Section 1 Events, groups and developments

LIST OF ENTRIES Campaign for Nuclear European Defence Disarmament (CND) Community (EDC): Pleven acquis communitaire ‘cash for questions’ affair Plan Action Directe chancellor democracy European enlargement additionality church tax European Free Trade Additional Member System citizen initiative groups Association (EFTA) (AMS) citizens in uniform European Unit of Account adversary politics civil society (EUA) [See: European Aegean Sea dispute Clause Four Currency Unit (ECU)] Algerian conflict (1954–62) ‘clean hands’ operation -sceptic Alternative Vote System (AV) [See: Mani pulite] Eurosclerosis Amsterdam Treaty clientelism Events of May (1968) animal rights co-determination [See: May Events] anti-capitalist riots ‘cod wars’ Évian Agreements groups [See: cohabitation Exchange Rate Mechanism anti-] Cohesion Fund [See: (ERM) anti-fascism Economic and Social extra-parliamentary anti-Semitism Cohesion] opposition (APO) Armed Forces Movement (Portugal) collaboration asylum Colonels’ coup (Greece) fascism Atlanticists and Gaullists Common Agricultural Policy Felipeism (Felipismo) ausserparlamentarische (CAP) final solution Opposition (APO) [See: consociationalism Finlandisation extra-parliamentary constitutionalism First-past-the-post system opposition] constructive vote of no (FPTP) Aussiedler confidence Flick Affair Austrian State Treaty corporatism [See: floating voter Autonomen (the neo-corporatism] Fundis [See: Realos and Autonomous) Crichel Down Fundis] cumul des mandats Baader-Meinhof group G-7 [See: Group of Eight] Bad Godesberg Programme democratic deficit G-8 [See: Group of Eight] [See: Godesberg Gang of Four Programme] détente Gastarbeiter Barschel Affair GCHQ case Basic Law economic miracle German question Basic Treaty (1972) Economic and Monetary Gibraltar Basque separatism Union (EMU) Belgrano Affair [See: Economic and social Godesberg Programme Falklands War] cohesion Good Friday Agreement Benelux empty chair crisis Grabenwahlsystem Berlin airlift [See: Berlin Enosis () blockade] ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; grand coalition Basque Nation and green card system (of Berlin uprising 1953 Liberty) immigration) green movement Beveridge Report (UK) European Central Bank (ECB) Group of Eight (G-8) Bizonia European Coal and Steel Guillaume Affair Republic–Berlin Community (ECSC) Republic transition European Currency Unit Bundesbank (ECU)

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Helsinki Agreement Ombudsman Spanish coup attempt (1981) historic compromise Spiegel Affair () spin doctor Historikerstreit (historians’ paedophile scandal Stability and Growth Pact dispute) (Belgium) [See: Economic and Holocaust pantouflage Monetary Union] List of entries (East Stalin Note immigration Germany) Stammheim trials [See: informateur Baader-Meinhof group] International Brigades Petersberg Agreements Irish Republican Army (IRA) (Germany) Stormont pillarisation streitbare Demokratie judicialisation political asylum [See: Structural Funds [See: asylum] Economic and Social Kiessling Affair Politikverdrossenheit Cohesion] Kopp Affair poll tax subsidiarity popular front Lib–Lab pact Loi Defferre postmaterialism Tangentopoli Lombardy League [See: Northern Leagues] Poujadism Treaties of Rome Lomé Convention privatisation Treaty of European Union EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Luxembourg compromise Profumo Affair (TEU) [See: Maastricht 2 proportional representation Treaty] Maastricht Treaty Treaty of Nice mafia quango Mani pulite (‘clean hands’ Trizonia [See: Bizonia] operation) radicals’ decree two-ballot electoral system maquis Realos and Fundis ‘Two plus Four’ talks Rechtsstaat May Events (1968) Army Faction (Germany) Vergangenheitsbewältigung Médiateur [See: (Italy) (coming to terms with the Ombudsman] resistance groups past) Mezzogiorno reunification of Germany Vichy regime Modell Deutschland (the Rhineland model Voeren dispute (Belgium) German model) Round Table Volkspartei Affair Saarland question Waldheim Affair Schengen Agreement ‘Wende’ NATO twin-track decision Schleyer Affair West Lothian question Secret Army Organisation winter of discontent neocorporatism (OAS) women’s movement new politics Single European Act (SEA) new social movements Single Transferable Vote xenophobia Northern Leagues (STV) tribunal social capital social market economy Youandé Convention [See: Oder–Neisse line South Tyrol question Lomé Convention] oil crisis Spanish civil war Young Turks’ revolt

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Related entries are listed at the end of to some extent, to have restructured an entry by ‘[See also: . . .]’. An asterisk their national legal, policy and indicates a cross-reference to Section 2, administrative frameworks to ‘Biographies’. For example, the entry for accommodate it prior to entry. Colonels’ coup (Greece) has at the [See also: Amsterdam Treaty; end ‘[See also: Enosis; Papandreou*]’. Maastricht Treaty; Single European Act; The entry for Enosis is in this section; Treaties of Rome; Treaty of Nice] that for Papandreou is in Section 2. Action Directe acquis communitaire A French anarchist/Maoist terrorist group The French term: acquis communitaire founded in 1979, Action Directe played (sometimes called Community an active role in European terrorist patrimony) refers to the constantly networks until it was neutralised by a evolving rights and obligations deriving police operation in 1988. It had links from European Union (EU) treaty with the Basque separatist movement agreements, laws and regulations ETA and with Middle Eastern concluded by member states since the pro-Palestinian groups. The group Treaties of Rome establishing the attacked public and government European Economic Community entered buildings. Two prominent members, into force in 1958. Together, these Jean-Marc Rouillan and Nathalie agreements are held to represent the Ménigon, were arrested in Paris in constitutional basis of the EU. Amongst September 1980, but were other aims, the Single European Act controversially released under an (1987), the Treaty on European Union amnesty declared by Mitterrand when (TEU: the Maastricht Treaty) (1993) and he took office as President. Action the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) have Directe then began a bombing attempted to revise and rationalise the campaign against US and Israeli targets acquis communitaire by simplifying and and was banned by the French consolidating the existing Treaties of the government. The now illegal group split Union. The acquis is now understood to into factions. In January 1985 the comprise not only a strict definition of ‘internationalist’ section led by Rouillan Community law, but also all acts began a joint action with the West adopted under the second and third German Red Army Faction (RAF), pillars of the European Union and, more announcing the formation of a united importantly, the common objectives laid urban politico-military front in Western down in the treaties. The acquis can Europe, with NATO as its main target. therefore be understood to cover both That month Action Directe shot dead the judicial decisions and the policy General Audran, the government programme of the EU. The concept has minister responsible for French arms played a major role in discussions sales, and in April 1986 tried to kill Guy concerning the enlargement of the EU Brana, Deputy President of the to countries of Central and Eastern employers’ federation CNPF. In July Europe. These countries are expected 1986 the group bombed the offices to accept the acquis communitaire and, of the French police anti-terrorist unit

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and in November killed the Chairman of separate, votes: one for the candidate Renault. Four founder leaders of the in a constituency contest, one for a group were arrested in February 1987 party list, with that party list vote used and sentenced to life imprisonment in to determine overall allocations of January 1989, by which time the other seats. Many of the German Länder also members had been arrested and the use AMS in some form to elect their group had collapsed. Land legislatures. Italy combines [See also: ETA; Red Army Faction] election of three-quarters of its lower Action DirecteAdditional Member System (AMS) chamber of the legislature with election of the remainder from party lists. The additionality Scottish Parliament and Welsh The European Union’s (EU) cohesion Assembly were both elected by means policy is a regional policy which sets of versions of the Additional Member out to reduce economic and social System in 1999, using two votes. The disparities between richer and poorer overall degree of proportionality regions of the EU. The financial attained in AMS elections depends to a instruments used to effect cohesion large extent on the ratio of directly policy are termed the structural funds. elected legislators to those chosen from The additionality rule was introduced top-up lists, and whether a national, EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, during a major reform of the structural regional or only a more local top-up list 4 funds of 1988 and maintains that EU procedure is utilised. funds for regional development must be [See also: Grabenwahlsystem allocated in addition to, rather than (Germany)] instead of, member state funds. The European Commission monitors adversary politics member state compliance with additionality rules when structural funds A political process in which two are implemented. opposed political parties, or blocs of [See also: Economic and Social parties, debate and decide upon Cohesion] political issues by presenting competing arguments, representing radically opposed positions or derived from Additional Member System (AMS) opposed ideologies, and the issue is An electoral system based on the settled by majority adoption of one of principle of proportional representation, these arguments. Adversary politics but which combines election of contrasts with consensus politics, in candidates from (usually which controversies concerning political single-member) constituencies with issues are resolved by adoption of some form of reserve or ‘top-up’ list, in generally acceptable compromises. The order to produce an overall result that term ‘adversary politics’ was applied is more closely proportional to the particularly to the British House of percentages of votes which parties have Commons in the post-Second World received than if constituency-based War period, where the Labour and election were used alone. The electoral Conservative parties opposed each other system in use to elect the in on issues such as state control of the Federal Republic of Germany since industry, comprehensive education and 1949 has been based on the ‘additional housing policy (e.g. the iron and steel member’ system, at first using a single industry was twice nationalised and vote to count for election of the twice returned to private ownership). candidate and for the party list of that Adversary politics has been regarded as candidate, but since 1953 using two, a product of the ‘first-past-the-post’

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access adversary politics Aegean Sea dispute electoral system, which encourages the explorations of the area. Turkey again more extreme proponents of a policy to sent a research ship and warships to gain power in a party and thus in the area and a conflict was only governments, leading to sub-optimal avoided through NATO calls for policy outcomes, lacking continuity and restraint. The seriousness of the crisis consistency. The term was publicised by led the then Greek and Turkish Prime S. Finer in the book edited by him: Ministers, Papandreou and Özal, to Adversary Politics and Electoral Reform conduct a number of secret negotiations (London, Antony Wigram, 1975), in in Davos, Switzerland, in 1988, in which which he advocated electoral reform in they agreed to avoid hostilities and to Britain as the way to avoid the negative pursue confidence-building measures consequences of adversary politics. between their two countries. [See also: First-past-the-post system] adversary politics Aegean Sea dispute Algerian conflict (1954–62) Aegean Sea dispute The Algerian conflict brought about the Greece and Turkey have been in transition from the French Fourth dispute over the rights to territorial Republic to the Fifth Republic under de waters and the continental shelf in the Gaulle, the former leader of the Free Aegean Sea since the early . While French during the Second World War. DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, 5 Greece has traditionally argued for the The Algerian conflict began in resolution of the matter by the November 1954 with the anti-colonial International Court of Justice, Turkey struggle of the Algerian nationalist has argued for the bilateral negotiation movement, the National Liberation Front of a fair solution. In February 1974, the (FLN), founded by Ben Bella. The conflict escalated when oil was French Algerian territories had a discovered within Greek territorial population of some nine million waters off the island of Thassos. In May indigenous Muslim Algerians who were 1974, Turkey underlined its subordinate to a colonial population of counter-claim to these waters by one million French settlers, the ‘pieds sending a survey ship and 32 warships noir’. The FLN started anti-French riots to patrol the western limits of the area. and launched a spate of co-ordinated At this time, the dispute became attacks on French soldiers and police. entangled with a similar one over As the violent conflict escalated to airspace jurisdiction in the Aegean and involve atrocities against activists and with a controversy over arrangements civilians alike, the French army for Greek reintegration within the developed strong sympathies for the military structure of NATO. An French settlers and were enraged by agreement between Turkey and Greece the French government’s apparent to establish a commission to investigate inability to bring the situation under the sea dispute lapsed during the control. On 12 May 1956 a new Turkish military dictatorship of 1980–83. government was formed under Pflimlin, When the Turkish government who made known his intention to recognised the newly declared Turkish negotiate a cease-fire with the FLN. The Republic of Northern Cyprus, Greece following day, the army in Algiers took suspended all direct negotiations with power, set up a military government, Turkey. In 1987 the Greek Socialist the Committee of Public Safety under government took steps to nationalise General Massu, and called for de Gaulle the North Aegean Petroleum Company to form a national government capable (NAPC) and to have the state-owned of maintaining a French Algeria. On 17 Public Petroleum Corporation extend May, the French Parliament awarded

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the Pflimlin government emergency distributed among the other candidates. powers to try to resolve the conflict. This elimination and redistribution Meanwhile, a rival government was procedure, using second, third and later established in Algiers and on 24 May a preferences if necessary, continues until Committee of Public Safety took power one candidate secures an absolute in Corsica. On 28 May the French majority. No West European state uses President, Coty, intervened by asking de this system, though it has been Gaulle to form a ‘government of proposed as a replacement for the national safety’. De Gaulle was simple-majority first-past-the-post British confirmed as Prime Minister by system, either by itself or – as the Parliament on 1 June and proceeded to Jenkins Commission on the Electoral erode the army’s political power by a System proposed – in conjunction with combination of institutional reforms and local ‘top-up’ lists. key appointments. Between 1958 and [See also: Additional Member System; 1962, reciprocal terror campaigns were Single Transferable Vote] conducted by the FLN and the rival pro-French Algerian Secret Army Amsterdam Treaty Organisation (OAS) led by General Jouhaud and General Salan. In 1959 de The Amsterdam Treaty of the European EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Gaulle granted self-determination to Union (EU) was signed on 2 October 6 Algeria, a measure which was roundly 1997. The Treaty had two central aims: approved by referenda both in to revive popular interest in the EU by and Algeria. The Évian Agreements of making it appear more relevant and March 1962 gave full independence to accountable; and to prepare the EU for Algeria in exchange for guarantees to the planned enlargement to incorporate protect the rights of the pieds noir. new members from Central and Eastern However, resentment by extremist Europe. The Treaty encompasses six Algerian Europeans fuelled widespread main areas: freedom, security and violent conflict with militant Muslims justice; the Union and its citizens; and by the end of 1962 some 800,000 external policy; the Union’s institutions; European settlers had fled to France. co-operation and flexibility; and the [See also: Évian Agreements; Secret simplification and consolidation of the Army Organisation; Coty*; de Gaulle*; existing Treaties of the Union: the Pflimlin*] acquis communitaire. The Treaty Algerian conflictAlternative (1954–62) Vote System (AV) negotiations were marred by a general unwillingness by member state Alternative Vote System (AV) governments to make concessions to An electoral system using the Union; growing divisions between single-member constituencies, where large and small member states; and a voters place the candidates in order of rocky period in the Franco-German preference, using the numbers 1, 2, 3 . . . relationship. As a result, the Treaty is an etc., rather than place a cross by the unwieldy document which experts fear name of one candidate. A candidate will not serve its stated aims well. securing more than 50 per cent of ‘first [See also: acquis communitaire; preference’ votes is elected. In democratic deficit; Maastricht Treaty; constituencies where no candidate has Treaty of Nice] obtained that absolute majority of first preferences, the candidate with the animal rights lowest number of first preference votes is eliminated, and the second In Western European countries, preference votes of that candidate are campaigners for animal rights have

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access animal rights anti-capitalist riots formed organisations to protect animals December 2000 and in Genoa, where from abuse and to promote their the G-8 was meeting in July 2001. These welfare. Ongoing animal rights riots followed a number of earlier campaigns have included calls for a ban instances of violent demonstrations in on the use of animals in scientific London and elsewhere by anti-capitalist experimentation, particularly in medical groups. research and in the production of [See also: Group of Eight] toiletries, where the concept of ‘cruelty-free beauty’ has attained mass antifa groups [See: anti-fascism] popularity in recent years. Similarly, animal rights campaigns against anti-fascism intensive and inhumane farming methods have dovetailed with A general term denoting opposition to environmentalist and consumer fascism, including nazism. More concerns for ‘safe’ foods to reach a particularly, it has been employed as a mass public. Animal rights campaigners legitimising principle and integrative have also regularly targeted blood idea by communist organisations and sports. Although most groups campaign regimes, including the Soviet occupation peacefully, extremist movements such regime in Germany and the GDR, based as the UK’s Animal Liberation Front on the idea that fascism had been DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, 7 (ALF) have been active since the early defeated primarily by the USSR and 1970s. These engage in more militant communist resisters elsewhere. In the protests, even terrorist activity, including GDR, non-communist political parties attacks on animal testing sites, on staff and social organisations such as the of companies engaged in animal testing, trade union and youth associations and on shops selling luxury animal were linked to the SED (the communist products, particularly furs. party) through membership of an animal rights anti-capitalist riots ‘anti- bloc’. A number of ‘anti-fascist’ (‘antifa’) anti-capitalist riots groups were formed throughout Between 30 November and 3 December Germany at the end of the Second 1999, demonstrations against the World World War, to act as organisations for Trade Organisation (WTO) brought the the purging of Nazis from public life and retail centre of Seattle to a standstill. to provide an organisational basis for Militant, non-violent protesters tried to the regeneration of political and social block access to the meeting. Over life in devastated German towns and 40,000 workers, students and cities. These were chiefly made up of environmental activists took part in a socialists and other trade unionists. In legal march organised by the AFL-CIO. the Soviet zone of occupation, the These peaceful demonstrations were autonomy of these groups was usurped by small groups of perceived as potentially dangerous to self-proclaimed anarchists, who, dressed the claims of the Communists to be the in black, smashed windows. The police ‘leading party’, and they were swiftly responded with anti-riot measures and disbanded by the Soviet authorities. running battles took place between [See also: fascism] police and protesters on the street. Those arrested in the police action anti-Semitism became known as the Seattle 580. Such protests were then emulated in Western The term in its literal sense means European countries, for example during hostility towards ‘Semites’: people from the European Union summit in Nice in the Middle East defined by their use of

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access anti-Semitism Armed Forces Movement (Portugal)

the Semitic language. It has, since the military officers in March 1975 prompted nineteenth century, come to refer to a shift to the left in government policy. hostility towards the Jews, though such The organs of the MFA were dissolved hostility predates the use of the term, and a Supreme Revolutionary Council since anti-Jewish rhetoric and was created. The promised persecution date back to the first constitutional democracy was century AD. Such anti-Jewish sentiment introduced in 1976, and, after free has been based on two main strands: elections, the army Chief of Staff the biological – that the Jews were an General Eanes was selected as inferior race and had the capacity by President by the Parliament. In 1982, a inter-breeding with non-Jewish races to substantial constitutional review harm the qualities of other races, and a removed the direct political influence of socio-economic and cultural strand – the army by effectively replacing the that Jews sought domination in areas of Council of the Revolution with an finance and commerce, that they sought explicitly civilian Council of State; it also to constitute themselves as a social elite reduced the powers of the presidency, and that they posed a threat to still occupied at this time by Eanes. A indigenous culture. Both strands further revision of 1989 removed contributed to anti-Semitism as defined Portugal’s constitutional commitment to EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, and fostered by the Nazi regime, and Marxist principles. 8 which culminated in the Holocaust. [See also: Eanes*; Salazar*] Since the Second World War anti-Semitism has been evident in other asylum countries, especially the former USSR and, since the downfall of , The countries of Western Europe allow in Russia and some other former individuals who claim political communist states. persecution in their own country to [See also: final solution; Holocaust; cross their national borders and apply nazism; xenophobia] for political asylum. While the asylum anti-SemitismArmed Forces Movement (Portugal) principle is upheld in the Geneva Convention of 1949, asylum entitlement Armed Forces Movement (Portugal) is regulated by each country’s national A right-wing dictatorship had been laws or constitution. Belgium, , established in Portugal by Salazar in Switzerland and were 1932, led by Caetano from 1968. On popular destinations for asylum seekers 24–25 April 1974, this regime was because of their generous asylum overthrown by a military group, the policies and good employment Armed Forces Movement (MFA), in a prospects. Since the 1980s, claims for bloodless coup known as the ‘revolution asylum have rapidly escalated to a scale of carnations’. A military administration which causes problems for Western led by General de Spínola, the European governments. Between 1981 Committee of National Salvation, was and 1991 the annual number of asylum established as a temporary measure applications to European countries pending a return to democracy. increased five-fold, exceeding half a Although democratic reforms were million in 1991. Numbers have risen introduced, there followed a period of because of continued population uncertainty as the MFA split into left and growth, economic weakness, and unrest right factions. Spínola resigned in in the developing countries of Africa September 1974 and was succeeded by and Asia. Also, in the late 1980s, the General da Costa Gomes. An political transitions from communism in unsuccessful counter-coup led by senior Central and Eastern Europe created

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access asylum Atlanticists and Gaullists widespread economic uncertainty and a as well as the CSU and some in the rise in nationalist feeling, spilling over CDU. into civil war in the former Yugoslavia. [See also: Adenauer*; Strauss*] These pressures sent thousands of asylum seekers and illegal immigrants ausserparlamentarische Opposition to nearby western borders, particularly (APO) [See: extra-parliamentary to Germany and, to a lesser extent, to opposition] Austria and Sweden. Many asylum claims are ruled by the authorities to be Aussiedler unfounded and ‘false’ asylum seekers are increasingly used as scapegoats for A German term meaning: a person who social problems in Western European is resettled. It is a technical term within countries. Western European countries German law relating to immigrants, have begun to amend their asylum referring to those migrating into the legislation to restrict applicants to those Federal Republic who can claim who genuinely face political persecution German nationality by virtue of former in their home countries, rather than residence in German territory or in those who are looking for better certain other states (mainly of Eastern employment prospects and a better Europe) before 1945. It especially standard of living. applied to ethnic Germans deported DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, 9 [See also: immigration] from former German territories in asylum Atlanticists and Gaullists Poland, Czechoslovakia and the . Such persons had privileged Atlanticists and Gaullists status in the Federal Republic with Terms used to designate groups within regard to the right to reside there and the West German CDU which differed receive social benefits, compared with regarding the priority which the other immigrants or asylum seekers. Adenauer and Erhard governments [See also: immigration] should give to relations with the USA (the Atlanticists) or relations with Austrian State Treaty France and other West European allies (the Gaullists). The Atlanticists warned Following the Second World War, against following French policy although democracy was restored in concerning especially security and trade Austria in 1945, that country remained too slavishly, while the Gaullists played under the occupation of the four on fears of American dominance in victorious Allied Powers: the USA, the military and foreign policy, and wished Soviet Union, Britain and France, each to further the ‘European integration with its own zone of occupation. The project’, building on the Franco-German capital, Vienna, was subject to Treaty. Neither group went as far as four-power control. As the Cold War proposing disregard of the policies of developed, there were fears that Austria the USA or France. The Atlanticists might be lastingly divided into included Erhard and his Foreign pro-Western and pro-Soviet part-states Minister, Schröder, and were supported in the same way as post-war Germany. by most of the CDU, the SPD, the FDP, However, on 15 May 1955 the Allied the trade unions and economic elites Powers signed the State Treaty with and most of the mass media. The Austria, ending the occupation. The Gaullists had the support of Adenauer, Treaty recognised Austria as a Strauss (leader of the CSU) and sovereign, independent and democratic Gerstenmaier, a prominent and state. Moreover, it recognised the respected ‘elder statesman’ in the CDU, regime of the second Austrian Republic.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Austrian State Treaty Baader-Meinhof group

It banned political or economic union 1970s. On 14 the members of between Austria and Germany and also the Baader-Meinhof group founded their required Austrian neutrality by banning political organisation, the Red Army the country from aligning itself with Faction (RAF), as an urban guerrilla either of the two Cold War alliances liberation group. The ideology of the which formed around the USA and the Baader-Meinhof group was set out in Soviet Union. In a constitutional law of four papers written in 1971 and 1972, 26 October 1955, Austria declared its one by and three by Ulrike permanent neutrality, but chose to Meinhof. These papers identified the interpret this stance actively rather than RAF as anti-imperialist and anti-fascist, passively. Austria joined the UN in and sought to justify the need for an December 1955 and has frequently ‘armed struggle’ against what they participated in UN peace-keeping perceived as the oppressive political operations. In 1956, the country allowed system of the FRG. The authorities’ refugees from the Hungarian uprising to handling of the Baader-Meinhof trials cross its borders to safety. and conditions of imprisonment was [See also: Cold War] criticised by some as heavy-handed. Austrian State TreatyBaader-Meinhof group The deaths of following a hunger strike and Meinhof through

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Autonomen (the Autonomous) suicide appear to have been the catalyst

10 The German Autonomen are an for the ‘Offensive ’77’ launched by the alienated group of anarchists who take ‘second generation’ of the RAF. When part in demonstrations (irrespective of the Offensive failed to secure the the specific aims of these) to confront release of the original RAF members their enemy, the police. While they from prison, they attempted suicide. appear to have no links with terrorists, Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and in the late 1980s, the federal office for Jan-Carl Raspe succeeded. The fourth the protection of the constitution member, Irmgard Möller, survived her estimated that of the 6,500 active suicide attempt and was eventually Autonomen, some 1,500–2,000 were released from prison on 1 December militants prepared to use force. They 1994. made a sinister impression in their [See also: Red Army Faction; ‘uniform’ of masks, black helmets and Schleyer Affair] black clothes. In June 1985, the federal Parliament passed a bill to prohibit the Bad Godesberg Programme [See: wearing of masks (except during the Godesberg Programme] annual Carnival). The bill also made it a criminal offence to carry ‘protective’ Barschel Affair weapons, or to refuse a police order to disperse if a demonstration turned Barschel, the leader of the violent. In November 1987, two Schleswig-Holstein Christian Democrats, policemen were killed by an was accused of initiating a series of unidentified perpetrator at a small ‘dirty tricks’ against his Social Democrat demonstration at airport, at opponent, Engholm, in the 1987 Land which Autonomen were present. election campaign. These included investigation of Engholm’s private life, and spreading rumours about Engholm’s Baader-Meinhof group evasion of taxes. Barschel insisted at a The Baader-Meinhof group was an press conference that he had nothing to extreme left-wing terrorist organisation do with such improper actions. active in West Germany in the early However, when evidence was offered

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Barschel Affair Basic Treaty (1972) that seemed to implicate him, Basic Treaty (1972) Barschel resigned as Prime Minister of the Land government, and days An important part of the Ostpolitik of later was found dead in a Swiss hotel the Brandt government, the Basic Treaty room, apparently having committed was a treaty-like agreement between suicide, though this has been the topic the Federal Republic of Germany and of speculation. In May 1988 the SPD the German Democratic Republic. It won an overwhelming victory in a new was deliberately not given the status of Land election. Engholm was later an international treaty because the damaged by admissions that he had not Federal Republic of Germany would not revealed everything he knew about the recognise the German Democratic affair when questioned by an Republic as a foreign state. The Basic investigatory committee. He resigned as Treaty, ratified and taking effect from SPD leader and Land Prime Minister in 1973, bound the partners to promote 1993. good relations between the two German [See also: Engholm*] states, recognised the inviolability of the Barschel Affair Basic Treaty (1972) border between them, and renounced the use or threat of force in their Basic Law mutual relations. Both states accepted The name given to the constitution of the restriction of their claim of DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

the Federal Republic of Germany drawn sovereignty to their territories within their 11 up by the Parliamentary Council in own borders, and explicitly stated 1948–49 and promulgated in May 1949. their mutual respect for the internal and This name (Grundgesetz in German) external independence of both German was deliberately chosen rather than the states (which paved the way for their term: constitution (Verfassung) to admission to the United Nations emphasise the expectation of the Organisation and other international Parliamentary Council that Germany organisations). Supplementary protocols would soon be reunited, and that regulated free access for journalists therefore this constitutional provision within both German states, easier travel was temporary until such time as all between the two states, better Germans could freely choose their own conditions for reuniting families and constitution: an expectation embodied other such measures. in the Preamble to the Basic Law An attempt by refugee organisations and in its concluding Article (Art. 146), and the Christian Democrats in the which provided for its termination when Federal Republic to have this treaty such a constitution for a unified declared unconstitutional (on the Germany came into force. In fact the grounds that it improperly diluted the Basic Law not only lasted for 41 years constitutional principle of national unity) until the reunification of Germany; it failed. The Constitutional Court rejected was then retained as the constitution for a case brought by Bavaria, and stated reunified Germany (with only minor that the treaty fell within the obligations revisions and adjustments) by decisions of the state to promote German of the legislatures of the two . states. A Joint Commission of the two [See also: Ostpolitik] chambers of the legislature of the Federal Republic to consider whether Basque separatism further changes were desirable following reunification reported in 1993. The Basques are a distinct ethnic, As a result, a small number of changes cultural and linguistic group found in a were adopted in 1994. cross-border area of Spain and France

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Basque separatism Benelux

equated by Basques with ‘Euskadi’, the Benelux historic Basque homeland. Although an independent Basque state has never In 1956, to help promote economic existed, the Spanish Basque provinces recovery after the Second World War, had a semi-autonomous relationship Belgium, Luxembourg and the with the Spanish Kingdom until the formed a treaty community nineteenth century. After the Spanish known as the Benelux economic union. civil war most of the Basque regions In fact, the treaty was a formal were harshly treated by the victorious recognition of an existing arrangement. nationalist forces as punishment for Plans for a customs union between the their support for the republicans. three countries had been drawn up in However, government policy to stamp 1944 and had come into operation out the distinctive Basque language and in 1948. By 1956 practically all trade culture backfired. The existing regional between the countries was tariff-free. identity was consolidated by a new The Benelux union provided for free sense of grievance over the movement of persons, goods, services community’s treatment as an alienated and capital between the member states; minority. The traditional nationalist the co-ordination of national economic political groups and movements were policies; and a common trade policy EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, supplemented by new radical and towards other countries. The Benelux

12 militant separatist forces, of which the model strongly influenced the European group Basque Nation and Liberty (ETA) Economic Community (1958), of which is the most notorious. The Belgium, Luxembourg and the of tensions in the Basque region was Netherlands were founder members. one of the main challenges facing Spain in its transition to democracy in the late Berlin airlift [See: Berlin blockade] 1970s and early 1980s. In 1980 the Basque region was granted its own Berlin blockade autonomous government with potentially more far-reaching powers The closure by the USSR occupying than any other region of Spain. power of the road, rail and inland However, there have been constant waterway access from the western disagreements between the region and zones of occupation to . This successive central governments about commenced in June 1948, after a the interpretation and implementation of period since April 1948 of harassment of Basque autonomy. Local Basque military and civilian transport to and nationalist parties compete alongside from West Berlin. The reasons for the Spanish parties in elections and include blockade were the steps being taken by the traditional Christian Democratic the Western occupation powers (a) to PNV, founded in 1895; the Basque Left introduce a new, more stable currency (EE), a workers’ movement founded in to their zones (a currency which had 1976 to work peacefully for been offered to the Soviet zone also, independence; and Herri Batasuna but refused because of conditions (HB), founded in 1978 as ETA’s political attached to that offer) and (b) to wing. promote the founding of a – temporary [See also: ETA; Spanish civil war] – West German state pending a peace Basque separatism Benelux treaty and the reunification of Germany. The USSR sought in this way to force Belgrano Affair [See: Falklands War] West Berlin to accept USSR control in return for food, fuel and other necessities. The blockade was broken

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Berlin blockade Berlin uprising 1953 by the Berlin airlift, by means of which military forces, the GDR regime would the basic necessities were flown into not survive. It also provoked a harsher West Berlin from West Germany, and regime of surveillance and control of gradually stockpiles were built up and the population in the GDR than existed the West Berlin economy enabled to in many other states of the Soviet bloc. operate reasonably effectively. Air corridors from West Germany to West Berlin Wall Berlin had been guaranteed by four-power agreements, unlike surface A wall erected in August 1961 by the transport routes. The success of the German Democratic Republic, with airlift and thus the failure of the the encouragement of the USSR. It was blockade constituted a propaganda intended to control more absolutely defeat for the USSR, and strengthened movement of individuals from one part the determination of West Berliners to of Berlin to the other, following a period reject any negotiations or compromises in which increasing numbers of East with the Soviet occupying power. The Germans were migrating from the GDR blockade was lifted in May 1949, and to the Federal Republic through Berlin the airlift concluded in September 1949. (where border controls were more lax [See also: Cold War] than elsewhere between the two parts Berlin blockade Berlin uprising 1953 of Germany). The Berlin Wall came to DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

consist of the concrete wall itself, and a 13 Berlin uprising 1953 cleared area on the East Berlin side of A general strike and public street protest the wall which was floodlit, mined and against policies imposed by the patrolled. Many East Germans, wishing communist government of the GDR to escape to West Berlin by crossing the which involved longer hours and Wall, lost their lives or were wounded increased production by workers but by gunfire from the border guards. without compensating increased wages. Controls were relaxed on 9 November A strike by East Berlin construction 1989 in the period of crisis leading to workers on 16 June was followed by a the collapse of the communist regime general strike which spread from East in the GDR a few weeks later, and soon Berlin to nearly 400 other localities in afterwards the Berlin Wall was the GDR. Economic demands of the physically demolished by individuals on protesters were soon supplemented by both sides of the Wall and by the GDR demands for political reforms, such as government. Only a few remnants have free elections, the release of political been preserved in situ, though other prisoners and the reunification of sections are in various museums. Germany. A state of emergency was [See also: Cold War; reunification of declared by the Soviet military Germany] command, and martial law was imposed. Demonstrations were Beveridge Report (UK) prohibited; ringleaders were arrested; Soviet tanks and troops occupied the A government report on the social streets. The communist leadership of services produced in 1942, whose author the GDR explained the uprising as was Sir William Beveridge, an ‘fascist provocation’ engineered by West economist, a former Director of the German leaders. Critics of the repressive London School of Economics and at the policies of the USSR military leadership time the master of University College, and the GDR government were Oxford. The Report recommended a punished. The uprising did show clearly comprehensive and universal system of that without the support of Soviet social insurance, a national health

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Beveridge Report Bonn Republic–Berlin Republic transition

service and family allowances. It government of the enlarged Federal became the source of ideas for policies Republic. Prior to reunification, Bonn relating to the welfare state, especially was the seat of government, though those of the Labour government which Berlin was always regarded as the came to power in 1945. Beveridge was capital of the German state, a fact that given a peerage in 1946. was confirmed in the Treaty of BeveridgeBonn Republic–Berlin Report Republic transition Reunification. The issue of whether to retain Bonn Bizonia as the seat of government or to move The term applied to the merged British most or all of the governing institutions and US zones of occupation from 1 located in Bonn to Berlin was settled in January 1947, formally known as the principle by a vote in the Bundestag on United Economic Area (Vereinigtes 20 June 1991. 338 Members of the Wirtschaftsgebiet). A set of institutions Bundestag voted for Berlin, 320 for was developed to bring West Germans Bonn. Those in favour of the move to themselves into -making Berlin emphasised the advantages process, including initially an indirectly which Berlin could offer because of its elected Economic Council, an Executive size and status, and its role in fostering Committee (a kind of cabinet) consisting the integration of Germany because of EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, of one representative from each Land in its more easterly location, close to the

14 the two zones, and a set of Directors, to ‘new Länder’. Those arguing that Bonn manage policy sectors such as transport should remain the seat of government and agriculture. These institutions were stressed the role which Bonn had revised in 1948, to give more political played in the development of a freedom to the West Germans, peaceful, prosperous Federal Republic especially the Länder. These institutions and its proximity to places such as served as models upon which the Brussels and Luxembourg, symbolic of Parliamentary Council which drafted the European integration. The costs and Basic Law could draw in constructing a disruption involved in moving to an political system for the Federal Republic already crowded Berlin were also of Germany. emphasised. On 26 June 1991 the Bizonia improved the economic government instituted a working group situation of the two zones of of senior civil servants to prepare for occupation, and was used as the the move to Berlin. On 5 July 1991 the instrument for the introduction of the Bundesrat decided to remain in Bonn, Deutschmark in the currency reform of though retaining the right to reconsider 1948 and for the groundwork for the that decision in the light of ‘economic miracle’: the rapid growth of circumstances. In December 1991, the the economy of the Federal Republic in federal government announced that the 1950s and . The French zone some ministries would remain in Bonn, of occupation joined the Bizonia while others would have parts of their scheme (which then became ‘Trizonia’) organisation in Bonn though their main in April 1949, a few weeks before the activities would be located in Berlin. Federal Republic came into being. The year 2000 was taken as the target [See also: Basic Law; economic miracle] date for completing most of the move to Berlin. Certain federal institutions would move from other parts of Bonn Republic–Berlin Republic Germany to Bonn, and the government transition would make efforts to attract European The reunification of Germany involved Community and other international decisions concerning the seat of organisations to Bonn. Bonn would also

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Bonn Republic–Berlin Republic transition Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) receive subsidies to off-set the loss of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament income and employment until the year (CND) 2004. On 23 November 1998, the first institutional transfer took place when Founded in 1958 to promote the cause the office of Federal President Herzog of unilateral nuclear disarmament by moved to Berlin. The former Reichstag the United Kingdom, CND developed was renovated and is now used as the into a large and influential movement in location of the Bundestag. In the 1960s, of which prominent Labour recognition of this institutional transfer Party politicians such as Foot, Kinnock and of other subtle changes in the and Blair (all future party leaders) were FRG regime since reunification, members at some time. Briefly, the commentators refer to the Labour Party officially adopted unilateral post-unification FRG as the Berlin nuclear disarmament as official policy Republic. following a party conference resolution [See also: reunification of Germany; in 1960, but the government of Harold Herzog*] Wilson refused to implement such a Bonn CampaignRepublic–Berlin for Nuclear Republic Disarmament transition(CND) policy. In opposition after the Conservative election victory of 1979, Bundesbank CND again developed influence within The central bank of the Federal the Labour Party. Electoral defeat in DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Republic of Germany, located in 1983 under Foot’s leadership led many 15 Frankfurt (Main). It was created in 1957 in the Labour Party to blame CND for on the basis of a Law implementing the Party’s unpopularity. CND has provisions of Art. 88 of the Basic Law, become politically impotent since the and replaced the Bank of the German downfall of communism and the end of Länder, which from 1949 had the Cold War, though it did sponsor co-ordinated banking activity in the demonstrations following the terrorist Federal Republic. The Bundesbank attack on the USA in September 2001. acted independently of the federal [See also: Blair*; Foot*; Kinnock*] government to protect the value of the currency of the Federal Republic, using ‘cash for questions’ affair interest rates, intervention in currency markets and control over the money A parliamentary scandal arising from supply as instruments to this end. This accusations that certain MPs had independence sometimes led to accepted payments from private conflicts between the government and interests in return for them tabling the bank. A notable example concerned questions (whose answers would be the proper rate of exchange of East beneficial to those who made the German Marks for Deutschmarks when payments) to be raised in the House of currency union was introduced Commons at Question Time. The between the two German states in July Sunday Times in 1994 used subterfuge 1990. An amendment to Art. 88 of the to demonstrate that two MPs were in Basic Law in 1992 provided for the fact prepared to accept payment for this Bundesbank to transfer its duties to a activity. Another MP, Neil Hamilton, was European Central Bank, once such a accused later of this same practice, and bank was created and in position to act threatened to sue the Guardian for independently to protect the value of reporting that accusation. Hamilton the currency. decided not to go through with the [See also: Pöhl*] court case, and in the 1998 general election was defeated by an Independent candidate, the former

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access ‘cash for questions’ affair chancellor democracy

television news reporter Martin Bell. The formal consultation in the cabinet or Labour and Liberal parties declined to with his parliamentary party group. The present their own candidates to development of the Chancellor’s Office enhance Bell’s chances of victory. The (bearing some resemblance to the US affair contributed to the creation of a White House staff ) also was a factor in Commission under Lord Nolan to the growth of ‘chancellor democracy’, inquire into ‘Standards in Public Life’. as has been the general trend for the The Nolan Report in 1995 made several mass media to personalise the reporting recommendations designed to reduce of politics. Adenauer’s control of the likelihood of improper links government meant that he was able to between MPs and private interests. restrict the independent powers of his ‘cash for questions’ chancelloraffair democracy Party (the Christian Democratic Union: CDU), which anyway in those early days chancellor democracy of the Federal Republic was little more A term applied at first to describe than an organisation to elect the Adenauer’s interpretation and utilisation chancellor. His electoral victories, of the office of chancellor in the Federal especially the absolute majority he Republic of Germany, then by extension obtained in 1957, reinforced his used to refer either to the system of personal authority. EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, government of the Federal Republic of His successors could, on the one

16 Germany generally, or to the assertive hand, draw on the precedents set by style of certain chancellors in particular. Adenauer, but several, on the other Adenauer used the constitutional hand, lacked his personal qualities or a powers afforded the chancellor by the desire to govern in the dominating style Basic Law to exert his supremacy over adopted by Adenauer. The growth in his own cabinet, the whole of the the power of the Party (particularly of government and the political system the CDU after it went into opposition in more generally. These powers included 1969) and the increasing assertiveness the authority to set general guidelines of the Free Democrats (FDP) as a for the government coalition partner – already apparent in (Richtlinienkompetenz: Article 65), the the Adenauer period: e.g. the ‘Young power of the chancellor to nominate Turks’ revolt’ in 1956 and the Spiegel and remove ministers, the lack of Affair in 1962 – also restricted the political powers of the federal president autonomy of the chancellor. Erhard and the inability of the Bundestag to could not escape from the shadow of remove the chancellor except by a Adenauer, who remained as party constructive vote of no confidence Chairman for much of Erhard’s period which provided a majority for a named as chancellor; Kiesinger was limited by successor. The fact that at first the the special constraints of the grand Federal Republic did not have foreign or coalition; Brandt, though a very assertive defence policy competence also chancellor, did not seek to mimic buttressed the authority of the Adenauer’s patrician style; Schmidt was chancellor. Indeed, in 1951 Adenauer hampered by his own left wing and by became his own Foreign Minister when the fact that he was not party leader. the restrictions imposed by the Only Kohl came close to reinventing the occupation authorities were removed, style of Adenauer in terms of most of its retaining that post until 1955. Thus attributes, and he had to accept to a Adenauer was able to impose his considerable degree the autonomy of authority in any and all the policy areas Genscher (FDP) as Foreign Minister. in which he had an interest, often However, Kohl did dominate his party, taking key political decisions without was able to resist challenges to his

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access chancellor democracy citizen initiative groups authority from Strauss and the Christian affecting a local community, especially Social Union, was personally responsible decisions relating to environmental for key decisions concerning German issues. Citizen initiatives were common reunification and European integration, in the Federal Republic of Germany in and, like Adenauer, was the party’s the 1970s and many of their members chief electoral asset. Schröder, now that were later active in the Green Party. he is also party leader, may also come [See also: green movement] to exert a very personal and dominant style of government, though his coalition citizens in uniform partners, the Greens, act as a constraint in some policy areas. The concept at the heart of the revived [See also: constructive vote of no post-war armed forces of the German confidence; Spiegel Affair; Young Turks’ Federal Republic. There was revolt; Adenauer*; Brandt*; Erhard*; considerable conflict within the Federal Genscher*; Kiesinger*; Kohl*; Schmidt*] Republic concerning the decision of the chancellor democracycitizen initiative groups Adenauer government, in association with the USA and its West European church tax partners, to revive the military. Those A supplementary income tax imposed in who did support such a decision (in the the Federal German Republic to help to context of the Cold War) were aware of DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

finance religious organisations. After the the criticisms which had been made 17 income tax of a person is assessed, a of German armies before 1945: supplement of between 8 and 10 per especially the unthinking obedience and cent of the tax payable is added, and strong military discipline which that extra tax is passed on to the characterised the armed forces. church to which the taxpayer belongs Consequently, it was decided that a (if only nominally). This form of taxation democratic state should possess a was found in the constitution of the democratic military, and that in future Weimar Republic, and is now based on members of the military should be Art. 140 of the Basic Law of the Federal regarded as ‘citizens in uniform’, which Republic. The product of the church tax meant two things. First, they were still is very high, and means that the main in possession of all the rights of other denominations in the FRG are very citizens of the Federal Republic, wealthy. Taxpayers can ‘opt out’ of the including those fundamental rights listed church tax, but have to take action to in the Basic Law. Such rights could only do so. Such opting-out may have be modified or restricted by explicit consequences if the taxpayer then legislative provision, when necessary for wishes to have church ceremonies for the effective operation of the armed weddings, christenings or funerals. services. Examples of such restrictions are: freedom of speech and expression within barracks and overt support for citizen initiative groups political parties or causes in certain Citizen initiative groups emerged in situations. Second, members of the Western Europe in the late 1960s as armed forces were personally informal, voluntary and usually responsible for their actions with regard temporary associations of citizens to their morality and legality. They could outside the established political parties not abandon responsibility behind the and interest groups, whose aim was to excuse of ‘only obeying orders’. Of influence policy makers on a specific course, disputes about interpretation of issue. Initially they were largely these principles have occurred, involving preoccupied with planning decisions for example the rights of soldiers to join

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access citizens in uniform civil society

trade unions and the extent of freedom counteract both the egotism of private of speech in the Military College. But interests and the tyrannical potential of these have not called into question the the modern state. In practice, this principles themselves. mediating sphere is the associational An important constitutional innovation activity comprising local is the creation of an Inspector-General self-government, parties, churches, the of the Armed Services media and public opinion. Work of (Wehrbeauftragter) who is appointed by sociologists such as Durkheim and the Bundestag and reports to the Simmel developed the notion of civil Bundestag on matters relating to the society as associational activity founded armed forces. Any member of the on social infrastructures. However, armed forces can direct a complaint during the twentieth century, previously directly to this official, by-passing the apparently stable social and economic normal ‘chain of command’ and the structures in Western European Inspector-General has unconditional countries began to change under rights (subject only to requirements of pressures such as globalisation, state security) to information from the technological change and post-Fordism. Ministry of Defence and the armed In response, political scientists and services. This official is sometimes sociologists have continued to EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, referred to as the ‘military Ombudsman’ reconceptualise the state–citizen

18 in Germany. relationship. They tend to present a citizens in uniform civil society picture of an educated and self-aware civil society progressively disenchanted civil society with traditional forms of representative The term: civil society is used in many government. different ways. At its loosest, it means simply ‘the citizenry’ or even ‘the Clause Four public’. In democratic theory there is a tension between the state as the source Clause Four of the constitution of the of authority and civil society as the Labour Party in its 1918 version embodiment of popular sovereignty. The committed the party to the pursuit of concept of a civil society distinct from policies which would lead to the that of the state first emerged with the common ownership of ‘the means of Enlightenment, when civil society was production, distribution and exchange’. viewed as a guardian against the All members of the party had to agree authoritarian potential of the state. Major to accept this pledge as a condition of structural economic upheavals in joining the party. It tied the party to European life brought about a reversal radical policies of extensive in the way philosophers conceptualised nationalisation, in theory far beyond the the state–citizen relationship. With the nationalisation policies implemented by progressive differentiation of society the Attlee government of 1945–51. Such which accompanied the transition to policies were not acceptable to market economies, civil society came moderate social democrats such as to be seen as consisting of competing, Gaitskell nor likely to be supported by selfish interests. Thinkers such as Hegel the electorate if brought forward in a looked to the state to regulate civil Labour Party electoral manifesto, so society. De Toqueville identified a Gaitskell sought to remove that clause sphere of civil organisation between from the party’s constitution, but was economy and state, now referred to as defeated by his party’s left wing. ‘political society’. For de Toqueville, the Though the proposed policies were function of political society was to never included in party election

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Clause Four clientelism programmes, Clause Four was undermined the development of an considered to be symbolic of the effective democratic opposition in Italy. Labour Party’s commitment to [See also: Mani pulite; Mezzogiorno; . However, Blair, once elected Tangentopoli] as party leader, undertook as part of his campaign to modernise the party an co-determination intensive and skilful campaign to substitute a new statement of party Arrangements in industrial policy principles for the old Clause Four, and whereby employees (or their succeeded in doing this in 1995 whilst representatives) are provided with still retaining the support of most of his institutionalised means of participating party. in decision-making by a firm or other [See also: Blair*; Gaitskell*] employing organisation (such as a Clause Four clientelism school or hospital), on topics which directly affect employee interests, such ‘clean hands’ operation [See: Mani as mergers, personnel policies or safety pulite] issues. Such arrangements were developed in the Federal Republic of clientelism Germany, first in the coal and steel The term refers to the practice of industries, then in other industries; the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

offering favours to groups and detailed arrangements depend upon the 19 individuals in return for political support. size and legal status of the firm. It is to In democratic countries, there are laws be found in other countries in Western to restrict or prohibit clientelistic Europe (such as Austria), and it has practices as these are seen to distort been proposed that the system should the democratic process. Clientelism is be extended to member states of the both informal and particularistic: these EU under social policy arrangements. characteristics conflict with democratic principles of equality and regulated ‘cod wars’ access to the political system. In some Western European countries, though, The conflicts between the United clientelism – legal or otherwise – Kingdom and Iceland in the period remains a significant feature of political 1972–76 concerning the territorial limits life. The worst affected has been Italy, for fishing in the Atlantic ocean claimed particularly the southern regions of the by Iceland. Fearful that fishing boats Mezzogiorno. The Italian term from other countries were depleting partitocrazia (‘partyocracy’) refers to the stocks of cod and other fish, upon way in which the country’s political which much of the Icelandic economy parties have not remained separate depended, Iceland unilaterally declared from other social and economic a 50-mile limit within which no foreign institutions as is desirable in a vessels would be permitted to fish. A democracy, but have come to penetrate series of clashes involving fishing boats and influence all areas of state and from the United Kingdom and naval social life. The parties have used vessels from Iceland and the UK led to clientelism to build up power networks, a negotiated settlement in 1976, which and, in the process, corruption has largely accepted Iceland’s claims. become endemic. Moreover, collusion between the parties in maintaining their cohabitation networks of relationships and in ensuring the free flow of favours had, A term applied to the pattern of by the early 1990s, seriously executive government in the French

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access cohabitation Cold War

Fifth Republic where the president and and foreign policy under the assumption the prime minister come from opposed that war with the other side was a likely party blocks. It has occurred so far future event. They engaged in a three times: twice when Mitterrand competitive , and sought (Socialist Party) had to appoint a through cultural, economic and Gaullist prime minister (Chirac in 1986 diplomatic means to influence other and Balladur in 1983), and once when countries in their favour, especially Chirac (a Gaullist president) in 1997 had countries whose geographic location or to appoint Jospin (Socialist Party) as natural resources (such as oil) could be Prime Minister. The situation arises of crucial significance in affecting the because the constitution of the Fifth outcome of such a future war. Republic allows the president to appoint The Cold War was based on each the prime minister, but the prime side’s perceptions of the other as minister still needs the confidence of a ideological enemies whose intentions, parliamentary majority in order to pass whether declared or denied, would be legislation and a budget. The to expand territorially and to weaken constitution also – if at times slightly and eventually overcome the other side. ambiguously – provides the president The West could point to the USSR’s and prime minister with separate and in Eastern Europe after the EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, autonomous spheres of responsibility. Second World War, its communisation

20 When the president and prime minister of its zone of occupation in Germany are from the same party or party block and its support for communist groups in there is no problem, but, because the Western countries and for anti-Western president and National Assembly are groups in third world states such as elected at different times (and until Egypt and Cuba. The USSR regarded the 2001 the president has been elected for West as a group of countries which had seven years, the National Assembly for a failed to eradicate fascist and imperialist five-year term), it can happen that tendencies in their countries, whose changes in the mood of the electorate reliance on protected the produce a parliamentary majority propertied classes and exploited the opposed to the president. The president working class, and which, because of has powers of dissolution, so if a , sought to retain or extend president is elected at a time when the its powers in Africa, Asia and Latin National Assembly has a majority America. The failure of the USSR and opposed to the president, a dissolution the Western occupying powers in can be arranged immediately after the Germany to agree on policies for the president takes office. treatment of Germany after the war cohabitation Cold War both exacerbated the situation of mutual distrust and provided each side Cohesion Fund [See: Economic and with propaganda to use against the Social Cohesion] other side. Some would include Asian communism and the reaction of the Cold War West to the crises in Korea, Vietnam A ‘Cold War’ was so called because a and Afghanistan within their definition state of armed conflict had not yet arisen. of the ‘Cold War’. The term is applied to the situation whereby It is difficult to put a precise date on the Western powers on the one side (in the commencement of the Cold War. particular the USA and its NATO allies) Some date it to the 1920s or the 1930s and the USSR and its satellite states on when Stalin came to rule the USSR. the other side, regarded each other with Others consider the start of the Cold hostility. They therefore directed military War to date from the Potsdam

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Cold War Colonels’ coup (Greece) conference, the Berlin blockade or the military coup was carried out in Greece creation of two separate states in in April 1967 by a group of officers, led Germany in 1949. Most would agree that by Colonel Papadopoulos. This military it ended – at least in its European junta – which claimed, falsely, to have version – in or around 1990, with the the support of King Constantine (who reunification of Germany and the had come to the throne on the death of commencement of transitions to his father, King Paul, in 1964) – democracy in the USSR and its former declared a state of emergency, satellite states. This termination owed suspending the constitution and much to the reform policies of abolishing civil liberties. Parties were Gorbachev, but also to the realisation in persecuted, and many politicians communist states that economic and imprisoned. The failure later that year of technological backwardness and a a counter-coup instigated by King failure to afford to keep pace with Constantine led to the King going into Western developments in armaments exile. In 1973 an attempt to develop a meant that the communist camp had more democratic form of regime was ‘lost’ the Cold War. crushed by the military. In 1974 a failed [See also: Berlin blockade; glasnost; attempt to secure the union of Cyprus perestroika; Potsdam conference; with Greece, which provoked an reunification of Germany] invasion of northern Cyprus by the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Cold War Colonels’ coup (Greece) Turkish military, led to withdrawal of 21 the military from government and the collaboration transfer of political power to a The term: collaboration is applied to government of national unity. Free those governments, groups and elections took place in November 1974. individuals who actively co-operated In December 1974 a referendum voted with Nazi occupying forces in European by a large majority to abolish the countries during the Second World War. monarchy. The term originated in France, where [See also: Enosis; Papandreou*] General Pétain of the Vichy government announced that he would ‘enter into Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) the way of collaboration’ in October 1940. After the liberation of France in The Common Agricultural Policy 1944 the tide turned against played a key role in the negotiations collaborators. It was rumoured that over between the founder members of the 100,000 were executed, although European Economic Community (EEC) estimates now suggest a figure of some which came into being in 1958. At this 10,000. There was no thorough purge of time some 20 per cent of the workforce public officials needed to lead France’s was engaged in agricultural production reconstruction after the war, nor of and France in particular wanted to commerce and business. In spite of the establish a scheme for agricultural anti-collaborator policy, some Vichy co-operation which would protect its officials were even elected to smaller-scale farmers. The principles of Parliament after 1945. the CAP were established in Articles [See also: Resistance groups; Vichy 38–47 of the EEC’s founding Treaty of regime] Rome. The fundamental objectives of the policy are (originally Article 39, now Article 33, EC Treaty) to increase Colonels’ coup (Greece) agricultural productivity, thereby Following a series of centre-left ensuring a fair standard of living for governments in Greece in the 1960s, a workers in agriculture; to stabilise

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) constitutionalism

markets; and to ensure the availability constitutionalism of food supplies at reasonable prices. The CAP proved to be an enormous Constitutionalism is a liberal democratic drain on the resources of the EU – in doctrine. It dates from the bourgeois 2002 it cost about 42 per cent of the revolutions in European countries which EU’s budget. The policy’s intervention brought absolutist government under mechanisms tended to encourage legal control. Designed to prevent over-production, resulting in the arbitrary government, it encompasses scandals of the EC ‘wine lake’ and principles such as commitment to the ‘butter mountain’. Reforms in 1992 on rule of law; standard procedures of beef and cereals did little to alleviate government; and ‘balanced’ the problem. Further reforms were government, where institutions of proposed by the Commission in Agenda government check each other’s 2000 (July 1997) to enable EU authority so as to avoid a concentration enlargement to countries of Central and of power. Constitutionalism requires that Eastern Europe, which have large governments and legislatures defer to a agricultural sectors. In response, a body of superior rules, in practice reform package was adopted in 1999 codified in a constitution. A constitution for the period 2000–06. The reforms upholds the legality of the state and EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, reinforce the 1992 measures, moving guarantees the individual citizen respect

22 away slightly from the CAP’s traditional for his or her liberties. Constitutionalism focus on pricing policy towards an implies that respect for the emphasis on food safety; environmental constitutional order is the foundation of directives; sustainable agriculture; a country’s political consensus and greater price competitiveness; direct stability. The fascist regimes in Italy and income support for farmers; and a Germany during the inter-war period genuine integrated rural development revealed the vulnerability of European policy. political systems to non-liberal, arbitrary [See also: Treaties of Rome] government. Following the Second Common Agricultural Policyconstitutionalism (CAP) World War, political elites have looked to constitutionalism as a means of consociationalism strengthening their democratic systems. Consociationalism is a principle for There is a growing belief that all governance designed for ‘segmented’ government acts must conform to societies: that is, societies which are constitutional law to be considered deeply divided according to sectional legitimate. Western democracies have loyalties such as religion, language, taken steps to standardise individual culture, etc. There are four main liberties and civil rights through principles behind consociationalism: international treaties and implement executive power-sharing by the sectors them through national and international in a grand coalition; a high degree of courts. The Charter of the United autonomy for each sector in the Nations of 1945 and the 1948 Universal management of its own concerns; the Declaration of Human Rights were proportional representation of the followed in 1953 by the European sectors in representative and Convention for the Protection of Human policy-making institutions; and veto Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. At a rights for each sector over domestic level, there has been a policy-making. Elements of ‘judicialisation’ of politics, in many consociationalism can be found in the countries promoted by the work of a political systems of Austria, Belgium, the constitutional court. Netherlands and Switzerland. [See also: judicialisation]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access constructive vote of no confidence Crichel Down

as a case of ministerial resignation on constructive vote of no confidence grounds of policy disagreement with the A device included in the Basic Law of cabinet. the Federal Republic of Germany (Art. When the Crichel Down land was 67) which restricts the power of the returned to private ownership, it was Bundestag to remove a chancellor from done by invitation, rather than the office to cases where it can required tendering process. This was simultaneously provide a different criticised by the opposition, and an chancellor with a majority. The inquiry was held which exonerated the constructive vote of no confidence minister and civil servants from any requires that a vote of no confidence in charges of corrupt behaviour, but which the chancellor be combined with the did confirm the failure to abide by nomination of a successor chancellor. If agreed rules. The then Minister of this motion receives a majority, the Agriculture, Sir Thomas Dugdale, made chancellor is compelled to resign in a speech on 20 July 1954 in Parliament favour of the named successor. It has outlining the situation, but announced been employed twice in the history of his resignation at the end of that speech. the Federal Republic: without success in 1972, when the Brandt government had

cumul des mandats DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, lost its majority due to defections to the

opposition by some Members of the A French term, meaning ‘cumulation of 23 Bundestag, and successfully in 1982 offices’, which refers to the practice in when the liberal Free Democratic Party France of politicians holding several had abandoned their coalition with the elected offices (e.g. being SPD and promised to support the simultaneously a member of the nomination of Kohl, the Christian National Assembly and a local mayor or Democratic nomination for chancellor. town councillor). Though there have The device is a deliberate scheme to been some advantages from this improve on the ‘simple’ vote of no practice, such as strengthening confidence which was frequently used – representation of local interests at or was threatened to be used – against national level, it has also been criticised chancellors in the Weimar Republic. for its potentially corrupting effects and This would bring about the downfall of its inefficiency. Since a law was passed a government without imposing on in April 2000, legally politicians may not those who voted in favour any hold more than two public elected requirement to ensure that a majority offices. for an alternative government was available. democratic deficit [See also: chancellor democracy] constructive vote of no confidenceCrichel Down The term reflects concerns about the institutions and operation of the corporatism [See: neo-corporatism] European Community, now the European Union (EU), concerns which Crichel Down have been mounting since the 1980s. It An area in southern England which was is suggested that powers of compulsorily acquired by the state, but decision-making which are binding on later returned to private ownership. It is European populations are being famous as an apparent case of a transferred from the member state ministerial resignation on grounds of national Parliaments to EU institutions civil service errors, though this is not which are not sufficiently democratically clear, and some commentators view it accountable. One aspect of the problem

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access democratic deficit denazification

is that institutional checks on EU the intended measures had to be decision-making are seen as abandoned or diluted. The occupation inadequate. Within the EU, executive authorities in West Germany found that and legislative functions are not divided they could not administer their zones or between a government and a local areas without the assistance of Parliament respectively, as is the case in Germans, most of whom had – of national politics in most European necessity or by choice – been members countries. Instead, they are largely of the Nazi Party, and the questionnaire shared between three EU institutions: procedure proved too much of an the Commission, the Council of administrative burden to carry out in a Ministers and the European Parliament. comprehensive and equitable manner. As the EU has no single ‘executive’, it is One adjunct to denazification was the difficult to control by the traditional policy of ‘education for democracy’, means of parliamentary scrutiny or a involving the reshaping of the German constitutional court. Many decisions are educational system to emphasise made behind closed doors and it has democratic values. Others included the been left to the media to expose major political resocialisation of the citizenry to problems of fraud, mismanagement and develop a democratic electorate, and corruption. This view is encouraged by the process of licensing of political EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, the complexity of decision-making parties, trade unions and other

24 processes within the EU. Further, there associations, and the mass media, to is a widespread public perception of EU ensure that they were free from any politicians and bureaucrats as being taint of nazism. elitist and out of touch with the realities In the Soviet zone of occupation, of life in the member states. The denazification was pursued very Amsterdam Treaty (1997) attempts to vigorously, and became combined with address part of the problem by the policy of creating a communist providing for an extension of the society in that zone. Consequently many powers of the European Parliament and persons were imprisoned or even for providing a regular flow of executed, often without any proper information to national Parliaments. judicial process, and the Soviet [See also: Amsterdam Treaty] occupation authority was able to democratic deficit denazification proclaim in February 1948 that denazification had officially been denazification successfully completed in that zone. One of the core policies agreed upon by [See also: fascism; nazism; the Allied powers at the Potsdam Nuremberg tribunal; Potsdam conference in July–August 1945. It came conference; Vergangenheitsbewältigung] to involve the total dissolution of the Nazi Party and all its auxiliary and détente associated organisations and the removal of members of the Nazi Party A term generally applied to relations from public office. It also required the between the Western nations and capture and trial of suspected war communist states in the Cold War. It criminals and the process of refers to the condition of decreased investigation of all citizens (for example, international tension, resulting from by means of questionnaires) as a foreign and defence policy decisions. It means of determining what, if any, can be applied to various periods in the sanctions should be imposed on them Cold War (and there is no logical before they could resume a normal reason why the term should not be existence as citizens. In fact many of applied to periods in relations between

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access détente economic miracle other sides in a situation of international by the first government of the Federal tension, such as between India and Republic, under Chancellor Adenauer Pakistan concerning Kashmir, or and his Economics Minister, Erhard, Western powers and post-Shah Iran). from 1949 onwards. Production, exports However, it is more commonly applied and personal incomes grew rapidly for to the period in the 1970s when the several years, and the Deutschmark USA and West European states became the strongest currency in deliberately sought to develop improved Europe. relations with the USSR and China. This The term has also, by extension, involved steps such as Nixon’s visit to been applied to rapid economic China and formal diplomatic relations expansion in some other countries, such between the USA and China in as Italy, whose miracolo economico President Carter’s term of office. between 1958 and 1963 produced an Germany’s Ostpolitik (policy towards annual average growth rate of 6.6 per Eastern Europe) developed especially by cent. the government of Chancellor Brandt, [See also: Bizonia; Marshall Plan; and the Helsinki accords (1975), also Adenauer*; Erhard*] made a contribution, though the failure of the USSR and its bloc partner states

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, to observe the human rights provisions

of those accords and renewed Economic and Monetary Union was the 25 international interventions (for example process of transition from existing in Angola and Afghanistan) by the USSR national currency areas to a single led to a deterioration in relations with currency area encompassing 12 the West. The accession to power of member states of the European Union Gorbachev in the USSR produced (EU). Under EMU, the 12 member states another period of détente which lasted come under the authority of the until the replacement of communism by independent European Central Bank democracies in the USSR and Eastern (ECB), whose main task is to maintain European states. price stability. EMU is provided for in [See also: Helsinki Agreement; the Treaty on European Union (TEU: the Ostpolitik; Brandt*] Maastricht Treaty), which came into détente economic miracle force in November 1993. Steps towards EMU took place in three stages. Stage economic miracle one (1 July 1990–31 December 1993) A term applied to the rapid growth of concerned the free movement of capital the post-Second World War economy in between member states, closer West Germany. The Germans used the co-ordination of economic policies and word Wirtschaftswunder to refer to this closer co-operation between national growth period, which resulted especially central banks. Stage two (1 January from a reform of the currency, by which 1994–31 December 1998) involved the the new Deutschmark was exchanged convergence of the economic and for the old occupation currency, and the monetary policies of the member states. stimulus of aid supplied through the Stage three (from 1 January 1999) Marshall Plan (officially known as the required the establishment of the European Recovery Programme), which European Central Bank, the fixing of received the approval of the US exchange rates and the introduction of Congress in 1948. The ‘economic a single currency. The single currency, miracle’ owed much to the social the Euro, became the participants’ sole market economy policies developed by legal tender on 28 February 2002. The the Economic Council of Bizonia, and TEU established entry criteria for

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) Economic and social cohesion

prospective members of EMU to ensure Fund of the European Union (EU) was the system’s credibility: (i) an inflation established in 1994 under the terms of rate not to exceed that of the three best the Treaty on European Union performing member states by more than (Maastricht Treaty). This fund is used to 1.5 per cent; (ii) an interest rate not to part-finance environmental and exceed the average of the three best transport infrastructure projects in performing member states by more than economically underdeveloped member 2 per cent; (iii) a two-year membership states to help them meet the of the ERM, without a devaluation, is to convergence criteria for Economic and precede entry into EMU; (iv) the Monetary Union (EMU). The Cohesion deficit-to-GDP ratio must not exceed 3 Fund was negotiated to persuade the per cent; (v) the debt-to-GDP ratio of all poorer member states – Greece, levels of government must not exceed Ireland, Portugal and Spain – to 60 per cent. The Stability and Growth support EMU during the negotiations Pact agreed at the European Council in of the Maastricht Treaty. From 1994 to Dublin in 1995 aims to ensure that 1999, the funding of economic and member states continue to exercise social cohesion was the Community’s budgetary discipline now that the single second largest budget item (after the currency has been introduced. The Pact CAP), costing around 35 per cent of EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, offers the Council the potential to the budget. With the prospect of EU

26 sanction member states which fail to enlargement, expected to bring in take appropriate action to reduce a new and relatively poor countries in large budgetary deficit. EMU is now Central and Eastern Europe, the considered part of the EU’s acquis Community’s structural policy was communitaire (existing body of law) reformed in 1999 to improve its and applicant states must be prepared effectiveness. Its budgetary allocation to accept its terms on joining the Union. was increased from EUR 208 billion Nevertheless, some existing member to EUR 213 billion for 2000–2006, states have qualms about exchanging including EUR 195 billion for the their traditional currencies and Structural Funds and EUR 18 billion independent monetary control for a for the Cohesion Fund. common scheme, and it remains [See also: additionality; Common uncertain whether the UK, Denmark Agricultural Policy; Economic and and Sweden will subscribe to EMU at all. Monetary Union; Single European Act] [See also: acquis communitaire; European Central Bank] empty chair crisis Economic andEconomic Monetary and Union social (EMU) cohesion In July 1965, France precipitated a crisis Economic and social cohesion in the European Economic Community Economic and social cohesion became by walking out of the Council of a Communities objective with the Ministers and the Committee of Single European Act (1986). It aims to Permanent Representatives. This create a balanced and sustainable blocked the decision-making processes development, reducing structural of the Community until the crisis was disparities between regions and resolved with the Luxembourg member states and thereby securing compromise in January 1966. The equal opportunities for all European French delegation had objected to a citizens. Cohesion policy is Commission proposal: to link a financial implemented through a variety of provision for the Common Agricultural funding processes, principally through Policy (CAP) with an institutional reform the Structural Funds. The Cohesion which would increase its own power

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access empty chair crisis ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; Basque Nation and Liberty) and that of the European Parliament. nationalist party, the PNV. The France was in favour of supporting the movement was formed in the context of CAP, but not of increasing the power of the active repression of the Basque the ‘supranational’ institutions of the culture and language by the Spanish Community. The French also objected state, and of regional autonomy in to the introduction of majority voting in general, under the Franco regime. the Council of Ministers, which, Although heavily factionalised and prone according to the terms of the Treaty of to divisions over tactics, the movement Rome, was due to come into effect in shares a rationale of armed struggle January 1966. The final outcome was as with the Spanish state. ETA has carried follows: a temporary funding scheme for out kidnappings, and the CAP was adopted; the proposed bombings. It has targeted individuals it institutional reform was deferred; and sees as representative of the Spanish the Luxembourg compromise adopted state and has also engaged in more the principle of majority voting in the indiscriminate violence, such as the Council of Ministers, but acknowledged bombing of tourist areas in Spain. In the right of any member state to require December 1973 the group killed unanimous decision-making on issues Franco’s appointed Prime Minister, concerning its own special interests. Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco. In 1978 [See also: Common Agricultural the political party Herri Batasuna (HB) DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Policy; Luxembourg compromise; was founded as ETA’s political wing. 27 Treaties of Rome] Governments of democratic Spain have emptyETA chair (Euskadi crisis ta Askatasuna;Nation and Liberty)Basque attempted to negotiate a cease-fire with ETA leaders, but, although temporary Enosis cessations of violence have been A movement originating in the 1930s in achieved, the movement remains an Cyprus to bring about union between active terrorist threat. By 1988 the main Cyprus and Greece. It attracted much parties of the Spanish Parliament had support in the 1950s, especially the signed an anti-terrorist pact with all of EOKA (the underground organisation of the Basque parties except HB. In 1992 Cypriot nationalists) and the religious police operations managed to prevent leader, Archbishop Makarios. Terrorist ETA from disrupting the Barcelona outrages against the British colonial Olympic Games and tensions began to government of the island became emerge between ETA and HB as the frequent. The United Kingdom gave political wing believed that continued Cyprus its independence in 1960, but ETA terrorism would damage their the demand of Greek Cypriots for union electoral base. Several of ETA’s leaders with Greece continued. An attempt to were captured in 1994, but the violence declare unilateral union with Greece led continued. In April 1995 Aznar, leader of to the partition of Cyprus, because the the christian democratic People’s Party Turkish minority invited the Turkish (PP), narrowly avoided death in a car military to come to their aid as bomb attributed to ETA; in July 1997 the protection against such union. group kidnapped and later shot dead a [See also: Makarios*] local PP councillor, Miguel Angel Blanco, when the government refused to meet demands that ETA prisoners be ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; Basque transferred to the Basque country to Nation and Liberty) serve their sentences. This incident ETA was formed in the late 1950s as a provoked massive popular radical and militant breakaway demonstrations against ETA. In 1998 movement from the traditional Basque ETA declared an end to its military

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; Basque Nation and Liberty) European Central Bank (ECB)

activity, but has since resumed the monetary policy for the single currency armed struggle. area. Now that the ECB has come into [See also: Basque separatism; Aznar*; operation, the member states’ existing Carrero Blanco*; Franco*] central banks will function as ‘regional’ ETANation (Euskadi and Liberty)European ta Askatasuna; Central BasqueBank (ECB) central banks. Together with the ECB, they form the European System of eurocommunism Central Banks (ESCB). The ECB makes A term applied to the reformist policy through its Governing Council, strategies pursued by several West composed of the governors of the European communist parties (especially member state central banks and the those of Spain and Italy) in the 1970s, ECB’s six-member executive board. The and given formal expression in a joint ECB is accountable to the European statement by the leaderships of the Parliament, and is based in Frankfurt, Spanish and Italian Communist parties Germany. in 1975. This strategy emphasised [See also: Economic and Monetary independence from the ideological Union] leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, acceptance of European Coal and Steel Community parliamentary multi-party political

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, (ECSC) procedures and emphasis on legislative

28 reform at the expense of revolution as a The first supranational institution in method of promoting communist goals. Europe after the Second World War, Democracy, pluralism and tolerance and a forerunner of the European were accepted as features of the Union. The ECSC was formed as a political system within which response to the unresolved problem communist parties should function, and posed by West Germany’s coal and the existing constitutional arrangements steel industries, which were to be were respected. However, relatively little controlled by some form of international electoral benefit resulted from adoption authority as a guarantee that they would of eurocommunist principles, and the not be a resource for future German significance of this development tended aggression. The Schuman Plan (1950) to fade away, until the reforms of set out a proposal to combine the coal Gorbachev in the USSR made the notion and steel productive resources of superfluous. several states under international [See also: historic compromise] control. The intention was to ensure that France and Germany would not be able to go to war with each other in the European Central Bank (ECB) future, because of this mingling of their The European Central Bank of the coal and steel resources, and to European Union came into operation promote European co-operation more during stage three of the plans outlined generally. Germany and France were in the Maastricht Treaty on Economic joined by Italy and the Benelux and Monetary Union on 1 January 1998. countries to form a six-state group, It took over from the European which signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951 Monetary Institute (EMI). The ECB is an to initiate the ECSC in 1952. A Council independent body with sole of Ministers supervised a supranational responsibility for formulating and executive (the High Authority), and both implementing the EU’s single monetary a legislative assembly consisting of a policy. It pursues price stability, ensuring selection of members of national noninflationary money supply and parliaments, and a court to adjudicate monetary growth and conducting on disputes, were included in the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) European Defence Community (EDC): Pleven Plan

Treaty. A levy on sales of coal and iron the threat of Soviet conventional military and steel products provided the ECSC superiority in Europe. The EDC was with its financial resources. The success launched by a treaty signed on 27 May of this scheme and the pattern of 1952 in Paris by Belgium, France, Italy, institutions which had been devised led Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West directly to the Treaties of Rome, Germany. The UK supported the EDC creating for the same six states a but refused to join on account of European Economic Community (EEC) conflicting commitments outside and EURATOM. Together with Europe; Denmark and Norway opposed EURATOM (the supranational atomic the project. By this time, though, energy authority) the ECSC and EEC Western European leaders were were merged into the European growing less convinced of the need for Community (EC) in 1967. full political and defence integration and [See also: Monnet*; Schuman*] conflicts over the creation of a common European(ECSC)European Coal Defence and Steel Community CommunityPleven (EDC): Plan army prevented the further development of the EDC. The EDC collapsed when European Currency Unit (ECU) the French Parliament refused to ratify The European Currency Unit (ECU) the Paris Treaty in August 1954. By this functioned as the currency of the time, the Soviet threat in Europe European Communities (EC) prior to the appeared to have receded. Stalin had DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

introduction of the Euro. It was used to died, the had ended and 29 calculate the Communities’ accounts, the Soviet Union seemed content to replacing the European Unit of Account consolidate its hold on its existing (EUA) when the European Monetary satellites. In 1955 a number of European System (EMS) was established in 1979. countries formed the Western European The EC budget was represented in ECU, Union (WEU), a defence organisation as were grants received from the EC or based on a far less integrated model of fines levied by the European Court of co-operation than the EDC. West Justice. Also, each member state German military forces were participating in the Exchange Rate incorporated into NATO. Mechanism (ERM) had a bilateral exchange rate against the ECU. On 1 European enlargement January 1999, the ECU was replaced by the Euro on a one-for-one basis in all Enlargement refers to the four contracts. successive waves of new membership [See also: Economic and Monetary acceding to the European Communities Union] in addition to the six founder members: Belgium, France, (West) Germany, Luxembourg, Italy and the Netherlands. European Defence Community (EDC): The first enlargement took place in 1973 Pleven Plan and brought in Denmark, Ireland and Shortly after the Second World War, the UK as members. In 1981, Greece there was an attempt to create the joined, and, in 1986, Portugal and Spain. European Defence Community as a Austria, Finland and Sweden joined in Western European defence structure 1995. Countries applying to join the EU with a common army and a common include Turkey, Cyprus, Malta and many European political authority, the of the countries of Central and Eastern European Political Community (EPC). Europe (CEEC). In June 1993 the The scheme was first proposed by the European Council in Copenhagen French Prime Minister, René Pleven, on recognised the right of the CEEC to join 24 October 1950 as a way of meeting the EU on condition that they met

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access European enlargement European Free Trade Association (EFTA)

political and economic criteria set down soon became almost irrelevant to its by the EU and incorporated the acquis member states, and Austria, Finland and communitaire. This demand was later Sweden also joined the EU (as it had detailed in the ‘accession partnerships’ become) in 1995. EFTA is now a very set out in the Commission’s document: small and relatively insignificant trading Agenda 2000. These are pre-accession organisation. framework agreements made bilaterally between the EU and each applicant European Unit of Account (EUA) [See: country setting out priorities and a European Currency Unit (ECU)] timetable for the adoption of the Community acquis. With the opening of euro-sceptic membership to CEEC, the European Union faces its most ambitious phase of A term applied to those – principally in enlargement. It is widely acknowledged Britain, Denmark, Sweden and some that further enlargement on the scale of the applicant countries – who now proposed must be accompanied by support the idea of European integration institutional reform if the EU is to in general terms, but who question function effectively in future. Institutional either specific key policies of the EU reform with respect to enlargement was (such as the common currency EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, addressed in the Amsterdam Treaty enterprise), or the degree of detailed

30 (1997), the document: Agenda 2000 control exercised by the European adopted by the Commission in 1997 and Commission in areas such as weights in the Treaty of Nice (signed 2001). and measures, norms and standards, [See also: Amsterdam Treaty; Treaty social and cultural policies or civil of Nice] rights, or the extension of harmonisation EuropeanEuropean enlargement Free Trade Association (EFTA) to new areas of policy. Euro-sceptics challenge the economic, political and European Free Trade Association social assumptions made by those who (EFTA) favour greater integration, especially An organisation created as an with regard to the effects this would alternative to the European Economic have on national economies. However, Community by seven countries which euro-sceptics do not support British had not become members of the EEC. withdrawal from the EU. It was initiated under the Treaty of in 1960, signed by the UK, Eurosclerosis Austria, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Portugal. Finland and During the 1970s, the European Iceland joined later. It was an Community (EC) was afflicted by a arrangement to promote free trade period of ‘Eurosclerosis’ when it among its member states, but without seemed incapable of effective the common external tariff or the management and decision-making. At a supranational institutional arrangements procedural level, an increasing workload which were to be found in the EEC. and the need for unanimity in the However, changes of policy direction Council of Ministers slowed the especially by the British government decision-making processes of the EC under Macmillan and Wilson meant that and contributed to a serious loss of the UK and Denmark, two of the most confidence in its institutions. Between important EFTA member states, left to 1973 and 1974 the European economy join the EEC in 1972, and Portugal also came under intense pressure from the joined the EEC in 1985. Despite closer first oil crisis, in which the price of oil trading arrangements with the EC, EFTA quadrupled. Unable to reach agreement

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Eurosclerosis Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) on a joint EC response to the energy stability between the member states in crisis, they became increasingly the context of fluctuating national protectionist. Alarmed by the lack of exchange rates. The ERM allowed the political leadership within the EC, member states’ currencies to shift in President Giscard d’Estaing of France value in relation to one another only and Chancellor Schmidt of West within predetermined parameters. The Germany proposed regular summit UK joined the ERM in 1990, but was meetings between the heads of forced out on 17 September 1992, along government of the member states. The with Italy. Similar to the original ERM summits were intended to provide a (ERM I), ERM II regulates the valuation forum for economic planning and policy of the Euro in relation to other development within the EC. In 1974 this (non-EMU) member state currencies. forum became known as the European [See also: Economic and Monetary Council and in 1987 it gained formal Union] recognition under the Single European Act (SEA). extra-parliamentary opposition (APO) [See also: Luxembourg compromise; Single European Act; Giscard d’Estaing*; The German term APO Schmidt*] (Ausserparlamentarische Opposition) EurosclerosisExchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) referred to a loose alliance of radical DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

democrats and Marxists in the Federal 31 Events of May (1968) [See: May Events] Republic of Germany (FRG), which had a strong influence on the development Évian Agreements of radical politics in the FRG. From 1966 A set of agreements signed in Évian in to 1969, the government coalition in the March 1962 between the French FRG comprised the two main parties, government and representatives of the the christian democratic CDU/CSU and Algerian independence fighters, which the social-democratic SPD, which had brought an end to the state of war previously opposed one another. The between the independence movement only parliamentary party left outside the and France in Algeria, and paved the coalition was the small, liberal FDP, too way for Algerian independence, marginal a force to act as an effective following referenda in France. These parliamentary opposition. In this context, referenda produced majorities the APO emerged, arguing that opposition supporting Algerian independence, had to be exercised from outside though the OAS (the ‘secret army’) Parliament. The APO saw itself as part continued by violent means to oppose of a world revolutionary movement. It independence. opposed the USA’s involvement in [See also: Algerian conflict; Secret Vietnam and supported the protests Army Organisation; de Gaulle*; comprising the May Events in France Soustelle*] (1968). The APO was dominated by the Socialist German Student Association (SDS), a group debarred from the SPD Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) because of its radical extremism. The The Exchange Rate Mechanism was APO pressed for reforms to the the central tool of the European outmoded system of higher education Community’s European Monetary and also for radical reforms to the state System (EMS). The EMS, in operation institutions. It was particularly opposed from March 1979 to the introduction of to the use of emergency laws and the Euro, was a scheme designed to anti-radical loyalty tests for state preserve a reasonable level of price employees. It found support from

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access extra-parliamentary opposition (APO) fascism

university students and from some of the fascism citizen initiative groups, but its failure to secure much support amongst the A name first used by Mussolini for his working class and trade unions led to nationalist and authoritarian movement the fragmentation of the movement from which later took power in Italy. It was 1969. It collapsed after the government then applied to other movements or introduced reforms in higher education. political parties whose ideologies shared Some APO members decided to work many of the principal characteristics of within the system, joining the SPD or the Italian fascism, especially the Nazis in civil service: an approach termed the Germany, but also Franco’s Falange ‘long march through the institutions’. movement and radical right-wing parties Others retained a radical approach, in France, Britain and several other turning to environmentalism or even European countries in the 1930s. terrorism – the Baader-Meinhof group There remain deep disputes had its roots in the APO. concerning the definition and the [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; May applicability of the term: fascism. For Events] communists, it is equivalent almost to extra-parliamentary opposition (APO)fascism anti-communism, and anti-fascism has been used – by the USSR in its zone of

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Falklands War occupation in Germany and in the

32 The military conflict in 1982 in the Eastern European states over which the Falkland Islands, a British colony in the USSR exercised hegemony – to south Atlantic, provoked by the mobilise the population in favour of Argentinean invasion. Argentina had communism and against perceived long disputed the right of the British to enemies of communism. Definitions exert sovereignty over the islands, and focus upon several distinguishing negotiations concerning the islands had features of fascist ideology. These taken place under United Nations include belief in a charismatic leader, auspices for some years, without result. such as Franco, Hitler and Mussolini; The British military force sent to the active promotion of , in islands by sea and air eventually defence against alien immigration or compelled the surrender and racial integration, and perhaps involving withdrawal of the Argentinean invasion territorial expansion and military force. Mrs Thatcher and her strength; and hostility to liberal Conservative government benefited from democracy as a political system based popular support for her actions, and her on divisive pluralism and effete party won a resounding victory at the tolerance of views and interests hostile general election the following year, due, to or race. Fascism also according to many experts, in large often includes acceptance of ideological measure to ‘the Falklands factor’. pronouncements, especially from the Currently the Falkland Islands remain leader, as scientifically irrefutable. under British sovereignty, in conformity However, the variations found in Nazi with the wishes of the inhabitants. Germany, Franco’s Spain and A long-running controversy concerned Mussolini’s Italy, as well as among the circumstances under which the fascist parties and movements in Argentine cruiser ‘Belgrano’ was sunk countries where fascism has not been by a British submarine. Claims were the ideology of the government, and made that, when sunk, it was outside the necessary differences in details of the exclusion zone (an area of the sea policy to be found among parties and surrounding the Falkland Islands) movements which emphasise – imposed by Britain. different – mean that it is

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access fascism Finlandisation difficult to form a generally accepted Finlandisation definition of fascism. It is unhelpful to apply the term indiscriminately to all A polemical term describing those radical right-wing or nationalist political policies of Finland which were adjusted parties, some of which are little more to take account of the interests of its than populist in their doctrines and dominant neighbour, the USSR, policies. especially in relation to foreign affairs [See also: anti-fascism; anti-Semitism; and security policy. By extension, the nazism; populism; Spanish civil war; term is sometimes applied to other xenophobia; Franco*; Haider*; Hitler*; small, independent states, when these Le Pen*; Mussolini*; Schönhuber*] appear to be arranging their policies, fascism Finlandisation particularly concerning security matters, to accommodate the interests of a more Felipeism (Felipismo) powerful neighbour. In the case of A term applied in Spanish politics to Finland, defeat in war against the USSR refer to the style and approach of the and threat of occupation by the USSR PSOE and its leader, Felipe Gonzalez. encouraged such a policy stance. A This approach to party politics involved treaty between Finland and the USSR in the abandonment of class-based 1948 seemed to give formal expression politics by the party, with emphasis to this stance. After the collapse of the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

placed on the dominant leadership USSR, Finland declared itself to be no 33 style of Gonzalez and a modernised, longer bound by that treaty, and centrally directed and professionally negotiated a treaty with Russia signed in managed party organisation. The term 1992 which contained no terms that was applied as criticism by the could deserve any continued application opponents of the PSOE, to emphasise of the term: Finlandisation. the tendency of Gonzalez and his government to by-pass Parliament and First-past-the-post system (FPTP) the lack of transparency of that government in its policy-making. Some An electoral system, usually but not of the characteristics of ‘Felipismo’ necessarily based on single-member match the defining features of constituencies, in which the candidate ‘catch-all’ parties, as analysed by with the most votes is elected. Variants Kirchheimer. of the system, such as that used in [See also: Gonzalez*] France, may require that a candidate secure an absolute majority (more votes than all other candidates) to be elected final solution on the first ballot; if that condition is not The term used to refer to the policy of fulfilled, a second ballot, with a limited Hitler’s Third Reich to eliminate the number of candidates, is then held, in Jewish population from Europe. The which a simple majority is required for specifics of this policy were presented election. Elections to the British House to the ‘Wannsee conference’ on 20 of Commons use the FPTP system, as January 1942 by Heydrich, Himmler’s do British local council elections. Most closest associate, to participants which ‘Additional Member Systems’ utilise included . The measures FPTP voting to elect a part of the involved the deportation and murder of legislature (the Federal Republic of Jews in a systematic fashion, and this Germany and Italy, for instance, as well conference is regarded as the signal for as in elections to the Scottish and the commencement of the Holocaust. Welsh devolved assemblies). Used [See also: Holocaust; Eichmann*] without the election of additional

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access First-past-the-post system (FPTP) floating voter

members, the FPTP system is likely to election, sometimes switching from one provide a very disproportional result in party to another at successive elections. terms of the percentage of seats a party It is generally accepted that over the obtains and the percentage of votes it past two decades the proportion of has secured. The FPTP system does floating voters has increased (even if in have advantages of simplicity and fact some do vote for the same party as transparency, and enables elected at the previous election). representatives to develop close links with their constituencies. Fundis [See: Realos and Fundis] [See also: Additional Member System] First-past-the-post system (FPTP)floating voter G-7 [See: Group of Eight] Flick Affair G-8 [See: Group of Eight] A scandal concerning party financing in the Federal Republic of Germany. The Gang of Four Flick concern, a large industrial company, had sold a large holding of The name associated in British politics shares in the Daimler-Benz company in with four former Labour Party ministers: 1975, reinvesting most of the proceeds. Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Bill Rodgers EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, The Ministers of Economics (Friderichs, and Shirley Williams, who resigned

34 then later Lambsdorff ) certified as from the party in 1981 to form the required by law that the reinvestment Social Democratic Party (SDP). They did was beneficial to the country’s so because of concern about the economy, and so these funds escaped leftward direction of the party under its profits tax. It later came to light that a new leader, Foot, and its hostility to series of secret donations by the Flick British participation in the progress of company to political parties (including European integration. The SDP had the Free Democrats, to which Friderichs hoped to attract a substantial number of and Lambsdorff belonged) could have Labour MPs and peers, but few others influenced the decisions of these joined the ‘gang of four’. To avoid ministers. Lambsdorff resigned as splitting the centre-left vote at the minister in 1984 when charges were general election of 1983, the SDP brought against him. Charges of bribery formed an electoral alliance with the were not pursued due to lack of Liberal Party, and in that election the sufficient evidence, but in 1987 Alliance secured the highest third-party Lambsdorff, Friderichs and the agent of share of the vote since the Second Flick, von Brauchitsch, were found World War (25.4 per cent, just over 2 guilty of tax evasion (since the per cent behind the Labour Party) and donations had improperly escaped for a time in late 1981 and early 1982 taxation) and fines were imposed. A the Alliance was more popular than the series of constitutional court cases on Conservatives or the Labour Party in party financing and reforms of the Party opinion polls. The SDP had over 55,000 Law relating to donations were direct members for most of its existence. consequences of the Flick Affair. Though the Alliance did moderately well in the 1987 general election (22.5 per cent), it had failed to displace the floating voter Labour Party as the chief opposition Voters who do not admit to long-term party in Britain. A decision was identification with a particular political therefore made by the two Alliance party, and who are prepared to assess parties to merge into a single party. their likely voting decision at every Though Owen and a small number of

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Gang of Four GCHQ case

SDP politicians remained outside this The staff lost their case as it was merged party (as did a small number of deemed to be against the interests of Liberals), the merger, supported by national security for them to be unionised. membership ballots following decisions Nevertheless, it was ruled that a by each party’s delegate conference, decision taken under prerogative powers took place in early 1988. Owen and his may be the subject of judicial review. small group of supporters continued as [See also: judicialisation] an independent political force for two years, but with no success. German question Gang of Four GCHQ case In general terms, the ‘German question’ Gastarbeiter has referred to issues of Germany’s A German term (meaning identity as a nation and boundaries as a ‘guest-worker’) which refers to the state, and thus also to its status in foreign employees brought to the international politics and its relations Federal Republic of Germany, originally with other states, especially its on the basis of a short period of neighbours. Thus even prior to German residence, to be followed by a return to unification in 1871, the ‘German the home country and the entry of question’ arose in the diplomatic replacement workers on a kind of settlements following the Napoleonic DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

rotation system. However, large wars and in the debates in the Frankfurt 35 numbers of such workers stayed on in Parliament (1848–49), for example. the Federal Republic, many of whom Following the creation of the Second have married and had children in Empire by Bismarck in 1871, the Germany, which leads to issues ‘German question’ was a factor in the concerning naturalisation. Originally causes of the First World War and the brought to the Federal Republic to meet peace settlement that followed its labour shortages, guest-workers are the conclusion. The territorial losses and target in times of unemployment of humiliating terms of the Versailles racial abuse and campaigns for their Treaty (1919) provided political repatriation. ammunition for Hitler and contributed to his rise to power and to the expansionist policies of Germany GCHQ case leading to the Second World War. Since In 1984, the Government 1945, the Potsdam conference, the Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) occupation of Germany, Germany’s case established an important precedent: division, the Oder–Neisse and Saarland that the UK government could no longer issues, and the diplomacy which led to be considered immune from a legal the reunification of Germany were all challenge on the grounds of the ancient caused by, or affected, the ‘German prerogatives of the Crown. The UK question’. If ever it could be claimed government had debarred staff of GCHQ, that the ‘German question’ has been who dealt with highly confidential resolved, it would appear to be so now, government matters, from trade-union following the treaties in 1990 which membership. GCHQ staff challenged the established the diplomatic and territorial ban on the grounds that it had been status of reunified Germany. made without consultation. In defending [See also: Cold War; Hallstein its action, the UK government claimed Doctrine; Oder–Neisse line; Ostpolitik; that prerogative powers could not be Potsdam conference; reunification of reviewed by the courts and that their Germany; Saarland question; ‘Two plus decision was therefore unchallengeable. Four’ talks]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Gibraltar glasnost

first of Stalin, then even of Lenin, the Gibraltar main founder of the Soviet state. Gibraltar forms a peninsula on the Previously banned works by authors Spanish coast. It is of strategic such as Solzhenitsyn, Shalamov and importance as it allows control of the Koestler were openly published for the Gibraltar straits which link the Atlantic first time. Together with perestroika and the Mediterranean seas. Under (reconstruction), the term glasnost Spanish control since 1462, it was taken entered into common currency also in by the British navy in 1704, became a Western Europe, symbolising the new British possession in 1713 and a Crown approach to government and Colony in 1830. After a counter-claim by international relations promoted by Spain, Gibraltar was awarded Gorbachev. The two concepts self-government in 1964. Negotiations galvanised a reform process throughout between Britain and Spain followed, but Central and Eastern Europe and broke down in 1966. In a referendum in eventually helped to overthrow 1967, a 95 per cent majority voted Communist rule in these countries and against becoming part of Spain. In in the Soviet Union itself. response, General Franco closed the [See also: perestroika] border in 1969. The issue resurfaced in EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, the 1980s with Spain’s application to Godesberg Programme

36 join the EC. In order to gain the UK’s support for its membership, Spain The new basic programme of the West allowed some border traffic from 1982 German Social Democratic Party, and reopened the border in 1985. approved in 1959 at the party’s congress Gibraltar glasnost in Bad Godesberg (near Bonn). It replaced the then-valid glasnost Programme (1925), which still bound Glasnost (openness) was one of the the SPD to a Marxist, class-based innovative principles adopted by collection of policies and attitudes, out Gorbachev after his appointment as of place in the rapidly modernising General Secretary of the Communist post-war society of the Federal Republic Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. of Germany. The Godesberg Programme Gorbachev believed that the Soviet accepted the market economy, whilst Union was stagnating as a superpower emphasising the continuing role of the because of the decline of discipline, state in regulating the economy. It order and morality. He saw greater abandoned phraseology which seemed openness as both a desirable end in to attack the churches. It accepted the itself and as a means of reviving an need for German contributions to its inert society. Problems should be faced own defence and membership of openly and honestly and not denied as regional defence organisations such as had been the practice under past Soviet NATO. The party in fact had already leaderships. Debate began on formerly been operating as a more modern and ‘closed’ issues such as the role of less class-related party, and this women in Soviet society, the Programme, the product of a long environment (particularly after the period of discussion within the party, accident at the Chernobyl nuclear was as much a means of bringing the power station in Kiev on 26 April 1986) programmatic basis of the SPD in line and the problem of crime in the Soviet with its actual attitudes and policies as it Union. The notion of glasnost widened was a significant reformist document. to encompass freedom of speech and Following the acceptance of the of publication. Criticism was tolerated, Godesberg Programme, the SPD gained

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Godesberg Programme Good Friday Agreement

2–3 per cent at every federal election Ireland (where 94 per cent voted in until in 1972 it overtook the Christian favour on a 56 per cent turnout) and in Democrats for the first time and became the Irish Republic (71 per cent in favour the largest single party in the Bundestag. on an 81 per cent turnout). This was largely due to the extension of Implementation of the Treaty has proved its electoral appeal to groups beyond the problematic, mainly because of working class and trade union disagreements concerning the timing members. It thus became, like the and modalities of decommissioning of Christian Democrats, a ‘catch-all party’. armaments. A number of brief Godesberg ProgrammeGood Friday Agreement suspensions of the Assembly have been imposed by the British government to Good Friday Agreement allow time for talks to be held to resolve The Treaty of 22 May 1998 which such disputes. Conflicts concerning formed the basis for a peaceful traditional parades and terrorist activity settlement in Northern Ireland. by paramilitary organisations which Following nearly two years of talks were not parties to the agreement have involving the various parties and also proved disruptive to the ‘peace political groups in Northern Ireland, as process’ since 1998. well as the British and Irish [See also: Irish Republican Army; governments, an agreement was Adams*; Paisley*; Trimble*] DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

reached on 10 April 1998. The core of 37 the Treaty resulting from that agreement Grabenwahlsystem (Germany) was a consensus that ‘reaffirms total and absolute commitment to exclusively An electoral system which institutes a democratic and peaceful means of ‘ditch’ (‘Graben’) between seats won resolving differences on political issues’. under a first-past-the-post electoral It involved changes to British law and system and those awarded through the Irish constitution to ensure that the proportional representation. The name future status of Northern Ireland could was applied to the proposed revision in only be settled by the consent of the 1956 of the two-vote proportional people of Northern Ireland. It provided a representation system of election used basis for the creation of a legislative in the Federal Republic of Germany, assembly with devolved powers which under which the allocation of seats on a would represent proportionally the proportional basis would be confined to various Northern Irish parties, and a the 50 per cent of Bundestag seats power-sharing executive government drawn from party lists, and would not based on that assembly. Cross-border (as the Electoral Law of 1953 had structures would provide for provided) take into account in such co-operation between Northern Ireland allocation any constituency seats won and the Irish Republic, and a by a party. Since small parties tend in British–Irish Council would link the Irish Germany not to win constituency seats, government to the government of the this would have, in effect, halved their United Kingdom and the devolved Bundestag representation compared to Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish the existing two-vote system. For authorities. Prisoners with paramilitary example, if the Free Democratic Party status would be released over a 3-year (FDP) secured 10 per cent of list votes, period, and there was a commitment to they would expect to win about 50 decommission armaments held by seats in the pre-reunification Bundestag non-state organisations. (10 per cent of 496 seats). The fact that The Good Friday Agreement was the party won no constituencies would confirmed by referenda in Northern be irrelevant. Under the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Grabenwahlsystem (Germany) green card system (of immigration)

Grabenwahlsystem, the 10 per cent Western European countries, based on would be calculated only for the 248 list practices in the USA. Amongst would-be seats available, giving the party only immigrants, highly skilled and about 25 seats. The larger parties would well-qualified individuals are selected by win their proportional share of list seats, host state immigration procedures for plus the constituency seats they had special ‘fast-track’ entry. In March 2000, won. Thus the Christian Democrats, Chancellor Schröder of Germany with, say, 47 per cent of list votes (their proposed to meet a shortfall of vote-share in the 1965 Bundestag specialists in Germany’s industrial election) would get about 116 list seats technology sector by giving temporary (47 per cent of 248); since they also work permits to as many as 30,000 won 154 constituency seats, they would foreign computer experts. In March 2002 have had 270 seats, providing an a law was passed to allow up to 1.5 absolute majority, rather than the 242 million skilled workers to migrate to seats which they were in fact allocated. Germany. The proposal met with Though the idea was floated by criticism from trade unions and Christian Democratic politicians in 1956, opposition christian democrats. In a it was soon abandoned, especially after report of February 2001, EU Commission strong opposition from the FDP. President Romano Prodi distinguished EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, [See also: Young Turks’ Revolt] between mass immigration and a

38 Grabenwahlsystemgreen card system (Germany) (of immigration) programme of co-ordinated admission of skilled workers, arguing that the EU grand coalition would need at least 1.6 million new A coalition composed of the two largest ‘qualified immigrants’ to achieve its goal parties in a party system, usually parties of becoming the world’s most which would normally be in direct competitive economic area by 2010. opposition to each other. A grand [See also: immigration] coalition could also include one or more smaller parties, though this would green movement not normally be necessary to provide a majority, so such a coalition would be The green movement was one of the over-sized. Austria was governed by new social movements which, from the grand coalitions consisting of the 1960s to the 1980s, challenged the christian democratic People’s Party and post-war consensus in Western the Social Democrats from the end of European countries. The green the post-war occupation regime until movement began with specific ecologist 1966, and from 1986 until 1999, and the or environmentalist campaigns at the Federal Republic of Germany was local level. It then extended its governed by a grand coalition of the organisation to the national level in Christian Democrats and Social order to strengthen its political impact, Democrats from 1966 until 1969. Grand beginning with the formation of coalitions have also sometimes been umbrella organisations of green activists formed at Land level in the Federal in the early 1970s. Concern over the use Republic of Germany. They are of nuclear energy helped to consolidate generally criticised for removing the green movement. After the 1970s oil effective opposition in Parliament. crisis, many European governments decided to expand their civil nuclear energy programmes. Green activists green card system (of immigration) found this alarming, both because of The term ‘green card’ refers to a the potential for accidents and the controversial new policy trend in chance that civil nuclear capacity might

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access green movement Group of Eight (G-8) later be diverted to military uses. In the EU is represented by the Economics late 1970s, these concerns were Commissioner, the president of the compounded by the NATO twin-track European Central Bank and the finance decision on intermediate nuclear forces minister of the country holding the and the eventual stationing of cruise presidency of the EU at the time (who missiles and Pershing II in Western might also be attending as a national Europe. In many countries, peace representative, if that country is one of activists and environmentalists joined the G-8 states). At meetings of heads of forces over the issue of nuclear power, governments, the president of the EU creating a broad-based movement with will attend. links with other countries. In the early 1980s, most green movements tried to Guillaume Affair persuade the socialists or social democrats in their national Parliaments In April 1974 it was discovered by the to take up their proposals. Whereas German secret service that Günter some socialist factions were prepared to Guillaume, a member of Chancellor promote anti-nuclear or environmentalist Brandt’s personal staff, was in fact an issues, they could not support the agent of the GDR Stasi, who had greens’ more radical demands, entered the FRG as a refugee and had particularly calls for limits to economic acquired employment on the staff of the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

growth to secure sustainable Social Democratic Party. He had been 39 development. The established political promoted in 1970 to a position on parties have always seen constant Brandt’s staff in the Chancellor’s Office, economic growth as the key to and had then used this opportunity to improving the quality of life of the pass secret government information to population and thereby to maintaining the GDR. Brandt took personal their support at elections. Finding their responsibility for this embarrassing efforts blocked, many of the European scandal, and resigned as Chancellor green movements decided to set up (though he retained his post as party their own parties to pursue their specific leader). Guillaume was sentenced to interests. thirteen years’ imprisonment, but was [See also: NATO twin-track decision; released in 1981 as part of an exchange new social movements; Fischer*; Kelly*] of prisoners, and returned to the GDR, green movement Group of Eight (G-8) where he was decorated for his espionage achievements. Group of Eight (G-8) [See also: Brandt*] The name given to meetings of finance ministers and heads of central banks of Gulf War the economically most important states and the EU. These meetings are to The war between military forces of the settle issues relating to the state of the UN and Iraq, following Iraq’s attempted global economy, exchange rates and forceful annexation of Kuwait in August financial issues affecting particular 1990. Iraq had long claimed that Kuwait countries. The countries involved are: really belonged to the territory of Iraq, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and disputes concerning oil production the United Kingdom, the USA (the levels, as well as Saddam Hussein’s ‘Group of Seven’: G-7), and, since 1991, territorial ambitions, led to the Iraqi Russia. It can also be applied to summit invasion. A UN resolution requiring Iraqi meetings of the heads of government of withdrawal and the imposition of those states. Depending on the agenda, economic and diplomatic sanctions at meetings of the finance ministers the failed to produce an Iraqi withdrawal,

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so a military invasion of Iraq took place security, East–West economic in January and February 1991 from co-operation and human rights. It did bases in Saudi Arabia and from ships in not have the status of an international the Gulf. British and French military treaty, but was rather a statement of forces were involved; Germany supplied joint commitment and political intent. only non-military resources. Iraq The signatories included all the accepted UN resolutions and withdrew European states (except Albania), the from Kuwait, but Iraqi refusal to destroy USA and Canada. The Helsinki chemical and nuclear weapons resulted Conference also established the in the imposition of sanctions by the UN Conference on Security and and a long-running dispute concerning Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), which UN inspection of suspected weapons until 1990 was the only forum in which facilities. both the capitalist and communist Gulf War Helsinki Agreement European states, together with the USA and Canada, met to discuss common Hallstein Doctrine concerns. In working towards the Arising from the claim by the FRG that Helsinki Agreement, the member states it alone was the legitimate of the European Communities representative of Germany, since, unlike co-ordinated their foreign policies EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, the government of the GDR, its through the mechanism of European

40 government had been freely elected, the Political Co-operation (EPC) for the first Hallstein Doctrine (named after its time. The human rights provisions of the author, Walter Hallstein) was included Helsinki Agreement were used both in in Adenauer’s ‘Government declaration’ dialogue between the superpowers and on 23 September 1955. It stated that the increasingly within the Soviet Union to FRG would not have diplomatic legitimise protest against the system. relations with any state (the USSR President Carter of the USA used the excepted) which gave diplomatic Helsinki Final Act to spotlight human recognition to the GDR. The dilemma rights abuses in the Soviet Union, for many states, especially those which particularly those concerning the were neutral in the Cold War, was that treatment of dissidents. Throughout the the trade and development aid which late 1970s and early 1980s, those the FRG could supply were often very Russian dissidents who attempted to advantageous, and the gains from monitor the Soviet Union’s fulfilment of diplomatic relations with the GDR were the human rights clauses in the Helsinki limited, so it proved an effective Agreement were jailed. diplomatic instrument for the Adenauer government. The Hallstein Doctrine lost historic compromise (Italy) its validity with the onset of the Ostpolitik, which produced a degree of The historic compromise refers to the détente between the FRG and the GDR decision of the Italian Communist Party and other communist states. (PCI) to try to enter effective [See also: Cold War; Ostpolitik; parliamentary politics through Hallstein*] collaboration with other political parties. Since the Second World War, the PCI had been marginalised in Italian politics Helsinki Agreement through the successful tactics of its rival, The Helsinki Agreement (also called the the christian democratic DC. The PCI Helsinki Final Act) was drawn up by 35 had retreated into a stance of nations which took part in the Helsinki fundamental opposition and alignment Conference of 1975, on European with the Soviet Union. After the Soviet

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access historic compromise (Italy) Historikerstreit (historians’ dispute) invasion of Hungary in 1956, though, the centre-right arguing for relativisation and party adopted an independent, those of the centre-left arguing against. Eurocommunist position which aimed to [See also: nazism] achieve socialism within the existing democratic framework. The party’s Holocaust leader, Berlinguer, established the strategy of historic compromise in 1973. A term applied to the actions taken by His efforts established the PCI as a the Nazi government in the Third Reich mainstream party and eventually as a to physically eliminate the Jewish de facto party of government. In 1976 population, first in Germany, then in the PCI tolerated DC Prime Minister territories occupied by Germany during Andreotti’s coalition government, the war, by processes of mass killings, abstaining from parliamentary votes to especially in concentration camps such preserve the government. After the as Auschwitz and Treblinka. It has been murder of Aldo Moro, the PCI even estimated that as many as 6 million voted with the coalition, although it was Jews were killed by the policy of never formally a part of the government. genocide adopted by the Hitler The strategy failed through the government. There has been a long and opposition of other parties who objected continuing debate concerning whether to the collaboration of the country’s two the Holocaust should be regarded as a DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

largest political forces, the DC and the unique event in history, unable to be 41 PCI. PCI leaders became disillusioned compared to any other occurrence in with the strategy when it failed to bring any country of the world, or whether it added electoral support, and Berlinguer can be classed alongside policies of dropped it in 1980. mass extermination instigated in Stalin’s [See also: eurocommunism; Soviet union, Pol Pot’s Cambodia or, Andreotti*; Berlinguer*; Moro*] more recently, in parts of Africa such as historicHistorikerstreit compromise (Italy)(historians’ dispute) Rwanda. [See also: anti-Semitism; Historikerstreit (historians’ dispute) Historikerstreit; nazism; Nuremberg The bitter dispute which erupted tribunal] between rival schools of historians in West Germany between 1986 and 1987 immigration centred around the question of whether it is admissible to relativise the atrocities Immigration concerns the entry of of the Third Reich (as suggested by the foreign-born people into a ‘host’ state, historian Ernst Nolte), or whether these with the intention of living and/or must be set apart as incomparable in working in that state on a temporary or historical experience (as argued by the permanent basis. Since the Second historians Ernst Jäckel and Hagen World War, long-term immigration has Schulze and by the philosopher Jürgen been steadily changing the national, Habermas). This debate was perceived ethnic and cultural balance of Western as having a direct bearing on questions European populations. European states of German identity and moral integrity differ in their attitudes to and policies as a nation. In short, it posed the on immigration, but since the mid-1970s question as to whether the Germans all popular host countries have tried to could ever recover from the taint of restrict immigration. Legal entry falls nazism. The debate developed from an into the following main categories: academic dispute to a nationwide temporary labour migrants, family concern. It took on a party political slant, reunion (e.g. of spouses and children of with representatives of parties on the immigrants already working in the host

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access immigration Irish Republican Army (IRA)

country), asylum-seekers claiming the struggle for Irish independence, then political persecution in their own in protest at the 1922 partition of country, and refugees seeking entry on Ireland. It did this by raids on arms humanitarian grounds. With increasing depots and bomb attacks, in Northern restrictions on legal labour entry, host Ireland and on the British mainland. It countries have experienced an increase was proscribed as an illegal organisation in the ‘abuse’ of asylum provision, with by the Irish government on several many asylum claimants suspected of occasions before the Second World entering the country not primarily out of War. During the war it engaged in fear of political persecution, but in the pro-German actions. After a period in hope of finding work. There has also the immediate post-war years when it been an increase in illegal immigration, was more or less dormant, from the often supported by ‘trafficking’ in mid-1950s it initiated sporadic raids on immigrants by criminal gangs. military targets in Northern Ireland and [See also: asylum] the British mainland. The immigration Irish Republican Army (IRA) commencement of civil rights protests in Northern Ireland gave the IRA a new informateur opportunity to engage in terrorist A politician, often an elder statesman, activities, though a split concerning EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, appointed by a head of state to make strategy led to the formation of an

42 inquiries concerning which coalition of Official IRA and a Provisional IRA: the parties might most probably command a latter became the terrorist organisation majority and be able to form a coherent which focused on securing a and stable government. Informateurs are withdrawal by British troops from employed, for example, in Belgium and Northern Ireland. A series of bomb the Netherlands. This procedure enables attacks in Britain led to the Irish the head of state to be detached from government again denouncing the the political process of coalition organisation. The IRA consented to a formation. cease-fire agreement in 1994, and, following the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, its political arm (Sinn Féin) International Brigades became a partner in the all-party The International Brigades were government formed by Trimble in 1998. composed of volunteers who supported However, the refusal of the IRA to give the Republican cause in the Spanish up its arsenal of weapons has been a civil war of 1936–39. The volunteers sticking-point in the promotion of a were communist and republican system of peaceful and democratic sympathisers from Europe and the politics for Northern Ireland. A who viewed the Spanish breakaway group, the ‘Real IRA’, struggle against General Franco’s continued terrorist bombings in 2000 Nationalist forces as part of a more and 2001. general battle against European fascism. [See also: Good Friday Agreement; In 1996, the surviving members of the Adams*; Paisley*; Trimble*] International Brigades were awarded Spanish citizenship. judicialisation [See also: fascism; Spanish civil war] Western European countries have experienced a ‘judicialisation’ of politics: Irish Republican Army (IRA) a development in which political debate An organisation which was formed in and decision-making are becoming 1919, to take action first in relation to more strongly influenced by legal norms

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access judicialisation Kopp Affair and court rulings. A process linked to a commission of inquiry which criticised constitutionalism, judicialisation has in the state security services for partiality many countries been promoted by the in its investigations. work of a constitutional court. Constitutional courts have begun to Lib–Lab pact exert a significant influence over legislation and policy-making. Their The pact between the Labour rulings can set a precedent not only for government headed by Callaghan and future court rulings, but also for the Liberal Party from March 1977 to decisions of the legislative and May 1978. It resulted from the loss by executive branches of government. For the Labour government of its overall example, a court ruling may incorporate majority through by-election defeats. detailed guidelines regarding the Steel, on behalf of the Liberal implementation of a piece of legislation parliamentary party, offered to support which in practice channel future the government in return for being legislative and executive decisions in a consulted on key policies and obtaining particular direction. This role of the a promise of a free vote on proportional courts as ‘policy makers’ is a representation for European Parliament controversial one. elections (the proposal was defeated). [See also: constitutionalism] The Liberals did not receive any DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

judicialisation Kopp Affair ministerial posts, so the pact fell short 43 of a formal government coalition, Kiessling Affair though an inter-party Consultative General Kiessling was a senior officer in Committee was formed to NATO headquarters. On the basis of institutionalise cross-party co-ordination. intelligence reports accusing him of There was opposition to the pact in homosexuality and thus indicating that both parties, and disappointment for the he would be a security risk, he was Liberals regarding the timing of the sent into compulsory retirement in 1983 general election and policy decisions. by the Defence Minister of the Federal Republic of Germany, Wörner. When Loi Defferre these reports were shown to have been erroneous, Wörner offered Chancellor The ‘Defferre Law’ (named for the Kohl his resignation, but Kohl refused to Interior Minister in Mitterrand’s first accept it. Kiessling was unconditionally government) which in 1982 created a reinstated in 1984. legislative basis for a series of other [See also: Wörner*] laws extending decentralisation in France. This decentralisation programme involved transferring powers Kopp Affair from the prefects of the Departments to A scandal in Switzerland, involving the presidents of elected regional first woman ever appointed as a assemblies and various formerly minister in the Swiss federal centrally controlled field services were government. Elisabeth Kopp was also put under the authority of the accused of using her position to inform regional councils. A new corps of local her husband about possible links civil servants was established, equating between a company with which he was their status with the central civil service. concerned and investigations into Prefects were replaced by laundering of drug money. She was Commissioners, and changes were acquitted on all charges in 1990. made in the planning process to the Repercussions from this affair included advantage of regional and local

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Loi Defferre Luxembourg compromise

government. Other measures, such as veto power for any member state which local electoral reform and restriction of declared that its vital national interests multiple office-holding, were designed would be adversely affected by a to promote local political participation proposed decision. It resulted from the and foster greater democratic rejection by France in 1965 of proposals accountability. for reform of financing of the Common Loi Defferre Luxembourg compromise Agricultural Policy and for extension of majority voting in the Council of Lombardy League [See: Northern Ministers. France refused to attend Leagues] meetings of the Council of Ministers until some compromise on these issues Lomé Convention had been reached. The main effect of Based on the requirement in the this compromise was to prevent Preamble to the Rome Treaty obligating large-scale reform of the Community for member states of the EEC to maintain many years, and, by emphasising the and foster links with their former inter-governmental aspects of the EEC, colonial possessions, the EEC in 1963 delayed extension of supranational concluded the Youandé Convention policies. with 18 such former colonies, providing [See also: empty chair crisis] EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, privileged arrangements for exports

44 from those states to countries of the Maastricht Treaty EEC. The entry of the UK to the EEC meant that a new arrangement, The Maastricht Treaty (formally known covering the many former British as the Treaty on European Union colonial possessions and former (TEU)), which came into force in 1993, dominions, had to be developed. This established the European Union (EU). It was the Lomé Convention of 1975, provides for an EU based on three providing for free trade between 44 ‘pillars’: the European Communities (the such countries and the EEC. The EEC, ECSC and EURATOM); a Common number of states covered by the Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP); and Convention (which has been renewed co-operation in the fields of justice and at intervals since 1975) is now over 77. home affairs (JHA). While foreign and These countries also benefit from security policies remain under the subsidies, loans on specially favourable authority of national institutions, the terms and development aid from the Maastricht Treaty requires systematic EU. The Lomé arrangements have led co-operation among EU member states to disputes with GATT concerning their on matters of concern in this area, compatibility with global free trade including immigration and asylum arrangements; the ‘banana disputes’ by policy; police co-operation to combat which bananas from Lomé states are drug trafficking and other serious crime; given privileged access compared to and judicial co-operation. The Treaty Latin American bananas, is an example. provisions on CFSP and JHA are Lomé V (also known as Cotonou) of open-ended, allowing for future moves June 2000 features political towards integration in these areas. All conditionality and aims to create a free member states except the UK agreed to trade area by 2020. co-operate over social and economic policy under the Social Chapter. The Treaty consolidated the Single European Luxembourg compromise Act (SEA) by setting a strategy and An agreement among member states of timetable for implementing Economic the EEC in 1966 which allowed national and Monetary Union (EMU). It also

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Maastricht Treaty Mani pulite (‘clean hands’ operation) created the Cohesion Fund: a regional Mani pulite (‘clean hands’ operation) fund to channel financial support for the improvement of transport infrastructures In 1992 it was found that the Milan and for environmental upgrading in the branch of the Italian Socialist Party poorer member states. (PSI), a traditional party of the left, had [See also: Economic and Monetary broken the party finance laws. This Union; Economic and Social Cohesion; discovery launched a thorough Single European Act] investigation into party and government MaastrichtMani puliteTreaty (‘clean hands’ operation) affairs known as the mani pulite, or ‘clean hands’ operation. Mani pulite was mafia the initial investigation which Originally linked specifically with snowballed in 1993 as ‘Tangentopoli’ eighteenth-century Sicily, the term: (bribe city), becoming a national mafia is now used to refer generically to investigation of corruption amongst organised crime in the southern Italian Italian political elites. Mezzogiorno. The mafia is no longer [See also: Tangentopoli] believed to be a single organisation with an integrated structure, but rather a maquis network of criminal groups with local organisations, bound by strong personal A name given to sections of the French DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

connections and family ties. The resistance in the Second World War, 45 network extends to Italian communities usually those located in rural areas in other countries, such as the USA. The especially of southern France. The word groups within the mafia network derives from the scrubby undergrowth sometimes clash violently, but usually found especially in the mountainous respect each other’s status within the areas where they had their bases. overall hierarchy and sphere of [See also: Resistance groups] influence. Mafia members operate the principle of omertà (the ‘anti-law’ of Marshall Plan silence) and vendetta (revenge), making it difficult for the authorities to penetrate A plan proposed by US Secretary of the organisation. The network has State General George Marshall in June infiltrated and entrenched corrupt 1947 to revive the war-devastated relationships with the police, local economies of Europe by offering government and the courts throughout financial and other forms of economic the Mezzogiorno, through which it offers aid to those countries. It was initiated patronage. In spite of violent reprisals because the USA feared that the against informers, a series of physical destruction and economic ‘maxi-trials’ involving large numbers of dislocation of European economies mafia began in 1986 on the basis of might both lead to increased support for inside evidence. The network is so communist parties in Europe and significant in Italian politics that at the hamper the recovery of world trade, to national level there is a High the disadvantage of US commerce. Commissioner responsible for the fight European states were to propose their against the mafia. The extent of the own plans for utilising US aid (the mafia’s involvement with Italy’s political European Recovery Programme). The and administrative elites was one of the USSR, though invited to participate, main reasons for the collapse of the rejected the conditions required, traditional political parties in the including publication of economic data, Tangentopoli scandal of 1992–93. and anyway could not view such [See also: Mezzogiorno; Tangentopoli] external aid as congruent with its tightly

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Marshall Plan Mezzogiorno

controlled centralised economic Mezzogiorno policies. This rejection led to the self-exclusion of other East European The term: Mezzogiorno is applied to the states from the scheme. An southern regions of Italy: Abruzzi; organisation, the OEEC, was created to Basilicata; Calabria; Campania; Molise; administer and co-ordinate Marshall Aid Puglia; Sardinia and Sicily. The (as US assistance under the scheme Mezzogiorno has remained significantly came to be known), and sixteen less developed than the rest of Italy in countries benefited from the food, raw socio-economic terms and as such materials, investment goods and represents a major problem for the financial aid supplied by the USA from national government. Several factors 1948 onwards. Marshall later received help to account for the north–south the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the divide. The hotter, drier climate and scheme. the mountains in much of the Marshall Plan Mezzogiorno Mezzogiorno have restricted the development of agriculture, road and May Events (1968) rail communications, and services to The May Events were a series of strikes support larger settlements. Moreover, and demonstrations culminating in riots the area is prone to earthquakes. EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, which took place in France in May The regime history of the Mezzogiorno

46 1968, producing a situation so volatile was more repressive than that of as to threaten the French Fifth other areas of Italy, which experienced Republic. The events began with a wider range of government styles in student protests in Paris over the the past. The mafia, the notorious outmoded system of higher education network of organised crime, has its and the lack of facilities for study. stronghold in the Mezzogiorno to this Radical student leaders saw the day, where it has infiltrated local protests as the basis for a full-scale government structures and represents social and political revolution and the an important (and illegal) source of demonstrations escalated into riots. patronage for the area. In political When the police took violent terms, the south is more reactionary counter-measures, the rioting spread and pro-monarchist than the north; from Paris to the provinces of France. also, national political leaders are more The unions called a one-day strike to likely to be recruited from the northern express solidarity with the students, but regions. The term: Mezzogiorno was lost control of the action which also applied in unified Germany in the developed into a general strike. The early 1990s, when some economists protests collapsed when President de drew speculative parallels between Italy Gaulle enlisted the support of the army, and the new Germany concerning the but a conciliatory approach was then prospects for future economic adopted by Prime Minister Pompidou, development. They feared that, as for who promised education and economic the Italian Mezzogiorno, the new reforms. The May Events inspired eastern Länder (formerly the German similar student actions in other Democratic Republic, GDR) of unified countries, particularly Germany, and Germany might become permanently were later judged to have damaged the dependent on subsidies from the authority of de Gaulle. wealthier western Länder, those of the [See also: de Gaulle*, Pompidou*] former Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). [See also: mafia; reunification of Médiateur [See: Ombudsman] Germany]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Modell Deutschland (the German model) Morgenthau Plan

Treasury, which was adopted by the UK Modell Deutschland (the German and USA at the 1944 Quebec model) conference as a basis for the treatment The ‘German model’ is the term used to of Germany once the Second World indicate the system of political economy War came to an end. Starting from the in Germany with its emphasis on social premise that Germany had been to consensus and political regulation of the blame for the war, and that the country market economy. The success of this had been dangerous because of its system, especially in the twenty years industrial strength as well as because of from 1960 to 1980 when the West its aggressive leadership, the Plan German economy became dominant in proposed severe reduction of Germany’s Europe, led other countries to consider industrial capacity, turning the country adopting elements of its structures. into an agricultural region. The Plan was Co-determination, legal regulation of abandoned in 1945 because of the trade unions and industrial relations severity of these proposals, and (but with guarantees for the status and assessment of the effect which the role of the trade unions), the short-lived Plan’s restriction of manufacturing and ‘concerted action’ system of tripartite therefore on Germany’s export trade discussion about economic parameters would have on the ability of the and, more recently, the ‘Alliance for Germans to feed themselves. DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Jobs’ (Bündnis für Arbeit) which has 47 renewed that system of tripartite NATO twin-track decision discussions have been significant elements of the ‘German model’. The A policy pursued by NATO, based on a term is very similar in its meaning to decision by the NATO Council in 1979. the ‘Rhineland model’. It involved simultaneously (a) making [See also: co-determination; attempts to foster détente by negotiation Rhineland model] with the USSR and (b) ensuring by Modell Deutschland (the MorgenthauGerman model) Plan means of the stationing of medium-range nuclear missiles in Mogadishu Affair Western Europe that the USSR would In 1977 the Red Army Faction (RAF) be deterred from nuclear attack on hi-jacked a West German plane, forcing Western European states. Despite it to land at Mogadishu airport in protests in many West European states, . The hostages were rescued by those missiles were put in place. a daring raid on the plane by a special [See also: détente] unit of the West German border guards. The failure of the hi-jacking (which had nazism been intended to secure their release) led Baader and Meinhof to kill The ideology of the Nazi Party and themselves in their cells in Stammheim movement founded by Hitler after prison. the First World War, and applied as [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; Red state policy during the Third Reich Army Faction] (1933–45). There is dispute concerning which features are distinctive to nazism, and Morgenthau Plan which belong to more general A plan (formally: the ‘Programme to categories such as fascism or Prevent the Initiation of a Third World . However, it is generally War by Germany’) proposed by Henry agreed that three core elements were at Morgenthau, US Secretary of the the heart of Nazi ideology. First was the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access nazism neocorporatism

belief in the racial superiority of the neocorporatism Aryan (and especially the German) people, and consequently the racial Neocorporatism is a system of inferiority of Slavs, Jews and other functional representation, that is, races – as set out in Hitler’s book: Mein representation according to Kampf (My Struggle). Second was the socio-economic interest or sector. Under absolute authority of the leader (the neocorporatism, organisations which Führer) and, through him, of the Nazi each represent a distinct Party and its organisations. Third, the socio-economic interest have benefit of what the Nazis understood by institutionalised representation within ‘community’ and the harm done, as the government and key decision-making Nazis perceived it, by political parties bodies. In Western European and other ‘divisive’ organisations to that democracies, neocorporatist structures sense of unifying community. From supplement the channels of these ideas derive other elements, such representation effected by plural as the threat to civilisation posed by elections and competing political communism, the need to ‘correct’ the parties. It is clearest in the close and penalties and humiliations imposed on formalised collaboration between Germany by the Treaty of Versailles, government and major socio-economic EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, and the right of Germany to expand interests such as employers’ federations

48 territorially: first to take in other areas and trade unions which takes place in regarded as rightfully ‘German’ (such as countries such as Austria and the Austria, parts of Poland and Scandinavian countries. Czechoslovakia, and Alsace-Lorraine), nazism neocorporatism then to expand into Eastern Europe to new politics acquire ‘living space’ (Lebensraum) for the German people. ‘New politics’ or ‘new paradigm politics’ The methods used to attain refers to a major shift in social attitudes these goals involved the imposition of and values which distinguishes a totalitarian state apparatus, which Europeans growing up after the Second involved genocide, terror, the forced World War from previous generations. inclusion of all social associations and Writers in the ‘new ’ institutions within the Nazi movement school generally agree that, in the (from churches to trade unions) and the post-war period, the increased militarisation of German society. economic development and prosperity Though nazism in this sense of advanced Western industrialised terminated with the destruction of societies have transformed the basic Hitler’s regime at the end of the Second value priorities of succeeding World War, some extreme right-wing generations of people. The ‘old politics’ groups – within but also outside of the years immediately following the Germany – adopt some of the Second World War encompassed values ideological elements of nazism and may such as sustained economic growth; cherish the symbols and memories of law and order; rigorous national the Hitler period. These groups are security; and traditional, family-based sometimes called ‘neo-Nazi’ groups. lifestyles. These were the values However, not all European extreme embodied by and represented by the right-wing groups possess this link to established political parties of Western nazism. Europe. The characteristic values of [See also: anti-fascism; anti-Semitism; ‘new politics’ are environmental quality; denazification; fascism; Holocaust; social equality; alternative lifestyles; Nuremberg tribunal; Hitler*] minority rights; and participation in

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access new politics Northern Leagues political decision-making. These new Northern Leagues issue demands initially manifested themselves in the new social A number of political organisations movements of the 1960s to the 1980s. formed in the north of Italy from 1979, [See also: new social movements] to press for greater autonomy and a new politics Northern Leagues reduction in the economic burden imposed on the more prosperous new social movements northern areas of Italy in order to Social movements can be described as subsidise the poorer southern regions. a conscious attempt to bring about a Allegations of corruption in the central change in the established power government and in southern regions structures and dominant norms and such as Sicily, the perceived preference values in society and to have these new in public service appointments values reflected in national politics: a apparently given to southerners and the political challenge which attracts some heavy tax burden on small businesses mass support. The ‘new social were other complaints of the supporters movements’ were active across Western of these Leagues. The most successful Europe from the late 1960s to the early of the Leagues was the Lombard 1980s. The ideologies and issues which League, led by Bossi, which in 1990 prompted their protest action included won a substantial share of the vote in DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

feminism, nuclear disarmament and regional elections. Following the 49 peace, and environmentalism (the creation in 1991 of an umbrella ‘green’ movement). The new social organisation (the Northern League), movements challenged their states at further electoral successes, in local and various levels. They shared a common national elections, followed. For a time, ideological outlook which was critical of the Northern League participated in the customary liberal democratic order Berlusconi’s right-wing coalition and processes. They also challenged the government. The Northern League now values and policy consensus of the wants a federal basis for the Italian 1950s and 1960s. They demanded a state, in which the northern, central and radical new interpretation of democracy. southern areas would be responsible They tried to promote individual autonomously for many areas of participation in political decision-making domestic policy. Some of the more in place of ‘ritual’ political activity, which extreme supporters of the League want was often in practice limited to voting. an independent northern state: Padania. This effectively challenged the principle [See also: Berlusconi*; Bossi*] of representative democracy, which rests on established channels of Nuremberg tribunal representation through parties and parliaments. At the height of their An international court created in 1945 to activity, the new social movements put leading German war criminals on sometimes posed a threat to public trial. It was set up as a result of order through their unconventional discussion among the Allies from 1943, protest tactics. The green movement as one of the methods by which became established as a new partisan denazification would be promoted. family of political parties in Western Judges were appointed by the British, Europe. The other movements did not French, American and Soviet Union translate to comprehensive party governments. The tribunal sat from organisations in the same way. November 1945 until it delivered its [See also: Green movement; new verdicts in October 1946. Leading Nazi politics; women’s movement] politicians, military leaders and others

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Nuremberg tribunal Oder–Neisse line

who occupied leading positions in the the Cold War and the division of Nazi state were accused of various Germany, it seemed that a peace treaty crimes, including ‘crimes against would never be negotiated, and Poland humanity’, and twelve were sentenced came to claim the Oder–Neisse to death (including Goering, who boundary as permanent. The German committed suicide before he could be Democratic Republic signed a treaty executed, Himmler and General Jodl), with Poland in 1950 which officially seven to periods of imprisonment recognised this boundary between the (including Doenitz and Hess, who died two states. The German Federal in prison whilst serving a life sentence) Republic, however, claimed that the and three were found not guilty and boundary could not be accepted by the released. Other trials of lesser-known Federal Republic nor be recognised in war criminals and organisations international law until such a peace involved in Hitler’s military and racial treaty was signed, though in the policies subsequently took place. Ostpolitik treaties it renounced any The Nuremberg tribunal in particular intention to use force to change existing was criticised for lacking a firm basis in boundaries. This attitude, though based international law and for the clear on constitutional requirements included political basis of some of the verdicts, in the Basic Law, was regarded EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, especially by the Soviet Union judge. especially by states in the communist

50 However, it did attempt to elevate bloc as ravanchist, since it seemed to standards of law above political imply that a reunited Germany might expediency and emphasise that even claim back what had become de facto war was subject to certain international Polish territory. In fact, the Two plus standards of behaviour. It also served as Four talks and the agreements resulting a symbol of the Allies’ determination to from these made clear that a reunified eradicate nazism from German society. German state would abandon all claims The tribunal also set a precedent, which not only to territory east of the has been followed, for example, in the Oder–Neisse line, but anywhere in attempts to bring before an international Europe. court war criminals who were involved [See also: Ostpolitik; Potsdam in the Yugoslavian conflicts. conference; ‘Two plus Four’ talks] [See also: denazification; nazism] Nuremberg tribunal Oder–Neisse line oil crisis Oder–Neisse line The first, and best-known, oil crisis The post-war settlement concerning occurred in 1973–74. The Arab Germany reached at the Potsdam oil-producing states used their control conference included a supposedly over a large proportion of the world’s oil provisional agreement on the borders of production to cut off supplies to states Poland. As compensation for the which had been in the forefront of territory formerly belonging to Poland support for Israel in the Arab–Israeli war which the Soviet Union had retained at which had commenced in October the end of the Second World War, part 1973, and by reduction of output of the former German state, east of the increased the world price of oil very rivers Oder and Neisse, was placed considerably. This had a shock effect on under Polish administration pending a the economies of most developed peace treaty with Germany which states, many of which experienced a would officially terminate the Second period of negative economic growth. World War and define Germany’s future Unemployment increased, and boundaries. With the intensification of remained high for several years and

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access oil crisis oil crisis inflation also increased, in some others dependent upon oil for countries (including the United their commercial activities were Kingdom) to very high levels at times. directed, with good reason, more at Developing states and those in the governments because of levels of communist bloc also suffered taxation on oil fuels than at increases economically. in producer prices. There was A second oil crisis, similarly produced justification for this, since such by Arab states limiting oil production, producer price increases constituted took place in 1979 following the only a small proportion of the total overthrow of the Shah of Iran. While the price of petrol and diesel. price of oil had quadrupled in 1973–74, oil crisis oil crisis it more than doubled again in 1979–80, Ombudsman though this price increase was relatively short lived, since Iran and Iraq, at war A Swedish word, the title of an with each other, were forced to export independent official responsible for more than their quota to produce receiving and investigating grievances revenue to pay for the war. submitted by citizens relating to The oil price increases, based upon maladministration by government agreed production quotas, were made officials. The office was originally possible by the authority of the founded in 1809. It has been adopted as DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Organisation of Petroleum Exporting a means of protecting the citizen against 51 Countries (OPEC), founded by five maladministration in other countries states in 1960, but which by 1973 had such as Denmark, Spain, Italy (at the twelve member states. The price regional level) and Austria. Such officials increases encouraged states to reduce are generally appointed by, and report their reliance on oil as a fuel, to to, Parliament. The United Kingdom has promote energy conservation and to several such officials; as well as the intensify the search for economic Parliamentary Commissioner for alternative fuels. The fact that states Administration, others exist for health such as Norway and the United service and local government matters, Kingdom were able to produce oil for example. Germany has an Inspector outside the quotas set by OPEC buffered General of the Armed Forces the effect which such quotas would (Wehrbeauftragter) to investigate otherwise have had on national complaints by members of the military. economies, and by the 1990s oil In France, where the office was created production by OPEC states accounted in 1973, the mediator (médiateur) is an for less than half of total production official who reports to the president. outside the communist bloc. The médiateur seeks an equitable There was talk of a third oil crisis in solution to conflicts between citizens 2000, when oil producers, who had and the bureaucracy, on matters such experienced a decline in the price of as entitlements to pensions and oil (and thus their revenues) throughout subsidies. the 1990s, attempted with some success to engineer an increase in the Ostpolitik price of oil by limiting production. However, though the world market Literally: ‘policy concerning the East’. price of oil did increase, this was The term refers to the innovative policy nothing like as large an increase as had approach adopted by the coalition occurred in the two previous crises. government of the Social Democrats Demonstrations and protests in Western (SPD) and the liberal Free Democrats states by farmers, lorry drivers and (FDP) in the Federal Republic of

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Ostpolitik Ostpolitik

Germany following the 1969 Bundestag coalition its majority by 1972. election. To some extent, Ostpolitik built Chancellor Brandt survived a upon developments which had already constructive vote of no confidence in occurred in the period of the ‘grand April 1972, but this did not resolve the coalition’ (1966–69), in which Brandt, problem of not being able to put the Chancellor of the SPD–FDP through legislation. So a premature government from 1969, had served as Bundestag election was held in Foreign Minister. November 1972, which resulted in a The Ostpolitik set out to replace safe majority for the Brandt coalition. confrontation with the communist bloc Brandt himself was awarded the Nobel states of Central and Eastern Europe (a Peace Prize in 1971 for his diplomatic policy stance typified by the ‘Hallstein initiatives in relation to Ostpolitik. Doctrine’) with a policy focused upon [See also: Basic Treaty; constructive diplomatic acceptance of the status quo vote of no confidence; the German in relation to state boundaries (especially question; Hallstein Doctrine; the Oder–Neisse boundary between the Oder–Neisse line; Brandt*] German Democratic Republic (GDR) Ostpolitik Ostpolitik and Poland) and de facto, though not de paedophile scandal (Belgium) jure, recognition of the GDR as a EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, separate state. It also included efforts to The Belgian paedophile scandal

52 encourage trade, cultural exchanges and challenged the judicial establishment in other contacts with those states in an Belgium and the ruling Dehaene atmosphere of peace. Ostpolitik government. In August 1996 a senior included within it ‘Deutschlandpolitik’: magistrate uncovered a paedophile ring policy towards the German Democratic based in Belgium which practised the Republic, where progress depended very kidnapping and murder of young girls. obviously upon the consent of the His dismissal from the case in October leadership of the Soviet Union. 1996 led to accusations of police In its own terms, ‘Ostpolitik’ could be incompetence and official corruption. regarded as successful. In particular, The revelations prompted strikes and four treaties were concluded which public demonstrations, notably the permitted improved relations between ‘White March’ of October 1996, in the Federal Republic of Germany and which some 300,000 people took part communist bloc states: the treaties with to call for reforms to the police and the USSR and Poland (both in 1970), an judicial system. In April 1997, a Agreement concerning the status of parliamentary commission Berlin to which France, the United recommended the establishment of an Kingdom, the USA and USSR – the four integrated national police force, but in former occupying powers – were February 1998 the government opted signatories (1971), and in 1972 a instead to recommend voluntary treaty-like Basic Agreement between agreements for co-operation between the two German states (which was not the country’s police services. In April called a ‘treaty’ because the Federal 1998 claims of police incompetence Republic always refused to regard the were underlined by the temporary GDR as a foreign state). Because the escape from custody of the man coalition only had a small majority in accused of heading the paedophile 1969, and because a number of FDP network. The Commander of the and SPD Members of the Bundestag national police, the Minister of the refused to support ‘Ostpolitik’ and in Interior and the Minister of Justice all some cases transferred to the resigned in the aftermath of this opposition, this policy had cost the incident.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access pantouflage perestroika

and eventually helped to overthrow pantouflage communist rule in these countries and A French term referring to the practice in the Soviet Union itself. Gorbachev in the French political system of civil applied the perestroika principle to carry servants resigning to take up more out institutional restructuring in the profitable employment in the private Soviet Union, but did not at first attempt sector. a thorough economic reform. Economic pantouflage perestroika policy remained heavily centralised and led by the 1986–90 Four Year Plan, and, peaceful revolution () in place of the anticipated upturn, the The peaceful revolution of 1989 took Soviet Union’s economic problems place in the former German Democratic worsened dramatically. The Communist Republic (GDR) and proved to be the Party factionalised around Gorbachev’s first step in the process of German programme, and he was soon under unification. It took the form of attack from all sides. Economic reform large-scale, peaceful weekly was finally introduced in January 1989, demonstrations in urban centres but by this time farmers had begun to throughout the GDR. The establish their own means of demonstrations gathered strength from distributing their produce for profit. The late September 1989. Initially the institutional reform process continued – DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

demonstrators demanded the reform of a partly competitive election for the 53 the socialist state under the leading Parliament, the Congress of People’s Communist Party, the Socialist Unity Deputies, was held in 1989 – but Party (SED), at least in line with the opposition to Gorbachev mounted. By liberalisation achieved in Central and 1990 Gorbachev had acknowledged that Eastern European countries. However, reform of the existing system was not when the party leadership failed to enough. He now advocated a respond to popular demands and even comprehensive transformation, including resisted calls for reform from Mikhail the introduction of fully competitive Gorbachev, General Secretary of the elections and a free market economy. Soviet Communist Party, the In August 1991 there was an attempted demonstrators became disillusioned and coup by right-wing elements and on some demanded reunification with the Christmas day 1991 Gorbachev resigned. Federal Republic of Germany. The following day, the Soviet Parliament [See also: reunification of Germany] dissolved the Soviet Union. [See also: glasnost] perestroika Petersberg Agreements (Germany) Perestroika (reconstruction) was one of the innovative principles adopted by A set of agreements between the Mikhail Gorbachev after his appointment Western Allied occupation authorities as General Secretary of the Communist and the Adenauer government signed Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. on 22 November 1949 in the hotel on Together with glasnost (openness), the the Petersberg (near Bonn) to revise term: perestroika entered into common some of the terms and conditions currency also in Western Europe, constraining the sovereignty of the new symbolising the new approach to Federal Republic of Germany. The government and international relations Federal Republic was permitted to have promoted by Gorbachev. The two consular representation in other concepts galvanised a reform process countries. Its foreign policy remained a throughout Central and Eastern Europe responsibility of the occupation

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Petersberg Agreements (Germany) Politikverdrossenheit

authorities, though the Federal Republic since the 1970s, the apparent inability of could become a member of certain politicians to deal effectively with international organisations (including the perceived problems such as Council of Europe). The Agreements immigration, unemployment and affected other matters such as limitation criminality, the tensions created by of dismantling of industrial production reunification in 1990 and the long and restrictions on the merchant navy. period in office of the ruling Christian The Agreements clarified several Democrat–Free Democrat coalition are ambiguities in the occupation statute among the factors blamed for this and the occasion was used by phenomenon. It is also related to the Adenauer as a symbolic gesture to unusual degree of penetration by assert the independent status of the political parties into the economic and Federal Republic. social spheres within German society. Petersberg AgreementsPolitikverdrossenheit (Germany) pillarisation poll tax A translation of a Dutch term A form of local taxation to provide (verzuiling), which refers to the social finance for local government authorities, and political structures in the introduced by the Thatcher government EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Netherlands by which the major in Scotland in 1988 and in the rest of

54 groupings in society (especially Britain in 1990. Officially termed the Catholics, Protestants, socialists and ‘community charge’, it replaced an liberals) control a proportion of political out-moded system of taxes (the rates) and social institutions, and individuals based on historic valuations of homes, utilise the institutions related to their shops and other premises. This system social grouping, such as schools, of rates was inequitable, since it took newspapers, broadcasting stations, no direct account of either aggregate churches and trade unions. These household income or the number of proportions reflect the weight of social earners in a household. It was not even groups within society. Modernisation of based on up-to-date assessments of the economy and society (and the property values. The community charge consequent erosion of deep-seated class was based upon the number of conflicts) and the decline in affiliation to income-earners in a household, so was religious groups and religious-based or fairer in that respect, but took no ideologically-based political parties have account of levels of income. It was also meant that pillarisation is no longer as intended to link payment of local taxes relevant in present-day Dutch society. to levels of spending by local councils, and thus act as an electoral restraint on high-spending councils, where political asylum [See: asylum] previously those who benefited from costly levels of services often escaped Politikverdrossenheit any payment towards them through the Literally: alienation from politics. The rating system. Protests against the term became fashionable in the early inequity of the new system were 1990s in Germany to refer to a set of immediate and became violent, coupled developments, ranging from with a campaign of non-payment of the much-reduced electoral turnout to charge. It was asserted that the new declines in party membership and system would benefit the wealthier activism, from distrust of politicians and sections of local communities. The the political process to criticism of poll tax damaged the image and particular policies. A series of scandals popularity of both the Prime Minister,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access poll tax populism

Mrs Thatcher, and her party, and was a sector of society against those of other factor in her replacement as Prime sectors, but instead try to unite a whole Minister by John Major. Major society behind them. In the late 1950s abandoned the poll tax, and instead and early 1960s, the French Gaullist introduced a different system of local Party adopted a populist approach, taxation: the council tax, based on appealing to the nation to support the property values, with concession for personal leadership of General de single-person households. Gaulle. De Gaulle saw himself as above poll tax populism politics, and did not align himself with any of the traditional ‘tendencies’ popular front (political divisions) in French party The term: popular front referred to competition. The contemporary Gaullist alliances of communists, socialists and Party has modernised its approach. It no liberal democrats which overcame their longer campaigns on a populist differences to fight fascism in Europe platform, instead competing with other between 1935 and 1939. Popular front sectoral parties for the vote of a movements were brought about by a centre-right electorate. A more extreme directive of the world communist populist approach is found, for example, movement, the Communist in European political parties of the International, which reversed a previous extreme right. DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

policy of non-co-operation with other [See also: de Gaulle*] 55 partisan groups to permit collaboration with other pro-democratic parties. postmaterialism Popular front governments formed in Spain and France in 1936. In Spain, the Postmaterialism is a concept associated narrow victory of Azaña’s Popular Front with the ‘new politics’ which developed government in the context of a deeply from the students’ movements of the divided society precipitated the outbreak late 1960s. Postmaterialism is linked to of the Spanish civil war. In France, the the values of the new politics: government, led by Léon Blum, tried to environmental quality; social equality; introduce social and economic reforms alternative lifestyles; minority rights and including the introduction of a 40-hour participation in political working week, paid holidays and decision-making. It is typically found in collective bargaining. However, it faced the first generation to be born after the difficulties in paying for the reforms in Second World War in Western Europe conjunction with a sharp rise in military and especially amongst the middle expenditure. The Communist Party of classes: people who are well-educated France had refused to join the Popular and who have grown up without the Front government, but upheld its direct constraints of war, hunger or majority in Parliament. However, the poverty. In particular, it criticises the ‘old Communists withdrew their support politics’ values which prioritise material over Blum’s policy of non-intervention in satisfaction, even to the point of the Spanish civil war. material excess, above other life values [See also: Spanish civil war] such as spirituality and leisure. Postmaterialism has been expressed in electoral politics through populism environmentalist and ecologist Populist parties do not operate movements (the latter is the more according to the pluralist principle in radical expression) and through the democratic politics. They do not seek to Green parties which developed in represent the interests of a particular Western Europe from the late 1970s.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access postmaterialism Poujadism

Greens argue that constant economic Poujadism growth is neither essential nor desirable: because of this they believe that they Poujadism, named after its founder are fundamentally different from Pierre Poujade, was a reactionary Western Europe’s traditional parties. political movement which gained [See also: citizen initiative groups; electoral support in France in the Green movement; new politics] mid-1950s. Poujadism was anti-state postmaterialism Poujadism (particularly anti-taxation), anti-socialist, anti-intellectual and anti-European. Its Potsdam conference members were drawn largely from The conference involving the USSR, shopkeepers and the petit-bourgeoisie. USA and United Kingdom heads of The movement’s political arm was the government held in Potsdam (near Union for the Protection of Businesses Berlin) in July 1945, immediately after and Craftsmen (UDCA). Initially a small the end of the Second World War. It sectoral group, the party soon took on a confirmed or asserted the principles wider protest role, attacking aspects of upon which Germany should be modernisation including foreign governed by the occupation regime, influences in France, republicanism, including denazification, demilitarisation, bureaucracy, Paris and urbanisation. In EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, removal of all cartels, democratisation 1955 Poujade formed a new political

56 and decentralisation of administration. party, the Union and Fraternity of the Germany was to be treated as a single French (UFF) and conducted major economic unit, with its industry to be so rallies throughout France. In the 1956 controlled that its people enjoyed a elections, the UFF won 52 seats in the living standard below that of other parliament, the National Assembly, but European states. An agreement on declined from 1958 under the French reparations – in money and in plant Fifth Republic with its modernising ethos. and machinery – was reached. Parts [See also: Poujade*] of eastern Prussia were placed under Polish and USSR administration privatisation pending a peace conference to decide on Germany’s future borders (which The transfer of ownership of economic gave rise to the Oder–Neisse border enterprises, such as water supply or issue concerning Poland’s borders). telephone services, from the state or As with the Yalta conference, differing other public authorities to private interpretations of often rather ownership. One of the first instances ambiguously worded decisions led to was the denationalisation of the iron the division of Germany and and steel industry by the Conservative intensification of the Cold War. government in 1953 (though it was Because the United Kingdom held renationalised by the Wilson Labour a general election at about this time, government in 1967) but the policy in Churchill took Attlee with him to Britain is especially associated with the the conference, and, when the Thatcher government from 1979 election results showed that Attlee onwards, when the public utilities and was to replace Churchill as Prime other state-owned commercial assets Minister, Churchill withdrew from the were transferred to private ownership. conference. This policy was imitated by several [See also: Cold War; denazification; West European countries for at least German question; Oder–Neisse line; some of their state-owned assets Petersberg Agreements; Yalta (especially telecommunications, power conference] supply and aviation) and, though in a

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access privatisation proportional representation different context, by states of the former can calculate the percentages of votes Soviet bloc following the collapse of which each party has received, and communist rule. thus compare that with the percentages privatisation proportional representation of seats for each party. [See also: Additional Member System; Profumo Affair Single Transferable Vote] John Profumo was a minister in Macmillan’s cabinet. He resigned in quango disgrace from his government post and as an MP in 1963 after admitting that he The word is a short form of ‘quasi had earlier lied to the House of non-governmental organisation’. A Commons concerning a relationship quango differs from other with Christine Keeler. Ms Keeler was non-governmental organisations because associated with, among others, a it is usually founded by a government, diplomat from the Soviet Union, which and is wholly or largely financed from raised fears concerning breaches of government sources, though such an security by Mr Profumo. The scandal organisation operates independently was a factor in weakening support for (within regulatory parameters). This the Conservative government, which form of organisation can be found in the narrowly lost the 1964 general election. USA as well as in Western European DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

states. Quangos include: public sector 57 broadcasting authorities such as the proportional representation British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), In the context of parliamentary and the political party foundations such as other public elections, any electoral the Foundation (KAS) system designed to reflect the in Germany, organisations concerned proportion of votes cast for a particular with public funding of scientific research political party in the proportion of seats and university education, agencies with obtained by that party. Proportional a quasi-judicial function such as labour representation systems vary in the relations tribunals, and institutions details of their operation. Some are concerned with racial or gender based on fixed party lists of candidates, discrimination. Some political scientists so that the elector votes for a party prefer to emphasise the role of the state directly. Others allow electors to in creating and maintaining these influence the order of the list, and thus institutions, rather than their which candidates are elected. The independent operation, so instead use German system (imitated by New the term: ‘quagos’ (quasi governmental Zealand, Scotland and Wales, for organisations). example) uses an ‘additional member system’ to combine local constituency radicals’ decree representation with overall proportionality. Many political scientists A joint decision in 1972 by the claim the Single Transferable Vote (STV) governments of the Länder and the system to be one of proportional federal government concerning the representation. Under STV, though, the application of standards of political vote of any single elector cannot be loyalty to those wishing to enter the easily identified as being a vote for a public service in the German Federal particular party since that vote may be Republic. These standards included the significant in electing the second or readiness ‘at all times’ to defend third or later preference candidate. It is actively the democratic and therefore difficult to see how anyone constitutional principles embodied in

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access radicals’ decree Realos and Fundis

the Basic Law (the constitution of the rotation in office and quotas among Federal Republic), and avoidance of any office-holders. The ‘Realos’ have been appearance of toleration or support of dominant in the national and regional extremist groups or movements which parties since the unexpectedly poor might be regarded as critical of the results secured by the Greens in the constitutional order. Though the Bundestag election of 1990. Since then, utilisation of this decree in fact resulted the Greens have modified their in a very small minority of applicants for organisational rules to become more employment in the public service being like orthodox political parties, and have rejected, it was nevertheless criticised participated in several Land coalition strongly particularly by left-wing governments. Many ‘Fundis’ have left opponents as amounting to an the party, though several are still very anti-democratic ‘ban on pursuit of a active in the environmental movement. profession’ (Berufsverbot), the more so The terms: ‘realos’ and ‘fundis’ have as in the Federal Republic of Germany been applied to factions in Green various types of career, such as parties in other countries. teachers, university professors, some [See also: Kelly*] postmen and even railway employees, were classified as ‘civil servants’. The

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Rechtsstaat fact that many more applicants were

58 rejected because of association with A German term to refer to a state based extreme left-wing, rather than on the rule of law, anchored in the right-wing, groups, also gave rise to constitution, as contrasted to a state criticism. based on ideology, dictatorship or some radicals’ decree Realos and Fundis other principle. The Rechtsstaat incorporates values of liberal Realos and Fundis constitutionalism, including: the Opposed factions within the German separation of powers, the equality of all Green Party. The terms are shortened persons under the law, the supremacy versions of the German words for of the constitution over other legislation ‘realists’ and ‘fundamentalists’. The or regulations, and the guarantee of ‘Realos’ pursue a pragmatic political personal liberties (such as freedom of strategy, and are willing to compromise speech) especially vis-à-vis the organs in order to secure desired political of the state. The Basic Law, the changes. They have participated as constitution of the German Federal junior coalition partners in Land and Republic, includes all these attributes. national governments as a means of Article 3 refers to equality before the securing such changes. ‘Fundis’ have law, and Article 28 refers to the state taken a more radical and and its component Länder being based uncompromising stance, regarding many on the principles of a republican, issues, especially those relating to the democratic and social state based on environment, as matters of principle and the rule of law. as non-negotiable, even though that [See also: constitutionalism] stance may well prevent any progress being made by governments towards Red Army Faction (Germany) goals desired by the Greens generally and the ‘Fundis’ in particular. Some, The West German Red Army Faction indeed, will not co-operate with ‘old was originally founded by members of paradigm’ parties at all. Such factional the Baader-Meinhof group in 1971. The conflicts have also extended to matters ‘second generation’ RAF, the successors of Green Party organisation, such as of the original Baader-Meinhof group,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Red Army Faction (Germany) Red Army Faction (Germany) became active from the mid-1970s. In announcing its formal dissolution. The their terrorist activity, the second statement may speak for only a faction generation was more ruthless even than within the group: jailed hard-liners such their forerunners, and have been as , and described as the most serious threat to have always argued the internal security of the FRG to date. against dissolution. Further, in 1995 a In the spring of 1977, the second new extremist organisation, apparently a generation RAF embarked on their further successor organisation to the ‘Offensive ’77’, apparently with the main RAF, became active under the name of aim of releasing their RAF comrades the Anti-Imperialist Cells (AIZ). from prison. The ‘Offensive ’77’, which [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; ran until the end of 1978, was directed Mogadishu Affair; Schleyer Affair] at first against ‘representatives of the Red Army FactionRed Army (Germany) Faction (Germany) system’. It involved taking prominent Red Brigades (Italy) personalities as hostages, some of whom were killed. Among the victims of During the 1970s, Italy suffered terrorist the Offensive were Chief Public attacks by extremist groups of both the Prosecutor ; Jürgen right and the left. The most notorious of Ponto, head of the Dresden Bank and the left-wing groups were the Red uncle of one of the RAF members, Brigades (Brigate Rosse – BR) founded DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Susanne Albrecht; and Hanns-Martin by Renato Curcio in Milan in 1970. The 59 Schleyer, president of the West German Red Brigades at first kidnapped their employers’ federation and president of victims without physically harming the Federal Association of German them. However, after Curcio was jailed Industry. There were plans also to in 1976, the group’s tactics became kidnap the FDP leader Genscher and more violent. From 1977 to 1978, they NATO commander Haig. In an attempt adopted a ‘strategy of annihilation’, to increase pressure on the West targeting ‘servants of the state’ including German government, Palestinian policemen, magistrates and journalists. associates of the RAF took a On 16 March 1978, the BR kidnapped plane hostage at Mogadishu. The the former Prime Minister Moro. When hostages, a group of tourists, were freed the government refused to accede to by the West German commando unit their demands, the group ‘tried’ him GSG-9. The Offensive prompted the and killed him. The incident lost the BR introduction of increased security and their public support and launched an anti-terrorist legislation in what was later anti-terrorist campaign. Sixty-three referred to as the ‘’. In members of the BR were tried in 1982, the second generation RAF 1982–83 and 32 received life sentences published their tract the ‘May paper’, for the murder of Moro. These included which depicted various forms of military Mario Moretti, who was believed to and political uprisings as evidence of a have directed the kidnapping, and world-wide anti-imperialist front with Prospero Gallinari, one of the group revolutionary potential. A late victim of thought to have carried out the murder. the RAF was Rohwedder, head of the By the end of the 1970s the activity of privatisation agency for East Germany, the BR had declined, but isolated killed in 1991. In January 1992, the attacks continued into the 1980s. In ‘Kinkel initiative’ headed by the Federal December 1981 a senior NATO officer, Minister of Justice , paved US Brigadier-General Dozier, was the way for a ‘reconciliation’ between kidnapped, but was later freed by police the state and the RAF. On 20 April 1998, unharmed. In 1985 a new BR faction the RAF issued an eight-page statement emerged, the Union of Fighting

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Red Brigades (Italy) reunification of Germany

Communists (UCC), which carried out a Democratic Republic (GDR) as a result number of murders. The UCC was of the Cold War, merged on 3 October believed to have links with other 1990 to become a single state. The European left-wing extremist groups, process was made possible by the notably Action Directe in France and the events of the second half of 1989, when Red Army Faction in Germany. A further citizen protests in the GDR relating to splinter group, the Fighting Communist fraudulent local council election results Party (PCC), claimed responsibility for in May and the migration of large the murder in 1988 of one of Prime numbers of GDR citizens through the Minister de Mita’s chief advisers, Ruffili. border between Hungary and Austria [See also: Action Directe; Red Army during the summer led to further Faction; Moro*] protests and demonstrations, and to the Red Brigades (Italy)reunification of Germany formation of new political groups, such as New Forum. The celebrations of the resistance groups fortieth anniversary of the founding of The resistance was the popular term for the GDR in October were an occasion the organised opposition to Germany’s for further demonstrations, and soon Nazi regime, both within Germany itself afterwards the GDR communist leader, and in those European countries Honecker, was compelled to resign his EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, occupied by Germany during the offices. Krenz, the new party leader, was

60 Second World War. The resistance widely distrusted and was unable to movements engaged in introduce political reform swiftly enough and against Nazi Germany and to satisfy protesters and dissidents. collaboration governments. They also Efforts to introduce a more liberal set of prepared plans for reform in Europe for arrangements for travel outside the GDR when the war was over. From January led to the opening of the Berlin Wall on 1942, the Free French began to organise 9 November. By the end of 1989 the resistance groups and in May 1943 the communist regime had been displaced maquis liberated Corsica. By 1945 by a provisional government, ruling in resistance groups were active conjunction with a ‘Round Table’ on throughout Europe, but were often which dissident groups and established divided on ideological grounds. After the political parties and other organisations war, political parties whose members were represented. Democratic elections had been active in the resistance to the People’s Chamber (Volkskammer), initially gained an electoral bonus with originally scheduled for May 1990, were the voters and in some countries brought forward to March because of communist parties were viewed for the the economic and political situation in first time as responsible and electable the GDR. That election gave victory to on account of their resistance record. the right-wing electoral alliance led by The participation of resistance leaders in the Christian Democrats, whose leader, the foundation of new political systems de Maizière, formed a coalition in post-war Europe initially helped to government which aimed at introducing promote the ideal of a united Europe. currency union with the Federal [See also: maquis; nazism] Republic without delay. This was achieved on 1 July 1990, but by then it was obvious that a political union would reunification of Germany soon have to follow. Following The process whereby the two former negotiations, it was agreed to merge the German states, divided from each other GDR with the Federal Republic, using in 1949 by the creation of the Federal the route offered by Article 23 of the Republic of Germany and the German Basic Law of the Federal Republic,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access reunification of Germany Rhineland model which permitted ‘other parts’ of economy and a democratic political Germany to join the Federal Republic. system, combined with a complex and This meant that the Basic Law was comprehensive system of social welfare retained as the constitutional foundation provision, as provided by Erhard’s social of the enlarged Federal Republic, rather market system. Globalisation, than using the mode envisaged in Article privatisation of formerly state-owned 146 of the Basic Law, by which a totally enterprises and greater emphasis on new constitution for reunified Germany shareholder interests are all tendencies would have had to have been designed which recently have eroded the and presented to the public for distinctive structure of the Rhineland ratification by referendum. The former model. GDR was divided into the five ‘new’ [See also: social market economy] Länder, plus East Berlin, which merged with West Berlin to form one Land. Round Table Some authorities prefer to use the term: ‘unification’ to indicate the merger Several ‘round tables’ have occurred in of the two German states, on the recent history, providing relatively grounds that there never was a informal modes of discussion involving ‘Germany’ which only consisted of the representatives of conflicting groups. territories of the Federal Republic and The most famous is that created in DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

GDR, therefore they could not be December 1989 in East Berlin, which 61 re-unified. However, the existence of an played a role in the transition of the earlier ‘unification of Germany’ (in 1871) GDR from a communist dictatorship to means that there could be ambiguity if a multi-party democracy. It arose from the term were used also to describe the an appeal on 21 November 1989 by the events of 1990. new citizen movement group: [See also: Berlin Wall; Bonn ‘Democracy Now’ to all parties to join in Republic–Berlin Republic transition; Cold a series of discussions about the War; German question; Round Table; desperate political and economic Stalin Note; Honecker*; Krenz*; de situation of the GDR and possible paths Maizière*] of development in the future. It was to reunification of GermanyRhineland model serve as a democratically based forum at a time when the institutions of party Rhineland model and state in the GDR had lost all Alternatively known as ‘Rhineland legitimacy, and a democratically elected capitalism’, this term is applied to the parliament had not yet been created. system of political economy developed Several parties, including the Socialist in the Federal Republic of Germany, at Unity Party and its former associated least until German reunification, and, ‘bloc parties’, accepted the formal some would assert, even to the present invitation issued by the Protestant and day. It is distinguished from the Catholic churches on 30 November Anglo-Saxon model of political economy 1989, and a first meeting was held on by its emphasis on corporate structures 7 December 1989. There was a balance which encourage consensus among the of representatives from, on the one principal economic actors (the hand, the SED, its affiliated communist government, the trade unions, owners organisations and the former bloc of business enterprises, the banks, etc.). parties, and newly formed citizen Unlike economic systems in other parts movement organisations on the other. of the world which also emphasise Two clergy served as impartial chairs of corporatist consensus, this model the meetings of the Round Table. requires the existence of a market Several key issues were discussed,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Round Table Schengen Agreement

such as the future of the State Security Schengen Agreement Service, the draft of a new, democratic, constitution for the GDR and the An agreement entered into by the economic situation. The Round Table Benelux countries (which already was instrumental in bringing forward enjoyed open borders with each other), the planned May date for new elections Germany and France to remove border to the Volkskammer (the GDR controls on persons and goods moving Parliament) to 18 March, because of the from one of those states to another. It increasing crisis situation of the GDR. was originally agreed at a meeting in However, once the Volkskammer 1985 of delegates from the signatory election had been held and it was clear states in Schengen, a Luxembourg town that German reunification was on the Moselle across the river from inevitable in the near future, the Round Germany. It was not implemented until Table was dissolved, having no longer a 1994, and even then some limitations useful role. on its application still existed. The [See also: reunification of Germany; limited number of states which signed Stasi] the Schengen Agreement did so Round Table Schengen Agreement because it was clear that the introduction of open borders between

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Saarland question all member states of the EU under the

62 The Saarland is a territory in south-west terms of the Single European Act would Germany bordering France and not occur in the foreseeable future. A Luxembourg. Because of its strategic Declaration accompanying that Act location and its large coal reserves and provided for retention of border controls steel production capacity, it has been of where required to combat immigration great significance in conflicts involving from countries outside the EU, Germany and France. After the First terrorism, crime, drug trafficking and World War it was ceded to France for a smuggling of works of art. The United period of fifteen years under a League Kingdom, in particular, stood firm of Nations mandate, with rights to against opening its borders to intra-EU extract minerals in that period. The traffic. Later all other states of the EU plebiscite at the end of that term, which (together with Iceland and Norway as took place in the period of Hitler’s associate signatories) with the exception dictatorship, led to a majority of over of the United Kingdom and Ireland, 90 per cent voting to rejoin Germany. At joined the Schengen arrangements. A the end of the Second World War, complex system of co-operation on France was again given control of the matters such as cross-border pursuit of Saarland. As it became clear that the criminals, extradition and the treatment Federal Republic of Germany was of asylum-seekers has developed under becoming much more prosperous than the umbrella of this Agreement. The France or the Saarland, opinion among terms of the Schengen Agreement were Saarland residents was strongly in incorporated into the Treaty of favour of inclusion in the Federal Amsterdam (1997), allowing states to Republic. Attempts by France to repress adopt or not adopt the conditions of the opposition to French rule and to place Schengen Agreement. the Saarland under some form of [See also: Benelux] international control came to nothing. In 1957, following a plebiscite, the Schleyer Affair Saarland became a Land of the Federal Republic. Dr Hanns-Martin Schleyer was a victim [See also: Young Turks’ revolt] of the ‘Offensive ’77’ conducted by the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Schleyer Affair Secret Army Organisation (OAS) extreme left-wing terrorists, the West devised the settlement, but failed. When German Red Army Faction (RAF). the independence referendum was President of the West German confirmed by 75 per cent of the vote, employers’ federation and president of Muslim nationalists took revenge on the the Federal Association of German OAS. On 5 July 1962 over 100 Industry, Schleyer was targeted by the Europeans were killed in Oran. Soon group as a ‘representative of the system’ afterwards, some 500 Europeans and was taken hostage by the group in suspected of being OAS sympathisers an attempt to pressurise the West were kidnapped: some were tortured German government into releasing and released, others disappeared. imprisoned RAF members. When [See also: Algerian conflict; de Gaulle*] Schleyer was kidnapped, his four companions were killed. In an attempt Single European Act (SEA) to increase pressure on the government, Palestinian associates of the RAF took a The central aim of the Single European Lufthansa plane hostage at Mogadishu. Act (SEA), which came into force in The hostages, a group of tourists, were 1987, was to improve the economic freed by the West German commando efficiency of the EC by creating a single unit GSG 9. Hours later, the RAF took European market (SEM) between revenge by murdering Schleyer. member states by 1992. In 1957, the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

[See also: Baader-Meinhof group; Treaties of Rome had removed tariff 63 Mogadishu Affair; Red Army Faction] barriers among the member states. In Schleyer AffairSecret Army Organisation (OAS) practice, though, non-tariff barriers continued to restrict trade, reducing the Secret Army Organisation (OAS) competitiveness of the EC in world The Organisation de l’Armée Secrète trade. The SEA provided for tighter (OAS) was an extreme pro-French control of EC economic policy and nationalist organisation of French related areas. It formally expanded the Algerian settlers led by General Jouhad EC’s policy competences to include and General Salan. The group was environmental policy, research and founded in 1961 and conducted technological development and reciprocal terror campaigns with the regional policy (termed ‘economic and rival Algerian nationalist National social cohesion’). It established new Liberation Front (FLN). The OAS wanted legislative procedures to improve the to retain the French colonial control of efficiency and control of Algeria and did not accept the French decision-making in specific policy areas government’s decision to award Algeria (the ‘co-operation’ and ‘assent’ self-determination with the prospect of procedures) which gave the European independence. Once it became clear Parliament slightly more influence in EC that they had lost their cause, the OAS decision-making. reacted with an unsuccessful revolt in [See also: Economic and Social Algiers and with a spate of terrorist Cohesion; Treaties of Rome] bomb attacks in Algeria and metropolitan France. The French public Single Transferable Vote (STV) turned against the movement and several large anti-OAS demonstrations An electoral system utilising preferential took place. Some 1,200 OAS members voting, in which voters indicate their were arrested and Jouhad and Salan preferences by placing numbers: 1, 2, were sentenced to life imprisonment. 3, . . . etc., by the names of candidates. The movement made two attempts to Unlike the otherwise similar Alternative murder General de Gaulle, who had Vote System, STV must be used in

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Single Transferable Vote (STV) social capital

multi-member constituencies, usually of social capital up to about 5 seats. Larger numbers are possible, but involve increased A term applied to the network of complication of the counting procedure voluntary associations in a political and increased length of the ballot system, with reference to the political paper. Ireland uses constituencies resources which such a network electing 3–5 members each. Candidates contributes to a democracy. The are elected if they receive a quota of hypothesis underlying the use of the votes. This quota is the lowest number term is that groups such as sports clubs, of votes which will elect the required trade unions, churches, professional number of candidates, but no more. As organisations, charitable groups and a formula: the Quota = the number of leisure-based groups such as dramatic valid votes cast, divided by the number societies and choirs, contribute to of seats to be filled plus one, and one is democracy in various ways. On added to that sum; so Q = V/(S+1) + occasion, they may act as pressure 1. Votes in excess of the quota for a groups to promote policies candidate are redistributed according to advantageous to the group or its clients indicated next preferences, and, where (such as working mothers or candidates are eliminated because they pensioners). Moreover, even if a group EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, have fewest votes, the next preferences never becomes engaged in political

64 of votes they have received are also activity directly, its members learn skills redistributed until sufficient candidates of participation, activist involvement are elected. (such as office-holding) and leadership. Though not an electoral system Therefore a society where membership designed to produce a close of such groups is low or declining may correspondence between a party’s share have a less robust democratic base than of the vote and its share of seats, the one where membership of such groups STV system does give results which are is high and rising. Some studies of much closer to proportionality than non-participation in elections have first-past-the-post systems such as that found a link between propensity of an used in House of Commons elections in individual to vote in an election and Britain. The principal advantage of the membership of that individual in such system is that it provides the voter with voluntary organisations. great freedom of choice as to the Single Transferable Vote (STV)social capital criteria the voter uses to select social market economy candidates, and greatly reduces wasted votes. A voter may choose to vote for all The label applied to the system of the candidates of one party first (but political economy developed in the even then can exercise choice among Federal Republic of Germany by Erhard them), for candidates irrespective of (Minister of Economics in Adenauer’s party who support or oppose some government). The system sought to particular policy issue, for candidates on combine production and sales based the basis of personal qualities such as upon the principle of the free market, gender, occupation, age or place of qualified by protection against cartels residence, or whatever other criteria the and monopolies and by regulatory voter wishes to employ. As well as legislation concerning health and safety Ireland, Malta uses STV for its legislative in the workplace, with provision of elections, and Northern Ireland uses it social welfare, based upon the for the election of its representatives to insurance principle, to provide the European Parliament. employees with adequate pensions, [See also: Alternative Vote System] unemployment and sickness benefits

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access social market economy South Tyrol question and other payments. This system speakers in Germany (though only a depended upon the co-operation of the small number were transferred). After trade unions and business the Second World War, a degree of organisations. Such co-operation was protection for the German-speaking made easier by the introduction after population was provided in the 1948 the Second World War of a system of Italian constitution. However, actions by industrial trade unions, in which the Italian government to repress the employees, of whatever trade or skill, German-speaking inhabitants by in, say, the chemical industry were all merging the area into a larger area so members of the Chemical Workers’ that Italian-speakers would be in a Union – in contrast to the United majority led to increased support for Kingdom, where each factory could the South Tyrol People’s Party, to mass contain employees in a dozen or more demonstrations and even violence and different trade unions. Legislation terrorist activity. An agreement was promoting co-determination in industry, negotiated which was embodied in a at first in the coal and steel sectors, treaty in 1971, guaranteeing proportional then from 1976 in medium- and provision of resources to both the large-sized firms in all sectors of Italian-speaking and German-speaking industry, also played a role in communities in the area, and in 1992 developing the social market economy. the region (in Italian: Alto DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

The system of workers’ councils, whose Adige-Trentino) was given special status 65 representatives were elected by within the system of regional employees, and the short-lived system government in Italy. of tripartite discussions on economic and industrial policy known as Spanish civil war ‘Concerted Action’ (konzertierte Aktion) or the new version called ‘Alliance for Spain’s democratic Second Republic Jobs’ (Bündnis für Arbeit) introduced in was founded in 1931 by centre-left 1998 by the Schröder government to political forces, but the regime was not focus especially on reduction of fully acceptable to the country’s unemployment are other examples of reactionary elements. In July 1936 a policy initiatives designed to promote military uprising against the leftist the social market economy. ‘Popular Front’ government led by The term has been used in other Manuel Azaña led to a bitter civil war countries to describe either actual or between the Republicans and the desired economic systems, but the opposition Nationalists which lasted German version is the most developed until 1939. The Republicans were example of such a system. supported by organised labour, regional [See also: Erhard*] nationalists and secular forces in social market economySouth Tyrol question society. The Nationalists based their support on the Catholic church (except South Tyrol question in the Basque country), the business South Tyrol is an area in north Italy community and landowners, the consisting of a mainly German-speaking peasantry, most of the military and population. Previously part of the traditional monarchists. The Nationalists Austro-Hungarian empire, it was given won the civil war, aided in their to Italy as part of the peace settlement military campaign by the country’s after the First World War. Mussolini armed forces and by subsidies from took measures to suppress the German Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, more language and culture of the region, and substantial than those provided to the agreed with Hitler to resettle German Republicans by Stalin. The Nationalists

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Spanish civil war Spiegel Affair

were able to ban and disperse political Spiegel Affair parties, movements and trade unions which did not support their stance. In October 1962 the news The civil war cost between 75,000 and weekly, , published a report 200,000 lives and caused of recent NATO military manoeuvres major economic problems. The which criticised the performance of the victorious Nationalists established a German military in those exercises. A repressive authoritarian state under fortnight later the federal state General Franco, which continued to prosecutor ordered the arrest of persecute those forces which had Augstein (the publisher), Ahlers (chief supported the Republican cause. It editor), and several other staff on was not until Spain’s transition to charges of treason and bribery, since it democracy from the mid-1970s that was suspected that members of the Spanish society began to recover from military had sold secret information to this war. the magazine. Police occupied the [See also: fascism; nazism; Franco*] editorial offices of the magazine in Spanish civil war Spiegel Affair Hamburg and Bonn and copies of the magazine were seized. This Spanish coup attempt (1981) high-handed and seemingly EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Spain’s current constitutional monarchy anti-democratic action was severely

66 was established in 1978, but many criticised by the mass media and the powerful interests remained suspicious public, as well as by politicians from the of the new democratic regime. On 23 liberal Free Democrats (coalition partner February 1981, reactionaries in the army to the governing Christian Democrats) were alarmed by moves towards and the opposition Social Democrats. regional autonomy and mounting The way in which action was taken, at terrorist action, so attempted a coup night and without warning, as well as against the democratic state. A the dubious procedures concerning the paramilitary Civil Guard unit led by arrest of Ahlers, who was on holiday in Lieutenant-Colonel Tejero Molina broke Spain, were compared to methods used into the Cortes, the parliament building, in the Hitler regime against opponents. and took the elected MPs hostage. It was revealed that the Minister of There was no agreement amongst the Defence, Strauss, had been largely army officers involved as to the desired responsible for initiating the action outcome: some, like Tejero, wanted a against the magazine, and that, in a Chilean-style coup, while others wanted debate in the Bundestag, he had made a ‘soft’ coup leading to the formation of misleading statements about his a national government. King Juan Carlos responsibility for what had occurred. acted quickly to restore the status quo. Adenauer’s own position was affected He contacted those military leaders not by opposition criticism and the threat of involved in the coup to assure them that the FDP to resign from his government. he did not support it. He told the coup To avoid having to dismiss Strauss, leaders that he was not prepared to Adenauer reshuffled his cabinet, abdicate or to leave the country and excluding some FDP ministers and would rather be shot than accept the some other Christian Democrat take-over. He then made a television ministers from the previous cabinet, as address to the nation to declare that the well as Strauss. The affair was a factor Crown would not tolerate the coup. The in Adenauer’s decision to resign as coup collapsed and the captured MPs Chancellor in 1963, finally fulfilling his were released. promise made at the time of the [See also: Juan Carlos*] formation of the coalition in 1961.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Spiegel Affair Stalin Note

Neither charges of treason against to the reunification of Germany, Stalin Augstein and Ahlers, nor a constitutional made an offer (the ‘Stalin Note’) on 10 court complaint by Der Spiegel March 1952 to the Western Allies. This concerning the government’s breach of proposed that a German state should be the constitutional guarantee of press created within the borders of Germany freedom, were successful. The FDP as they were at the end of the Second insisted that Strauss be excluded from World War. This new German state Erhard’s cabinets in 1963 and 1965, would be neutral, but would be allowed though he returned as a minister in the to possess its own defence force. A grand coalition. However, the FDP peace treaty would be signed by the managed also to prevent Strauss gaining Allies and Germany, following which the Foreign Ministry in 1982 and 1983, free elections would be held. As this which meant, since Strauss would take Note was communicated during no lesser post, that after 1969 he never negotiations for Germany’s membership again became a federal minister. in a European Defence Community, it [See also: Adenauer*; Strauss*] was regarded in the West as a delaying Spiegel Affair Stalin Note tactic, so its offer was not pursued. Some historians consider the offer to spin doctor have been genuine, and its rejection A term applied in recent years to those therefore a missed opportunity for early DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

public relations advisers in politics reunification. Others, however, consider 67 whose function is to put the best it to have been only a tactical possible interpretation (or ‘spin’) on manoeuvre, which Stalin would not events relevant to the government or have permitted to have led to German party which they serve, and to try to reunification. Certainly a large majority ensure that stories favourable to their of West Germans supported rejection of party or government appear Stalin’s proposals in opinion polls at the prominently and at the best times in the time. press or the broadcasting media. In [See also: Cold War; European Britain Peter Mandelson and Alistair Defence Community; the German Campbell have been among the most question; reunification of Germany] prominent ‘spin doctors’ for the Labour Party, and were held to have Stammheim trials [See: Baader-Meinhof contributed considerably to the Labour group] Party victory in the 1997 general election. The US president and other US Stasi politicians have employed the services of ‘spin doctors’, and the campaigns of A German term, an abbreviation of German and French politicians in recent ‘Staatssicherheitsdienst’ (state security years have also laid emphasis on the service), referring to the secret police work of ‘spin doctors’. employed by the Ministry for State Security in the GDR and beyond its borders for purposes of spying on its Stability and Growth Pact [See: own citizens and foreign visitors, for Economic and Monetary Union] gathering intelligence and other activities required by the government of Stalin Note a totalitarian system. It was regarded as Following initiatives in 1950 and 1951 an essential mechanism by which the from the Prime Minister of the German GDR communist party (the SED) could Democratic Republic, Grotewohl, retain power. When the SED lost its offering all-German negotiations leading monopoly of political power in late

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Stasi streitbare Demokratie

1989, the public sought to occupy the streitbare Demokratie offices of the Stasi, and – though many files and other forms of data were A German term (translatable as destroyed – a large number of files ‘combative’, ‘militant’ or ‘aggressive’ were rescued and passed into the democracy) which refers to custody of the reunified Federal constitutional, legislative and Republic, which created a special administrative provisions in the political agency (called the ‘Gauck agency’ after system of the Federal Republic of its first Director, Joachim Gauck, an East Germany by which the democratic German associated with the citizen political order is able to defend itself movement in 1989) to manage the against its potential enemies. This is in archive of files and regulate access by contrast to the Weimar Republic which, individuals to those files. lacking those devices, through its own Stasi streitbare Demokratie democratic tolerance allowed the enemies of democracy to threaten, Stormont pervert, destabilise and eventually The name of the location of the overthrow the constitutional democracy legislature of Northern Ireland, and of that Republic. Instruments of thus, by extension, applied to the ‘streitbare Demokratie’ include: the EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, legislature itself. This legislature was provision in the constitution which

68 created by the Northern Ireland Act allows the Federal Constitutional Court 1920, and, following the first elections to prohibit the existence of political in 1921, consisted of two chambers: a parties which are themselves internally Senate and a House of Commons. undemocratic or which seek to Following a revival of civil unrest in overthrow the democratic regime; a Northern Ireland in the 1960s, the constitutional provision to permit the British Parliament passed a law in 1972 minister of the interior to ban suspending the powers of the Northern organisations (other than political Ireland legislature. Attempts were made parties) which pursue criminal or from time to time to reach a settlement unconstitutional ends; an explicit listing among the conflicting factions within of civic rights in the forefront of the Northern Ireland, which would have constitution and an effective resulted in an agreed basis for an constitutional court which can protect elected legislature; indeed, elections for those rights, but which can suspend or a constitutional convention were held in deny some of them by due process to 1975 and for an Assembly in 1982, but those who engage in activity opposed to with no lasting effect. It was not until the constitutional order. Federal and the Good Friday Agreement in 1999 Länder Offices for the Protection of the produced a more settled agreement, Constitution investigate and produce validated by a referendum, that information concerning groups elections could be held for an considered to be extreme and Assembly and a devolved form of potentially dangerous to democracy. government could be established There is an emphasis on the obligation based on that Assembly, though even of state employees to defend the then the new Assembly at Stormont constitutional order at all times (which faced an uncertain future because of a led to the formal codification of this failure by the IRA to comply with obligation in the so-called ‘radicals requirements to abandon their arsenals decree’, requiring that applicants for of weapons. posts in state employment with a record [See also: Good Friday Agreement; of association with anti-constitutional IRA] groups or parties should be refused

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access streitbare Demokratie subsidiarity appointment). Critics of some of these protocol on how the principle of measures claim that their application subsidiarity should be applied within sometimes necessitates undemocratic the EU. actions, so in themselves they may pose [See also: Amsterdam Treaty; a danger to democracy. Thatcher*] [See also: radicals’ decree] streitbare Demokratie subsidiarity Suez crisis Structural Funds [See: Economic and The Suez canal linking the Social Cohesion] Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea and thus to the Indian Ocean was jointly subsidiarity owned by British and French Subsidiarity is a concept applicable to shareholders. In July 1956, one month federal political systems or to those after the withdrawal of British troops which operate in a similar way, such as stationed in the Canal Zone under the the multi-tiered political system of the terms of a Treaty between Britain and European Union (EU). It is a Egypt, the canal was threatened by constitutional principle which holds that nationalisation by the Egyptian policy decisions should be taken by the government of President Nasser. This lowest tier of government possible threat was in retaliation for withdrawal DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

within the territorial hierarchy. If a of development funding by the USA and 69 policy matter cannot be dealt with Britain for Egypt’s Aswan Dam project. effectively by the lowest tier in the The Suez canal was of vital commercial territorial hierarchy, say, local and military importance to the Western government, then it should be passed to powers. the next tier up, say, regional In response to this threat, Britain and government, until it arrives at an France colluded with Israel in order to appropriate level of government. The produce a legitimate excuse for invasion subsidiarity principle can enhance the of the ‘Canal Zone’, which would lead accountability of decision-making and to their assumption of the direct can also help to avoid problems of operation of the Suez canal. France and government overload at higher levels of Britain had been victims of Nasser’s government. The concept has been anti-Western and anti-colonial policies widely used in discussions about the (such as aid for Algerian nationalist development of the EU, but was at first groups). Israel, suffering from a naval rather ambiguous. In a speech in blockade by Egypt, invaded Egyptian Bruges in September 1988, the UK territory at the end of October 1956, the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher used British and French took military action a the concept to promote decision-making few days later (as they claimed: to at the level of the member state protect the canal’s viability) and Egypt national governments rather than by the retaliated by sinking ships to block the supranational institutions of the EU. canal. The British and French were Other proponents have used the forced to withdraw their invasion forces concept to promote an enhanced role by US diplomatic and financial threats. for local and regional government. The The canal was nationalised. Israel was Edinburgh European Council (December compelled to withdraw from Egyptian 1992) provided a working definition and territory. The crisis contributed to the laid down guidelines for interpreting collapse eighteen months later of the Article 5 (formerly Article 3b) on Fourth Republic in France. In Britain, subsidiarity in the EU. The Amsterdam Prime Minister Eden, who had seen Treaty (1997) produced a further Nasser as a new version of Hitler,

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Suez crisis Tangentopoli

resigned following deep divisions over Italy’s five traditional parties, which his policies and actions in connection were either seriously weakened or were with the crisis, and was replaced in forced to reinvent themselves as ‘new’ January 1957 by Macmillan. The crisis parties, having undergone damaging acted as a deterrent to British military splits. The parties and party system involvement overseas for many years. remain in a state of flux. [See also: Eden*; Macmillan*] [See also: clientelism; Mani pulite; Suez crisis Tangentopoli Andreotti*; Cossiga*; Craxi*] Tangentopoli terrorism The term: Tangentopoli (‘bribe city’) refers to a major corruption scandal Terrorism involves the deliberate and which was uncovered in Milan in early systematic use of physical or 1992 and which challenged some of the psychological violence to intimidate highest office-holders in Italian politics, others. In Europe, it has been used by eventually resulting in the collapse of various groups in an attempt to resolve the traditional party system and in calls political conflicts in their favour. for a major constitutional review. By the Although typically only very small end of the 1980s, political corruption in numbers of people have engaged in EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Italy, based on party clientelism, had terrorism, it has been a recurrent

70 become systemic and routine. On 17 problem for the countries of Western February 1992 Mario Chiesa, the Europe and has at times caused the Socialist head of an old people’s home widespread disruption of social and in Milan, was arrested for taking a working life. Terrorists in Europe have 7 million lire bribe from the owner of a been motivated by three general causes: cleaning company. Chiesa was a extreme ideologies of the left and right; ‘business politician’: a type familiar in centre–periphery or regional conflicts; the Italian politics of the 1980s as and single issue conflicts. Terrorist high-living, corrupt fixers involved in actions have included arson, bombings, politics only for personal advantage. kidnappings, hijackings and killings. Chiesa’s confession implicated many [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; others who were then obliged to ETA; Irish Republican Army; Red Army confess corrupt dealings of their own. Faction; Red Brigades; Secret Army This uncovered a vast network of illicit Organisation] dealings between the political parties and economic interests in Milan. The Treaties of Rome crisis soon spread far beyond Milan. By the end of 1993 251 members of In 1957, two separate treaties, together Parliament were under judicial known as the Treaties of Rome, investigation, including four former established the European Communities prime ministers, five former party (the European Economic Community leaders, and seven members of the (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy governing Amato cabinet. Amongst Community (EURATOM)), taking effect those implicated were the Christian in January 1958. The Treaties of Rome Democrat (DC) President Cossiga who established a customs union amongst resigned early in 1992; Craxi, the leader the six founder states (Belgium, France, of the Socialist Party (PSI) who resigned Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and in February 1993; and Andreotti (DC), West Germany). This entailed a phased one of the country’s most influential programme to remove all tariffs and politicians of the 1970s and 1980s. quotas from trade between the member Tangentopoli thoroughly discredited states while setting a Common External

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Treaties of Rome Treuhandanstalt

Tariff (CET) on imports from outside the by the GDR government on 1 March EEC. Common policies, notably in 1990 to acquire and administer agriculture and transport, were economic enterprises (with the introduced to promote trade within the exception of certain utilities such as the EEC. A common social policy was railways and postal service) which had designed to offset hardship suffered in previously been owned by the state, the transition to a more open market. with the task of preparing the GDR The Rome Treaties established a set of economy for monetary union with the governing institutions: a supranational FRG, preparations which involved Commission; a Parliamentary Assembly; privatising the almost entirely a Court of Justice; and a Council of state-owned economy. So the Ministers made up of government Treuhandanstalt had to investigate the representatives of the member states. financial situation of economic [See also: Common Agricultural enterprises, undertaking restructuring Policy; European Coal and Steel where advisable, and, following a law Community] passed by the GDR Parliament on 17 Treaties of Rome Treuhandanstalt June 1990, disposing of them to private ownership. It became clear that many Treaty of European Union (TEU) [See: of these enterprises were unviable in an

Maastricht Treaty] DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, open and competitive economy, so

about one-third of them had to be 71 Treaty of Nice closed down, causing unemployment The Treaty of Nice was concluded at and economic and social dislocation. the European Union summit of 7–11 Following reunification, the processes of December 2000 and was signed on 26 restructuring, sale and closure February 2001. A target deadline for accelerated, but a variety of problems member state ratification of the Treaty confronted the agency, including has been set for December 2002. The accusations of favouring certain bidders Treaty proposes extensive reform of EU in sales of businesses and the high institutions to cater in particular for costs of restructuring. A process that enlargement to the east. The ‘big five’ had been hoped would produce a member states (Germany, UK, France, surplus for public funds ended by Italy and Spain) have agreed to reduce costing the German taxpayer several their allocation of EU commissioners billion Deutschmarks. The second from two to one. Otherwise, though, the Director of the Treuhandanstalt, proposed institutional reforms on Rohwedder, was assassinated in 1991 qualified majority voting (QMV) and the by terrorists in protest against the post-enlargement composition of the economic hardships resulting from European Parliament would generally closures in eastern Germany. The strengthen the power of the large Treuhandanstalt terminated its member states. Policy areas to be operations in 1994. added to those in the QMV category [See also: Rohwedder*] include trade policy in services; some immigration and asylum matters; and Trizonia [See: Bizonia] the appointment of the Commission president. two-ballot electoral system A system of election in which voters Treuhandanstalt may cast two ballots, separated in time, A German term meaning: trustee in order to elect representatives. Such a agency. This was an institution created system is used for elections to the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access two-ballot electoral system ‘Two plus Four’ talks

National Assembly and to elect the in Paris and Moscow. The Paris president in the French Fifth Republic. meeting also involved representatives of For National Assembly elections, Poland, since that meeting discussed single-member constituencies are used. the issue of the borders of reunified If a candidate wins more than 50 per Germany, including the Oder–Neisse cent of votes in the first round of border with Poland. The Moscow balloting, he or she is elected. In meeting in September 1990 produced a constituencies where no candidate Treaty between the four powers and secures that absolute majority, a second the two German states which round is held two weeks later. Only amounted to a post-Second World War those candidates who secured on the peace treaty, including as it did first round votes equal to at least acceptance of the right of Germany to 12.5 per cent of the registered electorate be a member of the North Atlantic (not just of those who turned out to Treaty Organisation. vote) are eligible to participate in the [See also: Cold War; German second round. In fact, for reasons of question; Oder–Neisse line; reunification political strategy, usually only two of Germany] candidates present themselves: one from the right-wing and one from the

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to left-wing party blocs. In the second terms with the past)

72 round, the candidate with the most votes is elected, irrespective of whether A German term used to describe the an absolute majority is secured or only problems and processes connected with a relative majority. The system to elect Germany’s ability to deal with its the president is similar. The differences especially turbulent recent history. It are that only the two candidates with was originally applied to dealing with the highest first-round votes contest the the Nazi period: how and why Hitler second round, and the interval between came to power; the totalitarian policies the two rounds is one week. of the Third Reich; the aggressive two-ballot electoral system‘Two plus Four’ talks foreign policies of the Hitler regime; and especially the genocidal policies against ‘Two plus Four’ talks the Jewish peoples of Europe. It could In preparation for the reunification of be applied to other countries, such as Germany, a series of international post-war France in relation to the Vichy conferences took place in 1990 regime and with Algeria. More recently, involving representatives of the two it has also been applied to the problems German states and of the four former raised by the collapse of the Communist occupying powers (the USA, France, the regime in the GDR and reunification, United Kingdom and the USSR). No concerning the policies and activities of peace treaty had been concluded after the state and the ruling Communist the Second World War, so the previous party in the GDR, such as the ‘shoot to occupying powers had retained kill’ orders relating to those seeking to responsibilities for Berlin and, though in flee across the border, or the crimes of a very restricted and formal manner, for the secret police (the Stasi). Methods the rest of Germany. The consent of employed to foster the process of these four former occupying powers ‘coming to terms with the past’ include was essential before reunification under the denazification procedures conditions of complete sovereignty introduced by the occupation powers could come about. Four meetings took after the Second World War (including place between February and September the Nuremberg tribunal), re-education 1990, two in Germany and one each policies, historical programmes on

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to terms with the past) Voeren dispute (Belgium) radio and television, publication of north-eastern Belgium, passed from memoirs by those involved in the Third French-speaking Liège to Reich or the GDR regime, the Flemish-speaking Limburg, launching Bundestag Commission on the repeated clashes between the two activities of the Communist regime in linguistic groups. José Happart, a the GDR, and speeches of the federal militant French speaker, was elected president (whose functions include mayor of Voeren in 1986, but his such moral interpretations of the nomination was rejected by the Flemish country’s history). Chamber of the Council of State [See also: denazification; Nuremberg because he refused to take a tribunal; Stasi] competency test in Flemish, which was Vergangenheitsbewältigungterms with the past)Voeren dispute (coming (Belgium) to by now the official language of the villages. Happart’s repeated re-election Vichy regime obliged Belgian Prime Minister Wilfried When France capitulated following its Martens to resign in October 1987 and invasion by Germany in 1940, the call an early general election. In armistice agreement allowed for a rump December 1988 Happart agreed not to state to be governed by the French, stand as mayor of Voeren again in rather than be occupied as was the exchange for a place on the remainder of France. This government French-speaking Socialist Party electoral DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

of this state, in southern France, was list in the June 1989 European elections. 73 known as the Vichy regime (the town of Vichy being the seat of government). Volkspartei The government was led by President Pétain, a First World War hero, who A German term (literally: ‘people’s presided over a government that party’) referring to parties which seek to collaborated with the German attract voting support and membership authorities on matters such as the from many or all of the different groups deportation to Germany of Jews and in society, instead of being confined to recruitment of French workers for a particular set of supporters (e.g. trade forced labour. Following the landing of unions, farmers or Catholics), utilising Allied troops in Normandy in June 1944, policy programmes and electoral the Vichy regime territory was occupied manifestos which are sufficiently diffuse by the Germans and its leaders sent to to appeal to a broad spectrum of the Germany. After the war Pétain was electorate, rather than emphasising sentenced to death by a French court ideologically derived political aims. Such for treason, but his sentence was parties must, almost by definition, commuted to life imprisonment. He possess sufficiently large electoral died in 1951. Pétain’s Prime Minister, support to be able to lead a Laval, was executed after the war for government, alone or as principal treason. partner in a coalition. The Christian [See also: Vergangenheitsbewältigung] Democrats and Social Democrats in Germany and Austria are obvious examples of the Volkspartei type. The Voeren dispute (Belgium) decision of the SPD to adopt its Bad The Voeren dispute became a symbol Godesberg Programme in 1959 is a of the tension between linguistic clear example of a party seeking to communities in Belgium. In 1962 the become a Volkspartei after being very administrative authority for much a working-class party in earlier Voeren/Fourons, a largely years. French-speaking group of villages in [See also: Godesberg Programme]

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access Waldheim Affair West Lothian question

1970s. The West Lothian question refers Waldheim Affair to a constitutional anomaly which exists Dr Kurt Waldheim was President of Austria where only part of the United Kingdom from 1986 to 1991. During his presidential possesses regionally devolved powers. campaign, he was accused of having In such a case, pointed out Dalyell, MPs been implicated in atrocities committed in the House of Commons would be by the Nazis in the Balkans in 1942–45. prevented from debating or voting upon When he took office, the allegations laws affecting education in West surrounding his wartime activities led Lothian (and other parts of Scotland), him to be barred from entering the but would still be able to vote on laws United States. During his incumbency, affecting education in West Bromwich relations between Austria and many (and other parts of England). So a other states, particularly Israel, became Scottish MP could vote on educational strained. In 1988 an international matters for England, but neither that MP commission of historians concluded that nor any English MP could vote on Waldheim must have been aware of the educational matters for Scotland, since atrocities at the time they were taking that would be one of the policy areas place. He refused to stand down as devolved to a Scottish parliament. President, but did not seek re-election This potential has become a reality EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, when his term of office came to an end. since the opening of the Scottish

74 [See also: nazism; Waldheim*] Parliament in 1999. There is no Waldheim Affair West Lothian question equivalent parliament for England as such, though some have suggested that ‘Wende’ there should be such a parliament, or A German term meaning ‘change of else that the House of Commons when direction’. It has been utilised in two dealing with matters parallel to those different political contexts. (a) The term devolved to the Scottish parliament was applied to the strategy of Helmut (such as education) should sit without Kohl and his coalition when he became Scottish MPs being allowed to vote. This, Chancellor in 1982. The change of though, could mean that a government direction he promised was especially to possessing a parliamentary majority do with restrictions on public dependent upon Scottish MPs would be expenditure (especially social welfare outvoted by the opposition on such payments and subsidies) and, in English policies. Others maintain that the consequence, of the rising levels of anomaly really does not have much public debt. (b) It is also applied to the effect on policy, and that few members situation in the GDR in 1989–90, and to of the public are aware of its existence. German reunification. Here it refers to the downfall of the communist regime winter of discontent in the GDR, its replacement by a multi-party democracy, and then to its A phrase from Shakespeare’s Richard III, incorporation in the Federal Republic of applied to the winter of 1978–79 in Germany. Germans refer to events or Britain, when trade union action developments in eastern Germany as eventually made the Labour government occurring ‘before’ or ‘after’ the ‘Wende’. so deeply unpopular that it suffered a heavy defeat in the general election. It was caused especially by the West Lothian question combined effects of high levels of The Scottish MP Tam Dalyell is credited inflation and a restrictive incomes policy with raising the West Lothian question by the Wilson and Callaghan in debates on Scottish devolution in the governments, which had reduced the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access winter of discontent women’s movement standard of living of many employees. with promoting gender equality; that is, First strikes in the private sector the same rights as men to work and produced pay increases of 17–20 per participate in society. They tried to cent. Then a series of strikes by public secure political reforms largely by sector employees, especially manual traditional methods, often working workers employed in local government, through political parties and trade unions. caused great inconvenience and In contrast, the women’s liberation hardship to the general public, closing movement adopted the idea of gender schools and hospitals, leaving refuse to difference. Their aim was to develop a pile up in the streets, and even, in the feminist counter-culture. For them, most publicised case, preventing burials influencing the political establishment of the dead. The Labour government took second place to changing women’s was hampered by its close financial attitudes. The women’s liberation connection to the trade unions and by a movement was organised at the lack of legislation to prevent strikes. grassroots level and their campaigns This was especially the case in key were conducted through mass protests. public services, where the closed shop The women’s movements have existed (meaning that all employees succeeded in creating an ongoing public had to be members of the trade union, debate on women’s role in society, even and were subject to sanctions by that if their values have been accorded DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

trade union if, for example, they refused rather limited recognition within national 75 to strike) and there were sometimes politics. One substantive area of success questionable practices concerning strike has been in their demand for easier ballots. When the Conservative access to legal abortion. Mainstream government won the election, it political parties have adopted a broadly introduced legislation to restrict the supportive, if unspecific, stance on powers of trade union leaders. The women’s issues, and European Labour Party started to question its governments have introduced a range of reliance on the trade unions, leading state bodies to promote gender equality. eventually to reforms within the party However, some feminists feel that initiated by Kinnock, John Smith and parties are only paying lip service to Blair. women’s issues, are using feminist ideas [See also: Blair*; Callaghan*; for their own purposes, or have failed to Kinnock*; Smith J.*] reflect their ideas accurately. winter of discontent women’s movement women’s movement xenophobia The feminist movement that emerged in Literally: fear of strangers. Xenophobia Western Europe in the 1960s to 1970s was has been regarded as a cause of race divided into two branches: the women’s hatred and as an element in the politics rights movement and the women’s of the extreme right-wing, manifesting liberation movement. The women’s rights itself as hatred of foreigners (especially movement had its historical roots in the immigrants) and their culture. It is suffrage movement at the turn of the therefore found especially in societies twentieth century, which secured where either a sudden influx of women’s right of access to education immigrants occurs, immigrants whose and to professional qualifications. In the cultural separateness makes them 1960s and 1970s, this branch of the difficult to integrate into the host feminist movement was particularly society, or in societies where contact successful in France and Britain. The with foreigners has been very restricted, women’s rights activists were concerned such as the GDR before the fall of the

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/27/2021 10:32:47PM via free access xenophobia Young Turks’ revolt

Berlin Wall. After reunification, some of idea of a revised form of proportional the worst acts of violence in Germany representation in which only half the against foreigners occurred in the area Bundestag (rather than all its of the former GDR. membership, as was then the case) [See also: anti-Semitism; immigration] would be elected on the basis of xenophobia Young Turks’ revolt proportional representation with the remainder being elected in Yalta conference constituencies on the basis of ‘first past One of a series of wartime conferences the post’ but not taken into account among leaders of the Allies in the when seats were distributed Second World War. The conference at proportionally among parties: the Yalta (in the Crimea) was held in Grabenwahlsystem (meaning two February 1945, at a time when it was systems of election separated by a obvious that Germany would soon be ‘ditch’). This would have greatly defeated. It therefore focused on the diminished the number of FDP post-war treatment of Germany. candidates elected to the Bundestag Decisions reached included the division and would very likely have eliminated of Germany into three zones of their role as a coalition partner. The occupation (it was later agreed that FDP sought to dissuade the Christian EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, France should also have a zone of Democrats from proceeding with this

76 occupation – in territory originally idea. In the largest Land: North allocated to British and American -Westphalia (NRW), the FDP occupation), confirmation of a policy of withdrew from their coalition with the unconditional surrender of Germany and Christian Democrats and instead joined its total disarmament, acceptance of the a coalition government led by the Social Atlantic Charter and the founding of the Democrats. This had the effect of United Nations Organisation, and the switching votes to the opposition from declaration of war on Japan by the the Christian Democrats in the upper USSR. Differing interpretation of the chamber (the Bundesrat, where the decisions reached at Yalta (as well as Länder governments had veto powers those reached at the Potsdam over certain types of legislation), making conference) contributed to the Cold it more difficult for Adenauer to govern. War and the division of Germany. Because many of those involved in this [See also: Cold War; the German coup in the NRW FDP, such as Weyer, question; Potsdam conference] Döring and Scheel, were relatively young, it became known as the Young Turks’ revolt. The principal Youandé Convention [See: Lomé consequences were that the Convention] Grabenwahlsystem idea was dropped, but a break-up of the coalition in Bonn Young Turks’ revolt followed. This forced Adenauer to In 1955–56 discussions took place within govern with the aid of a number of the parties in the Federal Republic of renegade FDP Members of the Germany concerning revision of the Bundestag. In the Bundestag election in Electoral Law, ahead of the scheduled 1957, which took place under very 1957 Bundestag election. Because much a similar electoral system to that Chancellor Adenauer had had a number used in 1953, Adenauer obtained an of conflicts with his coalition partner, absolute majority for his party, and did the Free Democratic Party (FDP), over not need the FDP as a coalition partner. issues such as the Saarland question, he [See also: Grabenwahlsystem; permitted some in his party to float the Saarland question]

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