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Chapter 2 Characteristics & Functions of Ingredients used in Making of Bread, Cake and Flour

Ingredients/Raw materials 1. Flour 2. Shortening agents 3. Sweetening agents 4. Raising agents 5. Dairy products 6. Eggs 7. Sundry materials

2.1 FLOUR • TYPES OF THE FLOURS a) Wheat flour b) Rye flour c) Barley flour d) Buckwheat flour e) Cornmeal f) Millet flour g) Oatmeal h) Rice flour i) Jowar flour j) Gram flour k) Soy flour l) Potato flour a. Wheat flour • Wheat flour is the most important ingredient in the bakeshop.

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• It provides bulk and structure to most of the baker’s products, including breads, cakes, , and . Six principal classes of wheat are grown in North America: 1. Hard red winter 2. Hard red spring 3. Hard white 4. Soft white 5. Soft red winter 6. Durum Flour is obtained from grain which is divided into 3 parts • Bran – 15% • Germ – 2.5% • Endosperm – 82.5% TYPES OF WHEAT FLOUR 1. Straight flour : Straight flour is flour made from the entire endosperm. Protein content of straight flour depends on the wheat, but if made from hard wheat it may contain 13 to 15% protein 2. Patent flour: Patent flour is milled from the inner part of the endosperm. Patent flours typically range from 11 to 13% protein 3. Clear flour -The portion of the endosperm left after the patent flour is removed is called clear flour. .This flour comes from the outer parts of the endosperm and thus is darker in color and higher in protein. Clear flour may have a protein content as high as 17% 4. High-gluten flour: Flour that has an especially high protein content is sometimes used in hard-crusted breads and in such specialty products as pizza dough and bagels. It is also used to strengthen doughs made from flours that contain little or no gluten. A typical high-gluten flour has 14% protein 5.Cake flour: Cake flour is a weak or low-gluten flour made from soft wheat. It has a very soft, smooth texture and a pure white color. Cake flour is used for cakes and other delicate baked goods that require low gluten content. Protein content of cake flour is approximately 8% 6. Pastry flour: Pastry flour is also a weak or low-gluten flour, but it is slightly stronger than cake flour. It has the creamy white color of patent flour rather than the pure white of cake flour.

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Pastry flour is used for pie doughs and for some cookies, biscuits, and muffins. Pastry flour has a protein content of about 9% 7. All-purpose flour: This flour is formulated to be slightly weaker than bread flour so it can be used for pastries as well. All-purpose flour has a protein content of about 11 to 11.5% 8. Self-rising flour is a white flour to which baking powder and, sometimes, salt has been added. Its advantage is that the baking powder is blended in uniformly. 9. Whole wheat flour is made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and germ. The germ, high in fat, which can become rancid 10. Bran flour is flour to which bran flakes have been added. The bran may be coarse or fine, depending on specifications b. RYE FLOUR • Rye is the most popular flour for bread making next to wheat flour. • Although rye flour contains some proteins, these do not form gluten. Therefore, breads made with 100% rye flour are heavy and dense. • To make a lighter rye loaf, it is necessary to use a mixture of rye and hard wheat flours. Typical formulas call for 25 to 40% rye flour and 60 to 75% hard wheat flour. • Rye flour is milled much like wheat flour. c. Barley Meal • Barley is low in gluten • Flour is mostly blended with some proportion of wheat & rye flour to give the loaf volume • Loaves are definitely on the robust side. They tend to be rather grey & flat & have an earthy , rather mealy flavor • Barley meal is ground whole grain of the barley, while barley flour is ground pearl barley with outer skin removed • Either can be added in small quantities to wholemeal or to white flour to produce a bread with a slightly rustic flavor d. Buckwheat flour • The grain is blackish in color • It is not strictly a cereal but is the fruit of a plant belonging to the dock family

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• The three cornered grains are milled to a flour & used for pancakes, blinis & in France crepes & galettes • It also can be also be added to a wheat flour & is popular mixed with other grain in multigrain loaves • It has a distinctive, earthy flavor & is best used in small quantity e. Cornmeal (Maize meal) • This meal is ground from white & yellow corn & is normally available in coarse, medium or fine grinds • Coarse ground meal is used for the Italian dish of polenta & bread making • Corn contains no gluten so will not make a loaf unless it is blended with wheat flour, in which case the corn adds a pleasant flavor & color f. Millet flour • Although high in protein, millet flour is low in gluten & used not use by itself in bread making • It is pale yellow in color, with a gritty texture • The addition of wheat flour produces an interesting, slightly nutty flavor g. Oatmeal • Oatmeal I does not contain gluten & is only very rarely used by itself for bread making • Oatmeal can be used in wheat or multigrain loaves • Choose finely ground oatmeal for making oatcakes or for using in loaves • Rolled oats look good scattered over the crust of loaves & rolls & add pleasant flavor h. Rice flour • Polished rice, if ground very finely becomes rice flour • It can be used as a thickening agent & is useful for people with wheat allergies • It is also occasionally used for some Indian breads • Ground from brown rice, this flour has a slightly sweet flavor. It is used alone or combined with wheat flour in breads and batters. i. Jowar flour • The flour ground from the pretty yellow grains, is a creamy white color • The flat breads usually made from this flour, called bhakris , are roasted on a griddle j. Bajra

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• The grains are a mixture of yellow & grey but when ground, the flour is a more uniform grey • It has a strong nutty aroma & a distinct flavor • Bajra bread or rotla is cooked like all unleavened bread , on a griddle k. Gram flour • This is flour made from ground chickpeas. It is also known as besan • The Indian missi rotis are made from mixture of whole wheat flour & gram flour l. Soy flour • Soy flour is high in protein and is usually mixed in with whole grain flours in recipes m. Potato flour • This is a gluten-free flour made from cooked, dried and ground potatoes. It is mostly used as a thickener. It is also known as potato starch Seven-grain (or nine-grain) Flour • Seven-grain flour is a commercial blend commonly made up of millet, rye, corn, wheat, barley, oats, and flax or triticale. It is found in health-food stores and well-stocked markets. A more coarsely ground cereal blend is also available. Store seven-grain flour in a cool, dry place for up to 5 months. Characteristics of wheat flour 1. Color: flour should be creamish white in color. Bleaching the color helps to get the color 2. Strength: it depends upon gluten quality present in the flour. For making bread, strong flour is preferred & weak flour is preferred for making cakes & products. 3. Tolerance: this is the quality of the flour to withstand the fermentation or mixing process in excess of what is normally required to mature its gluten property. High Absorption Power: this means the ability of the flour to hold maximum amount of water. If the flour has less W.A.P. the bread will not be of good quality & will have less yield 5. Uniformity: if the flour used not uniform then the quality of the product will differ. Functions of flour 1. It acts as the binding agent & an absorbing agent 2. It is important for the flavor of product 3. It adds the nutritional value to the product 4. It builds the structure to the product

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5. It holds the other ingredients together & they are distributed evenly into the dough or mixture 6. It is the backbone of the bakery products 7. It affects the shelf quality of the products.

2.2 Shortening agents • Any fat acts as a shortening in baking because it shortens gluten strands and tenderize the product in general it is used in solid items. • It is usually white and tasteless that has been specially formulated for baking. • Fat may be made from vegetable oils, animal fat or both which are hydrogenated, thus turning the liquids into solids. Margarine • It is creamy white in appearance and solid in room temperature. • It is manufactured from various hydrogenated animal and vegetable fat plus flavoring ingredients, emulsifiers, coloring agents and other ingredients. • It is available in two types: • Cake margarine: This type is soft and has good creaming ability e.g. Golden Margarine by Masterline • Pastry margarine: This is tougher and more elastic and has a waxy texture. Specially formulated for dough that is laminated e.g. Lily Margarine by Masterline Other fats used in the Bakery: • Hydrogenated fat: Creamy yellow in colour solid in room temperature but has a grainy texture. • Butter: Yellow in colour, smooth and soft in texture. Fresh butter consists of about 80% fat, 15% water and 5% milk solids. • It is generally graded and is available salted and unsalted. • Lard: It is rendered fat of pigs and because of its plastic nature is very valued for puff pastry and meat pies. • Suet: It is rendered fat of Beef or Lamb found near the kidneys, can be used in confectionery for pies etc • Oil: Their use is limited to greasing pans or frying.

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Functions of fats: 1. Fat provides nutrition 2. It makes the product tender & palatable 3. It helps to retain air during creaming operation, it increases volume to the product 4. It gives softness to the product 5. It improves the taste & shelf life of the products 6. It gives good flavor & color 7. In breads dough it provides extensibility 8. In breads it improves the texture & grain 9. In biscuit it is used for shortening value 10. It increases eating quality of the product

2.3 Sweetening Agents • When sweetening is used with other foods it enhances the combined sensations of odour & flavour. It also adds its • Substitution of one to another in baking formula gives allowance for the difference in the sweetening effect • Sweetening is available in various forms-granulated, fine grained , powder & in a solution form • vary in their sweetening quality & are available in the following forms 1. Granulated sugar 2. Castor sugar 3. Icing sugar 4. Cube sugar 5. Loaf sugar 6. Nib sugar 7. 8. 9. 10. Golden 11.

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12. • Granulated sugar: it is an all purpose crystal sugar & has large size granuals. It is consider unsuitable for creaming mixture by manual process & ideal for boiled sugar work • Icing sugar- granulated sugar is ground & sieve through a fine mess to produce a fine white powder sugar. It contains calcium phosphate or starch to retain its free flowing capacity • Castor sugar is finely ground white crystallized sugar. It gives smooth structure to aerated products like cake, sponge, pastries etc. • Loaf sugar is a large compressed sugar. It is mainly used for boiled sugar work because of its purity • Brown sugar: it is unrefined sugar, which is brown in color. There are two type: • Demerara sugar: it is partially refined, fairly dry sugar, which is light brown in color • Barbados sugar: it is less refined, smaller grained moist sugar, which is dark brown in color • Treacle: it is dark color syrup with thick consistency. It is a slightly burnt sugar, which is mainly used for rich fruit cake, puddings & biscuit • : it is golden in color & heavy in nature. It is used for ginger cake, biscuits, steamed pudding & sauces. • Glucose or invert syrup: it is produced from starch or with the addition of weak acid to invert the sugar. It prevents crystallization in sugar boiling, it gives shelf life, retains the moisture for longer period in cakes & it can be used in chocolate to make it pliable • Honey: it is natural product extracted from the nectar of flowers by the honey bee. It gives delicious flavors & is used for making cakes, biscuits, brandy snaps & nougat • Jaggery: It is a concentrated product of date, cane juice, or palm sap (see ) without separation of the and crystals, and can vary from golden brown to dark brown in color • Molasses: A thick syrup produced in refining raw sugar and ranging from light to dark brown in color. Functions of sugar:

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1. They add sweetness and flavor. 2. They create tenderness and fineness of texture, partly by weakening the gluten structure. 3. They give crust color. 4. They increase keeping qualities by retaining moisture. 5. They act as creaming agents with fats and as foaming agents with eggs. 6. They provide food for yeast 2.4 Raising / leavening agents: • Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce shape and texture. • The aeration of flour products is affected by the following: 1. Biological eg. Yeast 2. Chemical eg. Baking powder 3. Mechanical eg. Whisking, beating 4. Lamination eg. Folding, rolling 5. Combination of the above Yeast: • It is a living micro-organism & is a form of plant life. It requires for its growth food, moisture, warmth & air. The primary function of yeast is to change sugar into carbon dioxide gas, so that the dough, in which it is generated , is aerated • Other enzyme in flour & yeast change some of the soluble starch to sugar. • Yeast is available in three forms: • 1.Fresh yeast , also called compressed yeast , is moist and perishable and is preferred by professional bakers. • 2. Active dry yeast is a dry, granular form of yeast. Active dry yeast must be rehydrated in 4 times its weight of warm water [about 110°F (43°C)] • 3.Instant dry yeast is also a dry granular form of yeast, but it does not have to be dissolved in water before use. It can be added in its dry form because it absorbs water much more quickly than regular dry yeast. It also produces more gas than regular dry yeast, so less of it is needed. Instant dry yeast is sometimes called rapid-rise or quick-rise yeast Chemical:

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• Chemicals, which are mixed in the recipe to increase the volume of products are called chemical agents. • Baking powder: Dull white in appearance and is a smooth powder. It is made of an acid i.e. cream of tartar, soda bicarbonate i.e. an alkali and a base i.e. corn starch. Which helps in keeping the acid and alkali separate. • Soda bi carbonate: It is bright white in appearance and lesser smooth compared to baking powder. If Moisture and an acid are present, soda releases carbon dioxide gas, which leavens the product. • Ammonium bi carbonate: It is used in making cookies and biscuits. Ammonium bi carbonate when subject to heat decompose into ammonia, Co2 and water and leaves no solid residue. Lamination • Lamination acts as a raising agent. In pastry –folding & rolling helps to give the lift. • When water turns to steam, it expands to 1,100 times its original volume. Because all baked products contain some moisture, steam is an important leavening agent. • Puff pastry, cream puffs, popovers, and pie crusts use steam as their primary or only leavening agent. If the starting baking temperature for these products is high, steam is produced rapidly and leavening is greatest. Mechanical aeration: • It is incorporating air by whisking, beating & sieving. When sugar & eggs, fat & sugar, fat & flour or any combination of these are beaten or whisk together or flour is sieved , it works as aeration. Whichever way the air is introduced into the mixing, be it by hand, whisk, spatula or by machine, it is still termed as mechanical aeration Combination: • Danish pastries are a combination of aeration by yeast & by lamination. Functions of leavening agents: 1. It increases the volume of the products 2. It improves the product by making it tender & lighter 3. It improves crumb color, softness of texture, taste & smell 4. It improves digestion quality

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2.5 Dairy products

Fresh Liquid Milk: • Fresh full milk- not widely used for the fat content and hence necessary recipe alterations need to be done. • Skim milk- widely preferred as no recipe alterations need to be done. • Pasteurized milk- treated milk which is preferred. • Homogenized milk – the fat is evenly distributed Cream • Various types of fresh cream, differing primarily in fat content, are available • Whipping cream has a fat content of 30 to 40% • Light cream, also called table cream or coffee cream, contains 16 to 22% fat, usually about 18%. • Half-and-half has a fat content of 10 to 12%,too low for it to be called cream. • Crème fraîche is a slightly aged, cultured heavy cream, thick but pourable, with a pleasant, somewhat tangy flavor. Synthetic cream • It is made soya milk. • More stable at room temperature and does not curdle. • Preservatives flavorings and buffering agents. • Brands available in market- Rich, Tropolite, Davar etc. Fermented Milk Products • Buttermilk is fresh, liquid milk, usually skim milk, that has been cultured or soured by bacteria • Sour cream has been cultured or fermented by adding lactic acid bacteria. This makes it thick and slightly tangy in flavor. It has about 18% fat. • Yogurt is milk (whole or low-fat) cultured by special bacteria. It has a custard like consistency. Most yogurt has additional milk solids added, and some of it is flavored and sweetened • Evaporated and Condensed Milk • Dried Milk • Cheese

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Functions of milk: • It gives nutritional value to the product • Improves gas retention power of the dough • helps to give crust color to the product • Gives flavor & taste to the product • It keeps product tender • Butterfat present in milk keeps the product moist for longer time & improves shelf life

2.6 Eggs • Eggs are used in most of the bakery products. • Duck, geese & turkey eggs can also be used • As these eggs have different characteristics bakers prefer hen eggs only • A whole egg consists primarily of a yolk, a white, and a shell. In addition, it contains a membrane that lines the shell and forms an air cell at the large end, and two white strands called chalazae that hold the yolk centered. Market Forms • Fresh eggs or shell eggs • Frozen eggs • Dried eggs Functions of egg 1. It provides structure to the product 2. It provides moisture to the product 3. It gives flavor 4. It improves the product taste 5. It gives nutritional value 6. Lecithin present in the egg yolk acts as an emulsifier 7. It gives softness to the products 8. It is used as thickening agent as well as binding agent 9. It has a shortening action 10. Egg wash gives a shining appearance to pastry & baked dough products

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2.7 SUNDRY FRUITS AND NUTS Fruits • Fresh, apples, apricots, bananas, berries, cherries, figs, Grapefruit, grapes, kiwi, kumquats, lemons, limes, mangoes, melons, nectarines ,Oranges, papayas, passion fruit, peaches, pears, pineapples, plums, rhubarb (actually not a fruit but a stem) Canned and Frozen Nuts • Almond, cashewnut, coconut, hazelnut, macadamianut, pecans, peanut, pinenuts, pistachions, walnut, CHOCOLATE AND COCOA • Chocolate and cocoa are derived from cocoa or cacao beans. When the beans are fermented, roasted, and ground, the resulting product is called Chocolate liquor, which contains a white or yellowish fat called cocoa butter. • SPICES, AND FLAVORINGS: • small amount of spice usually has a great deal of flavoring power, it is important to weigh spices carefully and accurately. • Eg. Allspice, anise, caraway, cardamom, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, mace, nutmeg, poppy seeds, sesame sedds VANILLA • Vanilla is the most important flavoring in the pastry shop. The source of the flavor is the ripened, partially dried fruit of a tropical orchid. This fruit, called vanilla bean or vanilla pod, is readily available, but at a high price. In spite of their cost, vanilla beans are valued by pastry chefs for making the finest-quality pastries and dessert sauces and fillings ALCOHOLS • Various alcoholic beverages are useful flavoring ingredients in the pastry shop. These include sweet alcohols, often called liqueurs, nonsweet alcohols, and wines. Many liqueurs are fruit-flavored. The most important of these are orange (including Cointreau, Grand Marnier, and Triple Sec) and cassis or blackcurrant. Other important flavors are bitter almond (amaretto), chocolate (crème de cacao), mint (crème de menthe), and coffee (crème de café, Kahlúa, Tía Maria). Nonsweet alcohols include rum, cognac,

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kirschwasser (a colorless brandy made from cherries), and Calvados (a brandy made from apples). The two most important wines are both sweet wines, Marsala (from Sicily) and Madeira (from the Portuguese island of the same name)

FUNCTIONS OF WATER 1. It gives moisture to the products 2. It combines all the dry ingredients together 3. It helps to distribute the raw materials equally in the batter 4. It builds structure of the baked products 5. It controls the batter & dough temperature 6. It controls the consistency of the dough & batter 7. It helps to develop to develop the gluten it helps to release carbon dioxide gas 8. Water converts into vapour during baking

SALT • The chemical name of salt is sodium chloride. It is composed of 40% of sodium & 60% chloride. • Functions of salt: • It helps to control the yeast activity in bakery products • It enhances the flavour of the products • the crust color of the product is improved • Salt has a tightening action on flour proteins • It improves WAP • It controls the production of unwanted acids in the dough

IMPROVERS Chemical improvers • Potassium bromate • Ammonium chloride • Potassium iodate

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• Lime water • Calcium peroxide • Calcium propionate • Ascorbic acid • Lactic acid • Natural improvers • Milk • • Eggs • Fat • Sugar • Soy flour EMULSIFIERS • Glycerol Mono Stearate (GMS) • Lecithin • Gel

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