Acknowledgements Contents

Introduction…………………………………………………1 Illustrations Food map…………………………………………..7 Corn Through the Ages…………………………..9 Anatomy of Corn………………………………….11 Corn planting and harvesting……………………13 Types of Corn and its Uses………………………15 Essays Rivera’s Woman Grinding Maize………………..17 This project could not have been done without the cooperation by Samantha Garcia and assistance of each co-author. We give a special thanks to Modotti’s Mexican Revolution, Guitar, Corn and co-authors Samantha Garcia for the cover artwork and Katelyn Ammunition Belt…………………………………..21 Mays for the original illustrations. by Emily Bates Martinez’s Farm Workers’ Altar………………….27 by Jesse Latimer Rickard’s Blue Corn Room……………………….39 by Katelyn Mays Recipes Tortillas…………………………………………….45 Bannock……………………………………………47 Za…………………………………………………..48 Roasted Corn Succotash…………………………49 Bibliography………………………………………………..51 1 2

Introduction Corn, or maize (Zea mays), has a long and rich history, with strong cultural ties to native and mestizo populations of the Americas. The crop originated as a wild grass, teosinte, somewhere in southern Mesoamerica (Studer et al. 2011). Genetic evidence places the split from teosinte to corn approximately ten-thousand years ago, suggesting the earliest experiments of domestication by humans (Studer et al. 2011; University of Wisconsin-Madison 2011). Archaeological research suggests that it was in the Oaxaca and Tehuácan valleys of modern-day Mexico, where the crop was first fully cultivated (Benz 2001, 2104). Thus, the spread of corn began. Cultural diffusion carried corn across the Americas, arriving in the lower Amazon basin by 4,000 BC (Bush et al. 1989, 304). The crop spread by sea into the Caribbean, reaching Haiti by 1,450 BC (Staller et al. 2006, 331). Similarly, the crop spread northward, reaching modern-day Ohio over seventeen- hundred years ago. (Riley et al. 1994, 495). Italian explorer Christopher Columbus was exposed to the plant and its uses by the native Taino of the Island of Hispaniola, initiating the crop's spread across the Atlantic in the 1490s (Jeffreys 1955, 427). By the 17th century, corn was introduced to Asian and African ports from Europe by the Portuguese (Miracle 1965). Due to a relatively short growing period, corn became a popular crop throughout the Old World. However, Europeans did not take the process of nixtamalization with the crop. Figure 1. Detail from the Florentine Codex of Aztec harvesting corn, Bernardino de Sahagún, 16th century, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence. 3 4

Nixtamal comes from the Nahuatl most diverse agricultural products of the 21st century. Not only word nextil, meaning ashes, and is is corn used to feed people and livestock, but also utilized in the process of soaking the kernels in the production of a wide array of commodities. Products found an alkaline solution and was in most people's kitchens such as alcohol, vinegar, oil, and adopted by native populations fructose syrups, and starch thickeners are secondary products throughout the New World of corn. Industries also utilize corn to produce textiles, (Clampitt 2015, 7). Nixtamalization lubricants, rubber, corks, adhesives, commercial binders, made the removal of the tough industrial biofuels, and bioplastics. Moreover, corn silk has exterior of the kernels and grinding proven to possess medicinal qualities. Aqueous extracts from easier and unlocked nutrients like corn silk have proven to niacin (B vitamins). Without this help treat urinary tract process, Old World populations infections and other that transitioned to a primary diet of urinary system ailments th Figure 2. Young Corn God, 8 corn often suffered from pellagra— (Sahib et al. 2012). century Maya, Mexico. Ceramic and pigment, 8 1/8 x 2 x 1 1/2 in. The a dermatological disease resulting For hundreds or Met Museum, New York. from too little niacin in the diet even thousands of years, (Berdanier 2019). However, corn was the principal nixtamalization unlocks corn's full nutritional value. Once grain and source of processed, corn becomes an excellent source of protein, calories for many cultures niacin, fiber, iron, potassium, selenium, and vitamins A, C, and Figure 3. Detail from Crow Canyon Petroglyphs across the Americas. depicting a corn stalk. 16th-17th century

K (USDA n.d.; Kumar and Jhariya 2013, 7). Consequently, corn Ancestral Puebloan. Photo taken by Bureau of Corn is an annual grass, meaning it grows and reaches iconography appeared Land Management, New Mexico full maturity in a single growing season. In the US, corn is throughout the New typically planted in April and harvested by November. The World, seen in sculpture, altars, codices, and rock art that plant is up to eight feet tall and produces one or two ears of span from the Inca of Peru to the Ancestral Puebloans of New corn which harvested by hand or combine. As of 2019, the US Mexico (Figure 3). Many Mesoamerican civilizations revered planted 91.7 million acres of corn (Capehart and Proper 2019), the crop and attributed corn to major deities for which they producing 366 million metric tons of the crop (US Grains built effigies (Figure 2) and produced offerings (Benitez 2014). Council n.d.) It is currently the largest crop in the US (Capehart Western culture has depicted the crop since the 16th century, and Proper 2019). Additionally, corn is arguably one of the painted by Italian artist Giovanni da Udine in the Villa

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Farnesina (Figure 3), less than thirty years after the become a point of introduction of the crop by Columbus (Janick and Caneva contention for rural 2005, 71). Moreover, 16th-century ethnographic accounts by farmers in Mexico as Spanish friar Bernadino de Sahagún illustrate the Aztec corn imports from the farming corn in the Florentine Codex (Figure 1). By the 19th US drastically century, corn was integrated into American and European still increase as a result of lifes (Figure 5). the North American Despite the significance corn held Free Trade Agreement in pre-Columbian American Figure 5. Corn and Cantaloupe by Raphael Peale, ca. (NAFTA). Genetically 1813. Oil on panel, 14 1/2 x 19 1/2 in. Crystal Bridges societies, once colonialized, many Museum of American Art, Bentonville. modified corn imports colonial cultures considered the have altered the price grain food for the poor. During and biodiversity of the crop that sustain many small the Spanish occupation of the communities throughout Mexico, which threaten their Americas, the higher classes and economic independence and food sovereignty (Gálvez 2018). nobility ate wheat bread as the In this book, readers will encounter four different indentured Indians and mestizos essays that respond to artworks that feature corn. Each subsisted on corn products artwork was created in response to the times and movements Figure 4. Detail from Loggia of (Hartigan 2017; Montaño Psyche by Giovanni de Udine, 1505- that occurred during the 20th century. In each response, the

1509, Villa Farnesina, Rome. 2001). According to accounts by writers address the material, compositional, symbolic, and

American chef, Helen Corbitt, this social role corn plays in each artwork. Moreover, readers are classist and racial associations of corn with Indian and more provided with four recipes that feature corn and corn impoverished populations persisted in twentieth-century products, which take inspiration from the native cultures of Mexico, during her visits between 1930 and 1960 (de Cabria the Americas that have been utilizing the crop for millennia. and Corbitt 1961). In spite of this, during the 20th century, corn was depicted by Latinx and American artists as part of native and mestizo artistic, cultural, and social movements such as Mexican Muralism, the Chicano movement, and the American Indian Movement. For these movements, corn was an iconographic symbol for shared identity, heritage, and ecology, both past and present. In the 21st century, corn has

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Rivera’s Woman Grinding Maize The oil painting Woman Grinding Maize (1924) by Diego Rivera (1886- 1957) depicts the strenuous labor that women in By Samantha Garcia rural or low-income households had to deal with on a day to day basis. The attributes that come with the labor work are unequal but are normalized in different culture’s such as with the Mexican

heritage. The artist behind this work is, Post-Impressionist and Mexican muralist, Diego Rivera. Rivera was born in Guanajuato, Mexico in 1886. Rivera reflects on Mexican history and their daily lives, but most importantly focuses on the social inequalities of the laborers and peasantry. Some works hold a lot of controversy but that was the statement he was trying to achieve. During the Mexican Revolution, Diego Rivera was abroad in Europe and Italy where he took interest in Renaissance frescoes. A year later he returned to Mexico and became involved in mural paintings that reflected the Mexican Revolution that had just ended. The painting of Woman Grinding Maize has the main focal point showing a woman on her knees, hunched over, a metate or large grinding stone, working to smooth out the maize. The woman is shown wearing a loose white dress that takes up about a third of the surface, but the warm hue of her skin tone causes the eyes to then focus on her arm. Her arms are stiff and flexed showing the exertion that needs to be applied when working on the metate. The face of the woman is cast with a shadow and the bottom half is covered by her shoulder making it hard to see her distinct features. There’s a simplicity with the colors and lines being used in the piece but that leads to the symbolism that’s behind it. As imagery of a woman grinding maize is presented, I will state why Diego Rivera opened a window into social issues regarding the motif of women laborers in Indigenous and Mexican Cultures. The use of these women plays a strong role in explaining the societal roles that the lower class play and how this socially-engaged artwork has brought that to light. I will explore the unity 19 20

that women have with agriculture, the outlook towards the lower- tiresome, labor that a woman will partake in for the household. As class in Mexican society, to tie those topics together to explain far back as to the Aztec’s it was always to woman’s job to spend how not only this one piece, but many of Rivera’s works brings several hours on her knees working away at the corn to form masa. awareness towards labor workers. Over time the metate bowl would form into the shape it is today, Diego Rivera portrays the relationship between women the opened faced, three-legged, slab of stone. The way the and agriculture in such a powerful way that this new female image painting focuses on the body of the woman with her arms toward [challenged some of the early twentieth century sexist cultural the center of the plain shows the viewer that they are looking at biases against women in a progressive and vibrant manner] the work that is being put into the grinding motion. The face of (Mirkin, 103). In several of Rivera’s works he depicts women the woman is not of importance but the action that is being accompanied by corn. Some of these the woman maybe laboring presented is the topic. People of the lower class do not have the over the corn or simply sitting in the presence of it. In other works, luxury of just going out to by tortillas or premade tamales. They such as Woman (1924-1927), the peasant figure’s pose resembles are the ones providing the other persons consumption of those the Chicomecóatl, the Aztec goddess of corn. Chicomecóatl is items. The women have to go through this process, cook, and then responsible for the abundance of corn that is produced during the sell so they can have making a living. No one really pays attention growth cycle. To honor this goddess, sacrifices had to be held, about how some items come to be and it is not until it is brought because of this Rivera believes that those Prehistoric rituals caused to their attention do they really take the time to understand. the [suffering of the underprivileged classes of Mexico up to the Diego Rivera’s artworks were meant to bring awareness to post-revolutionary period] (Mirkin, 106). This belief toward the the Mexican society to show how the lower class is being stapled suffering explains not only why Rivera includes women with in their own county. Not much had been done for them after post- agriculture but why he portrays them as having peasant revolution. The way Rivera reviles the work being done by the characteristics. Women throughout time have been associated figures in his paintings is by either focusing at the task on hand or with agriculture and civilization due to their nourishing qualities exaggerating the labor task. That focal point allows the viewer to and ability to supply food. Due to the up bring of women, from make the decision that there is a deeper meaning that is being such a small age, they are used to providing and caring for others presented then what is necessarily being shown. through their inherited domestic role. [Women are more apt to observe and discover the nascent processes in nature and consequently to induce and reproduce them artificially] (Mirkin, 101). Rivera recognized the unity women had with nature and the laborious work that was put into maintaining that functional atmosphere whether it was work related or domestic. In regard to presenting the woman in Woman Grinding Maize (1924), Diego Rivera wanted to show the strenuous,

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Modotti’s Mexican Revolution, Guitar, In early 20th century Mexico, there was a post- revolutionary moment. At that point in time there were many Corn, and Ammunition advances as far as economics and architecture went, but the working class faced oppression from incredibly powerful political By Katelyn Mays leaders. The fight for the purpose of the common man or workers, as well as land rights were very prevalent and the poverty across the land seemed to continue to fester the longer that politics became the priority in the country. Porfirio Díaz, the president of Mexico at the time, was probably more concerned with societal reformations rather than the social or the liberal ones. There was a mix of Mexican citizens who supported Díaz and others who did not, and fingers were pointed at him for being involved in “conspiracy and treason, inhumanity, brutality, and duplicity” (Garner 5). Díaz and other officials reigned in the majority of power in the country and seemed to care quite little in regard to the toil of everyday farmers or lower-class laborers, instead focusing on industry expansion along the lines of making roads or factories. In this way, artists became more interested in expressing themselves with leftist politics and in documenting this political turmoil in Mexico. Assunta Adelaide Luigia Modotti Mondini, whose name was eventually minimized to Tina Modotti, was born on August 16th, 1896 in northeastern Italy and she died on January 5th, 1942. Modotti became an accomplished photographer, an actress, and a model in the early twentieth century. Modotti’s uncle’s skills in photography helped Modotti fulfill her wish to be an independent art maker and to support herself financially. Learning how to expertly photograph the world around them was a skill set that ran in Modotti’s family blood line. One notable black and white photograph of Modotti’s vast collection was titled Mexican Revolution, Guitar, Corn and Ammunition Belt and it was captured in 1927. I will argue that Modotti's post-revolutionary work is

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significant to the social role of food because the idea of heritage photograph “is symbolic of the Mexican revolutionary” (Shaw & in this photograph, specifically through the usage of the corn crop, Dennison 2005, 362). With the visual addition of the ammunition helps to demonstrate aspects of the 1920s Mexican identity. belt, the meaning of the entire photograph changes and connects Drawing attention to the piece itself, there are three main it in regard to the revolution. Probably one of the most elements to focus on: the imagery of the guitar strings, the drapery prominently used weapons that were employed in early twentieth of ammunition belt, and the ear of corn. According to Karen century Mexico was the Madsen light machine gun (Marley 2014, Barber, Modotti’s piece “reflect[s] equally the tenets of modernist 204). This machine gun was used in combat and was especially photography and the experience of post-revolutionary Mexico” consistent in its quality, which was why it was purchased by so (Barber 2018). Each of these items are generic symbols in both many. Without the ammunition belt, a common tool used during authentic Mexican culture and to post-revolutionary history in the vast majority of armed conflicts at this time period, the Mexico. In the sixteenth century, Spain had two major instruments connection to war would have never been made, and the idea of that were like the guitar, which included the “six-course vihuela Modotti’s photograph would simply be more agriculturally (the and the four-course guitar” (Koonce 2006, 1). The vihuela was corn) based or creatively (the guitar) focused. virtually identical to the dimensions of guitars in today’s society. As for the theme of agriculture, the main focus of The origin of the guitar was thought to be from the culturally rich Modotti’s photograph seems to be portrayed by the ear of country of Spain, but this type of guitar (only recognizable by the modern corn. The corn sits in the very center of the composition neck or strings of it in Modotti’s photograph in particular) appears and is in between the guitar and the ammunition belt, therefore to be an acoustic one. When strummed, the acoustic guitar loudly putting a greater emphasis on its importance in Mexican culture. reverberates through the hollowness of the instrument. The Modotti’s photograph shows a relationship to food because the reasoning behind using this specific type of guitar in Modotti’s role of the corn crop is to build cultural authenticity. Corn in photograph may be a nod to the idea of traditionalism. This could Mexico is consequential to a high degree due to the fact that it highly allude to the fact that, while the working class is facing all has been a part of Mexico’s historical foundation for so long. The of this poverty by the priorities of their government, there is an origin of corn, according to Christina Santini, is “from a uncertainty that nothing is going to change — or remain [domesticated] grass called teocintle by the peoples of Meso- traditional. It may be that human rights are not going to be America approximately 10,000 years ago” (Santini 2006). In this attended to under the ruling of president Díaz. The guitar is also sense, indigenous communities utilized the teocintle, or early type a reference to the long-standing tradition of music in Mexico. of corn grass crop, for pure survival. Generation after generation The ammunition belt is another significant item in the cultivated and harvested the corn. According to Santini, Oaxaca photograph taken by Modotti. More specifically, the theme of war native Aldo Gonzalez says that “a handful of maize seed is the or post-revolutionary Mexican society is depicted with the imagery legacy [they] can leave to [their] children and grandchildren” of the ammunition belt. The belt holds the bullets that will be fed (Santini 2006). By passing down corn, the method of survival and into a gun, and for this reason this element in Modotti’s celebration continues among communities. Corn is used not just

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for meals or feeding, but also socially in festivals, in celebrations, corn are used to wrap tamales for proper cooking. Medicinally, and in the making of crafts. In fact, to ancient Mayans corn was so corn protects the body against ailments like tumors, kidney failure, incredibly vital because of its spirituality. Maize was thought to be hypertension, and also diabetes. According to Álvaro, the maize used in the creation of people through different types of corn. The crop was valued because of the fact that “it grew well in the multitude of colors helped to provide an insight on this climate, it was easily stored, it could be eaten in a number of ways mythology, as “white corn was used for the bones, yellow corn for (e.g. whole or used as a type of flour), and had many other uses the muscles, black corn for the eyes and hair, and red corn for the (e.g. for baskets, fuel, etc.)” (Álvaro 2019). These reasons, among blood” (Álvaro 2019). Corn is part of the creation story in all of others, are why corn is so imperative to cultures and identity. Mayan culture. Modotti placed corn at the epicenter of the photograph to show Modotti’s photography piece expresses Laura Jane this. Smith’s notion of having heritage as an experience because the In conclusion, Modotti’s Mexican Revolution, Guitar, Corn corn is a part of cultural knowledge and memory. Smith and Ammunition Belt shows both the value of Mexican culture and communicates that the experience is part of what makes food a the long cultural history behind the objects in the photo. The form of heritage, “not the mere fact of [its] existence” (Smith 46). guitar represents the creative and musical side attached to Corn is part of Mexican heritage and experience. When biting into Mexico, the corn represents the rich agriculture and survival of corn, or any food for that matter, there is a sense of achievement preceding Mexican generations, and the ammunition belt that is felt because of the natural need to consume for survival. By represents the strife of war in post-revolutionary Mexico. Modotti’s photographing the ear of corn in the center of the composition, work is notably important to the idea of heritage and 1920s the understanding of authenticity is amplified. This is because Mexican identity. Modotti employs the role of food in such a way that it describes a connection between sentiment, where corn is tied to specific memories, and storytelling, where the corn crop is tied to ancestry. In the ear of corn depicted, there is a sense of self. The photograph expresses how corn coincides with genealogy and heritage. Modotti’s photography piece also ties to Smith’s notion of identity because corn “fosters the feelings of belonging and continuity [in society]” (Smith 48). There is a long list of popular dishes in Mexico that are still used today which traditionally involve corn in its ingredients. For example, corn plays a massive role in the creation of beverages, soups, tamales, chips, and tortillas to name a few. Corn also forms the paste or dough for these ingredients to come to fruition, and the exterior husks of

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Martinez’s Farm Workers’ Altar Emmanuel Martinez's Farm Workers' Altar was created in 1967 and first unveiled in March of 1968 to celebrate the end of By Jesse Latimer Cesar Chavez's twenty-five day fast meant to rededicate his farmworkers' rights movement in California to nonviolence. Farm Workers' Altar was first presented at a Mass in Delano, California, that marked the end of Chavez's fast. A crowd of over six thousand attendants gathered for the Mass and included United Farm Workers (UFW) supporters, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and other civil rights leaders (Kennedy 1968; Larsen 1968). The 38 by 54 by 36-inch plywood and mahogany altar is painted on five sides in acrylic and is currently in the collection of the Smithsonian American Museum of Art. The top features a stylized Cross. One side features a crucified dark-skinned Jesus Christ, while on the opposite side, an indigenous woman holds small corn stalks and grapes, flanked by corn on the bottom corners. The other sides feature a Cross made of corn, and opposite, four fists of different colors wrap around the UFW eagle insignia. Grapes are a recurring motif on the four main sides of the altar, their vines framing each scene depicted. The grapes are an allusion to a series of boycotts against non-union California table grapes from Delano. Cesar Chavez and the UFW organized the boycotts to advocate against poor working conditions, and grapes became an important symbol for the UFW platform and inspired Chavez's "Wrath of Grapes" speech. Moreover, corn appears on two sides of the altar: two ears of corn flank either of a woman who holds

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several stalks of corn and forms a quincunx on another. The corn alludes to the shared mestizo history of pre-Columbian and colonial lifeways shared by Chicanos like Chavez, Martinez, and the laborers that were active participants of the agricultural workers' rights movement. Chavez and the UFW’s efforts were part of an overarching movement that was occurring by the 1960s, called El Movimiento, also known as the Chicano Movement. El Movimiento was one of change and focused on improving the agency and civil rights of disenfranchised Chicanos, which were Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the United States (Hernandez 1975). Mexicans and their descendants are the results of a long and often violent process of native and colonial encounters that resulted in a mixed, but separate, mestizo culture. The term mestizo describes someone or something that is the product of mestizaje, or mixture, and often used to denote the result of both European and Amerindian cultures and ancestry. Chicano mestizaje is "the trace of this historical material process” (Pérez-Torres 1998, 154). Martinez defines social struggles on mestizo terms by incorporating Western and indigenous elements into his artwork, indicating a complex and diverse heritage. Chicano artist and Colorado native, Emanuel Martinez was born in 1947 in Denver. His artistic endeavors began at a young age with a pension for drawing in charcoal. At age thirteen, Martinez painted his first mural (Martinez 2018). Martinez worked and studied under famed Mexican muralist David Siqueiros several times in the late 1960s. While living in Xochimilco, Mexico, Martinez assisted in the production of Siqueiros' The March of Humanity in Latin America (1964-71) (Dewalt 1995, 23; Martinez 2018). Today, Martinez continues to create large, community project painted murals. Throughout the 1960s and 70s, Martinez was an activist and produced silkscreen

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printed posters for El Movimiento. Martinez worked intimately This paper will first explain why the work's function as an with movement leaders "Corky" Gonzalez and Cesar Chavez and altar transforms the meanings of the foods represented and lends their organizations— Crusade for Justice and UFW, respectively— itself to the commemoration of Chicano heritage and farmers' and assisted with Plan de la Raza Unida (Dewalt 1995, 23). rights. Next, the paper will explore the importance of corn to the Martinez would later enroll in formal artistic training at the heritage of Chicanos and its ties to Aztlán. Then, it will engage in Metropolitan State College and Juarez-Lincoln University in a formal analysis of the subjects depicted on the altar, particularly Denver (Martinez 2018). In the 1980s, Martinez expanded his corn and grapes, and their symbolic and social role within the interests to bronze casting and began to show his canvas works in artwork. galleries (Dewalt 1995). As a painter and sculptor, Martinez has The power of an altar is to connect the corporeal world produced large murals and metal sculptures for cities and with the spiritual realm and is a stage for change. The Catholic community organizations across the US. Farm Workers' Altar is Mass that commemorated the end of Chavez's twenty-five day fast unique because wood is not Martinez's usual medium and utilized Farm Workers' Altar as the main altar (Smithsonian represents the only known altar in Martinez's portfolio. Institute n.d.; Sorell 1995, 27). Because Martinez created the work Current scholarship has mostly ignored Farm Workers' as an altar, it acts as a powerful link to politics, community, and Altar. Much of the writing for Martinez's altar is for exhibition spirituality (C. Holmes 2016, 77). El Movimiento was a movement publications, such as an essay by Victor Sorell or the Smithsonian of change and focused on improving the agency and civil rights of Institute. Additionally, these publications have only engaged in Chicanos. Similarly, the altar is a platform of transformation. The cursory analyses of the mestizo religious imagery of Farm Workers' phenomenon of transubstantiation occurs on a Catholic altar, Altar, ignoring the importance of food imagery in activating the where wine and unleavened bread undergo a metaphysical piece as a whole. As the work is a response to the times and conversion into the body and blood of Christ, respectively, shared experience of the Chicano community, it brings to light the through consecration (Waterworth 1848, 78). importance of food in Chicano heritage and identity of Chicanos Similarly, the images of corn and grapes depicted on Farm in the 1960s. This paper argues that Martinez's work legitimizes Workers' Altar become consecrated and transformed further, and commemorates the resistance and resilience of Chicano beyond symbols of indigeneity and workers' rights. The function communities, through syncretic imagery of corn and grapes. of Farm Workers' Altar as an altar transforms the foods depicted Imagery such as the quincunx, represented by corn on the altar, into actual parts of a mestizo identity that is shared by the Chicano ties pre-Columbian iconography to the concept of Aztlán and a community that persists despite the hardships past and present. shared 20th-century Chicano heritage. The grapes and corn stalks, As a way to reclaim their identity in the racially hostile evocative of the Eucharist, root the altar as a transformative object environment of the mid-20th century United States, "the within the Chicano resistance for workers' rights in the exploitative conceptual base of Chicano thinking absorbed elements from agricultural systems of the 1960s. various pre-Hispanic cultures," (Mesa-Bains 1993, 44). Martinez himself said the inspiration for Chicano art took much from the

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ancient Indians that were the ancestor of modern mestizos Southwest (Bolger 2012). Aztlán became part of the fundamental (Martinez 1972, 350). Corn has long been tied to Mexican and ideology of El Movimiento, which acted as a focal point for Chicano identity and identified as the staple crop for native Chicano nationalism (Noriega 1969). These concepts of Aztlán and populations of Meso-America, who were the indigenous ancestors Chicano nationalism were made concrete in the manifesto El Plan of the modern mestizos. Corn has close associations with de Espiritual de Aztlán adopted in 1969. As the Director of Cultural indigenous bodies. Cosmogonies of the Maya state that the Activities for the manifestos' publishing organization, Crusade for current incarnation of men is created from maize—corn (Tedlock Justice, at the time, Martinez contributed to this manifesto (Sorell 1996, 63-64). Likewise, the Aztec revered the maize goddess, 1995, 27). So, the idea that Martinez anticipated the cultural Chicomecoatl, and discussed in the Florentine Codex: "indeed, mandates of the manifesto comes as no surprise. truly she is our flesh, our livelihood, through her we live, she is our Moreover, Martinez further recognizes the role of corn in strength" (Sahagún 1950-82,2:64). In the 21st century, corn is still Mesoamerican societies and its associations with belief systems regarded as an integral part of mestizo identity. Gustavo Esteva and religious iconography. On one panel of Farm Workers’ Altar, and Catherine Maireille emphasize the importance of corn as part Martinez forms a Cross with the ears of corn. However, the of a shared history and ecology in their 2003 book, Sin maíz no depiction of the Cross symbolizes more than a Christian Crucifix, hay país [Without Corn There is No Country]. Esteva introduces as one would expect on a Christian altar. Additionally, the corn his topic by arguing that, "corn is our collective invention. And forms a quincunx—a form created with five points in the shape of corn, in its turn, invented us" (2003, 11). a four-sided cross with the fifth point in the center—which has an Martinez depicts scenes on Farm Workers' Altar in a intimate connection with corn (Stross 1994, 20). The quincunx Chicano homeland. The scenes' setting on Farm Workers' Altar is pattern is a common Mesoamerican cosmogram, in both Maya in an idealized landscape: rich brown soil, lush green grass, hills, (Stross 1994, 25) and Aztec belief systems (Aguilar-Moreno 2006, and sapphire blue water. This landscape is reminiscent of a 302). Both the Maya and Aztec mapped the cosmos by the four mythical land, and lends itself to the concept of alternative cardinal directions and an axis-mundi that transcended through geography, nascent of the coming ideology of Aztlán that would and beyond their mortal worlds (Aguilar-Moreno 2006, 302; Stross fully manifest two years after the completion of the altar. Aztlán, 1994, 25). Often arranged in a similar four-quartered format, from the Nahuatl Aztatlan, is the mythical homeland of the Aztec, religious calendars form quincunxes in the Maya Madrid Codex situated north of modern-day Mexico (Mesa-Bains 1993, 47; del and the Aztec Codex Féjervary-Mayer. Modern Tzeltl Maya still Castillo and de León 1996, 131), what is considered today as the plant corn in a quincunx formation— they dig a center and four American Southwest (Urista and Gonzeles 1969, 5). This region is surrounding holes marking the cardinal directions, each filled with also where the majority of Latinos, including Mexican and Mexican five seeds (Alcorn 1984:341)—as a sort of recreation of the descendant populations, existed in the US during the 1960s cosmos. Artist and writer Dylan Miner expand Estevas' concept of (Haverluk 1997, 137). Aztlán was an alternative geography—a Sin maíz no hay país, specifically concerning El Movimiento, space of cultural resistance and identity-performance—of the adding "sin maíz no hay Aztlán [without corn there is no Aztlán]"

Martinez’s Farm Workers’ Altar Latimer 35 36

(2014, 196). So, by utilizing corn to return to indigenous values depicting an early ancestor of corn, closer to its wild ancestor, and iconography, Martinez once again alludes to a shared past teosinte, cultivated by Pre-Columbian Mesoamericans, which was and homeland, the idea of which later materializes in El Plan de smaller than today's crop and was similar in size to wheat. As Espiritual de Aztlán. wheat holds significance in Christianity as the finest crop Further, by recreating a Cross on Farm Workers' Altar with bestowed by God (Deuteronomy 32:14; Psalm 81:16; Psalm corn, Martinez is showcasing the syncretism of colonial and native 147:14), and its product, bread, used to represent the body Christ, belief systems and exhibiting the religious iconography on corn holds a similar symbolic value as a divine crop and the mestizo terms. During the colonization of the Americas from the substance of the body in Mesoamerican cosmogonies. The 15th to the 19th century, the Catholic Church attempted to adapt overlapping size and forms of the two plants are taken advantage Christianity to indigenous traditions often by finding overlapping of by Martinez. By depicting an ancient New World crop that concepts and iconography of the colonized (Pandian 2006, 230). closely resembles Old World wheat in both form and religious The overlapping forms of a four-pointed quincunx and a crucifix is significance, it further develops the syncretic nature of the altar. one such example. Syncretic use of the Cross by Catholic The two ears of corn on either side of the woman further missionaries occurred throughout the Americas, one of the most ground the scene in an indigenous environment. The ears of corn famous is the Atrial Cross at Acolman in Mexico, created for a 16th are iconographic symbols as a sort of pictographic label. Calling century Augustine monastery, which utilizes a syncretic form of the upon associations mentioned earlier of native lifeways to corn, Aztec World Tree and Christ's Crucifix. Martinez inverses this Martinez uses the ears of corn to claim the visual elements of the concept by utilizing corn and the overlapping forms of a four- scene depicted, much like a glyph or signature. Martinez claims pointed quincunx and a crucifix to harken back to indigenous not only the woman but the grapevines and the prefigured belief systems. symbols of the Eucharist as part of Chicano identity, which Similarly, on the adjacent panel of Farm Workers’ Altar, an showcases the mestizaje of Chicano religious heritage. Moreover, indigenous Mexican woman holds a grape bunch and a handful of the native associations of corn juxtapose the grapes that surround grain stalks (Smithsonian n.d.; Sorrell 1995, 27). The raw the scene. ingredients prefigure the bread and wine of the Eucharist. The Martinez’s depiction of grapes represents both the blood grains the woman holds are the color and size of wheat, the cereal of Christ and an ongoing struggle for rights. The grapevines grain used for the making of unleavened Holy Communion bread. permeate throughout the entire artwork, included on every panel However, the forms appear almost bulbous: a cone-like shape with of Farm Workers' Altar. Unlike corn, grapes do not have a deep the kernels bunched close together rather than a long, narrow, cultural association with Mesoamerican cultures. As a working altar double rowed physiology typical of the plant. Despite the size and for a Mass, paired with a depiction of a crucified Christ, the grapes color, the kernels' shape something closer to corn: a round base prefigure the Holy Communion wine that becomes the blood of that narrows towards the tip and kernels that wrap around the Christ. However, the grapes are also a direct reference to the entire form. Rather than wheat, Martinez is most probably grape boycotts that were occurring by 1967. The boycotts were

Martinez’s Farm Workers’ Altar Latimer 37 38

for better pay and working conditions for agricultural workers, boycotts, initiated Delano into a heritage site for the Chicano many of whom were Chicano (T. Holmes 2006, 303). Delano, community (Smith 2006, 46). California, was the site of the first major strike organized by Chavez In conclusion, Martinez's Farm Workers' Altar integrates in 1965 and is the very same place where the six-thousand-person both Christian and indigenous iconography to illustrate a mestizo Mass occurred (Larsen 1968) and where Farm Workers' Altar was identity and heritage of Chicanos in the 1960s through food. The first utilized (Smithsonian n.d.; Sorell 1995, 27). Parallels exist function of the altar transforms and elevates the foods and forms between the suffering of Christ on the Cross, the suffering of depicted on the altar into real aspects of Chicano identity. Corn, Chicano laborers, and Chavez's twenty five-day fast. The and its associated forms, call back to pre-Columbian culture and overlapping themes of unjust suffering and sacrifice create a new religion and its overlapping meanings in Christendom. Grapes meaning for the grapes. The grapes of Farm Workers’ Altar now take on meaning beyond the blood of Christ, but also the blood also represent the blood of the Chicano workers that have suffered of Chicanos who resisted the institutional oppression of at the hands of the farming industry. farmworkers. Additionally, the depiction of grapes in the context Moreover, the depiction of grapes on Farm Workers’ Altar of the grape boycotts and historic Chavez Mass incorporates them and the fact the altar was used on the site of the first grape strike into 20th-century Chicano heritage. Together, these aspects make incorporates the grape imagery and boycotts into a 20th-century of Farm Workers' Altar a site to actualize Chicano agency and Chicano heritage. The grape imagery flags and reminds the legitimizes the heritage and resistance of the 1960s Chicano audience of the reason and context in which Martinez built the community. altar (Smith 2006). The presence of the grapes in every panel, both visually and socially, frame the images and symbols of Farm Workers' Altar. The grapes are a reminder of the resistance by the UFW and Chicano community against the inequalities imposed on workers by the commercial agricultural complex, which began with the grape boycotts. Anthropologist Laurajane Smith states that heritage is an ongoing process rather than just static meanings (2006, 47). The act of remembering is part of forming these new meanings (Smith 2006, 44). Martinez’s depiction of grapes and the site of the Mass are both acts of remembrance that engaged with the present, both during the historic Mass and in a modern museum context. Smith also argues that heritage sites are formed through heritage performances—utilizing the space to create or convey identity (2006, 48). So, the physical use of Delano as the site for the historic Mass, with its associations with the grape

Martinez’s Farm Workers’ Altar Latimer 39 40

Rickard’s Blue Corn Room For centuries Native American people have been displaced from their homelands at the expense of greedy By Emily Bates corporations. The Tuscaroran Indians of New York and Ontario fell victim to this devastation in 1958 when the Power Authority of New York decided they wanted to flood the Native people’s land to build more power lines. This meant that their land, homes, and crops would all be destroyed. Corn has always been a significant crop to Native American tribes and this loss brought on by the Power Authority would not only be damaging to their way of life but also to their spirits. Corn is so much more than a food source for the Native American people it was ceremonial for them, “Native Americans of both North and South America had elaborate rituals to ensure a good crop and show their gratitude when harvest time rolled around” (Clampitt p. 159). This historical event that took place between the Tuscaroran Native American’s and the New York Power Authority impacted their people forever, and an artist and Native American woman, Jolene Rickard’s made something beautiful out of it all. The Granddaughter of Clinton Rickard the Tuscarora chief who fought for his lands in 1958 is a woman named Jolene Rickard’s. She is an artist and professor of Art History at Cornell University and has spent all of her artistic career striving to represent Native American culture through her art. One artwork of Rickard’s I would like to focus on is “Corn Blue Room” an emotionally engaging exhibit made up of flashing images of scenic landscape and an elevated bundle of blue corn hanging Photograph by Harry Foster lonesome at centerfold. This specific artwork is very in line with Rickard’s personal style and subject matter displayed in most of her other art. “Corn Blue Room” is made up of different images presented on electronic screens, and every one of these images shows landscape scenes, powerlines, water, and dams. All of the 41 42

images represent the story behind her art which is the story of beautiful land, crops, and the heartbreaking powerlines and the fight between her Tuscaroran people and the Power dams that threatened its existence. Although this exhibit is Authority. Rickard uses her art to educate her audience on the simple and is mostly only made up of images these pictures of displacement of her Native American ancestors and the land can show the audience what their home was like before the importance of corn in ceremony, hoping that when visitors displacement. And that is why these pictures and what they show observe and feel her exhibit they will better understand what her are so imperative to understanding the social issue behind the people have gone through. In this paper, I will argue that art piece. Helguera explains in his book that when an artwork Rickard’s heritage influenced her to create this socially engaging depends on a social issue or the artist has been influenced by art piece “Corn Blue Room” and then go into further detail on this problem and it is the backbone of the creation of their art, why the artist chose to display the crop corn because of its then it can be classified as socially engaging and this is essential social role in Native American ceremony and lifestyle. In everything Rickard’s has done in her art. The exhibit displays the this paper, I want to go into further detail on the vital role corn pain and loss her Native people suffered through, while played in representing Native American people and their simultaneously presenting the beauty of her culture still lives on practices. As well as explain why Jolene Rickard’s chose to insert and deserves recognition beyond their history of displacement. it into her artwork. The reason why “Corn Blue Room” is socially engaging art is Previously in this course, we have discussed socially because Rickard’s wanted the audience to learn about her Native engaging art and all of the features it is made up of. Regarding peoples’ through the experience of viewing her art piece. “Corn Blue Room” I found it carries every aspect of socially Going into more detail on the features of her artwork, engaging art. After reading excerpts of Pablo Helguera’s book there are two key components that support presenting Rickard’s “Education for Socially Engaging Art” I decided I wanted to use deeper meaning: her image selections and the ambiance of the it as evidence for my argument because he goes in depth on room. The artwork itself is composed of numerous screens with what can and cannot be categorized as socially engaging art flashing images and short films. Each screen either displays explaining, “What characterizes socially engaging art is its landscapes, dams, powerlines, or flowing water. This segment of dependence on social intercourse as a factor of its existence” the artwork is meant to show the viewers what (Helguera p. 2). There is a deeper emotional meaning behind the Tuscaroran Indians’ life was like before and after their this artwork and every visual detail Rickard’s added to it displacement. The images showing picturesque undamaged represents the story of her Tuscaroran people and everything landscape represent the territory they cherished as their home, they fought for. What makes her artwork so unique to the while the powerlines and dams reveal the residues left behind by exhibits around it is that she wants her audience to learn from it the New York Power Authority. One thing I found thought- and walk away with a better understanding of the history that provoking about this artwork was its atmosphere in comparison influenced it. The images she chose all represent aspects of to the exhibits surrounding it. It is dimly lit and intense while the the Tuscaroran Indians’ way of life such as pictures of their rooms in the museum around it are all brightly lit, to me this

Rickard’s Blue Corn Room Bates 43 44

choice of setting helps symbolize the mindsets Rickard’s wanted land used for farming this crop was stolen away from them. Plus, her audience feeling when learning about this story. These are all this choice to include blue corn hanging in the middle of the just theories and ideas I pondered when researching “Corn Blue exhibit embodied Rickard’s wants to display this overall history of Room” that help support my argument that Rickard’s work is corn being a vital part of both Native American and colonizer socially engaging. I think that she made these aesthetic choices societies. She wanted viewers to look up at the corn husks to help covey her subject matter to the spectators, and in hopes hanging from the ceiling and take away an understanding of the that it would make them feel empathy for the Tuscaroran Indians’ meaning of this particular crop to her people and other Native loss. It is hard to show pain and loss in a bright warm room like American tribes all around the United States. the exhibits surrounding hers, and the room an art exhibit is When you enter Jolene Rickard’s exhibit “Corn Blue placed in is just as important to delivering the feelings and Room” you are not merely visiting an artwork, you are taking part message of the artwork as the work itself. in a ceremonial practice. As you walk around the room and Corn played an extremely social role in the Native observe each image displayed you are slowly learning about the American people’s lives and without their agricultural tragic displacement of the Tuscaroran Native Americans, and in contributions the crop would not be as widespread as it is in the center of the room hangs a bundle of corn that is there to America and other countries. Jolene Rickard’s described “Corn represent the importance of the crop in Indian ceremonies much Blue Room” as more of a ceremony than a work of art which like the one you experience in this exhibit. Jolene Rickard’s used explains her choice of including corn as the center piece of her her art to engage her audience on a deeper and more emotional exhibit. I mention this because this particular crop plays a great level and wanted to invite each viewer to experience the role in traditional Indian ceremonies. Rickard focuses on the ceremony of her people. landscape a lot and I believe this ties back to the history of the Pilgrims reaping off of the Native Americans harvest and introduction to crops such as corn, and in return to this sharing of ceremony they destroyed their land and killed them off. Cynthia Clampitt an author who studied corn and its influence on the United States remarks in her book, “In a way, festivities that gave rise to one of our oldest national holidays were in celebration of corn” she is referencing our national holiday Thanksgiving and how the celebration of corn changed our history forever (Clampitt p. 160). And Rickard’s wanted to demonstrate that although peaceful tribes such as the Tuscaroran’s helped in the production of corn they were used and mistreated by large corporations in return and their

Rickard’s Blue Corn Room Bates 45 46

Tortillas

Ingredients 2 cups masa harina ½ tsp. kosher salt 1 ½ cups water Lard (optional)

Method

Mix masa and salt in a bowl. Stir in 1 1/2 cups water, mix with your hands until cohesive.

Knead until dough is firm. If the dough is crumbly add water by a the other, almost in a slapping motion, pressing the top half of the single teaspoon until the dough becomes springy but not smooth, it dough. Repeat. With every pass you want to angle the hand passing should look slightly dry. A good rule of thumb is if it looks and acts the dough towards yourself. This rotates the dough with every pass, like Play-Doh, it is near perfect. allowing for a more even tortilla. Repeat this until your tortilla has Take and roll a golf ball size amount to flatten on a tortilla press. If reach your desired size. Do not be discouraged if your first tortillas tortilla crumbles, dough is too dry, and add more water one come out lumpy or uneven, it takes a considerable amount of teaspoon at a time. practice to make tortillas in this fashion. Just keep trying. Heat a large skillet, recommend cast iron, over medium-high heat. Place the tortillas on the skillet and cook each side and when very As the skillet heats begin forming tortillas. This can be done with a deep brown spots start to develop and the edges start to curl, tortilla press or, you could use a rolling pin. approximately 1-2 minutes. Thicker, hand formed, tortillas may take longer. Alternatively, you could form the tortillas by hand. This is how indigenous peoples made tortillas for centuries. This produces a Additionally, consider melting a tablespoon of lard for each batch of thicker, fluffier tortilla. Be sure to wet your hands to prevent sticking. tortillas fries the tortillas creating a crunchier, almost confectionary Taking a golf-ball sized piece of dough, press it into your one of like crust. However, lard fried tortillas are often less pliable for folding. your palms with your fingers to begin forming a disk. Pass the dough between your hands, from the palm of one to the fingers of Cover and store in a cloth towel until ready to serve. 47 48

Bannock (Fried Corn Bread)1 Za (Sweet Corn Drink)2 Ingredients Ingredients 6 cups or 12 ears sweet corn, fresh 2 cups cornmeal 4 cups water ¾ cup water ½ teaspoon salt ½ cup blueberries, ¾ cup honey or agave syrup fresh or frozen 5 Tbs. vegetable oil Method ¼ cup oil for frying Slice off the kernels from the ears and put in a blender. Add water and blend very fine. Method Filter through a colander into pot, put on stove over medium-low heat. Stir occasionally until the pot Mix cornmeal, water, is brought to a low boil, and 5 Tbs. oil. Fold in approximately 10-15 minutes. the berries, gently, as When the first sign of boiling not to crush them. starts, turn off the heat and put Heat the oil in a large aside. pan, preferably cast iron, on medium-high heat. When still warm, mix in honey and When oil is up to heat, drop the batter by small spoonful into oil. Fry stir until combined. until golden brown and then turn, about 5 minutes per side. Serve warm or pour over ice. For a Drain and serve warm and fresh to ensure exterior is crispy. Great fun twist, try adding flavors that with coffee or tea and optional dollop of yogurt, cottage cheese, or you enjoy when heating on stove sour cream. like mint, cilantro, or cinnamon.

1 The Bannock comes from Healthy Traditions: Recipes of Our Ancestors by 2 The Za recipe comes courtesy of co-authors Katelyn Mays and Jesse Janice Goodwin and Judy Hall of the University of North Dakota. Latimer. Inspired by the Mexican-Mayan Cookbook by Alejandra Bolles. 49 50

Roasted Corn Succotash3 Remove pepper from oven and wrap in foil to let rest. After resting long enough to handle safely, peel away the burnt skin, discard, and chop the pepper. Set aside. Ingredients Preheat oven to 400 degrees. Place kernels on baking sheet or 2 cups or 4 ears of sweet corn, fresh whole ears on rack. Roast corn until kernels are tender and cooked 1-2 chili or bell peppers through, approximately 10 -15 minutes. 1 Tablespoon Olive Oil Alternatively, roast corn and pepper on grill over high heat to add char and a smoky flavor. 1 cup diced zucchini squash 1 cup chopped tomato When corn is cool enough to handle, pull away husk and silk. Cut kernels from cob and reserve. 1 cup cooked lima beans Heat oil in a large pan over medium-high heat. Add corn and ½ cup scallions thinly zucchini. Sauté, stirring occasionally, for about 2 minutes. Add ¾ cup low-sodium vegetable broth minced garlic and continue cooking 1 minute. 1 minced clove of garlic Add tomato, lima beans, scallions, sage and broth. Simmer, stirring 1 tbs. white wine vinegar occasionally until all ingredients are cooked through, approximately 5 minutes. 2 Tbs. chopped parsley 2 tsp. chopped tarragon Take off heat and stir in chopped pepper, vinegar, tarragon, and half of parsley. ½ tsp. rubbed sage Top with remaining half Salt and pepper to taste of parsley and serve warm. Alternatively, let Method rest overnight in the fridge and serve cold or Turn oven on broil and place pepper on a backing shee t on highest as a vegan tamale filling. rack. Let broil for 1-5 minutes, depending on size of pepper. Flip once when one side of the pepper is black, repeat.

3 This recipe is inspired by a similar dish served to co-author Jesse Latimer at the Mitsitam Native Food Café at the Museum of the American Indian. 51 52 Bibliography

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