows.

Section one presents songwriting in therapy techniques with detailed instructions and examples of materials. Those techniques mentioned in the literature are fully explained and referenced. The author also supplies additional techniques and suggestions not found in the literature.

Section two provides an example of an ethical dilemma regarding songwriting in therapy as a means of illustrating the complications that may arise if therapists do not have a plan for how co-created music is handled in an ethical manner. A model consent form and agreement for use form are also presented in this section. Finally, section three presents a resource list for materials, software and resources for further information.

CHAPTER V

Songwriting in Therapy: A Guide for Music Therapists and Counsellors

John A. Downes, BMT, MTA

Songwriting in Therapy: A Guide for Music Therapists and Counsellors

Introduction

This guide for songwriting in therapy has been constructed so that you may utilize these songwriting techniques in your music therapy or counselling session. Many of the techniques require minimal musical skill, while others require training in music such as understanding the format of music and having the skills of playing an instrument and being able to carry a tune with your voice.

It is hoped that no matter what your skill level, that you may find some useful resources in this guide, or be inspired by these techniques and adapt them to your and your clients’ level of skill.

The material is organized in such a way so that you can find appropriate techniques to use with your clients. However, before utilizing these techniques, I encourage you to review the section of this manual regarding ethical concerns that are inherent in the process of co-creating any form of artistic expression. I have provided examples of consent forms that may be used or adapted to suit your purposes.

I hope that you enjoy this guide and that the work that is inspired by it is of great benefit to you and your clients. It is my firm belief that creativity leads to growth, and I expect that this will be confirmed in your use of these materials. I welcome your feedback so that I may improve this guide in the future.

John Downes, BMT, MTA

Edmonton, Alberta

Contents

Section One –Techniques of Songwriting in Therapy

Writing Lyrics

Listening for the Lyrical 29

Brainstorming for Words 35

Filling in the Blanks 40

Adding a New Verse 47

Song Parody 52

Visual Art to Words 56

Magnetic Poetry to Lyrics 60

Rap and Rhyming Dictionaries 65

Word Association Lyrics 70

Dream and Daydream Imagery Lyrics 73

Journaling and Lyrics 79

Writing Music

Making Chord Choices With Cards 81

Making Note Choices 87

Making Style Choices 92

Offering Pre-composed choices 97

Melody and Rhythm Evolving from the Spoken Word 100

Music and Words 104

Improvisation and Songwriting 104

Reframing With the Blues 109

Interpretation of Data – More Thoughts 114

Section Two – Ethics and Songwriting in Therapy 119

Ethical Dilemma 119

Introduction 120

Ethical Decision Making Process 122

Principle I: Respect for the Dignity of Persons 123

Principle II: Responsible Caring 125

Principle III: Integrity in Relationships 126

Personal Reflection 128

Alternative Courses of Action and Evaluation 129

Choosing a Course of Action 134

Action and Responsibility for Consequences 135

Evaluation of Results 136

Personal Professional Values 137

Denouement Regarding Copyright 139

Consent Forms 141

Resources 143

Writing Lyrics

People often ask songwriters what comes first, the words or the music?

Either way works, and sometimes both are created at the same time. For the

purposes of this guide, the processes have been separated. This section

presents suggestions on how to approach lyric writing. It is hoped that these

ideas will inspire the reader’s own creative approaches.

Title: Listening for the Lyrical

Attributed to: Denborough (2002), Lefevre (2004), and Speedy (2005)

Salient Features

The writing of Denborough and Speedy inspires this technique of listening for lyrical material. The beauty of this method is that the lyrics come directly from clients’ conversations with the therapist without them thinking of purposefully constructing poetic language.

Clinical Uses

This method of recording the way clients use language may help them understand and gain insight into the kinds of messages they are expressing both to themselves and others. Clients and therapists may gain insight into clients’

worldviews through using this technique. The act of recording clients’ words

gives both client and therapist a document on which to reflect, both for

examination of the here and now, as well as a record of self-expression to which

later ideas and thoughts may be compared. Such comparisons may indicate

progress and growth in cognitive and behavioural functioning.

Client Prerequisites

Clients must be verbal and willing to explore their issues through talk therapy. Clients need to give permission to the therapist to record their words in written form for the purposes of constructing song lyrics. Consent for participation in the co-creative process must be given.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to listen for words or phrases that are of particular significance in regards to the clients’ narratives. Speedy (2005) suggests listening for the ‘talk that sings’, that being the use of metaphors, similes, or other phrases that have depth of meaning. Speedy writes that “poetic language speaks to that which is not fixed or known and that which ‘moves or escapes’ and appears to defy the confines of conventional language” (2005, p. 285). The therapist can recognize such use of language and record it on a note pad during the session. The collected phrases can then be incorporated into reflections and summary statements, with the suggestion that they be used as lyrical content in songwriting. The therapist can then facilitate the process of having clients organize the recorded phrases in a manner that makes sense to them.

Lyrical formats can be free form, where the lines of the lyrics flow like a linear poem, or they can follow a standard song format consisting of verses, a repeating chorus, with the optional inclusion of a bridge section.

Goals

1. To help clients organize and become aware of their thoughts and beliefs.

2. To validate clients’ narratives.

3. To record clients’ language in a permanent expressive form that can act as a

component of assessment and measure of progress.

4. To build the relationship between the client and therapist.

5. To participate in an enjoyable co-creative experience.

Media and Roles

As this is a preliminary process of songwriting, the media used and the

roles are quite simple. After clients have given permission to record what they

have said, the therapist simply conducts the therapy session in his or her usual

manner while writing down key phrases that the clients share. Therapists may

want to keep these phrases separate from any usual notes they typically record

so that they can be presented in an orderly manner to clients when the work of

lyric writing begins.

The therapist’s role is to listen and record the clients’ key phrases or

words verbatim. The clients’ role is to organize what the therapist has recorded in

a manner that makes lyrical and logical sense to them. In the co-creation of the

lyrics, the therapist may suggest options in formatting the material so that it easily

conforms to a musical context later on. However, Denborough (2002) cautions

that therapists must keep themselves de-centered in the process of co-creating songs, so that the client and the client’s issues remain the focus of therapy.

Format

The format of a session that includes this style of lyrical composition is that of a talk therapy session. The only difference between this session and a

regular talk therapy session is that one component of it will be a reflection on the words that clients have said, and the use of these words to construct lyrics for a song or songs. Later in the session, or at subsequent sessions, the focus may be changed to the process of composing the music for the lyrics. At that point the therapist will want to review the options for writing music as outlined later in this guide.

Preparation Required

Obtain informed consent from clients. Have adequate paper available as well as pens and pencils. The use of a flipchart is optional if it will facilitate the co-creative process.

Procedures

As clients share their thoughts, feelings and beliefs in talking with the therapist, the therapist writes down some of the clients’ words verbatim. These words and phrases are reflected back to clients, and they are used as the raw materials for writing lyrics. Throughout the process of writing the lyrics and upon completion, there will be many opportunities to reflect and further explore the meaning that clients attribute to their words (Dalton & Krout, 2005). The construction of lyrics gives clients and therapists golden opportunities to gain insight and understanding, thus debriefing the process of writing and the content of the finished product is recommended.

Once the lyrics are finished, copies should be made with consent. One copy is filed, and the original is given to the client. This process of documentation assures that the song lyrics will not be lost and that the client has the opportunity

to refine the lyrics as homework if desired. Clients may dictate what is done with the rough notes that were initially taken to record key phrases. It might be common to include these as session notes and treat them accordingly, or shred them. Follow your or your agencies standard procedures for notes taken in the session.

If the song has been finished, then other options exist for recording it; however both the therapist and client need to be aware of any ethical concerns regarding audio recordings. Further information is provided in the ethics section of this guide.

Data Interpretation

The lyrics that clients write are “more intimate, more succinct, and often present a distillation of meanings that surprises and heartens people, when it emanates from the therapeutic domain” (Speedy, 2005, p. 286). Interpretation of the lyrics should be a cooperative process between client and therapist so that misunderstandings are minimized. Lyrics and poetry, in fact most artistic expressions, are evaluated through subjective interpretations. That being the case, it is important that therapists do not ascribe their own meanings to the lyrics and words of their clients, but rather allow clients to define what they mean by the words they have expressed and arranged (Walker, 1995). These meanings should be the primary interpretations recorded in session notes, with any subjective interpretations made by therapists clearly identified as such.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

It is essential that a trusting relationship exist between the client and therapist. This includes qualities of a positive working alliance (Bordin, 1979) and a warm, accepting and non-judgmental atmosphere demonstrated in the personality of the therapist and the context in which therapy occurs (Raskin &

Rogers, 2000). As the expression of self and creation of expressive art forms requires that clients take some risks, a positive and supportive relationship and environment is essential in facilitating the songwriting process.

Title: Brainstorming for Words Through Thought Listing and Cognitive Mapping.

Attributed to: Hiebert (1996), adapted by John Downes.

Salient Features

Hiebert presents the techniques of thought listing and cognitive mapping as a means of informal assessment. The fact that these techniques encourage clients to brainstorm for words, group related words and issues together, and label themes, makes this technique a valuable resource for songwriting. The raw material for songwriting emerges through the brainstorming and organizing process.

Clinical Uses

This technique can be used for assessment purposes as well as for

tracking progress. Generally it also is an effective means of having clients

contribute to the songwriting process in a non-threatening manner due to the

level of participation required.

Client Prerequisites

Clients must be verbal and willing to participate in this task. Informed

consent should be obtained after the therapist explains the full implications of the

exercise.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to facilitate the thought listing process by asking open

questions that will encourage clients to write lists of related words. All client input

must be received in a non-judgmental and accepting manner. The ability to ask

follow-up questions that encourage clients to explore their issues in more depth is helpful.

Goals

1. To provide the raw material for the construction of song lyrics.

2. To provide useful information for pre- and post-assessment of client change and progress.

3. To document current perceptions and worldview, as well as changes in both.

4. To provide a fun yet insight-oriented exercise for clients and therapists.

Media and Roles

Hiebert (1996) suggests using paper and pens/pencils and sticky notes.

Poster board, a flip chart, or a white board may also be beneficial. The role of the therapist is to explain the exercise to clients and get their informed consent to participate, ask a question that will focus clients on one issue, time the clients as they list their thoughts and words, and facilitate the overall process. The role of the clients is to provide informed consent, write down their responses to the therapist’s questions, and organize their thoughts in a manner that makes sense to them.

Format

This activity is done as an exercise within the context of a music therapy or talk therapy session. It is an activity for an individual client, but may be adapted for group work if all group members can relate to the thematic question.

Preparation Required

The following materials are required: pens, pencils, a writing tablet or loose-leaf paper, sticky notes (Post-It notes – perhaps in a variety of colours), a clock or watch, and a large sheet of paper or poster board. Clients may require a comfortable writing surface.

Procedures

The first step in this exercise is the formulation of a meaningful, goal- directed question. The therapist needs to prepare a few questions ahead of time.

These questions should be based on the issues that have been raised by the client either during the session or in previous sessions. Closed questions will not be useful since they can be answered with either a yes or no, or strictly factual data. Strive to make the question an open question or a declarative probe.

Examples are: “What are your values in regards to relationships”? Or “List all the qualities and associations you have with the word relationship”. It is important that the therapist and client agree on the focus of the exercise and the wording of the question.

The next step is to time clients while they free-associate and write down as many words or phrases in response to the question as possible within a two- minute time period. Hiebert (1996) states that “Imposing a time limit tends to give a more accurate picture of what the client really thinks, rather than the “party line” on the topic” (p. 5). Following the generation of words, clients can transfer the words to sticky notes and then arrange them on a poster board. Those words and phrases that are closely related can be grouped together, and those that are less related can be placed further apart. As this process unfolds, patterns will

reveal themselves and circles may be drawn around groups of ideas that may be labeled by clients as values, feelings, thoughts, images or issues. The process of cognitive mapping is designed to help clients understand their own thoughts and how they are organized. As a means of lyrical generation, cognitive mapping offers a non-threatening means of generating words and ideas that can be explored and expanded upon. The exercise itself may reveal poetic use of words and metaphors, or the discussion of the exercise may reveal the same.

After the exercise and during the discussion, the therapist may follow the procedures of Listening for the Lyrical in this guide, and work toward constructing lyrics from the material generated through the thought listing and cognitive mapping. The therapist can facilitate the process of lyric writing, but must be respectful of clients’ interpretations of their own thoughts and the way they choose to organize them in a lyrical structure.

See the procedures section of Listening for the Lyrical in this guide for more instructions in regards to writing lyrics, copying the material and recording it.

Data Interpretation

As a creative means of generating germinal thoughts and phrases for lyrical creation, the data produced by this exercise is manipulated and ascribed meaning by the clients themselves. However, Hiebert (1996) notes that the cognitive map can be a useful tool in assessment since it visually represents a record of clients’ thoughts and the organization of these thoughts, at a point in time. At different points in the therapeutic process or prior to termination of

therapy, repeating the thought listing and cognitive mapping exercise may

provide an indication of progress that has been obtained as a result of therapy.

One needs to continue to empower clients during this evaluation process as well

by having them interpret their own data. Any conclusions drawn by the therapist

should be recorded in tentative language unless confirmation has been received

from clients.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

A therapeutic relationship needs to be established prior to beginning this

exercise. Therapists may want to assure clients that there are no right or wrong

answers in this activity. In addition, the reason for timing the thought listing part

of this exercise should be explained so that clients do not experience stress. The

therapist must remember to facilitate the process, but refrain from giving input

that might impose his or her own personality and perspectives on the resulting

lyrics.

Therapists may facilitate an adaptation of this exercise in a group format.

Such an adaptation would require clear instructions on how group members will

contribute to the thought listing activity. Group-based variations may ask

participants to verbally give words or phrases in turns, or all group members

could write their responses as if they were participating as individuals. They could contribute to the group songwriting process by sharing selected words and phrases from their lists. The therapist could then facilitate the process of creating the map and organizing ideas along with the group.

Title: Filling in the Blanks

Attributed to: Unknown origin labeled as cloze procedure by Curtis (2000),

Freed (1987) and Walker (1995). Used by Ficken (1976) as the first step of approximation toward songwriting.

Salient Features

This form of lyric writing begins with a set structure of lead-in words that represent an incomplete idea that can be completed by clients. The advantages of having a structure are that music can be pre-composed to accommodate the input of the words, and the therapist can guide clients toward specific areas of expression that are oriented to the goals of therapy. Goldstein (1990) uses a 12- bar blues format of music along with simple lead-in lines that focus clients on the expression of feelings. The lines of her blues song are: “For some reason I’m feeling ______. I think tomorrow I’ll feel ______”

(repeat) (Goldstein, 1990, p. 122). Two concluding lines are then left to clients to fill in according to the structure of the next five bars of music. For further explanation of Blues format, see Blues Songwriting later in this guide.

Clinical Uses

Goldstein (1990) used this method as part of her assessment for hopelessness in depressed adolescents. She found that this method could “elicit verbal expressions of future expectations through a musical form of self- expression” (p. 117).

In music therapy, the fill-in-the-blank method of lyrical contribution is also termed lined-out singing. It can be used to encourage verbal self-expression for

those who have difficulty with this domain of functioning as well as those who are reticent. As mentioned earlier, the technique allows therapists to guide clients, yet still allows clients the flexibility to complete the lines with content that has personal meaning. Since this is the case, the content may provide points of insight for clients and therapists as well as rich content for further therapeutic exploration.

Client Prerequisites

Verbal ability will be useful, however this exercise also allows people who cannot use their voice to participate and express themselves. The lead-in lines can be presented in written form on a song sheet, and clients can simply write their responses in the blanks provided. For those clients who are non-verbal and lack writing skills, they can use pictures from magazines to express their ideas and the therapist can fill in the blanks with words, then confirm the appropriateness of the words with their clients.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to construct lead-in lines that are goal-directed and aligned with the purpose of the therapy sessions. Familiarity with common song styles and the ability to sing or play in these styles is useful. Sensitivity to the facilitation process is essential as therapists may find themselves having to guide clients and encourage them to give meaningful responses. Children may often give answers that do not make sense, or they may approach the project with a sense of silly fun. If the work of therapy is serious, therapists may desire serious responses. If this is the case, it may be beneficial to do a silly version and a

serious version of the song so that some balance is achieved between the two agendas. With adults, therapists may want to encourage brainstorming for the content of each blank to be filled in, and allow clients to choose the response that they feel is most appropriate.

Goals

1. To complete a song that is an accurate reflection of clients’ thoughts and feelings.

2. To assess clients and measure their progress over time.

3. To engage clients in the process of songwriting in a non-threatening and easily approached manner.

4. To contribute to a trusting client/therapist relationship through the use of a fun activity.

Media and Roles

The media required is a standard song format of some type, such as a blues song structure, a well-known melody in which the words can be adapted, or a therapist-composed song structure. Although songs can be performed acappella (without accompaniment), using a musical instrument to accompany the singing of the song is most enjoyable and helps provide some supportive structure and motivation.

The role of the therapist is to facilitate the process of writing or the sharing of verbal input by the client. In some cases, such as mentioned above, boundaries may need to be set or flexibility may need to be provided to clients.

Clients are responsible for providing the content to fill in the blanks in whatever form of expression they are comfortable with.

Format

This songwriting activity can be part of an individual or group music therapy or talk therapy session, or may be given as homework. The song structure that is used in the activity can vary, but it should be something that appeals to clients given their age and culture. Blues, rap, nursery rhymes/songs, hymns, and popular music can all provide the musical component and structure for this activity. Musical forms composed by the therapist are also appropriate.

Preparation Required

A song sheet with the lead-in lines printed on it and enough space for clients to fill in the blanks is needed. A few copies should be made so that clients can complete more than one song if desired. Therapists will need to prepare the musical part of this activity in advance so that the song can be performed when it is completed.

Procedures

Introduce the concept of filling in the blank in song lyrics. Therapists may want to explain that this is a fairly easy process, and give an example by singing the last line of “Happy birthday to _____”, and note how most clients will complete the phrase due to needing some sense of closure.

Explain the rationale behind the activity of fill-in-the-blank songwriting. The structure of the activity provides some focus on a topic of therapy (e.g., self- expression, feelings, defining goals, etc.). Obtain consent to participate in the

activity from the client. Therapists may wish to decide if they want to encourage clients to give thoughtful and considered responses, or just say or write the first thing that comes into their minds. The goals of therapy and the style of the therapist may influence this choice.

Another choice to make is to decide if clients will fill in the blanks by writing their responses or giving verbal responses that the therapist records on the sheet. In some cases the therapist may design the activity so that responses given in a group are not written down, but are given during the performance of the song. This encourages clients to think on their feet and give unedited responses.

After the above choices and design considerations have been made, the process of completing the lyrics can begin, followed by performance of the song and discussion of the responses. The song may reveal new issues to explore with clients.

Examples – by John Downes, to original music.

Title: Hey, Hey, Hey

Hey, hey, hey, there’s a guy/gal named ______

And she’s a ______(word or phrase to describe self)

Hey, hey, hey, and this gal named _____, is going to tell us something that’s true.

She says that she likes ______

She says she dislikes ______

She says she wishes for ______

She told us her truth. What else could she do?

Title: How Long Does This Journey Go On

I'm looking for ______

I'm reaching ______

I'm learning to ______

I'm listening for ______

I'm hoping to ______

I'm waiting for ______

I'm planning ______

I'm running ______

I'm wishing ______

I'm chasing ______

I'm avoiding ______

I'm taking______

How long does this journey go on?

Example: Go Tell It To (to the tune of Go Tell It On the Mountain – traditional)

Go tell it to ______

Going to tell that ______

Go tell it to ______

Because ______

Data Interpretation

Therapists may be tempted to draw conclusions from the input that clients give to this exercise, but this process of exploring the meaning behind the words should be done in cooperation with clients so that the conclusions are as accurate as possible. As with most writing and communication, meaning can be subjective. The safest means of recording data is to use the clients’ words verbatim when taking session notes, and indicate when therapists are recording their own interpretations, opinions or questions regarding the content of the song lyrics.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

Therapists will need to decide how they will implement this songwriting procedure according to the kind of relationship they have with clients, the relationship they have with a group, and the relationships the group members have with one another, as well as the developmental level of the group or individual. Such considerations will dictate whether clients write their own content on the song sheet, give verbal input, have time to consider their responses, or are asked to respond in the moment. Above all, therapists need to create a safe space for participation in this project so that it is a positive experience for clients.

This style of lyric writing is a stepping stone to less structured formats, so success in this process may lead to more advanced work later on.

Title: Adding a New Verse

Attributed to: Ficken (1976), Freed (1987), Silber and Jozef (1995)

Salient Features

This style of songwriting uses a pre-existing song as the basis for writing

a new verse that is a reflection of a client’s thoughts and feelings. Using songs

that have meaning for clients may be beneficial in that the clients have already

established a relationship to the words and music of the song. Often recordings

of the song are available, and therefore they can be played in the session.

Sharing a favorite song with the therapist may be another way of building

therapeutic rapport in the session.

Clinical Uses

Composing additional verses to pre-existing songs allows clients to

expand on the original content of the song, thus making it more personal and

reflective of their own issues. These songs can be used to explore and provide a voice or container for clients’ issues, problems, and feelings, or provide messages of support and motivation for change.

The fact that the song is already written and can be adapted allows the process of songwriting to be easy and takes up less time that writing an original composition.

Client Prerequisites

Clients will need to have a few favorite songs that they relate to on some level, whether it is an expression of their thoughts or feelings. Clients need to be fully verbal, but do not necessarily need to have reading or writing skills.

Therapist Skills

Being able to perform the song that clients choose for this activity is an asset. Sheet music is often available for popular songs, and the Internet provides resources for obtaining lyrics and the chords for songs as well. For those who cannot play an instrument, midi files for many well-known songs are available on various web sites. Midi files play as synthesized sound files through a computer’s sound card and speakers. Obtaining a midi file is often as easy as doing a

Google search of the song title with the word “midi” after it. For example: The

Rose midi. After the song has been adapted, the therapist and client can sing the song together. Using a karaoke machine is another option, the benefits being better sounding accompaniment arrangements, and the ability to change the key to suit the singers’ voices.

Goals

1. Creative self-expression.

2. Building self-esteem.

3. Identifying issues as part of creating new song verses.

4. Participating in a meaningful and fun therapeutic activity.

5. Channeling thoughts and feelings into a concrete form that can safely hold the expression of thoughts and feelings.

Media and Roles

Media for this songwriting activity may include song sheets, paper and pencils, computer hardware, Internet access, instruments, a karaoke machine and a recording of the original song’s accompaniment tracks. The role of the

therapist is that of a facilitator. He or she should only give as much input as is required to help clients fit their words into the chosen musical format. Clients will choose appropriate songs to bring to session and will provide the lyrical ideas for the new verses.

Format

This activity can take place in an individual music therapy or talk therapy session format. It can be adapted for group work as well.

Preparation Required

Give clients the homework of choosing one or two songs to bring to the next week’s session, or discuss which songs might be appropriate, choose one, and then take a week to gather the required materials. Depending on what resources are available, therapists may need a karaoke machine and the song on CD or tape, the midi file, the original lyrics, the chords for the song, possibly a transposition of the chords to better suit the key needed for the therapist’s or client’s voice, instrument on which to play the song, and paper, pens or pencils.

Procedures

Introduce the songwriting activity along with a rationale for participation.

Obtain client consent. Given some understanding of clients’ issues, therapists may be able to suggest examples of songs that could have new verses (i.e., perhaps the song already has a chorus that has an appropriate theme such as

“Rise Again” by the Rankin Family). Hearing an example may help clients make their own choices. Often the most appropriate choices are those songs that resonate with clients already.

Once clients have made a choice, ask them to bring in a copy of the original song to share in the next session. Listening to the song begins the process of talking about what clients would like to add to the lyrics so they are a more personal reflection of their thoughts and feelings. Therapists facilitate the brainstorming process, but they must be sure that clients suggest the words that are used for the new verses.

Once the new verses are complete, use the chosen means of performance to sing the new song. Keep in mind that many clients may not feel comfortable with performance, especially if their voice is amplified through a karaoke machine. Therapists will need to adapt to the needs of their clients and be sure to maintain the clients’ sense of safety in the session. After some rehearsal, decisions can be made about recording the song for the client.

Data Interpretation

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

Therapists will need to facilitate the process of lyric writing and initial song

choice without impacting the activity with their own personalities and choices.

Therapists facilitate the songwriting process by giving examples and asking questions that help clients think about their thoughts and feelings that they would like to express. Therapists may need to give some guidance in regards to the length of lines that can be accommodated by the structure of the pre-existing song. The goal is to empower clients and give them as much control as possible.

When adapting this activity for group sessions, therapists need to facilitate the process of consensus. They also need to establish a process in which each member of the group has equal opportunities to contribute to the songwriting process.

Title: Song Parody

Attributed to: Suggested in Ficken (1976), Glassman (1991), and Roberts

(2006), however this is a common technique used for entertainment purposes. It can be used as a step toward independent songwriting.

Salient Features

When writing parodies of existing songs, the metrical rhythm and melody of the song act as a structure in which to substitute new words. The results can be anything from the ridiculous to the sublime.

Clinical Uses

This fast track to songwriting may allow clients to obtain songwriting

results quickly. The process is made easier by working with something familiar

yet adaptable. This songwriting procedure can be used to explore clients’ thought

and feelings, thus acting as a tool of therapeutic exploration, or it can be a fun

activity that helps break the ice and build relationships.

Client Prerequisites

Clients will need to understand the point of the activity as well as any

boundaries in regards to content. The needs will vary depending on the

developmental level of the participants. Youngsters often need some guidelines

as to what is appropriate for inclusion in a parody song, be it funny or serious in

nature.

Therapist Skills

Therapists will need to explain the purpose of the activity clearly, and

possibly set defined limits and boundaries in regards to what can be included in

the parody song. Knowledge of the original composition that is being parodied is useful, as this will guide how the words are adapted and fit into the existing music. An ability to perform or facilitate the performance of the parody song is required. The therapist should be familiar with the music of the original song in the form of sheet music, midi file, or karaoke recording.

Goals

1. Increasing the comfort level, skills and abilities needed for songwriting.

2. Participation in an enjoyable creative experience.

3. Increasing client/therapist or group rapport.

4. Providing an opportunity for insight and a focus for further discussion and creative work.

Media and Roles

The media used may include a CD/Mp3 player or tape deck used to listen to the original song. Instruments, a computer, or a karaoke machine may be used to provide accompaniment for the parody song.

Therapists may need to facilitate the parody process by providing examples (e.g., Weird Al is a master of parody, or use a self-written example).

Certain client populations will need to have appropriate boundaries set for them in terms of content. Clients should provide the content of the parody song lyrics.

Format

This activity can take place in an individual or group session. When doing this activity in a group, therapists must be aware of the group dynamics and

make sure that each group member has the opportunity to contribute. Having a system in place that ensures equitable participation may be helpful.

Preparation Required

Different preparation will take place depending on how this activity is implemented. A song sheet with the original lyrics will be needed, as will whatever accompaniment method is chosen. Groups may need to use white boards or a flip chart so that everyone can see the words. The group could also be asked to write individual verses, in which case each group member will need paper and a pen/pencil.

Procedures

One way to write a parody song is to take a song that is known by clients and remove the significant words from the lyrics. Each word that is removed is identified by its part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) and the number of syllables it has. Without showing the clients the song sheet with the missing words, the therapist asks for replacement words, such as a three-syllable verb

(e.g., quantify). Working through the song in this way can be an arduous task as clients try to think of words that have the correct number of syllables. Giving clients a reference sheet with lists of words that are categorized according to their part of speech is very helpful. Once the song is done it can be performed by the therapist, to the amusement and delight of the clients. This form of parody song is quite silly and almost guaranteed a laugh!

A more serious and client inclusive manner of writing a parody song is to take a song that clients know and write new verses and a chorus. Although Weird

Al Yankovic has already written a parody of Michael Jackson’s Bad, changing the title to Mad gives clients an opportunity to write about everything that makes them feel angry. Therapists should choose songs that are familiar to their client population. Clients can offer suggestions, but if they do, the therapist may need to take some time to prepare prior to beginning the parody task.

Data Interpretation

As with other songwriting activities, the responsibility for the interpretation of client input should be given to clients first so as to limit any misinterpretation.

The song parody, if done for the silly fun of it, may yield little in the way of data in relation to the lyrical content. However, therapists may want to take note of the data available through the observation of the process of writing. The process may reveal much in regards to how individuals or group members respond to the dynamics of the songwriting experience. What kind of content do they provide?

How is the content indicative of their thoughts, feelings and cognitive abilities?

How does their participation reflect on the roles they take in the group? Tracking such information may be useful in measuring progress in therapy.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

Therapists need to be aware that writing parody songs can be problematic if appropriate boundaries are not set at the beginning of the process. For some client populations this may mean setting restrictions on the topic of the parody and the use of appropriate language. A balance needs to be achieved between having fun and keeping things in control.

Title: Visual Art to Words

Attributed to: John Downes based on an idea presented by Eyre (2003).

Salient Features

This technique of songwriting begins with using visual art as a means of expression. It recognizes that many clients may express themselves more freely through visual art than through words.

Clinical Uses

This technique can be used with any client who is drawn to the mediums

of expressive visual art.

Client Prerequisites

Clients may require an interest in using visual art materials in the therapy

session, along with the fine motor control necessary for using art materials.

Adaptations can be made for those with limited use of their hands. For example,

clients could construct a collage by choosing pictures from magazines and giving

the therapist directions on where to place the pictures.

Therapist Skills

The therapist needs to be comfortable in facilitating visual art projects and

using the artwork as a focus for discussion and songwriting. Therapists need to

be sensitive to what they say about clients’ artwork. Judgmental statements

should be avoided (even positive ones like “That’s good”). Preference should be

given to questions of inquiry and declarative probes (e.g., “Tell me about your

painting”).

Goals

1. Using artwork as a means of communication.

2. Using art as a non-threatening form of self-expression.

3. Using artwork to facilitate the identification of themes and issues in a client’s life.

4. Using artwork as a focus of discussion and client narrative.

5. Using artwork as a step toward the process of writing song lyrics.

6. Using art as a means to build rapport between the client and therapist.

Media and Roles

The art materials that are used can be adapted to suit the client’s needs and the limits of the environment. Some options include: sketching with pencil and paper, using crayons, pastels or paint, creating a collage, working with clay or play dough, creating a sand tray or a diorama.

The role of the therapist is to provide the materials as well as the focus for the creative artwork. Therapists may introduce the art by allowing clients to express themselves freely, trusting that a theme will emerge through the process.

Therapists may also want to offer some direction by giving a suggestion such as to draw a favorite memory of being with a parent who has recently died.

The role of the client is to simply create in the chosen medium, given the instructions that have been received. After the artwork is finished, clients may be able to supply a narrative that explains the artwork, or even the process of making it. The debriefing of the creative process and the resulting work will provide material for later songwriting activities.

Format

Creation of artwork may take place in individual counselling or in a group.

The therapist will need to decide if the debriefing process will be more productive in individual or group counselling sessions. Individual sessions allow much greater freedom of expression without the time constraints that are typically experienced when sharing with a group of people who also want to debrief their experience.

Preparation Required

Whatever art materials will be used in the session need to be prepared in advance. Therapists may also need to prepare a rationale and introduction to using visual art as a means of creative self-expression. Many people believe that they cannot draw, and this consideration and how to cope with this argument needs to be handled with care and sensitivity. Therapists should also be prepared to make their own artwork, especially in individual sessions. Having therapists participate and be involved in their own artwork will take away the pressure of being observed for clients. In group settings this is less of an issue.

Procedures

Therapists need to choose the medium for visual art expression, gather all the needed materials and prepare the workspace as necessary. Clients may give some indication of their preferred medium, so therapists should solicit this information a week in advance. The therapist should decide ahead of time whether the session has a particular focus or not. If there is a focus, then the therapist instructs clients in regards to the theme of the artwork, or the question it

might answer. If instructions are required in regards to the artistic medium, then

they should be given prior to the materials being presented.

After the artwork is finished, words are collected for the songwriting

process during the debriefing period. This can begin when the client responds to

the probe “Tell me about your artwork”. It may be helpful to take notes of the

client’s narrative explanations; therefore, therapist should have permission to

write down the client’s responses.

Once the words have been gathered, the client and therapist can begin a

co-creative process of arranging them into a lyrical format. Options for writing the

music include using a pre-existing song and changing the lyrics, or going through

the process of writing an original song. Techniques for writing music are

presented later in this guide.

Data Interpretation

The interpretation of the artwork as data comes directly from clients as

they explain the content of their art and the process of making it. The therapist

can facilitate this process by using open questions and declarative probes.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

A non-judgmental acceptance of client’s artwork is essential for maintaining the working alliance and the clients’ feelings of safety. When working with groups, the therapist must set a standard for all group members, and remind group members of accepting each other’s efforts with enthusiasm and care.

Title: Magnetic Poetry to Lyrics

Attributed to: Unknown, but a former music therapy intern first introduced me to this method of poetry writing she termed “Atomic poetry”. I have expanded on this idea as a means of creating song lyrics.

Salient Features

Often it is difficult for clients to think of words to express their thoughts and feelings. However, when given the words to use, wonderful and meaningful poetry can result. Therapists can lead clients in their therapy by providing a specifically chosen group of words that may center on a particular theme and feeling words, or the words can be generated by chance by flipping through a dictionary. “A song may be considered a poem set to music” (Mayers, 1995, p.

495). Writing poetry can be a first step in the process of composing a song.

Clinical Uses

This method of lyric/poetry creation can be used with any client who can read and organize words into meaningful phrases. When therapists choose the field of words that is presented to the clients, they can do so with some intention.

For example, the words may touch of themes that represent dichotomies such as happiness versus depression, life versus death, holding on versus letting go. As this is possible, magnetic poetry may be useful in assessment and measuring progress toward treatment goals.

Client Prerequisites

Clients who use this method of lyrical generation need to be able to read, write, and organize words in a meaningful and syntactical manner. Clients need to be willing to explore this method of creative expression.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to facilitate the process by providing the rationale and instructions for the activity. Helping clients focus on a theme may also be required, although clients can also be given the opportunity to freely construct the lyrics/poetry to discover their own theme. Using appropriate open questions and declarative probes will help clients explore the meaning behind their words.

Goals

1. To facilitate the writing of poetry/lyrics by using a set field of word choices.

2. To facilitate self-expression through communication of feelings, thoughts and meaning.

3. To generate lyrical ideas for a songwriting activity.

Media and Roles

Fridge magnet poetry kits may provide a suitable collection of words to use for this exercise. An on-line version can be seen at: http://www.magneticpoetry.com/magnet/ . This page allows viewers to arrange thematic words into poetry. Therapists may wish to provide the words on printed cards that can display a larger typeface for people who have difficulty with vision or fine motor control. The completed poem/lyrics should be written down and copied for the records and the client.

The therapist’s role is to provide the materials and an explanation of how to use them. The client’s role is to use the materials as a means of creative self- expression. The therapist and counsellor can set the lyrics to music using a method that is presented later in this guide.

Format

This songwriting technique will work best in an individual session when self-expression and meaning-making are the focus of therapy. It can be adapted for group use, but its purpose will change to one of building group cohesion and rapport rather than gaining insight.

Preparation Required

The therapist needs to prepare the field of words that will be used by clients. Actual fridge magnet pieces can be used, or lists of words can be chosen randomly, from a dictionary, or they can be based on a theme. It is very important that thought goes into the words that are chosen to include in the field of words.

Therapists need to know when it is appropriate to include certain words or themes, and when it is inappropriate. Clients’ age, developmental characteristics, cognitive abilities, knowledge of language, culture, and life issues will affect the choices of words for inclusion in the field of words. As mentioned earlier, the size of the word cards is another consideration. Laminating the word cards will protect them so that they may be used repeatedly.

Procedures

Explain the concept of magnetic poetry for song lyric creation. The therapist may choose not to mention songwriting until after the lyrics are created

so that clients do not attempt the activity with the goal of writing a song. Doing so may prove frustrating because it might not conform to song forms with which the clients are familiar.

Present the word cards spread out on a table, or the fridge magnets on a metal surface. Ask clients to arrange as many words as they wish into lines that make sense to them. Emphasize that there is no right or wrong way of completing the exercise.

Once the poem is complete, therapists can recite it out loud, or ask the client to do so. Using open questions and declarative probes may encourage clients to explain the meaning behind their words. If lyric writing has been the point of the exercise from the beginning, then begin the songwriting process by adding musical accompaniment and melody using techniques outlined later in this guide. If it has not been suggested earlier, therapists can ask clients whether they would be interested in setting their text to music.

Data Interpretation

As with previous examples of lyric writing presented in this guide, clients should be the main interpreters of the meaning behind their creative process and content. If this method is used frequently, therapists may begin to see patterns emerge. When this is the case, it may be beneficial to point them out to clients and ask for their opinions of these observations.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

As with other forms of lyric writing, the therapist provides the materials or opportunity, then steps out of the way so the clients’ creative process can take place.

Title: Rap and Rhyming Dictionaries

Attributed to: Walker (1995), adapted by John Downes.

Salient Features

This approach to lyric writing uses the influence of rapping and a rhyming dictionary to inspire clients to create their narratives.

Clinical Uses

This style of music may appeal to some younger clients because of its

popularity and ease of creation. Rap music can express many emotions and

thoughts. For those young clients who are uncomfortable with singing, rap is

often less threatening and easier to perform.

Client Prerequisites

Clients who wish to perform their rap will need to have good verbal skills

and the ability to speak in rhythm. A basic understanding of language and

rhymes is necessary, as well as a desire to tell a meaningful story through the

rap lyrics, rather than creating a less meaningful collection of rhyming couplets.

Therapist Skills

Therapist benefit from having some experience with writing and

performing rap lyrics to a rhythm track. As with any style of writing or

performance, having some comfort level with the medium will make implementing

the form with clients that much easier. A rhyming dictionary is used to facilitate

the process of writing for the client. Therapists need to familiarize themselves

with the use of rhyming dictionaries as they are organized differently than

standard dictionaries. An easier form of rhyming dictionary is available on the

Internet. The address is given in the resources section of this guide.

Goals

1. To facilitate the expression of thoughts and feelings by using rap as a style of expression.

2. To build rapport between the client and therapist.

3. To build self-esteem and self-expression skills.

Media and Roles

Rap is a form of music that is influenced by rhythm. The rhythm of percussion sounds and a bass line are particularly important as the two provide a background structure on which the rap lyrics are built. Having percussion and bass tracks playing help inspire the creation of rap lyrics, and the overall tone of the lyrical content. As this is the case, keyboard instruments that play rap rhythm patterns (e.g., Yamaha DJX), musical software with rap or hip-hop rhythm programs (e.g., Sony Acid Music), or live instruments played with some skill can provide the musical influence that is so important to this genre of music.

The role of the therapist is to introduce the genre of writing rap by demonstrating some knowledge of the form and a degree of comfort in its creation and performance. The idea behind having these skills is to demonstrate the ease with which anyone can participate in rap. The therapist may also suggest thematic or topical ideas to write about, given some knowledge of the issues clients are facing in their lives. Therapists may also help in the use of the rhyming dictionary.

The role of clients is to provide the content of the rap lyrics while asking for any help they may need in finding rhyming words and fitting the lyrics into the rhythm they have chosen.

Format

This activity can be done in individual or group sessions. As with most groups, writing a rap in a group presents the challenges of everyone participating equally and everyone’s voices being heard and accepted by the group. If group writing is pursued, then the therapist needs to organize the group in such a way so that turns are taken and everyone has ideas that are included in the lyrics.

The norms of the brainstorming process will need to be outlined and the group will need to understand and agree to participate in the process of cooperatively creating the rap.

Individual work is easier in that there is only one person telling a story, and thus a linear narrative can result. As with other forms of lyric writing, the therapist can facilitate the process, but must be aware that the client’s voice needs to remain the focus of the activity.

Preparation Required

The therapist needs to prepare a rationale for using rap as a creative form of self-expression as well as a brief demonstration of the ease of rapping. Talking in rhythm to a beat track, therapists can demonstrate rapping by performing something as simple as a nursery rhyme (e.g., Mary Had A Little Lamb), or a few lines from a rap song.

As with other lyric writing processes, the lyrical ideas should come from things that clients have shared in session. Therapists may want to offer some suggestions for rap topics while reflecting on the thoughts and feelings that clients have expressed. Often clients do not know where to start, so offering a beginning line may help, as would the use of various other techniques such as filling in the blanks. Depending on the needs of the clients, therapists can offer a semi-structured activity, or one in which the clients provide all the content.

Therapists should review how to use a rhyming dictionary, as this can aid in the expression of ideas. Not knowing how to look up rhymes will make the process very slow. Finally, pens and paper are needed to write down the lyrics, and appropriate instrumentation is needed to provide rhythm tracks. The media and roles section above provides information on this topic.

Procedures

Therapists can follow the preparation guidelines printed above. Clients can then choose a rhythm that they respond to on a keyboard or computer program. It might be helpful to limit the choices if there are too many or choosing a rhythm will be a long process. Therapists then discuss the issues that have been raised during previous session work with the clients and identify one that can be expanded on as a story or form of self-expression in the rap genre. If the clients are having difficulty beginning, therapists can offer a suggested opening line for them to complete. This process is continued until the clients think that the rap is finished. Clients may construct forms that follow a verse-chorus format, or they may use through-composition in which there are no defined structures within

the lyrical form. When the lyrics are complete, the rhythm track is used to support the performance of the rap lyrics. It will take some rehearsal to find how the words fit into the rhythm. Clients may want to record their creation once it is finished.

Data Interpretation

As with previous examples of lyric writing presented in this guide, clients should be the main interpreters of the meaning behind their creative process and content. If this method of lyric creation is used frequently, therapists may begin to observe patterns and indicators of change. These observations should be discussed with clients to obtain their input regarding the meaning they ascribe to what has been observed.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

As with any other written form, the words, thoughts and feelings that are presented must be those of the clients. When working with groups the therapist will need to set standards for participation and boundaries regarding the norms of behaviour.

Title: Word Association Lyrics

Attributed to: John Downes

Salient Features

Playing a word association game may be a starting point for both discussion and lyric writing. Therapists can choose words that relate to client issues for their clients to associate to, or a generation program can be used, such as the one found at http://www.wordassociation.org/

Clinical Uses

This approach to generating words is a fun way of finding a few germinal

ideas for lyric writing. It may help break a tendency for reticence or when ideas

are no longer flowing while writing song lyrics.

Client Prerequisites

Clients need to be verbal and able to respond without thinking too much.

Clients need to be relaxed and able to share whatever comes to mind in

response to the stimulus words.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to recognize the skills, abilities and deficits that clients

may have with language. Choices for stimulus words need to provide some focus

on a theme that has emerged in sessions or during songwriting. Therapists can

use open questions and declarative probes to help clients expand on their ideas

when debriefing the word association lists. Likely each word that clients give as

an association to the stimulus word has a story behind it. It is the story that may

be used for lyrical material.

Goals

1. To facilitate the generation of words that may help clients write lyrics for songs.

2. To help identify and clarify some issues raised in therapy or songwriting.

3. To participate in a fun activity that may increase creative responses.

Media and Roles

A prepared word list is needed for this activity, or a visit to the word association game web site. Writing materials are required for this activity.

The role of the therapist is to provide the stimulus word list and help clients expand on their associations with more complex lyrical ideas. The role of clients is to respond to the stimulus words and the therapist’s questions so that new ideas can be produced for song lyrics.

Format

This activity can be used in individual or group settings. When working with groups it would likely be best to do the activity by taking turns. In either setting the stimulus words and association words must be recorded so they can be used for reflection later on.

Preparation Required

Therapists will need to prepare a theme-based stimulus word list, or find an appropriate web site that generates random words. All the words need to be recorded on paper, a flip chart, or a white board.

Procedures

Follow the procedures as outlined above. Therapists can discuss the completed list with clients and obtain greater depth of meaning for each association. Clients are then encouraged to use any interesting or significant outcomes from this exercise in their songwriting work.

Data Interpretation

As mentioned previously in this guide, clients should be the main interpreters of their own data. Their interpretations are the stories that result from explaining their word associations to the therapist.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

It may seem for some clients that this activity has a power differential between the client and therapist due to the therapist presenting the stimulus words. To counteract this, it might be fun and useful to reverse the roles and have clients present the stimulus words and the therapist respond. The client’s questions, and the therapist’s responses may help level the playing field as well as build the therapeutic relationship. The same methods can be applied to groups.

Title: Dream and Daydream Imagery Lyrics

Attributed to: John Downes

Salient Features

This lyric writing approach depends on the recounting of dreams or the facilitation of waking dreamlike states.

Clinical Uses

This method of lyric writing may appeal to clients who enjoy recounting their dreams, telling stories, or fantasizing in a relaxed state. For people who have difficulty when faced with the task of creating and writing lyrics or poetry, recounting a story from a dream may be an easier task.

Client Prerequisites

Clients need to be able to verbally share their dream stories, and they also need to have the ability to dream or create mental images in their mind’s eye.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need only listen to the dream story and write down some of the client’s words. The technique called Listening for the Lyrical in this guide provides further directions. Facilitation skills for guided fantasies through music and imagery are necessary if clients are to experience a waking dreamlike state during the session.

Goals

1. To provide imagery and stories for lyric writing.

2. To help identify issues, stories and metaphors that may help clients in their therapeutic process.

Media and Roles

When clients recount their dreams, therapists may write down some of the client’s words for use in lyric writing. When using guided fantasy techniques the therapist will need a recording of relaxing music, possibly a programmatic piece of music for the imagery section of the fantasy, and a pre-written relaxation script to both induce a relaxed state and end the exercise.

Format

This activity can take place in individual or group counselling sessions.

The challenges increase in a group setting, but adaptations can be made to the process to accommodate everyone in the group.

Preparation Required

Writing implements are needed. If using the guided fantasy technique for a waking dreamlike experience then the following materials are needed: A comfortable spot for clients to lie down or sit, relaxation music (e.g., Musical

Acupuncture by Janalea Hoffman, 1993), a recording of programmatic music

(e.g., The Moldau section of Ma Vlast by Smetena) or a suitable selection of instrumental music selected by the therapist, a prepared relaxation text (such as the one provided below). Therapists need to be prepared for clients’ emotional reactions to music and their imagery. Therapists need to understand the power of music to elicit emotional responses and memories. All music should be reviewed thoroughly prior to using it in session.

Procedures

To use dream imagery, all the therapist needs to due is ask clients to tell them a dream and pay attention to the words that clients use. These words can be recorded on paper, and therapists can ask questions to encourage clients to provide more detailed descriptions and ideas regarding the meanings of the dreams.

Facilitating the guided fantasy is more complex. First, explain the rationale behind participation in this exercise and explain the process, then obtain consent for participation from the client. The relaxation music is played at a suitable level of volume and the therapist begins reading the relaxation text. When it is time to begin the guided fantasy, change the recording to the programmatic music. Allow the client to visualize to the music in the relaxed state. When the piece is over, switch back to the relaxation music and complete the “after visualization” text.

When clients are ready, ask them to recall their experience and visualization, taking notes in the process. Finally, use the material for writing lyrics.

Relaxation Text Example by John Downes, MTA

You are going to relax, so begin by making yourself as comfortable as

possible. Put your hands on your lap, or by your side and close your eyes.

Concentrate on relaxing every muscle in your body. Starting at your toes and feet, release any tension there.

Continue to move the sense of relaxation up your legs as if a wave of

warm light was slowly lapping over your body causing you to let yourself become absorbed in it. Feel it moving further up you body. Your lower body is now totally relaxed. Take a deep breath and let it out with a sigh. Let your stomach and chest become free of all tension. Breathe deeply and let it out with a sigh.

Now the warm wave of light is moving up to your shoulders and has enveloped your arms. Let your shoulders and arms feel heavy and relaxed.

Give your body permission to relax.

Let your body feel so heavy and free from tension. Enjoy that feeling, because you are in control of it. If you feel any tension, find it in your mind and concentrate on relaxing the muscle. You have nothing else to do right now, so relax.

Take another deep breath and feel the calm enfold you. Now the warm wave of light is moving up through your neck. Relax your neck and feel the warm light move to the top of your head. Relax the muscles of your neck and scalp.

Feel the warm light slowly move on to your face. Relax your eyes and mouth.

Enjoy this total relaxation and feel its warmth.

Imagine the wave of warm light washing over you as a shallow wave would wash over your body if you were lying on the seashore. Feel it pass from your toes to your head and back down again. Feel the warm wave of light engulf your body, bringing you calmness, peacefulness, and total relaxation. Take a deep breath and let it out with a sigh. Remind yourself that you have nothing else to do right now.

Now you are ready to begin a daydream that is guided by a new piece of

music. As I change the music, picture yourself in a favorite place. Someplace where you feel safe and secure. This is the place where you can return to at any time during your fantasy. Now let the music take you on a journey. Remember that although the music is in the background, you are always in control and can always return to your favorite place.

(After fantasy "trip")

Feel yourself sensing your body being washed with waves of warm light.

Take a deep breath in and out. You are now fully aware of your relaxed body.

The tide of warm light gradually retreats back into the ocean of calm from which it came, leaving you feeling invigorated and ready to stretch your limbs.

Keep your eyes closed and take a deep breath and stretch if you want to. On the count of five through to one, you will find yourself feeling more and more alert.

You will then allow yourself to enjoy a few moments of quiet. 5,4,3,2,1. Open your eyes.

Data Interpretation

It is up to the clients to interpret and provide meaning for their own dreams and fantasies. Therapists can ask questions in an attempt to help provide clarity and understanding for both themselves and the clients.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

Creation of a safe space is paramount when either sharing dreams, or participating in relaxation exercises. Therapists need to allow clients to create their safe spaces when beginning a relaxation procedure. This activity may not suit some groups or individuals due to the vulnerable position a relaxed client is

in. Some people have difficulty remaining still and quiet; this can be quite disruptive for others in a group. Others will have difficulty trusting therapists or group members, and thus will not be able to relax or close their eyes. It is important for therapists to recognize these issues before even attempting this activity. Flexibility is also important, as is the option of allowing group members to sit out of the activity if they cannot participate. Therapists will want to avoid any power struggles with individuals who cannot relax or remain quiet as such conflict negates the ability to relax or have visions.

Title: Journaling and Lyrics

Attributed to: John Downes

Salient Features

This technique uses clients’ journals as source material for song lyrics.

Since people often write journals in the form of narrative, they offer a rich source of material that includes reflections on feelings, thoughts, experiences and often,

poetic language.

Clinical Uses

If clients are already journaling as part of their therapy, using their pre-

written materials as a source may make writing song lyrics that much easier.

Client Prerequisites

Clients must be journaling as either part of their therapy or as part of their

usual lifestyle habits. They must be willing to use their journals as source

materials for songwriting.

Therapist Skills

Therapists can educate clients in regards to what kinds of materials is

useful for songwriting. Therapists can facilitate the process of writing lyrics by

suggesting themes to explore, or styles of music to use, but the creation of lyrics

should be up to the clients themselves.

Goals

1. To write a song that is derived from journal material, thus sharing personal

thoughts and feelings in a socially accepted medium.

2. To use songwriting as a means of exploring issues that have been identified while writing a journal.

Media and Roles

The media used are the clients’ journal entries. The role of clients is to identify stories, thoughts, issues, feelings and poetic language from their journals that may be suitable for exploration in songwriting. The therapists’ role is to facilitate the writing process. Therapists help explore the journal materials by asking clients open questions and declarative probes.

Format

Given the personal nature of journals, this technique should be used only in individual sessions.

Preparation Required

Prior to using this technique, clients need to be journaling for some time so that there is a wealth of material to draw upon. Therapists will need to ask clients if they desire to use their journals for the purposes of writing lyrics to songs. Therapists will need to brief clients on the kinds of material they may want to look for in their journals.

Procedures

Follow the points of preparation as outlined above. Therapists may ask clients to review their journals for stories that are particularly significant. Clients should identify and write down all the feeling words, all the thinking words, and any use of poetic language (i.e., metaphor and other imagery) in those stories. If clients wish to write their journal story into song, then therapists can facilitate the

process by asking questions and taking note of the client’s use of language.

Clients are then encouraged to organize the words into a lyrical format that makes sense to them.

Data Interpretation

As with other forms of client writing, the clients themselves should be encouraged to analyze their own work and define its meaning. Counsellors can encourage this process by approaching the materials with a sense of caring, curiosity, and genuine interest.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

A high degree of trust is required for clients to share journal materials with their therapists. Such sharing should be honored, respected, and recognized by therapists. Therapists will have to create a safe place for clients in order for them to share journal material since this is often material that was meant to remain private. It may help to review confidentiality practices prior to working with this method.

Writing Music

As mentioned in the previous section on writing lyrics, lyrics and music can be created at the same time. The processes are separated in this guide so that various means of creating lyrics or music can be explained simply. Users of this guide may complete the lyric writing process and then refer to this section of the guide to review various means of creating musical forms. It is hoped that readers will be inspired to create their own means of facilitating the creation of music by reading the following ideas.

Title: Making Chord Choices With Cards

Attributed to: Unknown, adapted by John Downes

Salient Features

The music for songs can be constructed in a couple of ways. Some composers construct a pleasing chord progression first, and then compose their melodies to fit over the chord progression. Other composers create their melodies first, and then choose suitable chords to accompany the melody. This technique is an example of the former style of creation.

This technique allows clients to make chord choices that are guided by a therapist who has some knowledge of common chord progressions and practices of musical composition. This technique can be used with clients of various functioning levels due to its simplicity.

Clinical Uses

This technique can be used with a variety of client populations, as it is easy, yet provides satisfactory results. This technique can be used whenever songwriting is a part of a client’s treatment.

Client Prerequisites

Clients must be able to communicate choices in some manner. Verbal input is not necessary, as clients can communicate their choices with as little as an ability to eye-point, indicate yes or no, touch their choice, or give some other indication of their decision. Clients must be able to hear.

Therapist Skills

Therapists will need rudimentary knowledge of diatonic chords within a few key signatures, and knowledge of common chord progression structures.

Examples of chords and chord names are provided below.

Goals

1. To make choices that help construct a chord progression.

2. To increase self-esteem through the act of creativity.

3. To gives clients another means of creative self-expression.

4. To empower clients through choice making.

Media and Roles

The media used for this creative process are choice cards with chord names printed on them, and a means of playing the chord sounds using an instrument such as guitar, piano/keyboard, Autoharp, or Omnichord. The role of the therapist is to provide suitable choices for clients and help provide the aural

feedback of the choices using the instruments. The role of the client is to make the chord choices and possibly help play the instruments.

Format

Choosing chords for a song’s chord progression can be done in an individual or group setting. Taking turns will be part of the process if this is done in a group.

Preparation Required

Therapists need to make a decision regarding the key that will be used for songwriting. If therapists have the role of singing the completed song, then they will want to use a key in which they can sing comfortably. If clients will be singing the song, then therapists need to choose a key that will suit their voices. For the purposes of this explanation, the keys of C major and A minor are used. For further explanation of diatonic triads, simply type the term into Google. There is a wealth of music theory lessons available on the Internet.

Chord choices cards can be constructed using the diatonic triads of C major and A minor. The reason that two keys are given is that therapists can offer clients an initial choice on whether they want to compose a happy or a sad sounding song. These basic emotions are typically reflected through either major or minor keys in western music. The diatonic chords and their corresponding

Roman numeral for each key are presented below:

C major: C Dm Em F G7 Am Bdim C

I ii iii IV V7 vi vii I

A minor: Am Bdim C Dm E7 F G#dim Am

I iidim III iv V7 VI viidim I

The other thing that needs to be prepared is a means of aurally reflecting the choices that clients make. This can be done using any instrument that can play chord sounds. Therapists will need to rehearse their ability to play the chords on their chosen instrument. In some cases, clients can play the chords themselves. Keyboards and chord-based instruments like the Autoharp and

Omnichord make this task easier. Masking or colour-coding techniques that clearly isolate and identify the target chords on an instrument is helpful for both therapists and clients.

Procedures

Once clients have made the initial choice of happy (major key) or sad

(minor key) a starting point is identified. In the example above, a happy song will begin and end with the C chord, a sad song will begin and end on an A minor chord. To help clients construct chord progressions that make musical sense, therapists need to have some knowledge of chord progressions. Typing

“common chord progressions” into an Internet search engine such as Google will result in many music theory pages that give quick lessons with examples. With this knowledge, therapists can offer clients choices that will result in pleasing chord progressions. The chord progressions may be divided into sections for a chorus and verses, or follow a different format, depending on the style of music that is preferred.

Data Interpretation

Interpretation of the chord choices and the resulting chord progression should be left up to the client. Clients can be asked if they are pleased with the results, if they want to modify the chord progression, and how the progression makes them feel. The choice between major or minor keys may reflect basic moods with which clients identify, but such assumptions should be confirmed with clients themselves. Cultural influences may come into play in regards to interpretation of the moods expressed in music. For example, Hava Nagila is written in a minor key, but it is a song of great joy!

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

Emphasis should be placed on the clients’ creativity. They are the composers of the music, and the therapist is merely a facilitator of the process who helps clients make choices. Musical enculturation will play a large role in guiding clients with their choices. Their musical ears will tell them what makes sense. However, sometimes the choices may lead the progression into unrecognized patterns. If clients identify these as being pleasing to them, then therapists should respect their decisions.

Title: Making Note Choices

Attributed to: Lindberg (1995), adapted by John Downes.

Salient Features

In this technique, the melody of the song is composed prior to the chord progression. Having written lyrics may help guide the composition of a melody, but it is not strictly necessary as the song may consist of a melody without lyrics, or lyrics may be added after the melody is composed. To obtain a pleasing melody, therapists may choose to limit the options available to clients so that the melody stays within the confines of a musical key signature.

Clinical Uses

This technique can be used with a variety of client populations of various

cognitive and physical abilities. This technique can be used whenever

songwriting is a part of a client’s treatment.

Client Prerequisites

Clients must be able to hear and also indicate their choices in some

manner. Fine motor control might be necessary if note choices are being

indicated using an instrument.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to understand how clients can make choices and

facilitate this process. Therapists will need to record the choices that clients

make in a form that gives some permanency to the composition (i.e., writing

down the note names, scoring the melody, recording the notes on tape or

keyboard, etc.).

Goals

1. Creation of a melody as a part of a songwriting activity.

2. Empowering clients through choice-making and acceptance of their choices.

Media and Roles

The role of the client is to make creative choices of notes in order to compose a melody as part of a songwriting activity. The role of the therapist is to facilitate the client’s process by making the choosing of notes a fully accessible process.

The media for this activity can vary depending on the abilities of the client.

For example, some clients may choose to sing an original melody to the therapist who plays it back on an instrument and notates the melody or records it. Other clients may use a keyboard, xylophone, or other melodic instrument to choose notes in sequence. Still other clients may use cards with the note names on them to make their choices, or even cutout notes placed on a treble clef. Whatever medium is used, therapists can reflect the choices back to clients so that they can hear them, confirm their choices, or indicate that they wish to make changes.

Format

Melody writing is a time-consuming process that requires a great deal of patience. It can be made quicker if therapists limit the choices that are offered to clients. For example, only the notes of a particular key may be used for a melody, thus limiting the choices to just eight basic notes. A pentatonic scale may also simplify the process (removing the third and seventh notes of the major scale)

with the added bonus that any sequence in a pentatonic scale sounds pleasing to the ear.

Melody writing can be done in individual or group settings. Taking turns to make choices and contributions is essential in groups so that everyone is included in the process of writing the melody.

Preparation Required

What materials are needed will depend on the medium that is used to allow clients to make choices of notes for their melody. There are some suggestions in the Media and Roles section above.

Procedures

Choose the medium that clients will use to make note choices. Explain to the clients that melody is made up of a sequence of notes, and within the sequence notes are often repeated and are of varying length, thus creating rhythm patterns in the melodic phrases. Explain to clients that songs typically have repeated lines of melody with slightly different endings, and sections that may be repeated as choruses and verses. Including repetition in the creation of a melody shortens the process and also conforms to standard songwriting practices.

As clients make choices to create sequences of notes, stop the process every so often and play the melody that has been created so far. Ask clients to comment on the melody and invite them to make any suggestions for changes that they may have. Record the melody in written form and on tape, or on the sequencing recorder of a computer music program or keyboard. Be sure to have

a permanent record of the melody recorded prior to the end of the client’s session.

After the melody is complete, words can be written to it, or pre-written words can be sung to the melody. Some adjustments of the melody or the lyrics may be necessary so that accents of words are placed on the right syllables and the song flows well. The next step in the songwriting process is to add accompanying chords to the melody.

If the song has been written using a pentatonic scale, then the melody is easily harmonized with notes played from the same scale. For example, playing a perfect fifth (the first and fifth notes of the scale played together) under the melody will produce a harmonious drone sound, like that of a bagpipe.

Otherwise, a melody written in a major or minor key will suggest certain diatonic triads that will accompany it. Therapists can use their ears to tell which chord choice makes harmonic sense given the notes of the melody. So if a melody is written in the key of C major, the diatonic triads from the same key will harmonize the melody. For tips on how to add accompanying chords to a melody, use the search terms “harmonizing a melody” in an Internet search engine such as

Google.

Data Interpretation

Therapists may draw some conclusions regarding how the process of writing and the resulting melody reflects client functioning; however, they should always discuss their observations with their clients and obtain clients’ input,

confirmation or rejection. Clients play the most important role in interpreting their own self-created data.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

The therapist’s role is that of a facilitator with some degree of knowledge.

However, this process should be approached with an attitude that there is no right or wrong way of participating. Clients decide what sounds right for them and therefore they are the experts in regards to their creation.

In facilitating group melody writing, therapists will need to encourage clients to take turns by imposing some structure on the session. Consensus building skills will be required when it comes time to review the melodic fragments for acceptance, adaptation, or re-writing.

Title: Making Style Choices

Attributed to: Unknown, adapted by John Downes

Salient Features

This technique for writing music uses a very motivating device: An electric keyboard or computer software program with one-finger chordal accompaniment patterns in a variety of styles. With the push of a few buttons, computers or keyboard instruments can sound like a complete band. This technique of songwriting allows clients to make choices in regards to musical styles and instrumentation, and often inspires the creation of melody with ease.

Clinical Uses

This technique can be used with a variety of client populations. Those with limited musical skill will be particularly thrilled with their ability to make music through simple choices and limited amounts of effort or musical knowledge.

Working with such instruments or software programs can be highly motivating for some clients.

Client Prerequisites

Being able to hear the music is a must, but other than that, ways can be found to adapt the use of a computer or keyboard so that just about anyone can control them independently, or make choices regarding how they are used.

Therapist Skills

Therapists using any technological equipment or software should familiarize themselves with how the program or instruments work prior to using them with clients. Such knowledge allows one to utilize all the features of the

technology, or know how to limit it so that clients are not overwhelmed by all the choices. Some software programs and many keyboards can adapt to the skill level of the player. For example, keyboards may allow musicians to play the accompaniment parts with all their fingers, use block chords to control the accompaniment, or use a single finger to control the accompaniment.

Goals

1. To choose a style of music for use in composition of a song.

2. To use the style to motivate song composition.

3. To use the style to compose chord progressions and melodies with lyrics.

Media and Roles

The medium for this technique is either a software program that can produce loops of synthesized or sampled sounds that can be changed according to choices of chord sequences, or an electronic keyboard that has an accompaniment feature with many styles from which to choose. The role of the therapist is to provide instructions on how to operate or make choices to control the software or keyboard. Therapists may also have to adapt either media to limit choices so that the music that is produced stays within a particular key. For example, a masking device may be used on a keyboard to cover up those keys that are not in the tonality of the song. Other limits may need to be imposed so that valuable time is applied to exploring only the capabilities of the software or keyboard that will actually be used for the client’s composition. For example, therapists can limit the genre choices to rock styles and hip-hop styles, knowing that their young clients will likely not compose in a country or ballroom dance

style of music. Finally, therapists are responsible for recording all of the clients’ choices so that the music can be replicated later on.

The role of clients is to make choices in terms of their preferred style, instrumentation, key, chord progression, tempo, and melody. Clients are responsible for creative input that is inspired by the style choices and the music produced by the software or keyboard.

Format

This activity can take place in a group, but individual work would likely be easier. Working with technological equipment is usually a hands-on kind of activity in which clients want to be directly involved. Moreover, most technology of this type is designed for a single user. If a group were co-writing a song, each member would likely desire a turn to explore the technological device. Limiting the duration of turns might be a challenge.

Preparation Required

Therapists will need to set up the equipment so that it can be used comfortably in the space. Often this will mean that both therapist and client will need equal access to the equipment. Therapists need to know how the program or electronic instrument works, prepare for any limitations that they impose on the session (e.g., masking the keyboard, knowing what parts of the software need not be used, etc.), and be prepared to record client’s choices so the music can be replicated.

Procedures

This method of composing music may be implemented after clients have written lyrics, or it can be used as a means to help inspire them to write. Either way, clients need to have some instruction on how to use the computer software or the electronic keyboard. Therapists can provide these instructions, allow clients to explore the possibilities, and facilitate the process of choosing a musical style and then creating a chord progression. If lyrics have been pre- written, clients may begin the process of creating melodies to the words and accompanying music. Therapists will need to record these efforts so that they can be replicated later on. This means that the style, the tempo of the style, any particular variations of the style (keyboards often have four or more variations of each style setting), and the melody line is recorded in digital or written form.

Clients may create the melody by singing to the accompaniment music, or by picking out the melody on the upper end of the keyboard. If a keyboard is used, therapists may need to set limits on the melody note choices by masking off keys that will not harmonize with the accompaniment or otherwise identifying the ones that will.

Data Interpretation

Clients can offer interpretations of their own creative efforts. Therapists may need to debrief the process and the resulting music with clients in order to fully understand the meaning clients give their music and musical efforts.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

The therapist’s role is that of a facilitator with some degree of knowledge.

In facilitating group songwriting, therapists will need to encourage clients to take turns by imposing some structure on the session. Consensus building skills will be required when it comes time to review the music for acceptance, adaptation, or re-writing.

Title: Offering Pre-composed Choices

Attributed to: Hatcher (2004), Roberts (2006).

Salient Features

This technique of cooperative songwriting relies much more on the therapist’s abilities as a composer and musician. In this technique, therapists are responsible for providing creative input for the melody and accompaniment chords for the client’s lyrics, but clients retain the power of choice and have the final say in all decisions related to the finished product.

Clinical Uses

This technique may be helpful when songwriting needs to be expedient or when clients are having difficulty with the time it takes to complete a creative process. It may also be helpful when clients have limited abilities in giving input and making choices.

Client Prerequisites

Clients must be able to hear and to indicate their choices in some manner.

It is also helpful for clients to have a completed set of lyrics.

Therapist Skills

Therapists must have good musical skills and creative abilities to use this technique. Flexibility and the ability to create in the moment are also required.

Goals

1. To set clients’ lyrics to music by offering suggestions for chords and melodies from which clients can choose.

2. To provide clients with choices and a sense of empowerment by respecting their choices.

Media and Roles

Therapists can use whatever medium they choose for performing various versions of a client’s song. Therapists may use voice and guitar, voice and piano, or voice and another means of accompaniment.

The therapist’s role is to provide a number of choices of different versions of a song or melodic fragments from which clients can choose. Clients are responsible for making choices and offering suggestions in how what the therapist suggests can be changed and adapted to suit their personal taste.

Format

This format can be used in an individual, small group, or group setting.

Group settings will require therapists to impose structure on the session so that everyone has an equal say in the song’s creation. The decision process will likely be faster in individual sessions.

Preparation Required

Depending on the therapist’s skill level, either the variations in chord structures, styles and melody can be presented in the moment during the session, or therapists may need to work with the lyrics ahead of time and choose/compose styles, chord progressions and melody prior to the session.

Either way, therapists need to be prepared for accepting clients’ choices as they may not be the one’s that the therapist would prefer.

Procedures

Working with the clients’ lyrics, therapists present variations and options from which clients can choose. Therapists may want to prepare to play in two styles that clients are familiar with, and perhaps one with which they are not familiar. For example, therapists can prepare a pop ballad style, a rock style, and a samba style. Choosing from these styles is the clients’ first choice. After that, the therapist may present options for a melody and chord accompaniment for each line of the lyrics. Here again, two or three choices may be presented. For example, perhaps the first option has the melody as an ascending line, the second option as it as a descending line, and the third option has a melody that centers on just one note. Clientsl then choose which one they prefer and offer suggestions for any changes they would like to hear. In this way, the song is composed line-by-line. As each decision is made, it needs to be recorded so that it can be replicated. A mini-tape deck or other recording device is useful for this purpose.

Data Interpretation

Clients will ultimately be responsible for interpreting their own songwriting data. They do this by offering spontaneous feedback or by responding to the therapist’s questions that ask for their reflections on the process and content of the experience.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

The therapist’s role is that of a facilitator with some degree of knowledge.

However, this process should be approached with an attitude that there is no

right or wrong way of participating. Clients decide what sounds right for them and

therefore they are the experts in regards to what options they prefer.

In facilitating group songwriting, therapists will need to encourage clients

to take turns by imposing some structure on the session. Consensus building

skills will be required when it comes time to review the music for acceptance,

adaptation, or re-writing.

Title: Melody and Rhythm Evolving from the Spoken Word

Attributed to: O’Callaghan (1996), Hatcher (2005) with adaptations by John

Downes.

Salient Features

This technique uses the rhythms and pitches that are inherent in client’s speech patterns as the basis for composing melodies in rhythm. Having clients recite their lyrics allows therapists to hear the qualities of melody, center of pitch, and natural rhythm so that these can be used to compose melodic lines that match the words and the clients’ naturally occurring expressive tendencies.

Clinical Uses

This technique is one way of composing new melodic lines for pre-written

lyrics. This technique can be used when therapists and clients want the melody

to be inspired or created by the clients rather than having the therapist offer a

choice of melody. For those clients who are uncomfortable singing, this method

may offer a safe form of approaching singing if the therapist can hear the pitches

that occur in speech.

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Client Prerequisites

Clients need to have prepared a written lyric. They must be able to recite the lyrics out loud.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to be able to hear the rhythms and melodic elements of speech in order to be able to interpret the spoken word into a song. As the melody and rhythm of the song become clear and are approved by clients, therapist can notate the song on manuscript paper or record it into a tape or other recording device.

Goals

1. To compose the rhythmic and melodic elements of a client’s song, using their voice as the starting point.

Media and Roles

A tape deck or other recording device may be used to record clients when they recite their lyrics. Taping will require consent. Being able to replay sections of the tape allows therapists and clients to hear the rhythms and melody inherent in the clients’ spoken words.

The therapist’s role is to listen to clients recite their lyrics and notate the rhythms and pitches of their speech so that a melody is matched to the lyrics.

The role of clients is to recite the lyrics and give feedback on the notation the therapist makes, offering suggestions for changes as desired.

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Format

This technique would likely work best in an individual therapy setting. The single voice of a client has particular rhythmic and melodic elements that help maintain the continuity of finding the melody within speech. Using this technique in a group would result in many rhythmic, melodic and timbre changes between group members’ voices.

Preparation Required

It is beneficial to have a recording device ready to record clients as they recite their lyrics. Notation paper is required so therapists can begin writing down the melody. Alternatively, a second recorder can be used to record the therapist’s interpretation of the melody

Procedures

Therapists must obtain consent for recording in the session. Clients need a copy of their lyric sheet and should be given a chance to rehearse the recitation of they lyrics once or twice. The client is then recorded while reciting the lyrics.

After the recitation is completed, the tape is played back one line at a time, and the therapist begins reflecting the speech rhythms and pitches, slowly adapting them into melodic fragments. As each fragment is composed, the therapist needs to gain the clients’ approval to make sure that they like it. If it is approved, then the therapist records it on tape, or notates it on manuscript paper. This process is repeated until the entire song is scored.

Once the melody is completed, therapists can harmonize it with choices of chords that make sense given the tonal center of the melody. They may also

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offer choices to clients regarding the possible chord structure of the song, as well as offering stylistic choices for the song. Hatcher (2004) suggests that the song may need to be modulated in key to better suit a client’s singing voice if part of the goal of therapy is to have the client sing his or her own songs.

Data Interpretation

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

Therapists have the opportunity to educate clients about how they are musical beings even if they do not believe they have any musical talent. The fact that the rhythm and melody of the clients’ songs derives from their recitation of their lyrics is a good example of how music is a part of speech. The difference between singing and speech is minor. In fact, it mostly has to do with the length of time that vowels are held. The longer the vowels in speech are held, the more evident is the pitch in speech. Similarly, the rhythm of speech is more evident when the content and meaning of the words is ignored. Having this discussion helps clients understand their own connection with a creative aspect of music, and it also helps demystify the process, thus lessening the power differential between therapist and client. During the process of composition and upon review of the final product, clients should have the final say in regards to approval or any changes they wish to make. Allowing clients such control and input is not only

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respectful of their creative process and autonomy; it also decreases power

differentials between clients and therapists.

Music and Words

Popular songwriters often report that music and words can be created

(some say arrive) at the same time. The following techniques explore how this

might occur.

Title: Improvisation and Songwriting

Attributed to: Boxill (1985); Davies (2005); Derrington (2005); Nelson &

Weathers (1998); Oldfield & Franke (2005); Roberts (2006).

Salient Features

Improvisation is “inventive, spontaneous, extemporaneous, resourceful,

and it involves creating and playing simultaneously” (Bruscia, 1987, p. 5).

Improvisation is a process of making something up as one goes along. It takes

place in the here and now. Boxill (1985) borrows the term continuum of awareness from Gestalt psychology to explain her creative process of “using music functionally as a tool of consciousness to awaken, heighten, and expand awareness of self, others, and the environment” (p. 71). Her approach also uses musical improvisation to reflect what is happening in the here and now.

The music that results from playful improvisation with clients can be the basis for later composed music, or it can be a composition in and of itself.

Clinical Uses

Songwriting may seem like a task to some clients, whereas improvisation may seem much more like playful interaction and a form of non-threatening

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communication. Therefore, this approach to songwriting can be “fluid in design, and reduce boundaries that other music therapy activities may impose” (Roberts,

2006, p. 30).

Client Prerequisites

Clients will need to be able to hear their music and to participate in music making with their voice, or with their voice and instruments in combination.

Clients will need to feel comfortable with exploring improvisation with instruments within a context of creative play. For children this may come quite naturally, but for older individuals the therapist may need to create a sense of safety for the clients so that they may express themselves freely through improvisation.

Therapist Skills

Therapists will need to be comfortable with improvisation using musical instruments and their own voices. Therapists will need to be keenly aware of cues that clients are giving them. This means that they need to observe clients carefully in order to know what to play and how to respond. This may include picking up on verbal cues as well as non-verbal cues from clients.

Goals

1. To engage clients in musical improvisation.

2. To use the medium of improvisation as a tool for exploration of musical ideas that may be transformed into structured songs.

Media and Roles

The media for this technique include various instruments of the therapist and client’s choice, as well as their voices. Some means of recording the

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improvisation should be used so that song elements can be written down and replicated later on.

The role of the therapist is to create a safe and playful atmosphere in which clients can explore the musical potential of improvisation. Therapists will likely take the lead in beginning to sing lyrics to the improvisation. In doing so, they should choose to use words that focus on the goals of therapy and the needs of the client. Inspiration for the initial words may come from a title that a client has chosen for the improvisation prior to beginning it. For example, a client may choose the title of “Volcano” for the improvisation, and as the music builds, the therapist may introduce the words “It’s gonna blow, it’s gonna blow. What makes you feel like a volcano?” This may set up a lyrical/melodic dialogue between the therapist and client that takes place as part of the improvisation. As the dialogue expands, the songwriting takes place in a natural and playful manner. Roberts (2006) suggests other techniques such as improvised call and response songs, improvised songs based on feelings, ideas or memories, and improvised songs that are directed by either the therapist or the client.

Format

Although possible to do in a group setting, the intimacy and safety of an individual session would likely be more facilitative of improvised songwriting. For this method to be effective, the connection between the improvising participants needs to be focused, safe, and fully in the present moment. This may not be as possible in a group.

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Preparation Required

Therapists need to create a safe place for improvisation and songwriting.

This may include being in an isolated room where no one else can hear the participant’s playful interaction. Knowing that others cannot hear the improvisation may allow clients more freedom to experiment with sound and self- expression without fear of judgment.

Suitable instruments will need to be provided, and clients will need to be prepared for what to expect. In fact, having previously introduced improvisation and having clients achieve a comfort level with it is quite beneficial. The most important aspect of improvisation is knowing that there is no right way or wrong way of improvising: There is only playing, accepting other’s efforts, and remaining in the here and now.

Procedures

Gradually introduce improvisation into therapy sessions by exploring various instruments and playing together. Therapists may begin improvisation by asking clients to play an instrument in a complimentary way to a basic beat. The next step might be trading roles and having the client lead an improvisation so that the therapist must follow the client’s rhythms and dynamics. Following this the therapist may introduce playing instruments in a manner of having a conversation (call and response). These exercises will aid in encouraging a feeling of comfort and safety in improvising. Using titles for improvisations, or improvising to a story are ways to begin using words and music together. In fact, telling a story with musical accompaniment may influence the inflection and tone

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of speech so that the leap to singing in the improvisation is not a difficult one at all.

Finally, the therapist or client may begin using a singing voice during improvisation. Themes that clients or therapists have identified may make up the chorus of an improvised song. The chorus provides a grounding home base to return to after the more experimental verse sections are played. Verses may come from clients in a spontaneous manner, or they may be in response to questions the therapist poses in improvising lyrics. When therapists pose questions it may be beneficial to include the client’s name so that it does not appear to the client that the question is a rhetorical one.

Data Interpretation

As with all the other techniques presented in this guide, it is suggested to have clients interpret their own data. Therapists can ask questions to help clients understand their songwriting and their participation. If therapists note client progress as evidenced through songwriting materials, then they should bring these observations to the clients themselves to seek confirmation or input.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

When beginning the process of improvisational practice, therapists may find that they need to take the lead by providing strong and grounding rhythms.

As the clients’ comfort level increases, they may participate by taking the leadership role, or participate as truly equal partners while feeling safe with a variety of musical expression. This is akin to having a give and take style of conversation.

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Title: Reframing With the Blues

Attributed to: Rickson and Watkins (2003) adapted by John Downes.

Salient Features

The blues song format provides a structured 12-bar pattern of music that can support an improvised melody and lyrical content of varying length. The flexibility of the blues format allows clients to participate with ease. The blues are sung over a set progression of three chords, and since it is the basis for many rock and soul styles of music, the format and sound of it is familiar to many client populations.

Clinical Uses

In this incarnation of the blues, the song is used as an opportunity to share

a complaint or a negative aspect of one’s life. However, the last line of the song

encourages clients to express the good side of the previously sung complaint. In

effect, this song format can be used to encourage clients to reframe their

problems or situations.

Client Prerequisites

Clients need to have the ability to verbally express themselves. They may

need encouragement and support from therapists, but they should eventually be

able to identify the positive aspects of their lives that help counteract or reframe

the negative aspects they have expressed.

Therapist Skills

Therapists need to be able to perform a blues song pattern on an

instrument such as a guitar, piano, or keyboard and also sing a blues-style

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melody with improvised or pre-written lyrics. Therapist need to provide examples of the format for this technique and help clients write and improvise their own blues verses with the elements of reframing their identified issues.

Goals

1. Writing simple verses in a 12-bar blues style of music that express a complaint and resolve the complaint through reframing it in the last line.

Media and Roles

Various musical instruments can be used to play the blues. A guitar, piano, keyboard or Omnichord are capable of producing the chord sounds that are necessary for the sound of the blues. Electronic instruments may also provide accompaniment patterns that include other instrument sounds such as a rhythm track and bass track.

The role of the therapist is to give some information about the blues as a song format. This can include the history of the blues, the influence of the blues, and the typical use of the blues as a vehicle for the lyrical expression of discontent. Therapists also need to explain the concept of reframing to clients, and give examples of reframing both in a verbal context and within the context of the blues format used in this activity.

The role of the clients is to think of something in their lives that they might complain about, and then think of a reframe to help them challenge their complaint or resolve it. Clients help write the song lyrics and perform it with the help of the therapist who provides musical support through singing and musical accompaniment.

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Format

Blues songwriting can take place in individual or group session formats.

Group format will require clients to take turns, or provide equal amounts of input to verses that are written by the group.

Preparation Required

Therapists need to rehearse playing and singing in the 12-bar blues style.

It is advisable to learn how to play the blues in a few different keys so that various voice ranges can be accommodated. To learn the basics of blues style, therapists can access the information by using an Internet search engine and the search term “12-bar blues chord progression”. Therapists need to be prepared to record the lyrics on paper, or prepare song sheet handouts for clients that provide examples, instructions, and room to write their own verses.

Procedures

Therapists start by introducing the blues song format and the concept of reframing. Therapists provide examples of the blues format by performing prewritten verses for the clients. Instructions are given to clients and clients begin writing their complaints in short sentences that fit the song structure. Clients may be able to reframe their own complaints, but therapists should be prepared to engage in questioning clients to help them conceive their own reframing. An example of a blues handout follows.

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Example

The Blues - an Introduction

Blues lyrics contain some of the most autobiographical and revealing statements in the Western musical tradition. Blues lyrics are often intensely personal and often deal with the pain of betrayal, desertion, and unrequited love or with unhappy situations such as being jobless, hungry, broke, away from home, lonely, or downhearted.

The early blues were very irregular rhythmically and usually followed speech patterns. The meter of the blues is usually written in iambic pentameter.

The first line is generally repeated and third line is different from the first two. The repetition of the first line serves a purpose as it gives the singer some time to come up with a third line.

Example: I7 I'm working every day, seems like all I do is run around IV7 I7 I'm working every day, seems like all I do is run around V7 IV7 I7 V7 But at least I've got a job, and I'm not sleeping on the ground.

Okay, you've got the idea; now write at least two verses of your own to share with the group. Write one verse expressing a complaint, then turn the complaint around and look on the bright side by starting line three with "Still" or

"But" (as in example one). For your second verse, write whatever you want. If you can think of more than two, go for it!

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Data Interpretation

Success in the clients’ ability to reframe their issues will be evident in the

last line of their blues verse, as will success in learning how to reframe through

the process of the writing itself. Ultimately clients should be the ones who

evaluate their own efforts, but evidence of the clients’ skill in reframing will likely

be evident in other areas of therapy if they have learned the concept and

appreciate knowing how to change their perspectives. Therapists may want to

track the incidents and frequency that clients use reframing independently.

Client/Group-Therapist Dynamics

Therapists can offer and encourage support through this song format.

Rickson and Watkins (2003) state, “the blues framework invite[s] echoing of short

phrases sung by peers thereby leading to affirmation and support within the

group” (p. 289). This song format encourages honesty in communicating aspects of one’s life in which discontent is experienced. As such, it gives permission for clients to express themselves freely, and thus can help build a trusting and accepting therapeutic relationship. Lefevre (2004) writes, “Listening carefully to their compositions and improvisations and musically mirroring, reflecting and supporting them will allow [clients] to experience being met, accepted and understood” (p. 340).

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Interpretation of Data – More Thoughts

In making suggestions for interpretation of the data in the previous section

on songwriting techniques, a constructivist and emancipatory paradigm has been

used to emphasize the client as expert position of interpretation. Having clients

interpret their process, product, and experience of songwriting provides important

feedback to therapists and clients alike. To begin, feedback on the process gives

clients and therapists a better understanding of the dynamics in their relationship,

their roles as co-creators, and the ways in which the process was viewed (e.g.,

as work or play). Having direct client feedback on the product allows clients and

therapists to have some insight into the meaning that clients have given their

words and music. This is perhaps most important because words, especially in

poetic/lyrical form, may represent ideas and concepts quite different from their

defined meanings in speech. So too with music, where the standards of feelings

attributed to certain keys, modes, dynamics and tempi, may be quite different for

clients than is commonly accepted in western cultural forms of interpretation.

To complicate the matter, the social constructionist approach recognizes

not only the influence of social, cultural, and historical contexts (Burr, cited in

Haley, 2002), but also the influence of the conversational interactions with

therapists. “Constructionists argue that ideas, concepts, and memories arise from social interchange and are mediated through language” (Hoffman, cited in Haley,

2002, p. 24). It seems then, that as therapists inquire into the meaning that clients give their songs that the inquiry itself will affect the data. Thus, clients may adapt their perspectives on their written lyrics as a result of being encouraged to

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explore and ascribe meaning to them. Haley (2002) summarizes the social

constructionist worldview by stating that “a) realities are socially constructed, b)

realities are constituted through language, c) realities are organized and

maintained through narrative, and d) there are no essential truths” (p. 24). In

interpreting clients’ songwriting data, these points are worthwhile keeping in mind

as they reiterate and reinforce the idea that reality is subjective yet very real to

each client. These concepts encourage therapists to be respectful of client’s

worldviews and how they make meaning in their use of language, and how the

social interaction of therapeutic work influences clients and therapists, and thus

the process, product and experiences of creative expression.

Freed (1987) suggests that lyrical analysis cannot only offer insight into

the meaning clients give their creative work, but can also lead to clarifying the

feelings being expressed, identifying their needs, and actively seeking productive

solutions to problems. Using open questions and declarative probes, therapists

are able to encourage clients to examine the multiple layers of meaning that are

evident in their lyrical and musical creations, and help clients work through their

issues. Muntigl (2004) states that questions “are a central resource for scaffolding clients in using new meaning making resources” (p. 120). Once a song is completed, the discovery of meaning through debriefing is just as important to the work of therapy as the initial creative process and healing aspects of the song itself. Therefore, songwriting addresses therapy on multiple levels: through the process, product, and experience of songwriting in the context of a therapeutic relationship.

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Muntigl suggests that clients’ progress can be monitored through their use of language, as they will “use language differently, depending on the phase of development in which they are” (2004, p. 115). In the first phase of Muntigl’s model, clients demonstrate the initial ways in which they talk about themselves and reveal their worldviews. The second phase is indicated by clients’ transitional semiotic repertoires in which, through the influence of therapist scaffolding, clients are able to “produce new meanings by construing problems in novel ways” (Muntigl, 2004, p. 115). In the final stage, clients can “deploy a larger array of meanings in problem contexts” (p. 115) without the scaffolding influence of the therapist. Here again we can see the constructionist influence of the therapist on how clients create meaning from their work. The making of meaning takes place within the social and relational context of the therapeutic relationship through the use of language.

If the use of language can offer us data from which to track client progress, then it makes sense to have a means of analyzing lyrics and the conversations that take place in therapy sessions. For the purpose of this discussion, the focus will remain on song lyrics. Baker (2005) suggests analyzing lyrics by identifying words that indicate themes, feelings, thoughts, behaviours, and events in the past, present and future. To facilitate the process of analyzing the data, I suggest using a lyric analysis chart like the one presented here.

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Lyric Analysis Chart

Title: Past Present Future

Theme

Feelings

Thoughts/Beliefs

Behaviours

Events

Characteristics of the music:

Key: ______Tempo______Style______Emotional tone______

Additional notes:

______

In addition to analyzing the lyrics, I have included spaces to record some characteristics of the accompanying music chosen by clients, as clients may also assign meaning to the music as well. Over the course of time, the analysis of several songs may begin to reveal patterns or significant changes. As this data is collected, clients can review it so that they may offer their interpretations. Shapiro

(2004) suggests that when conducting qualitative research with poetic forms, researchers should present the written work in its entirety so that readers can act as triangulated investigators. So although the chart above may be helpful in analyzing songwriting data, it should be presented along with the original work so that reflection upon the original is always possible.

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In conclusion, it appears that there are many influences on the way songs can be interpreted. It is incumbent on therapists to recognize these influences and realize that interpretations are fluid and subject to change, rather than concrete and stable. As any factor within the client, the therapist, their relationship, or the overall context changes, so will the interpretation of the song as data. With this in mind, therapists need to remember that clients’ interpretations and statements of meaning are their truths, but perhaps only in the current moment of expression.

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Section Two

Ethics and Songwriting in Music Therapy

This section of the guide for songwriting in therapy presents an ethical dilemma that might occur as a result of writing songs with clients. Several pertinent factors are addressed, such as the issue of ownership, permission for use, and confidentiality. The process of addressing the ethical dilemma from the personal perspective of the author presents one possible solution. This ethical decision making process is included in this guide to encourage readers to consider every step of their actions when implementing songwriting in therapy with clients, and take the necessary precautions prior to finding themselves in an ethical dilemma.

Ethical Dilemma

A music therapist sees an 18-year-old young man for individual music therapy sessions as part of his treatment in a multi-disciplinary treatment program. The supervising psychologist asks the music therapist to address appropriate emotional expression. One of the treatment procedures is songwriting.

The young man has written several songs in cooperation with the therapist. He provides lyrical ideas and some direction regarding the style of music he thinks is appropriate for the lyrical content. The therapist fills in the gaps by helping to structure the lyrics and facilitates the composition of the music by offering choices to the client regarding chord progressions and melodic options. However, sometimes the music therapist simply puts music to the

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client’s lyrics as he sees fit. The goal is to reflect the client’s issues and emotions in the songs, and have the client gain some insight into his emotional issues using this non-threatening intervention.

Once a song is written, it is rehearsed and performed. The music therapist attempts to have the client contribute to this process as well by playing percussion instruments, sequencing keyboards and occasionally singing.

The agency’s program coordinator observes a session where the client and music therapist perform each of the songs written in the music therapy sessions. He is impressed by what he hears, and after the session, he suggests to the client and therapist that they should record a compact disk (CD) and use it as a fund-raiser for the non-profit agency. The young man is excited by the idea of having his songs on CD, but would rather that he receive any financial benefit from CD sales.

Introduction

Music therapy is a diverse field of practice, and not all treatment protocols include cooperative songwriting with the client. However, several issues are raised for those who use songwriting as a form of treatment. Who owns the songs produced in the music therapy setting? What rights do the client and therapist have in regards to using these songs? What are the copyright implications? What value is placed on the songs as reflections of the process of therapy? What guidelines exist in the Canadian Association for Music Therapy

(CAMT) Code of Ethics (1999)? What other ethical principles and standards

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apply to a situation such as the one presented in the vignette above? These and other questions are addressed in this section.

Considering that music therapy interventions often include the creation of music, it is interesting that the CAMT Code of Ethics (1999) does not include suggestions for the handling of music that is produced in music therapy sessions.

Making music in a therapeutic setting is what sets music therapists apart from other forms of helping professions. Looking for similar issues in the other arts therapy disciplines may be useful. The Canadian Art Therapy Association

Standards of Practice (1997) addresses the handling of client-produced artwork.

One might assume that similar means of handling client music could be adapted for the CAMT code. However, there is a difference between how art therapists and music therapists encourage expression with their clients. Typically, art therapists facilitate creation of artwork by providing the materials and context for artistic expression. In contrast, a music therapist may provide instruments and context, but also facilitate the writing or performance of music by being directly involved in the process as co-creators. A music therapist may contribute ideas, skills and structure to the song composition. This may include providing accompanying music for the client’s lyrics, performing with skill on various instruments, and singing the song itself. It is rare that clients can produce songs or music without the music therapist’s input.

In relation to music produced by the client and therapist in the music therapy setting, the CAMT Code of Ethics (1999) does not address ownership, consent for use, storage, confidentiality, performance, recording, or any issues related to

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copyright. Discussion must also take place regarding how music is valued and conceptualized in the session. Is it as sensitive as session notes? Should music produced in the session be thought of as being similar to verbal interaction shared in the session? Obviously some guidelines need to be written and added to the CAMT code of ethics. Although the CAMT code of ethics and ethical decision-making model is similar to the Canadian Code of Ethics for

Psychologists (Canadian Psychological Association, 2001), the Canadian

Psychological Association (CPA) code will be used.

Ethical Decision Making Process

The first step in addressing the issues presented in the vignette is to identify the individuals or groups that may be affected by any decisions. The 18-year-old male client is affected since the decision relates directly to musical works produced in his music therapy sessions. The music therapist is affected since the decision relates to the music therapy sessions he has directed and the music he has facilitated with the client in the music therapy sessions. The agency director is affected since it was his idea to make a fund-raising CD using the client’s songs. The agency itself could be affected either positively or negatively depending on what course of action is taken by the client, the therapist or by legal representatives. Finally, other music therapists and agency clients could be affected in the future due to changes in policies or program directives.

The second step of the ethical decision-making process is to identify the relevant ethical principles and standards in the CPA code that relate to the vignette case. This may include consideration of individual and group rights.

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Principle I: Respect for the Dignity of Persons

Standard I.5 states that a therapist is to avoid or refuse “to participate in

practices disrespectful of the legal, civil, or moral rights of others” (CPA, 2001, p.

47, italics added). In creating a work of art, such as a musical composition, the

issue of copyright is immediately raised. In the vignette, there is no mention of

policy concerning assignment of copyright. If the agency has a policy stating that

copyright of creative works produced in creative art therapy settings is assigned to the agency, then there is some argument for the agency program coordinator to establish ownership rather than the creators of the work, in this case, the client and therapist. However, under Canadian copyright law, there is some recourse for the creators in terms of moral rights.

“In many cases an author’s work may be an expression of the author’s personality and an extension of the author’s ego and sense of self” (Kratz, 1998,

p. 35). Use of the work in ways other than what was contemplated by the authors

may demonstrate disrespect and also violate a CPA standard of working and

acting in a spirit of fair treatment to others (CPA, 2001). The Canadian Copyright

Act (1985) provides specific moral rights for authors, namely a paternity right, an

integrity right and an association right. The paternity right allows an author who

does not hold the copyright of a work to control the use of his or her name when

being associated with the work. The integrity right allows the author to object to

or restrain certain uses of the artistic work. The association right allows the

author to restrain the association of his or her work with a product, especially if it

will reflect negatively on the author’s reputation.

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In the vignette, if the agency held copyright of material derived from creative arts therapy sessions, the client and therapist under Canadian copyright law would still maintain some control and have legal arguments for not using such materials for fund-raising efforts. In making a decision based on the vignette, the assumption is made that the agency does not hold copyright privileges on materials produced in creative arts therapy programs.

The vignette also raises the issue of informed consent. The assumption in regards to the vignette is that a policy on ownership of client-therapist co- produced materials has not been established and the client was not asked to give consent regarding use of music composed in the music therapy sessions.

The client consented to participate in music therapy sessions and was made aware of the process of working with a music therapist in a cooperative manner.

Informed consent raises the question of whether or not the therapist made informed consent an ongoing process due to the issues involved. Do the songs have a life outside of the therapy setting? What are the implications regarding performance and sharing of the songs considering that they were the result of a cooperative effort? Should the songs be treated in the same manner as verbal contributions in the session? Are the songs subject to the same policies of confidentiality? Once songwriting began, the therapist should have asked the client how he wanted to treat the songs and how they would be stored and recorded.

As a music therapist, I view musical expression and song creation as a direct reflection of the internal cognitive and emotional dynamics of the individual.

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As such, music therapists deal with highly personal expressions that are subject to the standards of confidentiality. In the field of art therapy, Hammond (1998) views client-produced artwork as equivalent to verbal communication. Therefore, the art should be treated with the same respect as verbal communication in a session. The Canadian Art Therapy Association (CATA) Standards of Practice

(1997) includes a section regarding public use and reproduction of client art, client consent regarding the use of the art, how it is displayed, identifying factors, and time constraints for use. Confidentiality is not mentioned in this section of

CATA’s standards, but the assumption is that clients make the decisions regarding the choice of using their names or maintaining confidentiality and privacy when they give or refuse consent.

Principle II: Responsible Caring

This principle states that the therapist’s “greatest responsibility is to protect the welfare of those in the most vulnerable position” (CPA, 2001, p. 57). The most vulnerable person in the vignette is the client, although he may not realize that fact. The enticement of recording a CD of his material may blind him to the potential detrimental factors or questions. For example, he may not consider that publishing a CD of session-based songs may give others insight into his private thoughts and therapeutic process. He may not have considered that the songs will represent him, even after he has grown beyond the issues related in the songs. The therapist needs to play the role of informer, and discuss the implications of making a CD, and weigh the risks and benefits for all parties involved.

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Under the directive of responsible caring, the therapist also has a responsibility to be informed of issues related to the field. In this case, knowledge of copyright law would be appropriate.

The therapist in this vignette may carry out an analysis of the risks and benefits that present themselves in the situation. Assuming the therapist is willing to assign his portion of the copyright to the client, how could the client benefit or be harmed by recording his songs and having them used by the agency or himself? It would be important that the therapist clearly communicate the risks and benefits to the client as well as asking for the client’s opinions regarding this issue.

The agency’s program coordinator demonstrated a lack of sensitivity, knowledge and experience when openly suggesting to the client and therapist that a fund-raising CD should be produced. Section II.41 of the CPA Code (CPA,

2001, p. 69) encourages the therapist to address this issue directly by speaking to the program coordinator. This talk would include an outline of the implications of his suggestion.

Principle III: Integrity in Relationships

The value statement of this section states “It is the responsibility of psychologists to avoid dual or multiple relationships and other conflicts of interest when appropriate and possible” (CPA, 2001, p. 75). Music therapists may find that they are regularly in dual relationships in their roles as therapist, co-creator, facilitator, recorder and performer when interacting with clients. Dual relationships can influence the client as factors such as the stability of the

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relationship, the balance of power, and financial influences complicate the therapist-client relationship.

Dual relationships may result in both parties asking, “What is best for me?”

This can be especially detrimental to the therapeutic relationship (Kitchener,

1988). A dual relationship such as the one between client and therapist in this vignette could negate the structure and safety in the sessions that is provided by clear and consistent boundaries (Borys, 1994). There is also a danger when a therapist takes on a new role or activity. The gratification of a therapist’s personal needs and influence of the inherent self-interest, in this case the pride and benefits resulting in recording a CD, may compromise objectivity when evaluating the effectiveness of the therapy (Borys, 1994). Dual relationships thus should be well managed when they cannot be avoided.

Standard III.7 in the integrity in relationships section of the code (CPA,

2001) also offers guidance regarding giving credit where credit is due. In terms of this vignette, a realistic evaluation of the therapist’s and client’s contributions to each song would be required. Standard III.14 (CPA, 2001) encourages the therapist to be straightforward and open about informed consent and written or verbal agreements. The implication here is that the therapist requires policies to cover the activities that take place in session. Standard III.31 (CPA, 2001) encourages therapists to avoid conflicts of interest such as exploiting the client- therapist relationship for personal gain. In our vignette, the therapist could conceivably be motivated to produce a CD for reasons of personal gratification and prestige.

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In summary, there are eleven standards from the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (CPA, 2001) that relate to the ethical issue presented in this vignette. Three are under the principle of Respect for the Dignity of Persons, four are under the principle of Responsible Caring, and four are under the principle of

Integrity in Relationships.

Personal Reflection

The third step in the ethical decision making process is considering “how personal biases, stresses, or self-interest could influence the development of or choice between courses of action” (CPA, 2001, p. 33). For this section of the paper I will put myself in the role of the therapist in the vignette. The thoughts are presented as they occurred and not in paragraphs that flow based on a single idea, development and conclusion.

As the therapist dealing with this young man, I have been very pleased with his progress and what we have accomplished in the sessions. I admit that I have invested much time and effort in the development of treatment procedures that have facilitated the abilities of my client to contribute to the songwriting process. I am proud of his efforts, but also my own. If it was not for me, the client would not have been able to help produce a number of songs that have helped him identify his issues, express his emotions, and gain new insight into how he views the world. Much healing has taken place, and much progress has been made.

As a musician, I am flattered when someone comments on the quality of my work. I recognize the potential of flattery as a tool for manipulation. I would like to someday put out a CD of my own music. The music produced in session

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with my client is largely mine; however, the intent of its composition was not for commercial use, but rather for the therapy of my client.

My job at the agency is contractual, and therefore I need to maintain good relationships with the program coordinator in order to ensure contract renewal.

My relationship with my client is also important to me, and so I struggle with what he wants and what the code suggests is appropriate in terms of ethical behaviour.

Alternative Courses of Action and Evaluation

The fourth step in the ethical decision-making model is the development of alternative courses of action. The fifth step is to evaluate each alternative in terms of positive and negative effects and short and long term consequences of each choice for each individual or group involved in the vignette. These steps are included in the following section. Three alternatives approaches are explored.

Alternative one. Alternative one is to take the program coordinator’s suggestion and make a CD of the client and therapist’s music for use as a fund- raiser for the agency. This course of action requires the client and therapist to sign releases for the material, likely giving up all claims to copyright except for the moral rights. The agency is then responsible for providing information to the client so that he may grant fully informed consent to this project and the use of materials he helped construct. He needs to fully understand the implications of having his name associated with the CD, and how the CD could be used both in the present and in the future. For his own protection and confidentiality, he could choose not to have his name associated with the materials on the CD.

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The agency would incur costs for studio time and CD copying and other costs involved in the production of the CD. The agency would also have to pay for the therapist’s time, and would likely offer the client some compensation for time spent on the production of the CD and an honorarium for the use of his materials. Positive results of this arrangement could include possible financial gain for the agency and some financial gain for the therapist and client. The benefits for the music therapist include increased exposure for the music therapy program and bolstering the music therapist’s reputation as a musician and therapist. The benefits for the client include an increased sense of self-esteem, knowledge of the process of recording and producing a CD, knowledge of a possible career choice, some financial compensation, and concrete evidence of the work he did in therapy and his ability to create meaningful lyrics and music.

A possible negative result for the agency could be that the CD does not sell, and thus there is a financial loss. The agency may also not take care in providing the client with a legal release or consent form, in which case they may be susceptible to a possible lawsuit in the future. Possible negative results for the therapist include being associated with a process that is not as ethical as it could be, especially if the CAMT code is amended to include standards that dictate the handling of client-therapist constructed musical material. Despite taking precautions such as using informed consent, the therapist is in a dual- relationship and not be following other CPA standards, as identified earlier.

Negative results for the client could include feeling used by the agency and breaking the trust bond between therapist and client. This could lead to the loss

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of the client and loss of the progress made in therapy as well. The dual relationship between therapist and client would likely mean that music therapy sessions would not continue due to the change in relationship.

Alternative two. Alternative two is to refuse the program coordinator’s suggestion, but foster the client’s wishes to record a demo CD using computer software and agency resources such as a quiet room, microphones and instruments.

This course of action would require the therapist to explain to the program coordinator the complicated nature of using session-based client/therapist- produced materials for a fund-raising CD. All the issues regarding copyright, consent, dual relationships and confidentiality would need to be explained.

Mention of possible lawsuits and legal ramifications as well as the costs involved in CD production would likely dissuade the director from pursuing the idea.

The therapist needs to be aware of copyright issues if he is going to give the songs a life outside of the therapy setting. He could choose to wave his copyright and make a gift of the songs to the client, thus giving up all legal rights to the music he has composed or facilitated. The therapist must also provide information to the client concerning the possible results of sharing his session- based songs outside of the therapy context. The client needs to be aware of how his music may be viewed by others, how that might affect his reputation, and how deeply personal his songs really are. The client needs to understand the issues around confidentiality and give fully informed consent before agreeing to record the songs. In today’s world, once a song is recorded in digital format it is no

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longer secure information and could conceivably be spread worldwide via the

Internet with little or no control from the creators.

One positive result of this course of action is keeping the agency from getting involved in a very risky endeavor. Positive results for the therapist may include getting consent for use of the recording from the client so that this recording can be shared in conference presentations. This could result in more work opportunities. Positive results for the client may include boosting his self- esteem, learning digital recording skills and possibly fostering a career path in songwriting or studio work.

Negative results of choosing this alternative could include having a dual relationship between the client and therapist that stresses the original working alliance as the focus of working together would shift from therapy to production of a flawless recording. This could set up possibilities for conflict between the therapist and client resulting in an end of their relationship in the music therapy context. The client may be affected negatively when he finds that his demo CD does not spark any outside interest and that he is unable to produce songs independently. In the end, he may find that he has shared something deeply personal and is rebuffed by those he would most like to impress. That could have a serious impact on his self-esteem.

Alternative three. The music therapist talks to the program coordinator and explains why the client’s songs are not appropriate to use for a fund-raising CD.

The materials presented in the songs are akin to sensitive session content and should be treated with the same respect and confidentiality as verbal

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interactions. Since both the client and the therapist have objections to using the songs, no consent would be given. The coordinator would be asked to take back his suggestion and in cooperation with the therapist, explain to the client why this decision has been reached. The ethical concerns and copyright implications would need to be explained. The therapist could then suggest other means of songwriting that would not be as complicated by dual relationships.

Informing the program coordinator of the sensitivity of client contributions to the music therapy songwriting activity could have positive results. This may lead to increased respect for the music therapist as a professional who is concerned with the well-being of his clients. The coordinator may also become an ally in constructing policies for the agency regarding confidentiality of musical materials produced in the therapy session and construction of consent forms that outline restrictions on use of musical materials for clients and therapists. These are positive results for the therapist as well because agency policy will provide some clarity for ethical practice. Furthermore, the therapist does not have to worry about copyright issues if no recording has taken place, or the music and words for the songs have not been written down in score format. If the music continues to be a temporal event, existing only in the mind of the therapist, it will not be as associated with the client’s lyrics. Music and lyrics can remain separate, and exist together as a song only in the therapy session. Other positive results may include increased respect from the client for the thoughtfulness displayed in regards to safeguarding client confidentiality and putting him first. Also, the client

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may look for other means of fulfilling his desire to continue in songwriting, such as working with a composer or becoming a member of a band.

Negative results from this decision may be that the client will resent the therapist for not allowing him to use the therapist’s music. This may result in a breakdown of the relationship and cessation of songwriting in sessions, or perhaps an end to the music therapy sessions.

Choosing a Course of Action

When choosing a course of action one takes into account the principles, values and standards of the CPA code of ethics (2001) as well as any other external considerations. In this ethical dilemma, copyright law has some influence.

The course of action that appears most appropriate in this situation is alternative three. This course of action demonstrates respect for the dignity of persons by refusing to participate in actions that are disrespectful of the moral rights of the client. Fair treatment of all parties is considered and issues of informed consent are addressed. Responsible caring by the therapist is demonstrated by protecting the welfare of the client, being informed of copyright laws that impact the activities of the therapist, analyzing the risks and benefits of the situation, and addressing the lack of knowledge and sensitivity of the program coordinator. Integrity in relationships is demonstrated by avoiding or managing the dual relationship between the client and therapist, avoiding the possibility of exploiting the therapist-client relationship, and being honest in taking credit for the creation of the songs and recognizing the client’s and

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therapist’s input. Finally, the therapist and coordinator will reflect on the policy

needs identified by this situation and take measures to construct policies and

consent forms that address the issues of the ethical dilemma.

Action and Responsibility for Consequences

Taking action and accepting responsibility for the consequences of the

action is the sixth step in the decision-making process. The music therapist acts

on alternative three without fully knowing what the consequences of the action will be. The best course of action is to be fully prepared to meet some opposition when talking to the program coordinator and the client. The therapist may want to write up a summary of the decision-making process and also present supporting documentation from the CPA’s code of ethics (2001), the CATA’s code of ethics

(1997), and any supporting articles regarding Canadian copyright law.

Additionally, the therapist is advised to contact the Ethics Chair of the CAMT for additional consultative advice. It is important that the program coordinator and the client understand the process the therapist went through to arrive at his decision, and to see that the process is supported by reasonable thought, consultation, and meaningful documents.

The therapist may realize that his decision could be met with positive results or negative results, and therefore he should have a plan in place to address either situation. If the response to his decision is positive from all parties, then the dilemma has been solved and relationships with the program coordinator and client will continue to be positive. If the program coordinator does not accept the therapist’s decision, he has little recourse for action in a legal sense, but could make life more difficult for the therapist in the working

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environment. The possibility of this happening is minimal; however, if the program coordinator is obstinate, the therapist may have to address the issue by lodging a complaint with someone in higher authority such as the agency’s Chair of the Board of Directors.

The client may not be as reasonable as the program coordinator in accepting the limitations placed on the songs used in therapy. Again, the therapist needs to be prepared to support his decision by using the CPA code of ethics (2001) and other supporting arguments. A rift may develop in the relationship between the therapist and client, and the therapist is responsible for addressing this breakdown in the working alliance. Therefore, alternative courses of action may need to be presented to the client. Options include continuing with music therapy sessions, discontinuing sessions, making a referral to another music therapist, or accessing community resources such as songwriters’ clubs. If sessions continue, the client must give informed consent regarding the newly understood restrictions placed on the musical materials constructed in the therapy session. He must agree that the songs exist only within the therapy context and have no commercial or performance-based life outside of that context unless otherwise indicated in a permission for use clause of a consent form. Furthermore, the therapist must also agree to these restrictions.

Evaluation of Results

The anticipated results of this course of action are positive. The biggest risk of a negative reaction comes from the client. However, the client and therapist have had a fairly long therapeutic relationship in which trust has been

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built. The trust that has been established will likely outweigh the disappointment

the client may feel regarding not being able to record a CD of his songs.

Evaluating the results of the course of action helps the therapist determine

the appropriateness of any policies he sets or consent forms and agreements he

makes in the future. Once the program coordinator has been informed of the

complications arising from his suggestions, it is likely that a similar situation will

not present itself since measures will be taken to establish policy that would

negate any such suggestion by other staff or future clients.

The actions of the therapist in alternative three cover the last two steps of

the ethical decision making process. Those steps are assuming responsibility for

the consequences of the action and taking the appropriate measures to ensure

that the dilemma does not reoccur in the future. These steps are addressed by

having the therapist be responsible for healing any rifts between him and the

program coordinator or client, and taking action such as changing or stating

policies regarding music in the sessions and adapting consent forms to reflect

any restrictions on the use of music outside of the session.

Personal and Professional Values

Autoethnography

There is a distinction between personal values and professional values. I suppose that if the two are opposed to one another then dissonance or conflict may be the result. Personal values that are somewhat related to the issue in the vignette from this chapter are in regards to my views on my own creative efforts. I value ownership of my creative ideas. I want to profit from my creative efforts. I

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enjoy the recognition I receive for my creative efforts and the resulting boost in self-esteem. I also value others’ efforts and want to give credit where credit is due.

Professional values that are related to the vignette are in regards to respect and my ability to facilitate growth in others. I respect my clients. They come first when considering any action taken by me in terms of their treatment and program plan. I value and enjoy facilitating creativity in others.

The vignette is somewhat difficult to resolve in that I appreciate and value the songs written in session, yet am forced to give up any permanent sense of ownership of the materials due to the ethical and copyright issues involved. The safest way for me to proceed is to not write down or record anything that is not fully my own creation unless I have informed consent or permission from the client. Alternatively, a written contract can be presented to the client in which all limitations of use for co-created material are stated and agreed upon prior to the start of therapy. It saddens me that such restrictions need to be put in place, but I fully realize that out of respect for the client, confidentiality, informed consent, and dual relationship issues need to be addressed and resolved. Not only does agreement on restrictions for use of session-based music protect the client, but it also protects me as well. That way I can be assured that a song I have helped a client write will not end up being sung by Nickelback or Jann Arden, or even the client himself, thus creating royalties for the client, and nothing for me. Fair treatment, after all, is a two-way street.

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Denouement Regarding Copyright

The copyright issue in this chapter concerned the creation of original musical works. Few music therapists are aware of the copyright issues regarding songs that they sing in sessions, record for clients, or perform for the smallest of

audiences in their day-to-day work. The fact is that all music that has not become

part of the public domain is under copyright, and its use must only take place

under license, unless performed for one’s own enjoyment. If a license for a

song’s use is not obtained, then using any song under copyright for the purposes

of performance or therapy sessions is a violation of copyright law. The Society of

Composers, Authors and Music Publishers of Canada (SOCAN) website states,

“Buying a CD or other recording only gives you the right to listen to it in private.

The public performance of these musical works is subject to copyright law and

therefore requires a SOCAN license” (SOCAN, 2006).

It is not within the scope of this project to explain the intricacies of

information from the Internet and become informed. Visiting the SOCAN

website’s resources and education section is a good place to start learning about

In terms of techniques that are presented in this guide for songwriting in

therapy, therapists and music therapists need to make informed decisions when

choosing to use previously composed music as a basis for songwriting with

clients. Since therapists are paid for their services, and songs written in therapy

may be recorded or performed, using music that is not in the public domain

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without a license is a violation of copyright law. The Canadian Association for

Music Therapy (CAMT) needs to address this issue with its membership. It may be that paying a license fee as part of the CAMT membership fee could cover a broad range of music used by therapists.

One final related point concerns the CAMT’s need to address the issue of how songs written in therapy are treated. The ethical dilemma presented in this chapter illustrates that some guidance is necessary so that both clients’ and therapists’ best interests are protected. The CAMT should have best practice guidelines in place in regards to songwriting in therapy and copyright law.

Until guidance is forthcoming from the CAMT, I have included two consent forms in this guide for the readers’ consideration. A copyright lawyer has not reviewed either document, and the author accepts no responsibility for any legal action taken against users of these documents. They are simply presented here to encourage readers to think about their current policies and co-creative interactions with clients.

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Songwriting in Therapy Consent Form

This form is a signed agreement between the client, or the client’s designated person, and the therapist/music therapist that states the terms of use and limitations on use in regards to songs written in therapy sessions.

Name of client: ……………………………………………………………………………

Please read the following statements before signing this agreement.

Songs that are written in cooperation with my therapist are to be treated with the same sensitivity as session notes. They shall remain confidential and stored in my file unless I give permission for use at a later date, permission to photocopy, or permission to record the song.

Copyright for all songs written in my therapy sessions are assigned to the individual authors. I accept that my copyright is limited to those components of songs that were of my own creation.

Any out of session use of co-created songs that were written in a therapy session can only take place with the informed consent of a song’s co-author. Unless such permission is granted, songs written or recorded in a therapy session cannot be displayed, played, or in any other way used outside of the context of the course of therapy in which they were written.

Client’s/Parents’/Designated Person’s Name and Signature………………………………………………………………………………….. (print name) (signature)

Therapist’s Name and Signature………………………………………………………………………………….. (print name) (signature)

Date:……………………………….

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Permission for Use Form

Song Title: ………………………………………………………………………………...

Words by:………………………………………………………………………………….

Music by:…………………………………………………………………………………..

Date of composition:……………………………………………………………………...

Person requesting permission for use:…………………………………………………

The undersigned agree that the person requesting permission may use the above named composition in the following manner: (choose appropriate options)

____ The song may be recorded on tape, CD, or video.

The song may be played in recorded format, performed, or photocopied (choose one or more) for:

____ Presentation purposes ____ Publicity purposes

____ Training purposes ____ Research purposes

____ Publicity purposes ____ Personal use

____ The multi-disciplinary team ____ Monetary gain

____ The use of the above named composition will maintain anonymity and confidentiality of the client / therapist (choose one or both).

______Client signature Print name

______Therapist signature Print name

______Date

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Resources

There are numerous resources available on the Internet for beginner songwriters. Of course, most of this material is aimed at an audience that wishes to write songs for popular consumption; however, many of the same musical rules and tips can be applied to successful songwriting in therapy. As of August of 2006, these addresses are active and accessible, and they are presented here to illustrate the kinds of resources that are available. However, readers are encouraged to perform their own search for songwriting resources as the contents and addresses of web pages often change.

Sheet music from Canada’s past. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/sheetmusic/

Learning the Blues. At: http://www.jazclass.aust.com/bl1.htm

Fender Player’s Club – guitar lessons. At: http://www.fenderplayersclub.com/

Guitar Land – guitar lessons. At: http://www.guitarland.com/

Guitar Noise – guitar lessons. At: http://www.guitarnoise.com/easy.php

Kid’s songs – lyrics and midi. At: http://www.kididdles.com/mouseum/index.html

Midi file page of popular songs. At: http://www.kfs.org/~oliver/music/midi/

Midi file page of popular songs. At: http://users1.ee.net/lstone/midi.htm

Easy Songwriting tips. At: http://www.easy-song-writing.com/default.asp

Lyric writing tips. At: http://www.ultimatesongwriting.com/lyric-writing-tips.html

Robin Frederick’s Notes on Songwriting. Great site with many useful links!

At: http://www.robinfrederick.com/write.html

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Using music under copyright. At:

http://www.reach.net/~scherer/p/copyhelp.htm

Kelly’s Music and Computers. A great source for music technology. At: http://kellysmusic.ca/Default.asp

Writing Songs. Check out tips and tools. At: http://www.writingsongs.com/

Rhyming Dictionary Online. At: http://www.rhymezone.com/

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CHAPTER VI

Conclusion

Songs always will be a natural container for the thoughts, feelings,

emotions, personality characteristics, dreams and fantasies of people from

all age ranges and, as such, provide a natural musical medium for the

therapeutic process. (Wigram, 2005, p. 264)

Learning Upon Completion

In summarizing the process and content of this final project, I comment on

the surprising and reassuring existence of creativity, the bounty of data that is

produced by songwriting in therapy, ethical issues, and the three main

approaches to songwriting that are explored in the guide. This is followed by an

evaluation of the research and results of this final project.

Inexhaustible creativity. I have learned much about the boundlessness of

creativity by writing this final project. I remember as a child thinking that by the

time I was old enough to write my own songs, that all the songs would have been

written; in a sense, all ideas would have been expressed, and all the notes used up. Thankfully that has not been the case, and writing this project reminds me once again that there are many ways to write a song and adapt techniques to suit clients’ and therapists’ needs and skills. Despite a book being published last year on the topic of songwriting in therapy (Baker & Wigram, 2005), neither they nor I exhausted the topic. It is likely impossible to write all the variations of creativity in relation to songwriting, as creativity is boundless, just as the combinations of notes in our western twelve-tone system is practically infinite. As Wigram states,

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“Songs will always be…” (p. 264, italics added). This simple introduction to his sentence speaks of the permanency and variety inherent in music.

Riches for analysis. It is evident that songwriting in therapy can be the subject of analysis. Clients and therapists may reflect on the process of songwriting and assign meaning to how a song was created both in terms of the technique, the facilitative relationship, and the content of the song. Songwriting may thus provide insights on multiple levels, including: the participants’ relationship to each other, the participants’ relationship to the process, the participant’s relationship to self, and the participants’ relationship to the song. In debriefing songwriting in therapy, the participants have the opportunity to access rich data on these multiple levels, all of which can be analyzed through a process of meaning-making in the cognitive, affective, spiritual and relational domains of functioning.

Therapists can facilitate debriefing by encouraging clients to explore the meaning they have assigned to the process, the lyrical content, the music, and the cooperative creative relationship. Therapists may wish to reflect on the process of debriefing as well, since the conversation itself may affect the interpretation of the data. The phrasing of an exploratory question can affect the answer that is given. For example, “Was that difficult for you?”, “Tell me how that was difficult for you”, and “That was difficulty for you, wasn’t it?”, all have different implied meanings and may be interpreted differently.

Ethical issues. Striking a balance between fair and ethical treatment for therapists, clients, and authors of pre-composed music is central to avoiding

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ethical dilemmas that are possible when using songwriting in therapy. Therapists can avoid ethical dilemmas by taking precautions such as writing policies that outline terms, conditions, and limitations for the use of songwriting in therapy, preparing and using appropriate consent forms, and informing clients of these protective measures.

On a professional level, the ethical issues inherent to songwriting in therapy need to be brought to the attention of the CAMT so that guidelines can be created to govern and safeguard music therapist. Not only will this assure ethical behaviour in creating new songs with clients, but it will also assure the music industry that music therapists are using pre-composed music in an ethical manner. Given how generous and supportive the music industry has been to music therapy on a global scale, this seems like a proper and necessary course of action.

Songwriting basics. Within the limitations of the cultural context I chose to explore, three basic methods of approaching songwriting were evident: writing lyrics then adding music, composing music then adding lyrics, and writing both lyrics and music at the same time. Within these three basic approaches to songwriting there is a wealth of creative approaches that have not been exhausted. The uniqueness of creative individuals facilitates new approaches to songwriting because of the variety of worldviews and forms of inspiration that lead people to express themselves through song. Although the approach to songwriting may differ from one person to another, the results are similar in that the songs reflect the beliefs and feelings of the writers in the moment and in

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context through the use of words, melody, harmony, instrumentation, style, dynamics and tempi. Songs are a direct reflection of the creativity and self- expression of the people who write them. They are as unique a form of expression as is verbal communication with its words, inflection, timbre of voice, tempo, and dynamics.

Research Evaluation

The evaluative process has also been a learning experience as it asks me to reflect on the research, writing, and creation of this final project. This final section of this project attempts to evaluate my efforts and the resulting product.

A stance of objectivity is impossible because each of us comes from some

perspective or other, and the questions we ask, our theories, and our

hypotheses arise from the assumptions embedded in our perspectives.

Haley (2002, p. 32)

Research and the researcher are inseparable (Guba & Lincoln, 1989), much as music and the composer or listener is. Another researcher could use the same reference materials as inspiration for writing a guide for songwriting in therapy, and come up with a completely different document from that which I have written. This can occur because researchers inevitably include themselves in the research by filtering the information that they gather through their own histories, worldviews, perceptive abilities, and experiences (Mertens, 1998).

When I consider how I have included myself and my experiences into the writing of this project, it is quite evident that the stamp of my personal characteristics is on every page. For example, I constructed the instructions for each technique

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largely from a background of my own experience or imagination based on prior experiences. This was necessary when instructions for use of the techniques were not given in the literature. However, the byproduct of using my resources to fill in the gaps resulted in only being able to present information constructed out of my own realm of possibilities that exist as part of my history and unique perspectives. Users of the guide for songwriting in therapy will bring their own perspectives to the material, thus accepting, rejecting, or adapting the techniques as appropriate for their own situations. Even in evaluating this research and project, I realize that my conclusions will differ from the reader’s. This actually provides a valuable triangulation process that regrettably cannot be included in this document, but will at least exist in the reader’s mind.

Abrams (2005) suggests evaluating qualitative research in music therapy by examining the material through the themes of reflexivity (Guba & Lincoln,

1989), contextualization (Bruscia, 1998), groundedness (Glaser & Strauss, cited in Abrams, 2005), durability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), usefulness or relevance

(Wheeler, 2005), comprehensibility (Cobb & Hagemaster, cited in Abrams, 2005), aesthetic depth (Bruscia, 1998), congruence (Bruscia, 1998), ethical integrity

(Guba & Lincoln, 1989), and intersubjectivity (Elliot, Fischer, & Rennie, 1999).

This section of the conclusion evaluates the research project through these themes.

Reflexivity (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). Abrams (2005) writes that the

“researcher’s role in qualitative research requires the researcher to self-inquire conscientiously and to disclose her or his relationships to the research” (p. 247).

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Since I did not keep a reflective journal during the course of gathering materials or writing the guide to songwriting in therapy, I must rely on my memory and ability to question myself and give honest answers. In this section, each new paragraph begins with a question, followed by the answer written in an autoethnographic style.

How does songwriting as therapy reflect my values? Why focus on songwriting? I have always valued singer/songwriters as performers and expressive people who sometimes seemed to find the right words and music to express things that I could not. Joni Mitchell seemed the epitome of this ideal for quite some time in my life. Since first hearing her music at age 5, I wished to be able to write like her, and as I matured, I found my own songwriting voice. I value this form of self-expression, as it is a socially acceptable way for me to express my thoughts and emotions while also boosting my self-esteem from its own inherent positive feedback loop, as well as through positive feedback from others. I also value being able to create and help others tap into their own creative genius; therefore songwriting in therapy reflects my value of the importance of finding one’s own voice, the value of creativity, and the value of spending my life helping others to do this. The focus on songwriting comes out of my values regarding it, but also the fact that until recently, songwriting in therapy has been largely unexplored and unexplained. I began research for this project in

2003, and it was not until 2006 that I found a fully comprehensive book on the topic of songwriting in therapy (Baker & Wigram, 2005).

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How does attention to copyright and ethical concerns reflect my values? I think the values I have around this issue originate from wanting to have some guidelines and policies spelled out for me by the CAMT regarding the treatment of co-created songs in therapy. Realizing that none existed, I researched the topic and included it in the project so that other therapists would be aware of the ethical implications of songwriting in therapy, and also to begin a discussion amongst music therapists. My values of honesty, respect for client confidentiality, respect for the individual, and issues of fair treatment prompted me to explore the issues of copyright and ethics in this project. Finally, I wanted to contribute something to the field of music therapy for some time. The guide to songwriting techniques is part of that contribution, but so too is the role of opening the discussion of copyright and ethical issues in songwriting in therapy.

Why did I not perform interviews or use questionnaires as part of my information gathering process? Simply put, to do so required the approval of an ethics committee as well as construction of tools for inquiry. The timelines for this project were tight, and therefore I decided that the simplest means of completing the project was to restrict my research to that which was presented in the literature. Had I been more organized and begun working on my final project earlier, having the ability to get others’ input directly may have been very useful.

However, it also would have put this project in competition with the book written by Baker and Wigram (2005), and the scope of the project would have been much larger than it already is.

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How does my research reflect who I am? How have my personal, professional and cultural identities affected what I chose to present and how I presented it? Answering this question could be the topic for a paper in itself and for brevity’s sake I will not explore this question thoroughly. However, I am aware that the research topic reflects my personal values and beliefs regarding the healing aspects of creative self-expression. I am also aware that there are limitations in the applications and explanations of each songwriting technique due to the narrow scope of my cultural knowledge. No guide to songwriting in therapy will explain every form of music that exists within world cultures because the scope of material and the possible ways of composing music and songs is so incredibly vast. Therefore, I chose to present materials that reflect what I know and understand within the scope of my personal, professional and cultural identities.

Contextualization. This is a process of inquiring into and disclosing the context of the phenomenon being studied and the research study itself (Abrams,

2005, Bruscia, 1998)). The completion of this final project is part of the requirements for a master in counselling degree. Students are encouraged to think about a final project and align course assignments toward addressing their chosen topics. My topic melds the disciplines of counselling and music therapy together. The aim of the project is to contribute to the field of music therapy in a meaningful way and make songwriting more accessible for therapists and clients.

Therefore, I drew upon ideas from the fields of music therapy and counselling in constructing the theoretical background and techniques for songwriting.

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This project provides some clear instructions for techniques of songwriting, but it does not purport to cover every possible technique. This project contributes to the music therapy literature by providing ideas that may be used, adapted, or act as an inspiration to users who identify their clinical needs and create their own techniques of songwriting.

Groundedness. Groundedness (Glaser & Strauss, cited in Abrams, 2005) is meant to express “the extent to which the researcher orients research processes, data, and findings around the participants and phenomena in their original, living contexts” (Abrams, 2005, p. 249). This was accomplished through thick descriptions of songwriting techniques and ethical issues. The unique individual qualities of each technique and ethical issue were described, as well as situational and cultural contexts where applicable. The ethical dilemma illustrated the need for guidance regarding songwriting in therapeutic contexts by detailing an example of addressing the many ethical concerns and discussing the resulting implications.

Groundedness could have been increased by thick descriptions of implementing each technique with clients, describing actual ethical dilemmas experienced by music therapists who use songwriting in sessions, and gaining feedback of the guide from several skilled professionals in the field and their clients. This was not done due to the limited scope of this project.

Durability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Durability represents “the consistency and stability of findings throughout repeated applications (stepwise replication) of the research method” (Abrams, 2005, p.250). Once this project is published,

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read, analyzed, put to use, and other users document the findings, then its

durability will be revealed through repeated application, evaluation of

meaningfulness and the value of the findings. The durability of the guide to

songwriting in therapy remains speculative until clinicians actually use the

materials and record their results.

Usefulness. Usefulness or relevance (Stige cited in Wheeler & Kenny,

2005; Wheeler, 2005) is an appraisal of this project’s applied value. I see this project as a contribution to practical knowledge that is applicable in real life contexts. What is more, it opens up a discussion that needs to take place in the profession regarding the ethical considerations of songwriting in therapy.

Hopefully this project will empower members of the music therapy and counselling professions to use songwriting in an ethical manner as a result of its writing and the subsequent raising of the reader’s awareness.

Comprehensibility (Cobb & Hagemaster, cited in Abrams, 2005). This theme asks if the research is understandable. This has yet to be evaluated.

Certainly those within the music therapy field should understand the concepts and instructions in the guide as a result of their training, but I wonder how many counsellors without music therapy or music training will be able to utilize these methods. Specialized training in music therapy and music may present a barrier for some, as will level of talent, skill, and willingness to try a new technique of therapy. Having some understanding of the audience for the guide, I have attempted to make it clear in purpose, organized, and easy to read. For

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publication purposes the content will remain the same, but some of the formatting

might change to make it more aesthetically pleasing.

Aesthetic depth (Bruscia, 1998). This theme asks if any beauty is

conveyed in the writing of the project. Beauty can be expressed in many ways,

including the creativity with which I expressed the presentation of the ideas in the

guide so as to inspire different ways of working with clients. The guide has

elements of structural beauty, that being “economy, clarity, cohesion, harmony,

balance and wholeness” (Abrams, 2005, p. 252). What is lacking in the guide is

expressive beauty such as the imaginative use of creative media. Although APA

style guidelines were not followed in the techniques section of the guide, the

assumed standards of writing had some effect on the format, as did time

limitations. Straightforward writing and presentation format were more

economical than poetic writing (ironically!) and inclusion of graphics. For

publication purposes, the guide itself could include more examples and graphics

to make it more engaging for the reader.

Congruence (Bruscia, 1998). This is “the degree to which all of the various components within a given study align so that the study is in harmony with itself”

(Abrams, 2005, p. 252). In writing this project I have attempted to present a flow of ideas from establishing the need, providing a history and theoretical background, presenting songwriting techniques, and discussing the ethical implications of engaging in this therapeutic work. I have attempted to make the work resonate with a coherent framework of meanings and assumptions that are guided by my own intentions, values and ideals. Abrams (2005) and Stige (as

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cited in Wheeler & Kenny, 2005) also ask researchers to consider the appropriateness of their methodology. I believe that the methodology for this project was appropriate given the project’s scope and time limitations.

Ethical integrity (Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Stige, as cited in Wheeler &

Kenny, 2005). I believe that my project demonstrates ethical integrity by showing concern for the proper referencing of the source of ideas, showing concern for the validity of songwriting in therapy, and showing concern for the protection of users of the guide through an exploration of ethical issues. Ethical integrity could have been improved had I allowed the CAMT to respond to the issues of ethics that I have raised. I have to take responsibility for opening up this discussion and following it through by drawing the CAMT’s attention to the ethical issues I have presented, and supporting the resolution of the issues by providing further input, support, and advocacy for resolution.

Intersubjectivity (Elliot, Fischer & Rennie, 1999). This is the “degree to which the researcher integrates the perspectives of others throughout the various stages of the research” (Abrams, 2005, p. 253). Intersubjectivity has been limited to the input and feedback of my project supervisor. With ethical approval I could have included feedback from many more people, but deadlines and a desire to streamline the process did not allow this to occur. Thus, what is missing is the

“support, guidance, feedback, scrutiny, dialogue, uncovering, and arrival of insights” (Abrams, 2005, p. 253) by myself with the aid of others. Peer review and evaluations of the songwriting techniques by clients would have contributed

“additional perspectives on the researcher’s already well-informed

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understandings of [songwriting techniques], research methods, and constructing

findings” (Abrams, 2005, p. 254).

Two additional components. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest that subjectivity in qualitative research should be checked via credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability. Two of these checks seem applicable to this research. Dependability asks if all reasonable areas have been explored. In answer to this question in regards to this research, the answer is both yes and no. Yes, in that for the scope of this project a reasonable amount of research was completed and a reasonable number of techniques for songwriting in therapy were presented. No, in that the topic of songwriting in therapy has not been exhausted. The number of techniques is only limited to the imagination and creativity of human beings; therefore there will always be more to explore.

Confirmability asks if a third party researcher could follow the chain of events that led to the research findings. Here again, the answer is yes and no.

Yes, in that a third party could review all the materials that have been referenced as sources of material and inspiration for the guide for therapeutic songwriting.

No, in that each researcher who reviewed the very same material will arrive at different and unique conclusions due to investing themselves in the process of creating songwriting techniques.

Recommendations

Writing on the topic of songwriting in therapy is far from complete.

Therefore I recommend that others who wish to contribute ideas on this topic take the opportunity to expand on these techniques as well as making their own

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contributions to the literature so that the resources available to therapists continues to expand. As others do their research and writing, I suggest that they keep a reflective journal so that they are aware of the values that influence their work.

Future research can be grounded in the actual implementation of songwriting in therapy techniques. In some ways Baker and Wigram (2005) accomplished this in their edited book; however, they did not address the ethical issues that result from implementing songwriting in therapy. The groundedness of the techniques of songwriting in therapy will increase with the writing of thick descriptions of study findings and interpretations. In addition, when therapists begin using the techniques in the guide to songwriting in therapy, they may offer feedback on its durability, usefulness, and comprehensibility, while also providing intersubjectivity so that adaptations and improvements to the document can be made.

Finally, not only will I bring the issues of the ethical use of songwriting in therapy to the attention of the CAMT, but also I encourage others to do the same.

Once ethical guidelines are in place, the CAMT and therapists can be assured that those who implement songwriting in therapy will be informed and ethical in their practice.

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At Last

Sung to the melody of the original song of this name by

At last

My project is finally finished

I’ll have some time to replenish

My energy that’s so diminished!

At last

I’ll think of some things to do

That don’t have me looking askew

At a monitor made by Daewoo.

I’ll take some time to make contact

With friends who’ve assumed I died

I’ll tell them I missed all their phone calls

And they won’t give me grief, though I lied

I’m done

Though there are still hoops to jump through

I’ll not let them get me too blue

‘Cause I am done writing, at last!

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