Assimilation and Dissimilation: Tatars in Romania and Gagauz in Moldova

CEU eTD Collection Assimilation and Dissimilation: Tatarsin In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Romania andGagauzin Moldova Supervisor: Professor Constantin Iordachi Constantin Professor Supervisor: Nationalism Studies Program Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary Masters of Arts Submitted to Submitted Elis Bechir Elis 2008 By CEU eTD Collection CHAPTER 25 TWO: Historical overview ...... of the Tatars and the Gagauz CHAPTER ONE: Theories of ...... 9 assimilation and dissimilation INTRODUCTION...... 3 Acknowledgements...... 2 Map 3. Republic ...... 79 of Moldova Map 2. Greater Romania, Soviet Moldova and after, 1918 ...... 78 to the present Map 1. Romanian ...... 78 Lands before 1812. MAPS 75 ...... BIBLIOGRAPHY 72 ...... CONCLUSIONS 63 ...... predictions CHAPTER THREE: Causes of assimilation and dissimilation future and and dissimilation ofassimilation Causes THREE: CHAPTER 2.6...... 59 Ethnic consciousness 2.5. Politics...... 51 ...... 48 2.4. Economic situation 2.3. Culture...... 37 2.2. Demographics...... 29 2.1. Ethno- genesis...... 25 Dissimilation ...... 19 theories Assimilation ...... 12 theories h aaz...... 68 The Gagauz ...... 64 The Tatars ...Pn uks ...... 57 2.5.3. Pan- Turkism 2.5.2. The Gagauz...... 53 2.5.1. The Tatars...... 51 2.4.2. The Gagauz...... 50 2.4.1. The Tatars...... 48 2.3.2. The Gagauz...... 42 2.3.1. The Tatars...... 38 2.2.2. The Gagauz...... 35 2.2.1. The Tatars...... 30 2.1.2. The Gagauz...... 28 2.1.1 The Tatars...... 25 Future ...... 71 implications Culture and community’s problems...... 68 Future ...... 67 implications Culture and community’s problems...... 64 Table of contents of Table 1 CEU eTD Collection Nevertheless, I thank my I thank Nevertheless, Moldova. conducting the interviews in Romania and that of Evgeniy Stoykov and Neha Raval in I appreciate the help of my friends Lahme Geamil, Ines Seit- Veli and Melek Osman in remarks. I thank RobinBellers from Center of Academic Writingfor his patienceimportant and missed showing the argument. helped me in organizing and conceptualizing the content, as well as for his criticism where I myI wouldlike Constantin toexpress gratitude to Professor sincere Iordachi who supervisor during the seminars. thesis I oweaprofound Professors gratitude to Maria KovacsandAndras Kovacsfor theirideas fieldthe of ethnic minoritieshe that provided during the production of thesis.this I thankmy father from and generated debates forwhose this hisresearch knowledge broad in neni and Spiros back home for their moral support. Acknowledgements 2 CEU eTD Collection Precedent for Eastern Europe?”, Eastern for Precedent (Ontario: NepeanForum Eastern Europe, 1998), 128-147; Vladimir Socor, “Gagauz Autonomy Moldava:in A Managing Diversity in Plural Societies – Minorities, Migration and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Europe 2 years 1 application of the comparative method. The methodology consists in examining variables in examining consists Themethodology method. of comparative the application forsearch the policiesin applied both countries and patternsthe of leddevelopment tothe with an emphasis on the differences and the commonalities throughout their existence. The autonomy. cultural path, while the Gagauz foughtfor anational revival which ended in gaining territorial and a country too tolerant to its minorities. to tolerant too a country societies. Thus, Romania is shown as an ethnic cohabitation model directions. Romania and Moldova provide two different patterns to deal with multiethnic Gagauz wereoffereddifferenta national/ethnic revivalandtaken possibility have of the acculturation process in long term. After 1989, with the fall of the Soviets, the Tatars and the with Romanian population in Romania and with Russian population in Moldova, resulting in regime and the Turkish influence. Both ethnic have groups gonethrough a colonization policy that exist between them: the geographical position, the Ottoman heritage, the communist inhaving settled BlackSeaareathe invasions duringtheir towest. Asiaand from Central nomad, coming formerly are Turkic, Both experience. historical their in and Gagauzsharecertain minority and the commonalities Tatars the groups were applied to policies where assimilation states of examples arestrategic andMoldova Romania thesis. See Paula Thompson, “The Gagauz in Moldova and Their Road to Autonomy”, ined. Magda Opalski, See Levente Salat and Lucian Nastas Lucian and Salat SeeLevente (Cluj Napoca:Funda The research consists in presenting their historical background in chronological order The nationaltwo minority havegroups never been studied given together parallelsthe The Tatars in Romania and the Gagauz in Moldova represent the case study of my Ġ ia CRDE, 2000) RFE/RL Research Report ă , Romanian Model of Ethnic Relations. The last tenyears, the next ten INTRODUCTION 2 The Tatars in Romania maintained the assimilatory the maintained inRomania Tatars The 3 3 (1994):33, 20-28. 1 while Moldova is whileMoldova seen as CEU eTD Collection (Ia 4 www.edrc.ro/docs/docs/bare/001-014.pdf. barometer of ethnic relations 1994-2002, Perspective overthe interethnic climate in Romania), available at Tatars in Romania and the Gagauz in Moldova are relatively small groups that have been not that groups relatively small in are Gagauz in and the Moldova Tatars Romania 3 minority, Roma or Hungarian the analyse to tended has in Romania relations in ethnic research Most region. in living this small groups ethnic study thecomparative on has neglected literature reach which isa social status, notacquired by cultural emphasizing the aspect. differentiation to look people where homogenization aim at that trends in globalization lies also answer The status. political and economic through society inthe self-esteem in gaining lies interest the but language, losingand one’sculture dangerof about the itis not Iwillarguethat words, other secondly of a lack of a political elite tohighlight the need of culture in the group’s survival. In lackfirstly language,of due to ofinterest younger intheir the and generations ethnicity developthe and promote to culturally used thegroups the right Moreover, neither of is similar. Gagauz the of dissimilation the and Tatars the of the assimilation of main cause process. dissimilation respectively the or assimilation, the that triggered factors on the conclusion roles of cultural, economic and political factors in the dynamics of groups, I will draw a members of the two communities. Based on the results of the comparative analysis of the some of and opinions the scholars of the literature available the sources: from different my originate rely on research information that The are. consequences placethe what take and perceptions individualsof will answer why the assimilation and the dissimilation processes inter-ethnicperception, relations, role ofleadership,linguistic andcultural Thedevelopment. threat values, democratic geopolitics, resources, economic changes, such as demographical See Flavius SolomonAlexandru and Zub,eds., See ú i: Funda Barometrul rela Despite the importance of this research, most of the professional and scholarly and of professional mostthe research, of this importance the Despite the paths, different followed Gagauz the and Tatars the if even that demonstrate will I 3 Ġ ia Academic and the relations between Russian and Romanian ethnic groups inMoldova. groups ethnic Romanian and Russian between relations the and Ġ iilor etnice 1994-2002.O perspectiv ă A.D.Xenopol,2001). Basarabia, Dilemele identit 4 ă asupra climatului interetnic din România ăĠ ii (Bessarabia, Identity Dilemas) (The 4 The CEU eTD Collection Romania 8 7 Kriterion, 1994). 6 order to Romania in1878has by been Iordachi.directed Constantin foster the national state. Romanian to the and economic incorporation of the region the Romanian 5 socialistic nation homogenisation”, hiding minorities theethnic andhomogenous creating a and unique “national of focused reality on isthe research Ali Ekrem’s Mehmet minority. Tatar the of passivity ethnic to contributes history how show who Ablay, Mehmet and Ekrem on historical approaches, but not anthropological or social. qualitativeindividual analysis of perceptions. withoutcontaining butwhich haveforced assimilation and aquantitative undergone population in Bulgaria. Heprovides a detailed socio-political description of populations across with belongs to anthropologist Ali Eminov whose study case was the Muslim I came that similar research One case. Gagauz and inTatar processes change social the on lackthe of research willillustrate review fillin.A brief literature gapwhichItry to processes, anddissimilation assimilation the to responses people’s on reports scholarly to references Tatars and the Gagauz.Moreover, a search of literaturethe at the time writingof produced no processes. and dissimilation assimilation on framework theoretical the to inconsistency addsmore groups smallethnic analysis onsuch of a comparative world.shortage The inthe much known andarelittle paid attention too Constantin Iordachi, “Citizenship, Nation andState- Building: the Integration of Northern Dobrogea into Mehmet Ablay, Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Ali Eminov, Ali Research on the consequences of the Tatar population after their incorporation into incorporation their after population Tatar the of consequences the on Research The history of the Tatars in the region was written by Tatar historians Mehmet Ali the of reality the match ethnicity of theories if testing in consists contribution My 1878- 1913 Turkish and Other Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria Din istoria t 6 ”, , while Mehmet Ablaypresentsthe ashighly group anddifferentiated loyal Din istoria turcilor dobrogeni The Carl Beck Papers 7 ă tarilor (From the History of (BucureTatars) 1607 (2002): 1-86. (From the History of Dobrogean Turks) (Bucure 5 5 What has been done is mostly research based research mostly is done been has What (London: Hurst & Company, 1997). 8 The author’s argument is that in ú ti: Kriterion, 1997) ú ti: CEU eTD Collection 189. 12 11 2001 10 (Bucure lumea turc Turco-Tatars Romanianin census statisticsand 1878-1916), in Ottoman Balkan society Ottoman Balkan society culture inthislittleand their corner studied of Europe. in while their role exploring of Dobrogea in region settled Tatars that Romanian the the their inability to solve a series of crucial strategic dilemmas. He considers Gagauzia “the Gagauzia as Heconsiders dilemmas. solve strategic crucial of aseries inability to their of because maintain democracy or todevelop attempts in their obstacles difficult particularly from historical view. andpoliticalMunteanu point of argues Igor divided that societies face offers meaningMunteanuthe on of aninsight and Alla Gagauz for Skvortsova, the ethnicity post- Sovietin conflict title underthe byKolsto integration articles and violent “National gathered Pal societies: of collection The translated. been not and Russian in in only is it made been has that one the the cases and isscarce of very history their to scholars Gagauz the of contribution the However, subject. Estonia and on this published articles from as seen numerous the lastdecade, Moldova’s of characteristic Moldova”, identity andwith its national ethnic groups. Nationalism and national mobility has been a the contribution of presenting history Igor theirand their present- day condition, though study the to1986. dates contribution in in exploringthe minority Muslim Romania, while Turksandthe the Tatars, in Romania. Tatars the mentioning nevertheless Balkans, the and of Bulgaria Tatars the and Turks onthe research out carried 9 statement. Iordachi’s Constantin sustains Ursu byNicolina censusoffered of The data including Tatars. the onthelocal colonialismstrategies adopted andassimilation populations, government Nicolina Ursu, “Turco-t Ursu, Nicolina Frederick de Jong, “The Turks and the Tatars of Romania”, Tatars the and Turks “The Jong, de Frederick Ali Eminov, “Turks and Tatars in Bulgaria and the Balkans”, the and Bulgaria in Tatars and “Turks Eminov, Ali Brian Williams, ). ú ti: Kriterion,ti: 1997): 307- 312. Moldova has been a more researched area from the point of view of national view of the of point the from area amorebeen researched has Moldova ă (The Origin of the Tatars. Their Place in Romania and in the Turkish World), ed. Tahsin Gemil, Tahsin ed. World), Turkish inthe and Romania in Place Their Tatars. of the Origin (The The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation 9 ă Brian Glyn Williams Glyn Brian tarii dobrogeni înrecens dobrogeni tarii 11 Last but not least, Fredrick Last madeaserious de Jong butnot ă minte minte dedicated a book abook Tatars into Crimeadedicated mentioning 6 ú i statistici române i statistici Turcica Originea t Nationalities Papers Revue d’etudes turque 18 (1986): 165- ă tarilor.Locul lorîn România ú ti (1878-1916)” (The Dobrogean (The (1878-1916)” ti 28 (2000): 139-166. (Leiden: Brill, 10 Ali Eminov Ali ú i în 12 CEU eTD Collection etnopolitice?” (The Autonomy of Gagauzia in Republic of Moldova, an example to cease ethnopolitical 17 Moldova”, 16 Press, 2000) and MoldovanIdentity Politicsthe and of Pan- Romanianism, Slavic Review 53 (1994): 345- 368. 15 integration and violent conflict in post-Soviet societies: the cases of andEstonia Moldova 14 197. post-Sovietsocieties: the cases of Estonia and Moldova understanding specialcircumstances inwhichthe given. status of the political was Gagauzia for important very is conflicts?” political ethno ending of example an in Moldova, Gagauzia national regional by with inChisinau, Moldovans organized talkingand about Germans together identities in the government. European central the against its revolt started justhad elite and Gagauz the when as moderate still seen context. democratization were towards in reforms the 1991,when articlewaspublished However, this Stefan and the dynamicsof duringchange 1987-1989,when mobilizationpopular intense. mostwas Troebst’s between revival relationship apolitical the Gagauz,giving reforms the deep analysis of the of article “The autonomy of least important is William Crowther’s research in Moldova 13 numerous figures in interviews leading with conducted and cultural political region. the he also but gravity, its and identity national Moldovan new a of construction the perspective research of intosuch depth the region’s history, providingnot from only a historical changed in the same way as in the other newly acquired Romanian provinces. Shethatthesocial mentions neighbours. more lifeofMoldovaand was political powerful eruption violenceof in Moldova, whichis forborderland typical people squeezed between in the arole played theories conflict different or elements reflect that factors of particular invention inbuildingstate”. of a nation a Stefan Troebst, “Autonomia G William Crowther, “The politics of Ethno-National Mobilization: Nationalism and Reform in Soviet Charles King, Alla Skvortsova, “The Cultural and Social Makeup of Moldova: A Bipolar or Dispersed Society?”, in Igor Munteanu, “Social Multipolarity and Political Violence”, in A collection of articles on Moldovan national identity was the result of of a conference resultwas the identity national Moldovan on of articles A collection Charles King is probably the only western scholar who has been able to carry out carry to able been has who scholar western only the is probably King Charles Russian Review The Moldovans, Romania, Russia and the Politics of Culture 50(April 1991): 183-202. ăJă uziei în Republica Moldova, un exemplu de solu 13 Alla Skvortsova argues that a unique a unique combination arguesthat Alla Skvortsova , ed. Pal Kolsto, (Lanham: Rowman& Littlefield, 2002), 7 National integration and violent conflict in 16 on the context of the national the of context the on (Stanford, CA: HooverInstitution Ġ ionare a conflictelor , ed. Pal Kosto, 159. 14 National 15 Not 17 CEU eTD Collection (Chi 18 248. 19 and West:and National Identity and EuropeanOrientation), ed. Valeriu Mo a separate development. a separate Romanian whilethe state, failedin of Moldova Gagauz the support the gaining followed and assimilation and dissimilation policies bysuggesting integrated andwhy Tatars areloyal to of causes the illustrate I conclusion, In Moldova. and Romania from individuals with interviews theanalysis carried of contains out inmarker ethnicity.chapter The third one’s education language main receivedand cultural as isthe the more attention development 1989political andminority Post- scene economicand situation, ethnic consciousness. rights their focusing particularly ontheirpolitics duringthe of communist place period, culture, and their Ottoman the during Empire chapter ethnicgroups, the origins role describes the of and dissimilation from the point of view of sociologists and anthropologists. The second assimilation of issues social thecomplex of implications the and the causes presents chapter assimilation and dissimilation, colonialism and acculturation steps and the aftermath. The first conflicts?), in conflicts?), accuse Russia for its monopoly and control in the region. Vladimir Socor sees the policy, Romanization the against in revolting strongGagauz the with were accomplice relations of the Gagauz Frunta Iulian theGagauz. of led currentposition the to influences that with the Moldovan governmentHowever, and it is relevant to notice divergent views of the scholars regarding the political Iulian Frunta Vladimir Socorquoted in Bollerup and Christensen,222. ú inau: Cartier, 2002), 338. The study is organized in three chapters, the bulk of which deal with theories of Moldova între est ú u,O istorie etnopolitic ú i vest: Identitatea na ă a Basarabiei (1812-2002) (Ethnopolitical history of Bessarabia) Ġ ional 8 ăú i orientarea european 19 ú neag ă (Chi ú inau: Captes, 2001): 243- ă (Moldova Between East Between (Moldova ú u thinks that Russia that u thinks 18 while CEU eTD Collection across the boundaries between sovereign states which are not ethnically homogeneous. which ethnically arenot states between sovereign boundaries the across alignments political possible as well as capital, ideas, commodities, people, of movements and transnationalism, live.We globalization to areexperiencing peoplechoose how has decades last there been changeina significant how is worldthe organised and ruled and everadjustsocial cultural conditions. During newand political, ethnic have the to to groups in stable comparison. republics have upheaval remained nationalistic massive experienced while others relatively Allynand Bacon, 1994), 212. 21 Assimilation in aMulticultural Age marginalization. and separation, integration, assimilation, Berry individuals available the groups living to options in and togetherto a society are: 22 Mungiu-Pippidi and IvanKrastev (Budapest: CEU Press, 2004), 200. of haveof warsandthrottleddemocracy. national the spawned question- who belongs together within a common state and who should have states of its own- the core 20 dissimilated.focusedgroups more on that scholars the and assimilation neglected extent large to historians social of generation this assimilation phenomenon has been ignored for along period of time. Olivier Zunz argues that the even in States But than inEurope. United the process type a different of there, realities hasprocess in been conducted therefore theories United to the the States, correspond the the theories suggest. Most of the research on social change with emphasize on assimilation implications andthe factors the stressing thought, of andschools anthropologists sociologists, CHAPTER ONE: Theories of assimilation and dissimilation Philip G. Roederquoted by Alina Mungiu- Pippidi, John Berry, Acculturative Stress, in Peter Kivisto, “The Revival of Assimilation in Historical Perspective” Ethnicnotinherent are identities butare fluid learning;of products social the therefore Throughout the 20 Throughout the This chapter presents definitions of assimilation and dissimilation processes of th century and particularly during its over last century decade,disagreements during and particularly , ed. Peter Kivisto (Boulder: Paradigm Publishers, 2005), 17. Psychology and Culture 20 Nationalism after communism: lessons learned 9 , eds. Walter J.Looner, Roy S. Malpass (Boston: 22 By following these options, some options, these following By , in Incorporating Diversity, Rethinking 21 According to John , eds. Alina CEU eTD Collection Rethinking Assimilation ina Multicultural Age 26 (July 1981), 261. 25 24 interaction.” havethat broughtgroupswithin many societies, and even across societal lines, into closer 23 newwayslead to valuesto traditional arguing thatthe can only of group, their ethnic happens, theirinsist problems willbesolved. Those who on cultural pluralism wanttoreturn sooner group andarguethat orlaterdominant and everybody be will this absorbed sooner the context. political developmentas essentially autonomous modes andliberal between of conservative a struggle rights.” moving to challenge the dominant national identity and claim cultural and even territorial of nations, with process culturessubgroups political andfracturingwithin and disintegration identity. one’s maintain to right the on insisting identities, different accept to refuse members of a nation members when change trans-ethno-national process the calls Verdery Katherine their significantly. differ identity,may implications their and possibilities by two The separatism. assimilationby and integration by minorities: and acculturation, rarely contain a uniform situations aretwo population,solve there to the problem of and the other of identities.a state borders Asthe state andsupra euro-regions aspect,creating citizenship when the European countries solved theethno-linguisticminorities’ by problem emphasizing the two problems, national one identity of of and the other ethnic identity, while western the Tamotsu Shibutani and KianM. Kwan, “Assimilation into the Larger Society”, in J. Milton Yinger, “Toward a theory of assimilation and dissimilation”, Monroe Price, Monroe Katherine Verdery, “Beyond theNation in Eastern Europe”, Shibutani viewand Kwanthestruggle between advocates the of assimilation and of 24 “Just as there is a homogenising, globalizing, border- obliterating trend, so there is so there trend, border-obliterating a globalizing, is “Just asthere a homogenising, The societies block,mostof excommunistthe ofthemmade dealtup nations, with 23 “Ethnicity is today a more relevant social force despite major assimilative processes assimilative force major social “Ethnicity despite is relevant a more today 25 Both processes will continue strongly in the years ahead. Television, the Public Sphere and National Identity 26 They also say that those who favour assimilation adopt the values of the , ed. Peter Kivisto, 79. 10 Socil Text Socil (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 41. Ethnic and Racial Studies 38 (Spring, 1994): 5. Incorporating Diversity, , vol. 4 no. 3 CEU eTD Collection 30 29 and conflicts inlate-twentieth-century Eastern Europe 28 27 of division a cultural leadsto colonialism internal of theory the that Hebelieves Hechter. to belongs opinion instrumental Another community. political imagined an is essentially which decay. degradation and belonging. and they explain thisfactasa consequence of almost deeprooted, the natural quality of ethnic Primordialistsfocus on emotional national strong the attachments accompany that revivals instrumental. and primordial nationalism: explain to thought of schools of directions two give and they present are conditions structural ifcertain only occurs mobilization found at the societal level of analysis using macrosociological theories. They by advocated minority peoples. say that ethnic been long of has cultural each, guarantees autonomous development that government under acommon ethnic groups different of coexistence the pluralism, philosophy cultural of with its long history conquestof people and reconquest, favour cultural pluralism. The another kind of of politics. kind another scarce resources. as a basis for mobilization in the competition between serve groupscan it andbecause elites ends fordesired control achieving overof interms instrumental is identity national that is instrumentalists of assertion primary The a group. of interests cultural and political economic, to refer theories Instrumentalist construct. as asocial but constant asprimordial isnot which Samsonquoted in Bollerup and Christensen,42. Ibid., 37-38. Bollerup and Christensen, Shibutani and Kwan, 78. Bollerup reasonsthe andChristensen national of argue that movements should be Based on these theories, Sampson see the politics of ethnicity and nationalism just nationalism and ethnicity of politics seethe Sampson theories, these Based on 28 Further on, they instrumentalistsdescribe how view ethnic and national identity, 29 27 Nationalism in Eastern Europe: causes and consequences of the nationalrevivals 30 Factionalism occurs during the dissolution of any group. InEurope, duringthe dissolution Factionalism group. occurs any of Thus, the result of this process is the building of a nation group (New York: SanMartin’s Press, 1997), 36. 11 CEU eTD Collection American Anthropologist 34 Diversity, Rethinking Assimilation in a Multicultural Age 33 97. Johnson, (New York: The Macmillan CO., 1930): 281, quoted in “The nature of assimilation”, MiltonGordon, Burgess defined assimilation follows:as is “assimilation a process of interpretation and fusion original patterns cultural bothgroups”.of either or differentcultures come with first-hand into contact, continuous subsequent changes in the J.Herskovits view acculturation phenomenathe which resultwhen “groups ofindividuals with “acculturation”. Anthropologists like Robert Redfield, Ralph Linton and Melville gradual boundary reduction between group participants.” between group gradual boundary reduction inGordon it increasinglysaying “ais 1964, that society vision in of unified the course of sustain a national existence”. to least at sufficient solidarity acultural achieve territory, acommon occupying heritages, process or processes by which peoples of diverse racial origins and different cultural 1921. Later updates hison, Park “assimilation theory is that and says thename the given to in definition he cameupwith assimilation of first race andethnicity,the and researching theories Assimilation failure. successor the determines ultimately context Thepolitical components. of these is leadsfactor that losingstatus consciousness, one economic to language,religion.one The 32 31 inequalities” and include this can be easily to political inequalities. extended and cultural economic upon superimposed are differences cultural “objective that implies which labour, Robert Redfield, Ralph Linton and Melville J. Herskovits, “Memorandum forthe Study of Acculturation”, Milton Gordon, Park, “assimilation, social”, in Bollerup and Christensen,43. Unquestionably,importantcomponents most the of one’s ethnicity are: ethnic self- Sociologists are more likely to use “assimilation”, while anthropologists use anthropologists while “assimilation”, use to likely more are Sociologists Robert Park was the founder of the school of sociology at the University of Chicago of University the school at of of sociology the wasthefounder Park Robert Assimilation in American life 38 (January-March 1936): 149. Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences 32 This definition was later This completed anddefinition by was updated Milton (New York, 1964)quoted by Ewa Morawska, in 12 , ed. Peter Kivisto, 128. 34 Sociologists Robert Park and Ernest 33 , eds. EdwinR.A. Seligman and Alvin Incorporating 31 CEU eTD Collection 39 a Multicultural Age 38 37 1981), 260. 36 Press, 1969), 735. 35 as theory the by match given not Park does realitythe with anymore. limit realization. self-to group and that one way of doingsaying peoplethat willseek toenhance their opportunities and own expand theirlife options, so is to refuse Hewent on asindividualistic. modern hesawbecause societies the attractive assimilation to permit the parochialflexible society. amore create helps constraints freedom, and increases individual of discrimination, source equality, the weakens are: greater of the ethnic assimilation of favour in brings Yinger Milton arguments the Among phenomenon. positive life”.common groups and,or by sharing their with experience andincorporated history, are them ina acquirememories,in and groups sentiments, and whichpersons the persons of attitudes other represented a threat or not. There were activities aimed at interfering in the sphere of sphere ininterfering the at aimed wereactivities There not. or athreat represented simply denationalization were used in all times against smaller ethnic groups nomatter if they group. non-existentor prejudice individual atthe level on partof the membersthe of dominantthe relationshipeconomic in dominance/ localof subordination andminimal the environment; 4. members between majority of andmembers ethnica group group; 3. absence the of andinstitutions;minimal 2. non-existent cultural or barriers topersonal social contacts clusters of factors for assimilation evolve:to 1.minimal or non-existentlife of ethnic networks Morawska, 130-131. Ewa Moravska, “Indefense of the assimilation model”, in Kivisto, Milton Yinger, “Toward a Theory of Assimilation and Dissimilation”, Robert Park and Ernest Burgess, Ernest and Park Robert 39 Ewa Morawska thinks that this theory must be updated to our times andhistoricized, to our bemustthis updated thinks theory that Ewa Morawska nineteenth century thinkers andother a John StuartMill assimilation considered Jozef Chlebowczyk writes that assimilation policies and policy of denationalization or denationalization of policy and policies assimilation that writes Chlebowczyk Jozef Incorporating Diversity, Rethinking Assimilation in a Multicultural Age 35 , ed. Peter Kivisto, 129. Introduction to the Science of Sociology 37 36 At the beginning of Atbeginningthe 20 the of 13 Incorporating Diversity, Rethinking Assimilation in Ethnic and Racial Studies (Chicago: University of Chicago th century, Park considered Park century, , 10. 38 She gives some Shegives 4 (July CEU eTD Collection 43 42 (Boston: Allyn& Bacon, 1994), 211. 41 1980), 60. in East-Central Europe 40 movements. separatist asinthecaseof existence, lead anindependent desire to derive from people’s may in larger the society fulllife participation outside maintenance of atraditional way of the be hand, value other while, on the sought; are to in and groups largerother are of society the with relations whether deciding contact, inter-ethnic of desirability bethe retained; value to of distinctiveness in society, deciding whether or not one’s own cultural identity and customs are of one’s andethnic like development maintenance variousorientations, acculturation strains. racial distinct must be from distinguished and fusionheritages, cultural tothe refers Assimilation intermarriage.of or interbreeding Assimilationcontribute. is limited tocultural behaviour and values, fusion notthe by of races lives. daily in their relationships of forms new requiring members individual both engage groups of innewto work behavioursout to and dominant group. Hegoes on adding is that acculturation individual also an level phenomenon, acceptlaws,beforced language, the of to institutions the andeducational religion, the may autonomous often cultural twoor andindependentNon groups. dominantgroups accept between from contact resulting change identified with was first acculturation that mentions use, from preferential discrimination treatment to and repression. linguistics, ethnic andnationality apolicy relations, in which a wide rangemethods of were Berry, 212. Brewton Berry, John Berry, “Acculturative Stress”, in Jozef Chlebowczyk, To understand what causes ethnic assimilation, we should establish what factors what establish weshould understandassimilation, causes ethnic what To He aculture”. move toward “to means literally Berry, acculturation John to According 43 Race Relations On small andyoung nations in Europe: nation-forming processes inethnic borderlands (Wroclaw: Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolinskich Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii Nauk, 42 Berry believes that on one hand, individuals may have toward have may individuals hand, one on that believes Berry (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), 217. amalgamation Psychology and Culture , which denotes the biological mixture of originally 14 41 , eds. WalterJ.Looner and Roy S. Malpass, 40 CEU eTD Collection 47 46 45 44 necessarily to related developmentthe of widespread demands development. for autonomous the contact. encounters of motivesany for kind, contact(voluntary, the involuntary) and attitudes towards intercultural prior the andculture, language new knowledgethe of prior acculturation are the policies. integrationist larger the be society when stress acculturative can linked togreater plausibly to compared partof andactions onthe policies assimilationist thatis increasing. adds Healso also conflict offered admission only on terms specified by the dominant group, then the potential for social the impact on one’s sense of security and self- esteem will be clearly negative. If one group is language, are unacceptable, identity one’s and themessagesthat regularly culture, receives if person a that adds Berry societies. inpluralistic than stress acculturative a greater lead to fordiversity. cultural tolerance greater secondly, the entering experiencethe of acculturation; intofor those whichmay support groups provide factors:network importantof theavailability of social a and cultural by two characterized beinlikely monistic toculturally ones, are He addsthatculturally to plural societies, contrast a higher status in other groups that would satisfy their self-esteem. individualsless arelikely contribute totheethnocentrismto of searching theirfor own group, When mobility social the or perceivedthe possibility of isindividual movement high,then the mobility, variables:legitimacy social system perceived security.and perceivedsystem Ibid. Ibid. Berry, 214. Bollerup and Christensen,30. Characteristics which are present before the contact and those during the process of process the during and those contact before the arepresent which Characteristics In assimilationist societies, there are a number of factors operating that will plausibly influencing isprocess. degreeof acculturation alsothe the Berry pluralism says that From individuallevel,the Tajfel seeand identity Turner social as dependent of three 47 The extent to which ethnic groups actually differ from one another is not 46 15 45 44 CEU eTD Collection 50 49 48 asobjectionable. are singled out that features particular tothose sensitive becomes especially ridiculed,is aperson or is despised onethat if group that ethnic the habits is there Kwan when of and Shibutani culture and alienation a period say arerejected. beginning Atthe conception. self- the of atransformation involves Assimilation mainstream. emulation of the status symbols of the dominant group. be Thismake leads strive wish accepted. themselvesworthy bywhom to tothey to those of assimilation of proponents society, larger the of values the adopt they Since person. modern dominant has all the characteristics despisemany learn it.to ofminority, a more evolved group, ethnic an with withidentified still are they allthat Realizing group. the dominant the characteristics of members of a upward mobility, assimilating the personis absorbed into dominant the group. concerned People are make conspicuous. less orto them eliminate characteristics hardto with those work winning rights in the larger community. If there are no barriers against tradition. of werecommona linguistic- in law ethnic group customs codified case- andthe force of The social of ties features language, the main In constitutive addition of the group. culture to the extremely identity. ethnic the obscure strong to inorder occurred has names the Altering identity. ethnic of symbols those alter to try They traditional disapproved. are that traits the themselves in eliminate to try assimilating are who Those fluently. speak to able are some if even customs use They especiallytheirto reluctantof tongue inpublic, ancestral group. are dominantthe which were of a sacral character Ibid, 62. Ibid, 61. Shibutani and Kwan, 60. People repudiate their ethnicity due to insecurity and a desire to be accepted into the intobe accepted insecurity to anda desire to due ethnicity their People repudiate Those whoare assimilated tend to think of asinferiorthemselves envy and the The proponents of assimilation fight against all efforts to preserve the traditional Most people who are assimilating are bilingual, but they prefer to speak the language prefer to but they bilingual,are peopleare assimilating Most who 49 Incontrast, theysee asprimitive, their while group the 16 50 48 That person will CEU eTD Collection 54 53 52 51 is heritage itsof cultural and continuity, factor heritage basic andthe maincultural element of group. majority the of learn language morethe developed speakers to dialect the needstimulated The expression. means of and for newways need increased the the constantinfluence and radiation of the language and the culture of the majority group, and world,have groups that never hadlanguage adistinctive are developtrying to them. the throughout nationalism of rise the with years, recent In it. in expressed be can that value survivemoreinnot thatare competition widely usedthereissomething with others of unless question desirability the havingof them. onesreject who theirjoin identity ethnic refuse minority to manyorganizations, group even larger The in community. the acceptance for blocking inand condition “backward” its group conceptions of them, since they are seen protected it from influencethe of an alien with itssurrounding assimilating influence. as the party responsiblefor and centuries character ethnic linguistic and original the preserved These circumstances for keepingthe social division of labour and the resultingthe stationary characterminority of population relations. of underdevelopment the dueto this was communities; of these features specific lifewere the isolated anditsof way entire individuals. andthe arelatively Fragmentation closed, group of mentality and in customs conservatism of source main the was this However fellowship. and of patterns customs handed from down generation to generation afeeling produced of affinity The communities. these of weakness basic the sametime the at and strength the constituted Chlebowczyk, 29. Ibid, 69. Shibutani and Kwan, 62. Chlebowczyk, 83-84. Two factors lay Two roots the of at Chlebowczyksays: growingthe assimilation process, of The in a literature development Alanguagelanguage can minority the isimportant. form contrast even andmay asdangerous pluralism cultural of They advocates regard 52 17 54 The language is the is language The 53 51 CEU eTD Collection 55 modern of life, manifestations and newcustoms production and collective management, of more forms progressive new, andfor stimulated development possibilities created which by system of capitalistic the consequences helped The assimilation the were trends communities. minority of members the of personality the and mentality in the traces deep left lifeof Service press,organizational of the forms andvarious in army self- government. the was thegradual liberalization anddemocratization of of the developmentrelations public life: majority of the culture the of expansion helped that the factor Another ability. assimilating individual linguistic and ethnic communities. commodity andpublicexchange andcultural life, which transcend the boundaries of up its linguistic particularism, being required this bysocial in division labour, progress a of with multilingual aminority structure hasgroup learn to languagethe of majority the and give on depended learning thelanguage groupand of majority the adoptingits culture. culturethe and language majority and felt of the they social the group, theirthat promotion wonaccessto individual automatically almost an By education, majority the acquiring group. standards of dominantthe group will be givenequal opportunity. live who uptothe only those believethat They larger society. in the participants other process. By being educated, the parents think about the career and life as the same with all the effect of assimilation the andaccelerating intensifying stimulus becameapowerful education forming develops. process in as thenation strength which grows individuality, of national of essence feeling the the Chlebowczyk, 87. The level of development of individual communities was the most important factor of factor important most the was communities individual of development of level The inof thesuperiority belief andstrengthening had inspreading Schools great success In thelevel individualof of development ethnic andlinguisticof progress the groups, 18 55 Inan area CEU eTD Collection Multicultural Age choose individuals the and esteem self- for need isthe theory identity social of variable causal 58 57 56 berejected. is to assimilation that for granted been has yearsittaken recent a totake social action. discourage groups other power to its will use group when dominant the secure is differencesconsidered of difference status system Theis groups andwhen is as legitimate perceivedsecure. differences the perceived theories Dissimilation inferiority feels andhascomplex,be into insecure a accepted desire to mainstream. the from suffers and denigrated been has minority the when and rights political of world or the other. whichextentto individual believesan he that can pursue hispersonalvalues in social one choose, who certain havetheirthe the Those opportunity depends upon to extent. decision urbanization. industrialization and consequences of aswell material and the spiritual culture, rigidly rooted in tradition are abandoned. are in tradition rooted rigidly practices in religious numbers, decline As elders the of old. the features preserving some their Manynewsome valuesin educate children wayswhile the of dominantthe group. undergoing transformation is ahybrid containing culture, norms aretraditional that as well as Nathan Glazer, “Is Assimilation Dead?”, in Dead?”, Assimilation “Is Glazer, Nathan Shibutani and Kwan, 74. Chlebowczyk, 87-88. The most common, andKwan Shibutani is add, culture the that of minority groups Prejudice and discrimination stymie assimilation. Nathan Glazer believes that in that believes Glazer Nathan assimilation. stymie discrimination and Prejudice maintainGroups identity their hierarchical system existing the when of group exercisethe dueto are successful cultural at homogenization In conclusion,attempts 56 Therefore, state assimilation made important progress. made assimilation important state Therefore, , ed. Peter Kivisto, 113. Incorporating Diversity, Rethinking Assimilation in a 57 However, the culture remains distinctive to a to distinctive remains culture the However, 19 58 The decisive CEU eTD Collection internal cohesion, and restrict the territorial reach of traditional ties. of traditional reach territorial the restrict and cohesion, internal burst previousthe self- individualof containment linguistic andethnic loosen groups, their them, increasing to rural disintegration andthegrowing customs beganwith of effectiveness of exclusiveness butalso of ethnic andlinguistic individuality and customs. possibility of benefiting from the achievements of leading societies and renouncing not only beby brought wasthe paid civilizational to capitalism. price andcultural The trends socio-economic, integrating of current join general the to was possibility first the arevolution.after disappear eventually but only todecrease, would divisions ethnic of salience the was that Marxist the systems; and political make room economic integrated lose duetotheeducation,inevitably theboundaries and communication for would the divisions ethnic the that was liberal the that say Marxism and primacyliberalism century, of class divisions which for their part would 62 61 60 59 forming nation of phase the of this main aims the were life,there public of spheres in various and ofits purposefulness, struggle the tointroduce itin andschools ensure to full it equality revival”. The madeefforts in view,this defence the of individualitythe of such a language “national the to contributed vocabulary the of expansion the with together culture, spiritual some kind of human predisposition. microsociology: one sees nationalism as the result of a rational choice and the other sees important people?recognition possibilities to by aretwo There it of theories given as the identity thatis mostlikely to enhance their self- esteem. Why is cultural or national Ibid, 86. Chlebowczyk, 85-86. Ibid, 50. Bollerup and Christensen,11. The socio- economic transformations, the urbanization processes connected with connected processes urbanization the transformations, economic The socio- The groups faced with the necessity of deciding which way of development tochoose, The two mostThe prominentideologicaltheoretical ofthe two and directions 19 59 60 20 62 Progress in material and 61 th and 20 th CEU eTD Collection 67 66 65 64 63 sensethe by of alienation giving individualsanidentity. resources that are lost in abasically one way assimilation process, and can reduce anomie and valuable can cultural protect groups ethnic subculture differences, preservation the of by andlater entire the social group. in national by far movement,process soor individualswas promoted asit elite) certain (the regardless of regardlessmightbe of livingtheretoo. who else apparatus, ownstate its controlling though its fate tohave over ought control political “nation” thatthe usually rhetoric presupposes “nationalistic” says that sense.ethnic Verdery inthe “people” the or “nation” value the of fundamental asa rhetoric political or sentiments, “nationalism”. as known often a result group, usually link it tobiological lineage. outsiders andcare not have do to dowith anything to them. whostress Those separatism of presence in the exclusively almost feel they that admit them of Many organizations. own in their exclusively almost participate and people of kind own their with live etc.andtendto acts, religious celebrations, isrituals,ethnocentrism which reinforced through assimilation requires readiness on the part of the majority group to absorb a minority group. signified aspirations assimilation a active of voluntary lack environment; alien an with fusion of manifestations all renunciation individuality,to opposition meant preservelinguistic andethnic desireto the assimilation of any attempts to assimilate the local population, since Ibid. Verdery, 5. Chlebowczyk, 50. Kivisto, Chlebowczyk, 32. Among the political and moral arguments in favour of dissimilation, Kivisto mentions Kivisto dissimilation, of in favour arguments moral and political the Among The dissimilation leads to tightening of the boundaries of one or other ethnonational of by ahigh degree areoften characterized separate whodesire to Those Incorporating Diversity, Rethinking Assimilation in a Multicultural Age 63 21 66 Nationalism Nationalism ideas, toexpressed refers 67 Verdery also mentions the complex 64 Lack of Lack of aspirations for passive , preface. , 65 CEU eTD Collection 70 69 Ethnic Retention”, Ethnic linked with non- recognitionthe misrecognition or of nationthe Kallas group. defines itas a in ethnic different inequalitiesexplain between groups order to national revivals. in jobsa newstate. powerful access to because gain theywould aspiring the elite is to attractive independence generations in find that they face periphery the barriers mobility. to ideafull The of political new the because revival national a for way the paves situation This centre. the in optation intostrata culture. dominantthe lower periphery the of assimilation to the leads situation this generations, over and centre the of establishment in power the be co-opted will territory elite regional of the case, the ititmeans incorporated has rights andprivileges elite. those equal that of to this centre the In been have If elite peripheral or not. the peripheral elite the hasincorporated centre the life. in everyday and jobs young people far thoughfindthevernacular of moregroup dominantthe useful finding to official language so itrecognition andtheircan beusedof The that inschools government. 68 retentionists. the “dividedstate, loyalties”. situation in which members of a nation identify with some other nation that does have its own Ibid. Bollerup and Christensen,43. Herbert Gans, Herbert According to Bollerup and Christensen, the cultural explanation of national revivals is revivals national of explanation cultural the Christensen, and Bollerup to According seekco- of elitethe will alesserpart only been havenot privileged, elite If local the Laitin’s elite model incorporation says the isdecisive that question whether the elite in Herbert Gans names the two groups that take different position acculturationists and differentpositiongroups acculturationists Gans take that namesthetwo Herbert 68 Toward aReconciliation of Assimilation and Pluralism The retentionists are proud of they group symbols. The of win retentionistsmadeAttempts arethey areproud group to International Migration Review 70 Therefore, Laitin’s theory suggests that we should search for power search thatweshould suggests theory Laitin’s Therefore, 69 31(1997): 139. 22 : The Interplay of Acculturation and Acculturation of Interplay : The CEU eTD Collection development eases the consequences of conflict and developed societies are better equipped arebetter conflictandsocieties developed of consequences eases the development inequality. income not commodity, export main the as resources natural on dependency the and development of level overall the low and incomeof aphenomenon countries, are Collier, says conflicts, regimes. Ethnic stable risk than at aremore regimes and matters, transition instability political Clearly,identity war. decreases of while thatademocratic neighbourhood likelihood the civil Sambanisargues political rights, democracy and madedictatorship nodifference intriggering ethnicconflict, does not and the only variable that matters is the size of the dominant group. of scholars arguing that mixed, isisfrom one group with roleof authoritarian onthe ethnic heterogeneity Evidence rule. has a significant relationis isand there country the of transiting aprevioushistory conflict are spatially concentrated, to conflict, while another argues that needs. actual as well as it symbols and myths, history, manipulating by identities conflict and ethnic construct leaders and elites that Breuilly assumes mobilize seek anddefendback. leaders them. to heritagetheir Groups andfight cultural of fear extinction minority peoples In turn, them. assimilate made to are efforts reason for this and threat identity as asecurity are seen a very clear with Minorities aggressive. make groups 73 Theory”, and Research 72 71 result. arelikely to mobilization national movements and separatist assimilation, outruns when assertiveness says that Deutsch ago. was acentury assimilation on account of a person’s national identity,language, religion, habits, tastes, and so on. result of cultural deprivation which is experienced when discrimination or insult takes place Ibid., 33. Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, “Sense and Prejudice in the study of Ethnic Conflict: Beyond System Bollerup and Christensen, Paradigms44. in On internal democratic conditions there is less agreement, with Collier claiming that claiming with Collier is less agreement, there conditions democratic On internal minorities when is morelikely conflict arethat accepted facts commonly Among the The revival of The revival of hassmall languages fashionable in become just our times, as in Nationalism after Communism: lessons learned 73 Sharing will always produce conflict always Sharingand produce will although 23 , 21. 72 Perceptions of threat of Perceptions 71 CEU eTD Collection Security 75 74 by failure butrather of law. the the differences, mobilize and favour autonomy.disintegration the to lead Thethat of nationalisms theregional nationalistic the not is centre,It alone. develop only can that group but it is the movementsfailure of the centrearemasses notthat causedmakes to secession, the byregional the culturalgroups using a propagandistic an instrumental one, providing accesstoresources controlled by state. a group or speech that refers and status, group’s the indicating a symbolicrole, both plays Language affirmation. political to the specific culturefor use the of administration languageone’s in is state the the self-need for identification and of the fordemandingisbe alinguistic astate behaviour. viewed group to as rational tended Fighting seekineconomical peripheral aculturally dynamics convenience and Groups region. andattitudes in actions and arenas. domestic international capable of employing various identities, both constituted historically by and elites shape that conflict. eliminate cannot control it, development to Ronald GrigorSuny, “Provisional Stabilities. The Politics of Identities inPost- Soviet Eurasia”, Mungiu-Pippidi, 35. 24 (1999-2000): 139. When the central resources are in decline, some regional elites tend to mobilize the In conclusion, national the aroseduringrevivals institutional central duringdecline or 24 74 Suny claims that the political actors are actors political the that Suny claims 75 International CEU eTD Collection specifically in the north2.1.1 The Tatars east of Mongolia. The in they settled live. territories now the arguments and migrated groups these context the nomads shows and imageas a their race of shatters on the origins and Gagauzareexploredhere.This chapter the origins Tatars Kipchak- of the Oguz-Turkic of Tatarsorigins and maintheir Usinga variety manyoccupations. of from the languages, sources are over their and ethnonym, birth opinions the the group on data divergent of ethnic the the genesis 2.1. Ethno- comprehensive overview of dimensions.the theoretical andhistorical works theirin toprovide application research,to order a and general between since aparallel especiallyduring periods, 1989.Idraw theCommunists, and post-Ottoman Ottoman inthe experience andpolitical economic I reviewthe social, rule. andfrom Soviet afterfreed communist beingup present to the pre-Ottoman the era right genesisin from their ethno chronologically history andGagauz theCrimean Tatars' I cover the position of the two Turkicminorities, the Tatars and the Gagauz in East European history. community of peasants into a politically mobilized secular nation. It focuses systematically on CHAPTER TWO:Historicaloverviewofthe TatarsCHAPTER andthe Initially, the Tatar ethnonym was indicating some tribes in Central Asia, more Asia, in Central tribes some indicating was ethnonym Tatar the Initially, Before examining the development of the Tatars and the Gagauz, I will provide the a traditional of transformation the of process historical tothe is devoted This chapter Gagauz 25 CEU eTD Collection 80 79 Wă 78 Kriterion, 1994),23-24. south east of Europe, the more the empire was identified with Tatars. the with wasidentified empire more the the of Europe, east south spread towards asthisempire Han’sempire, and of Genghis becamecomponent aprincipal comingfrom a powerful of tribe Mongolic origin, assimilated Turkishlanguagethe which had 77 after Mongol the invasion in 1240s.the 76 Turkic populations. of features the of national the continuation of the isalsocharacterized forplace centuries hastaking been that process synthesis ethnic The branch. ethnic of each all characteristics the phase. a rapid at happened homogenization process the language, beliefs, religion, traditions, Han. Batu population of the Golden Horde Later on, in the 13 divergent. Some researchers claim Mongolicthe genesis, while others support the Turkic one. history, the Tatars have been unable to withstand the attacks, striving and succeeding in havestrivingwithstandsucceeding Tatars beenunable history, and the attacks, the to modern of threshold the on entity statal their lost Having cliché. consistent a quite years sermons hundredsof through deliveredover propaganda barbarians”.Thereligious “cruel world outside the Russian Empire, as well as from one another. until destruction inthe of their state live 1783, would in from isolation Turkish-Islamicthe segments, apart from the aggravatedCrimean Tatars, whose closea fragmentation.middle Beginning with 16 the the of linksby withthe the Turksliquidation were preserved of the Tatars as a result of Russian expansion. All these Tahsin Gemil, “Problema etnogenezei t etnogenezei “Problema Gemil, Tahsin Ali Ekrem, 25-26. Mehmet Ablay, Mehmet Ali Ekrem, Empire Mongol the of part western the in established khanate Turkicized later Mongol, the for designation tarilor 79 , ed. Tahsin Gemil (Bucure After thebreakup inof Horde Golden the 14 the Throughout the history the name of the Tatars has been distorted, picturing them as Therefore it has been created a new synthesis of the Turkish element, composed of composed element, Turkish the of anewsynthesis it been has created Therefore 77 The Horde was comprised and ruled by Mongols, Tatars and The Tatars, wascomprised Tatars by Turks. TheHorde ruled Mongols, and Din istoria t th Din istoria turcilor dobrogeni century, foreign neighbouring populations century, identified with Tatars the the ă tarilor ú ti: Kriterion,ti: 1997), 63. (From the History of the Tatars) (Bucure 76 ă with its builder in the person of Genghis Han’s nephew, tarilor”(The Problem of the Tatars’ Ethnogenesis), in Ethnogenesis), Tatars’ of the Problem tarilor”(The (From the History of Dobrogean Turks) (Bucure 26 th century, thisfragmentation would be th century,thus people underwent the 80 ú ti: Kriterion, 1997), 17. 78 Having a common Originea ú ti: CEU eTD Collection 83 etc. Dobrudja, Dobrudzha, Dobrugea, 82 Dobruja, (Turkish), Dobruca (Romanian), Dobrogea 81 Turkey,and United Romania States. Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, in dispersed communities with world, all the over states of number large in a arescattered Tatars nowadays states, once ruled over partof worldthe withinlimits of the well-defined andthoroughly organized (Crimean Peninsula- Romania Uzbekistan, Although Ukraine, Turkey, forefathers etc.). their Tatars Crimean secondthe the and regions) neighboring andthe Bashkurdistan, (Tatarstan, million seven some numbering region Ural Volga- the from Tatars the firstly identity: official astheir “Tatar” of name peoples areusing the two in. live areathey the Currently to according peoples. making the Tatars the scope-goats of unsuccessfulness in the historical development of other Albanians,Bulgarians and Greeks,others. made of adiversepopulation already was wherethere inDobrogea, andsettle arrive centuries from groupsof Tatars Crimea,Russia, the and Caucasus the would continue to Empire of during Golden the Horde century. the fourteenth Sporadically nextover the several northern Caucasus, many in Caucasus, whom of settled northern Dobrogea. and from Crimea the ofTatars exodus ageneral War precipitated Crimean (1853–1856) the thirteenth century, when the area was ruled by commandant Nogay. The other group Nogay. other thirteenththe the areawasruled bycommandant The century, when Kipchakthe language. of branch a is which tongue native a have they and identity subnational their for Nogay name Crimean Tatars and the Anatolian Turks. One part of the Crimean Tatars in Romania uses the Mehmet Ablay, 221. Mehmet Ali Ekrem, 26. the area south of Danubethe delta from Tulcea inRomania to Varna in Bulgaria; among various spellings: The earliest movement of Tatars to Dobrogea to movementTatars of The earliest Tatars all over the world number as many as 12 million people, differentiated In Romania, there are mainly two different groups of Turkic people, namely different groups ofTurkicthe people, In aremainlytwo Romania, there Mehmet Ablay speaks of groups Ablay settledMehmetof in in Tatars that speaks of groups Dobrogea 82 The Russian conquest of The conquest in1783andthe of Crimea Russian 27 81 83 coincided with the crumbling of coincided crumblingthe of with the CEU eTD Collection “Ketnogenezu Gagauzov”(The ethno genesis of Gagauz), 88 de gens Kaykaus”(The Gagauz, people of Caucasus), 87 (1938): 66–80. l’Academie de Cracovie, 1933); “Les elements ethniques turcs de la Dobrudja”, la de turcs ethniques “Les elements 1933); de Cracovie, l’Academie 86 University of CarolinaSouth Press, 1993), 146- 155. 85 38. Gemil, Tahsin ed. Tatars), of the Origin (The Anatolian Turkish. The researches of Wittek Paul of researches The Turkish. Anatolian by Gagauzand the spoken between Turkish the established connection aclose Dobrogea view held thattheir but religion had been Turkified during the Ottoman Amoreperiod. popular traditional they are of Anatolian descendantsAlbanian, of had Wallachian Greek, Bulgarian, maintained or Christians who Turkish origin. The researches of T. Kowalski 84 of 11 the long beforebeginning the in of Ottoman conquests region,the perhapsas early themiddleas 2.1.2. The Gagauz Turksetc. Tatar Turk-Tatars, Turks, Nogay-Turks of Romania-Romanian Muslim Romanian Turkish Tatars, Tatars/Dobruca namedDobruja were Tatars the each other, contradict not do names different chaos in defining anamefor the national identity of in Even Tatars the Dobrogea. though the led to influence) cultural Turkish Anatolian example facts(for andother These Balkans. from Anatolia OguzTurks, andthe Turks, there wereSelchuks, Osman inDobrogea settled Ottoman and Oguzlanguagebelongs branch.Among tothe Turkish that Turkicthe tribes comes from the coastal parts of Crimea andhas a native tongue which is very close to See“Gagauz,” See Yazicioghly ‘Ali on the Christian Turks of Dobruja,” See H.T. Norris, NadirDevlet, “The Question of National Identity among Tatars in the 20thcentury”, in Les Turcs et la Langue Turque de la Bulgariedu Nord-Est, The origins of Over years haveThe originsbeenthe Gagauzaredisputed. asthe the of they regarded The Gagauz are a Turkic group that is thought to have begun to settleinis tohave begun Balkans the that thought to The GagauzareaTurkic group th century. Islam in the Balkans: Religion and Society between Europeand the Arab World, ( Encyclopedia of Islam 84 85 , Vol. 2 (Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1965), 971– 972; Rocznik Orientalistyczny 28 Folia Orientalia BSOAS 87 , Wlodzimierz Zajaczkowski , Wlodzimierz (Krakow: Commission Orientaliste de 14 (1952): 639–668; “Les Gagaouzes,les 15(1974): 77–86. 12(1952): 12–24. Rocznik Orientalistyczny Originea t Columbia, SC: ă 88 tarilor , Kemal 14 86 in CEU eTD Collection 93 92 91 Yayinlari, 1993). 1991); and Literature) Popular and History-Language-Folklore Gagauz: Turkish 90 I. UluslararasI. 89 Christianity. to converted whoremained whilethose 1307-1311, between Anatolia to many returned VIII Paleologus. These Muslim came strongChristianTurks under missionary pressure and joined Kaykavus Sultan in in landhim hisrefuge Dobrogea, by Michael to offered Emperor Karpat of Dobrogea, migrating to Turkey. The Gagauz finally settled in southern in attracted Moldova southern finally Turkey.settled migrating to The Gagauz of Dobrogea, population big left Romanian military etc) service, the compulsory Tatar of province number famine, corruption, (wars, several factors to Due region. in Sea Black the scattered and the Gagauz didnotenjoy intheir development a modern of state their butthey own, are Tatars The processes. of assimilation success and easier access to contribute population the 2.2. Demographics 19 Bessarabia. live untilincontinued tosouth whentheymigrated Dobrogea wars, to Russo- Turkish the Oguz tribes that were living in Dobrogea in the first half of the thirteenthmelding of Pechenegs, Uz,Cumans, and Anatolian Turks. century from formedthe population, Gagauzareasynthetic the that indicates linguistic evidence and Ibid, 211. King, Eminov, See HarunGungor and Mustafa Argunshah, See Kemal Karpat, “Gagauz’lar Karpat, Kemal See th centurynaming them “illegitimate children of Turks and Bulgarians”. 89 The Moldovans The size of the community and the continuous modifications in the social structure of structure social inthe modifications continuous the and community the The sizeof Inalc Halil , and support this more hypothesis. others historical recentanalysis However, of and Dünden Bugüne Gagauzlar Major Muslim Minorities in Bulgaria Õ 92 TürkFolklor Kongresi Bildirileri 91 They were often treated as a single population, one Russian observer from the from observer Russian one population, single a as treated often were They Paul Wittek also supports the theory that the Gagauz are descendants of of Turkic Gagauzaredescendants the that the Wittek alsosupports theory Paul Õ k speaks of a group of Turcoman nomads from the Byzantine Empire who Empire Byzantine the from nomads Turcoman of a group of speaks k , 210. Õ n tarihi mensei üzerine k üzerine mensei tarihi n (The Gagauz from the Past to Present)(Ankara: Elektronik Iletisim Ajansi Iletisim Elektronik Present)(Ankara: to Past the from Gagauz (The Gagauz Türkleri:Tarih-Dil-Folklor ve Halk Edebiyat 1 (1976): 163–177. , 76-77. 29 Õ sa bir bak bir sa (Ankara: KulturBakanligi Yayinlari, 90 Õú ” (A short look at the history of Gagauz) of history the at look short (A ” 93 Õ (The CEU eTD Collection 95 94 Russian Wars at the end of the 18 Turco- the after andemptied were destroyed lands the that populate offer to tsar’s by the 1850. As aconsequence, population the infell 1829 40,000 inhabitants,to 100,000then rose by to population of the area. By the end of these wars large areas of Dobrogea became depopulated. for theagricultural and the economy warsweredisastrous in These fought Dobrogea. as legal privileged warriors.border of category Italians, AlbaniansandArabs. The them offered Ottomans military positions and they acted Germans, Jews, Serbs, Armenians, Greeks, Russians, Bulgarians, Romanians, Tatars, Turks, Ottoman which hadone ethnicallyDobrogea, most the of in Europe: populations diverse number wereforcibly of 100,000 Tatars awayfrom immigratingdriven Crimea, tothen- the Russians in the region and its annexation of Crimeaby Turksin the remained1420, Dobrogea under Ottoman control until 1878. in 1783. After the Occupied Anatolia. Asia and from Minor settlers Crimean with areas of Turkish-speaking Balkans the War, a strategic Ottoman of through colonization accomplished was restructuring This demographic which composition modifiedmovements conqueredterritories.the theethnicandreligious of 2.2.1. The Tatars Ibid. 8. Iordachi, Constantin 95 In 1850s the felt Ottoman the government advertise a need newspapers to in European The wars between the Ottomans and the Russians from 1768 to 1829 were largely 1829 were from and 1768 to The Russians Ottomans the the wars between Dobrogea werebroughtTatars to by following of Ottomans the thepower increasing The of by conquest in Balkansthe population Turksset Ottoman motionthe important th and 19 th century. 30 94 CEU eTD Collection with it, as Russia wanted so-calledchangeBessarabia the Southern region forceda overlapping to a partly Romania to direct access to the Mouths from Ottoman the Empire. but 1878war,Russia After the receivedNorthern Dobrogea, of the Danube. Constantin Iordachi 99 98 97 96 Dobrogea.” of central development for economic the a centre between Christians and Muslims by was achieved 16 early the a demographic balance the Ottoman period, parts of other Empire throughout the continued that although the settlement of Tatars and Turks from Asia Minor and Anatolia and from it andAli and Tatars as Muslim the Turks considers altogether the count Eminov population. political provided andtendtotake implications evenofficial and data conflicting data exemptions, and a variety of religious and cultural incentives.” for potentialsettle immigrants to “promising in themlandDobrogea, for agriculture, tax who were allowed governance by own allowedtheir who were governance Tatars acertainfor the accorded degree of autonomy additionally TheOttoman's privileges. served whoinwere held by asgendarmes, high tax esteem andreceivedspecial Ottomans the Mecidiye time the Ottoman authorities called for the establishment of an entirely new town, the town of later toTurkey. control,andunder Ottoman still Balkans southern the in areas to initially armies, Ottoman retreating the with Balkans and following the war, large numbers of Turks and other Muslims (most of the Tatars) left the balance begantobe reversed in Russo-Turkish aftermath the of the war of 1877–1878. During Eminov, 132-133. Medgidia in Romania today. Ibid, 131. 132. Eminov, Romania isRomaniain independent recognised 1878and as territory gains the Dobrogea of The statistics of the population of Dobrogea differ substantially due to the strong Kemal Karpatarguesthat to settleof immigrants largenumbers period over ashort of 98 , in Dobrogea “specifically to accommodate refugees from Crimea and to serve as 97 kaymakam 31 , Khan Mirza. 99 96 Tatars Tatars together with Albanians th century.Thisdemographic CEU eTD Collection 104 the Danubethe and Sea)the (Bucure 103 102 101 100 5ă landback. and their houses take their waitingto during warwere the ran who families Tatar and Turkish Many bright. very not was situation social and economic rights. political from elites economic non-Romanian Dobrogea’s of exclusion the and resistance, political regional weakened and elites -based political Bucharest of interests the promoted regime, which political highly centralized of a homogenization, establishment landednationalization cultural by colonization property, of ethnic Romanians, integration The provinceand the strategy of levels:of hadthefollowingassimilation multiethnic population adanger country’sethnicthe as to homogeneity stability.and political development. and economic homogenization cultural colonization, ethnic strategies: three elites political adopted province, Romanian in thenational foster multi-ethnic incorporation of argues that the order to and economic representative in the town’s council and maintaining in the function the same the function in the maintaining and council town’s in the representative own their having times, Ottoman the during had they rights the enjoyed they that says Ekrem move population to back andthem social granted status. citizens become Romanian citizens. become Romanian citizens that “all the inhabitants claimed of Dobrogea Law 3oftheOrganization Article state. Romanian of the citizens other of Dobrogea who, ownedon thethe position day during theof Ottoman11 Empire. Their political rights were the same with the Ali Ekrem, 81. Alexandru R Ali Ekrem, 73. Ibid., 32. 2. Iordachi, dulescu and Bitoleanu, the Romanian state administration supported administration Turkishthe Romanian andTatar Bitoleanu,supported state and the dulescu At the time when the Romanian administration had been installed in the province the province in the installed been had administration Romanian the when time the At Many perceived locationRomanian thepoliticians geopolitical province’s and ă dulescu, IonBitoleanu, Istoria românilor dintre Dun ú ti: Editurati: 104 ù The samerevised law in 1882augmentingaimed at the tiin Ġ ific ă 100 1979),358–360. 32 ă re re ú 103 i mare (History of Romanians between th of April of Ottoman 1877 were Supporting opinion, this Ali 102 According to 101 mufti who CEU eTD Collection Enstitusu, 1966), 29. 111 110 109 108 107 106 105 migration. the determine World War. The Romanian data eliminated any doubt about numbersuntil Second the toAnatolia, in smaller from which continued Dobrogea emigrated the existence of a state policy to element. autochthon existing the maintaining number of populationthe in (especially Dobrogea Romanian the butalsopopulation), (food taboos). (food and beliefs religious their to a threat pose might it that and identity Muslim their with in accord not army was Christian serving a that concerned whowere includingTatars subjects all military service for alawRomanian compulsory Romanian enacted requiring government changes in the legislation of the landed property and the corruption of the local clergy men clergy local the of corruption the and property landed the of legislation in the changes the to adapt not could population Tatar the that fact the were population the of migration the educationget in Empire, Istanbul.tendency to a vaccinateforRomanian calls continuous the them, authorities to the of in attempts migration the factors were of afailure inharvest 1899.Other after ethnic redistributed to Romaniancolonists. ofland confiscated and 127,483hectares halfnativestate from Dobrogeans, more than were landswhich by weretaken the Romanian the authorities. confiscated land Fredrick1885 that the Tatars. years in deJongspeaksof the of of 30 terror due to tonomadictheirlife, habits aswell andas theforeign propaganda recruitment. Müstecip Ulküsal, Iordachi, 32-33. De Jong Ali Ekrem, 87. Williams, 280. Ibid. Ali Ekrem, 85. From 1877-1878 it isitbetween From that estimated and80,000 1877-1878 100,000Crimean Tatars A second migration took place because of the famine which swept through through Dobrogea famine swept because place which the of migration A secondtook laws1880 to from of of a series the enactment migration was of catalyst The greatest , The 107 Turks and the Tatars of Romania A report made at the time by S. Zefechide the emigration of the Tatars was of Tatars the emigration made the by Zefechide time atthe A S. report Dobruca veTürkler 106 The reasons for the emigration were several. In 1883 the 1883 In several. were emigration the for reasons The (Dobrogea and the Turks) (Ankara: Turk Kulturnu Arastirma , 169. 110 105 33 111 The reasons Mehmet Ali Ekrem gives for 109 During the period 1889-1912, the period 1889-1912, During the hijra to the soil of Ottoman 108 hilal CEU eTD Collection 114 Origin of the Tatars), 308-309. (1878- 1916)”(The Dobrogean Turco-Tatars in Romanian census and statistics), in Originea T compared with the policies of the Zhivkov regime in Bulgaria. From the end of Second the From endof the in Bulgaria. regime of Zhivkov the policies the with compared when benign wererelatively efforts these of assimilation, targets became andTurks Tatars scientific discussion on topicthe Although wasforbidden. beginninginat the 1960s the census the combined and total of was Turks Tatars only 28,782. comprising 6–7%of populationthe comparedof Dobrogea in with 21% 1930. In 1948 the combinedpopulationthe about 55,000, been Tatar and of Romania Turkish reducedto had 1937–1939, some150,000 people 130,000to By emigrated. endof the SecondWorldthe War emigration and of to Turkey. period facilitated Turks very Within Tatars of short time,a minorities in Romania time. atthat Thesigning Turkish–Romanianthe of inConvention 1936 brought on by worldwidethe depression, the generally and negative political most for climate economic worseningthe landholdings, situation of by the of expropriation Turkish the At time, that The Romanian was growingpopulation fastdue to colonization policies. and 22,141Tatars. Turks present154,772 were in1930,there total Dobrogea); of population Romanians Tatars, representing (54%of Turks (21,350 population)the ofthe 35,922 5.6% and in Tatars 1911:186,334 Turks; were120,015Romanians1900, there 40,626 and 1879, in there were271 villagesDobrogea, 134,662Muslims with 87,900Christians. and In 113 112 migrate. population Tatar to get land buy it lessforindependence in and or money of the 1923 Turkey the determined were away from villagesthey the lived in, priority Romanians the given andto Bulgarians to lands given the fact that the lackwater, of therace.The matter no all population, the towards Eminov, 134. Eminov, Ali Ekrem, 103-104 and Nicolina Ursu, “Turco-T Ursu, Nicolina and 103-104 Ekrem, Ali Ali Ekrem, 128. In the Soviet period the national consciousness was suppressed and popular or in precipitated picked the1930s, from up Romania Turks of The of emigration pace The always andcensus included Tatars in Turks the same category Muslims.of In 112 ă tarii Dobrogeni în recens Dobrogeni tarii 34 114 ă minte minte ú i statistici române i statistici ă tarilor (The 113 ú ti CEU eTD Collection population migrated. Therefore the area remained unpopulated. During migrated.Thereforeunpopulated. thearearemainedpopulation Turkish Russian- the Moldova) was annexed bythe Russian empireas a wartrophy mostand ofits Muslim Ottoman In1812theeastern rule. part of (today Moldovan principality the of Republic the foreign authority. from moved Moldova neighbours, of backand hasbeen forth powerzone powerful the one Until and more Squeezedbetween Poles, Turks. Tatars the Hungarians, neighbours: against its the 19 defend havingto Dniester River, and the BlackSea the to Mountains from Carpathian the and Most Romania. of Gagauztoday live in the Ukraine. andthe Moldova eachin30,000 Greece about inBulgaria, 12,000Gagauz anestimated Gagauz.Thereare the reforms certainits allowed citizensitsautonomy non-to and to Muslimpopulation,including 116 115 coming later on under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The 2.2.2. The Gagauz intermarryTatars oridentifyTurks themselves as Turks. 50,000 Tatarsin Romania, believing thecensusestimate is lowartificially becausemost claimed are there Muslim that Tatar-Turks of Union Democratic 2005The population. In 20,469 in 1956 to22,151in in1966, 23,107 in1977, and 24,596 1992. in in consequence from wasasteady increase population Tatar the Dobrogea Romanian betweenreflection Turkey and unfriendly communist generally Romania.One the of relations WorldWar until 1960s the from emigration of RomaniaTatars toTurkey virtually ceased, a Ibid. 134. Eminov, The first Moldovan state was created at the middle of middle of atthe 14 wascreated Moldovan state The first The Gagauz people settled on the east side of the Black Sea during the Middle Ages,side east Middle SeaduringBlack the the on settled of the The Gagauzpeople 0.2% of islessnumber about Today in total the than25,000, of Tatars the Romania th century, the south century,the territory Moldovaof has been under 35 millet th century borders laidand its system and the Tanzimat the and system 115 116 CEU eTD Collection 5.5% Bulgarians, 5.1% Russians, and about 4% Ukrainians, most of 4% livingin5.5% Bulgarians, Ukrainians, most of rural 5.1%Russians, andabout them villages and threesuburban townships.itself Gagauz isEri amultiethnicincludes quilt that 118 117 districts. in inhabits majority republic,concentrated the mostthree in southern region (92%) of the Gagauz Eri comprises and demography russified region.the three towns: Moldovan people in Romania and bringing Russian and Ukrainianin Moldova) altered the Comrat,famines andforced deportations in 1940s the and the exchange of populations (sending Ciadîr- togiveidentity inandindependent Moldovan Romanians, nation. order anthe the The to Lunga and Moldovans the between creatingpolicy treaty. cleavages at Sovietaimed Ribbentrop-Molotov Vulc territories. from other Jews and Germans population by moving to regionthe Ukrainian and Russianpeople as well as Gagauz, ethnic its of diversification a and changes social and political economic, to led empire Chi with of Bessarabia under name the probablythat included them. Ottomanlisted 55,790 Turks, inBessarabia,butreported theGagauz 1897 byRussiahasnot invitedby Greeks, Albanians werealso Bessarabia. to populate tsar the sedentary, Bulgarians, andthecattle breeding. life choosing farms nomadic the style of to a from Shifted life” by from Russians. “athe offer better being attracted economical reasons, moved to southern Bessarabialand special from and likeprivileges release military service.tax the payment They and due to the devastatingwars in 1768- 74and 1806-12 Gagauzthe fledattracted by north Russianthe tsar’s offer of Russian- Turkish wars in the area for King, “Moldovan Identity and the Politics of Pan- Romanianism”, 349. Romanianism”, of Pan- Politics the and Identity “Moldovan King, King, According to the 1989 census, the Gagauz made up 3.5% of The population. up3.5% made the Gagauz the 1989 census, the According to of asaconsequence Bessarabia, forciblyUnion annexed In June Soviet the 1940 The population increasedfrom million300.000 totwo by 1897. Thecensusin held The Moldovans, Romania, Russia, andthePolitics of Culture 117 In its province lost 1871 the and becameprivileges aprovince 118 ú inau as capital. The integration into the Russian the into integration ascapital.inau The 36 , 211. ă ne ú ti, 23 CEU eTD Collection 120 119 leading language increasemeans in tothe of role of asa the communication. grew in strength, betweenrelations. individuals speakinglanguages Contact different andgroups widened and changelinguisticof began toflow structure ethnic intotowns. This and to the started had itsethnicandbeing character, reachofassimilation original outside preserved Gagauzthe communities satisfy could hardly that mosttheir needs. basic life from excluded of collective andtheurban the rural poorest even the communities emergence notsomuch of bilingualism. the led ethnicandlinguistic Under to related of groups these circumstances,existence the and anuncodified which grammatical structure was passedonfrom another. one generation to Turkic peoples, Christianity is predominant only among the Gagauz. learnfew who language,butchildren the if any of of become users.Today, them all active endangered. of There areasmallnumber markedseriously as languageendangered lists, UNESCO’s and areon languages Tatar Gagauz developed. Both they werepoorly used languages shape, the social taking timewas the consciousness whenmodern at development Culture 2.3. andunits: Ciadîr-Lunga. Comrat subterritorial in majority only formsanabsolute two ethnic Gagauz population the patchwork, interspersed with villages.communities, Romanian speaking Moldovan Chlebowczyk, 47. 244. Troebst, In pre-capitalist Eastern Europe certain individuals and entire communities were communities entire and individuals certain Europe Eastern pre-capitalist In vocabulary a basic each small with localdialects, more than no were languages These As most of the minority groups in Eastern Europe were on a very low level of 37 120 The rural population of Tatars 119 In this complex CEU eTD Collection condition that the schools the communities with inthe Tatar thefreedom education of lawin1880guaranteed education are under control of Public Instruction Minister and that in each segregation that characterized communitarian life intheprovince. communitarian characterized segregation that homogenizationto the localand processof byovercoming parochialism cultural the in sponsored aimed identity. 1864 and at promotingthe national Primary schools contributed Primary becamestate in in ofnation-building education culture Dobrogea. process the 122 121 population. the over haveleadersnotprotect as The not did andauthority theirtraining enough could communities Dobrogea was mostly rural and poor, and therefore mostly illiterate due to the lack of schools. among elderly only.people means remains a of community,communication Tatar Tatar the section of a considerable languagevariant, asthe For 500yearsof the occupation. Turkish wasOttoman official during literary a have not does language Tatar The day. present the to continued has and complicated localvarious developed inaforeigndialects linguistic Thisprocess isvery environment. however,has been influenced speak strongly by through TheOttoman Oguz Turkish. Tatars 2.3.1. The Tatars members of deteriorating among knowledge youngerthe generation. the and culture, national of the depreciation areas,the inlanguage urban education sufficient Iordachi, 41. Iordachi, Ali Ekrem, 128. Crimean Tatar is Crimean Tatar languagefrom which, Western a Kipchak the language Turkic group After 1878,theRomanian politicalmajor elite the acknowledged role of education and By the time of the incorporation into the Romanian state, populationin Tatar the into Romanianthe state, By theincorporation the of time Starting with 1980s, thepopulation began toaddress questions such as thelack of 121 38 122 Article 17 of the CEU eTD Collection (1997): 416. 128 Romanian population would easily adapt tothe new life. settled newly the so that name, original the by translating some Romanian, into of places the 127 126 125 124 123 muezzin ( ThecentreimportantRomanian of most Dobrogea. religiousIslamic college learningwasthe society. polygamy,marriage the bride’s will, without women slavery longer date are not upto that the old Muslim law to be uninstalled. They considered that old customs like the harems, mosques. of the leaders the funding totrain state bemade with to was seminar a Muslim that presumed 21 Article village, with together Turkishthe language, Romanian the language shouldbe taughttoo. meet the needs of the Islamic community. theIslamic needsof meet the in bythe 1964meantthat 1980s thenumber of flourishing Muslim minority on its territory.” attempt toimprove its relations with the Islamic world, began emphasizeto “the presence a of in on and Atwereeased.Romania, beginningof the an 1970s, restrictions Islam Tatars. government, lack forostensibly in ofinterest education religious youngon partof the Turks later formally embedded in Landthe Law of 1921. was provision land This maintenance. for of theirhectares ten were allotted soil Romanian medrese De Jong, “Muslim Minorities in the Balkans on the Eve of the Collapse of Communism”, De Jong, 135. Eminov, Ibid., 121. Ibid., 105. Ali Ekrem, 81. In 1900 Islam was inthriving Romania. Therewere 260mosques worshipopen to in De Jong mentions that the closing down of the only theological school in the country The school inoperation remained until 1964, when itwas closed by down the 125 and ) at Babadag. This college trained religious teachers and other religious personnel to personnel religious andother teachers religious trained This college Babadag. ) at The Turks and Tatars of Romania hatib concomitantly” had decreased considerably because of lack of becauseof considerably qualified haddecreased concomitantly” 123 In into1924 anew account lawchangingtook names the Turkish , 169. 126 128 39 In the same year, most of the mosques on mosques of the most year, same Inthe 127 imams 124 The Muslim population also asked who performed functions “the of Islamic Studies 36 CEU eTD Collection such, spokespersons for state policy. The policy. state for spokespersons such, 130 Turkish Most for the Tatars. developmentinitiated apolicy separate of Romanian government Romanian nationalities be in provided education theirmother tongue. Soon the after, members mandatingnon- of that provision withthe inestablishedconstitutional accordance andTurkish were community. schools In 1949Tatar for theTatar was created alphabet centuries. been Tatars. While intermarriage was rare, Muslim and Christian groups lived side by side for ground. version of Islam to the outside world, whichconfirmation of the oftenpowerful Department had of Religious Cults.no Theyresemblance represented the official to the realities on the 129 The in Romania. Muslims most of lives in the important not were councils local the and Council, inRomania. of Islam preservation tothe threat agenuine of Thisabout was thefundamental their religion. ignorantand principles Turks functioningmosques, and anti-religious propaganda combined tocreate a generation of Tatars menmainly of of 60years over consisting age. sparse, was festivals, Muslim major two the as such occasions special on even open, attendance atmosques thatremained “have artistic value.” deemed historical Moreover, or to imams new of endorsing appointment werenot authorities Romanian the andbecause candidates many villages were not open worship. open not to many villageswere Ibid., 182–183. De Jong, mufti Between 1947-1957, Tatar schoolsBetween 1947-1957, Tatar began in operating Romania in1955 and a special For practical purposes, however, during communist rule, practical For however,purposes, the communist during Lack of religious instruction, shortage of well-trained religious personnel, scarcity of the by 130 Since World War II the II War World Since The Turks and Tatars in Romania and the members of his administrative staff were salaried state employees and,as state staff were salaried hisand of members administrative the mufti . Lack ofmosquesreligious personnelmeantthat in adequately trained mufti , 180–181. and the members of his administrative staff have all have staff administrative his of members the and mufti Imams 40 129 ’s appointments and decisions were subject to andweresubject ’s appointments decisions were appointed only to those mosques those only to were appointed mufti , the High Muslim CEU eTD Collection 132 131 language,you'dteachingbe Tatar “in the to”. persuadednot reality, schools against law no was there Although chance”. better a them give to schools language university.But having in studied they get in.Tatar couldn't we asked for So Romanian poet and afounding member of the union.“We wanted our children beto intellectual, togo to in closed 1950s,partly late choosing, Ya the says their own through wereeventually in these schools, Tatar wereeducated olderTatars some Although concern. Sarah A. Smith, in her article in The Guardian, ensuring the survival of the Tatar language is a and establishment,begun. andRomanizing the aprocess Turkswas of Tatars andremaining Tatar- Turkish-language schools wereclosed, less yearsthan afterten their late 1950s ahandfulof remainedopen.the In1957all schools.these schools Bythe only Tatar schools. Declining enrolments in Tatar schools led to the closing of most of these send Romanian schools insteadof parents to public their Tatar schools, children prompting publications appeared usingthisalphabet. and A alphabetwascreated anumber of special Tatar Turkish books. previously used Constan in established was college training teacher schools. A asTatar Tatar weredesignated schools nature of the Soviet regime contributed greatly this greatly regime to process. of nature Sovietcontributed the atheistic the later and proselytizing Orthodox Christian of centuries Romania, In identity. ethnic one’s maintaining in helpful very be can religion force, As acultural affiliation. ethnic in factor a Tatar’s ispreserving acrucial religious self-identification AD.century Therefore, have been lifted. Islam has also been an important part of Tatar identity since the tenth Sarah A. Smith, “Email from Constan from “Email Smith, A. Sarah Eminov, 134-135. Since 1989all onthe restrictions Tatar and Turkish language andthepractice of Islam However, these experiments worsened the already low educational standards inthese lowstandards educational thealready worsened experiments these However, Ġ a. Books in Kazan-Tatar were imported from the Soviet Union to replace the Union from to Soviet wereimported the inKazan-Tatar a. Books Ġ a”, The Guardian 41 , 9 December2002. 132 ú ar Memedemin,aTatar 131 According to CEU eTD Collection http://www.alewiten.com/harun24.htm 134 133 Central In1958,the Committee life,butthey were all rejected. theirand educational cultural Uygur,and Uzbek. languagefamily,Turkic modern Crimean alongTurkmen, Azeri, with -Tartar, Turkish, West-Oguz groupof the language belongs to under rule in Sovietadopted 1957. Gagauz 2.3.2. The Gagauz 156 children to increased with teachers. seven yearhad teachers. the 1993–1994school enrolment By two Turkish pre-school with classes at the level. pre-school Duringyear, the1990–1991school 40children were in enrolled far areoffered only So Turkishlanguages. inminority classes became possible to offer classes 136 135 Endangered Languages Gospels and liturgical works. and Gagauz dictionary and history grammar, of first of the Gagauz,theof translator the anationalGagauz started priest in movement and 1930s.Heis 1920s authorof also the the a from Ciachir, Mihail Romanian the Russian.rule, During with the adopted some words when language awritten is Gagauzbecame language,the that similartoTurkish languagebut liturgical languages. have retained their distinctive faith even during theOttomans, usingSlavonic andGreek as Gagauz people andit in authority TheGagauz of was underthe Constantinople. patriarch the Baskakov quoted in Larisa Yakut, “Dynamics of the Development of Gagauz Culture”, of Gagauz Development ofthe “Dynamics Yakut, Larisa in quoted Baskakov Anuarul statistic al României, 274-277, in Ali Ekrem, 82. Mihail Ciachir, Mihail King, In 1990 the Democratic Union of Muslim Tatar-Turks was established. It again wasestablished. It Democratic Tatar-Turks of In 1990the Union Muslim During the Soviet rule, the Gagauz issued many decrees that wanted to reorganize wanted Gagauz issued decreesthatmany to rule, the During Soviet the alphabet, based Cyrillic in a written Turkish of a dialect is language Gagauz The The first national Gagauz revival took places national attheThe first revivaltook end of Gagauz 19 the The Moldovans, Romania, Russia, andthePolitics of Culture Istoria g 134 , available at 135 Orthodoxy was the religion recognized as the dominant religion for ăJă uzilor din Basarabia 136 http://www.ogmios.org/134.htm , Internet accessed May 2008. (Chi 133 42 ú inau, 1934) quoted in , Internet accessed May 2008. , 211. th century and that’s Foundation for CEU eTD Collection 140 139 138 137 cultural outcomebecameasuccess. and demographic hegemony over Moldova’s mostly indigenous culture.rural Coupled with colonization, the of country,the 9 August on 1940.Thelong resulted range policies inRussian cultural own. During the Soviet rule 1940-1941and1944-1989Russian became theofficial language coercinglocal populations Russian toadopt culture, language, and forms religious astheir Russian the and language inbureaucracies of consisted schools. Cultural Russification of use the extending and laws and institutions Russian introducing of consisted Russification todisjoinorder from population the their ethnic prior andcultural allegiances. Administrative language, population 87%of the motherdeclaredin Gagauzas tongue 1989. inGagauz and education books the be available the the Russian. lackof decided Despite to its banned.activity was In official1961, the language ofinstruction forminorities was butsoon school, Gagauz primary thefirst opened Party Communist Moldovan Bureau of the consolidation of Russian culture in urban Moldova. in urban culture Russian of consolidation 98% for women. institutes of higher education, only Gagauz. higher ethnic only of education, institutes 15 were institutionsGagauz werestudying atofhighereducation. Of a total teachers at of 2,975 collection of in collection appearedpoetry butfew books of Gagauzwaspublished during in1964, other first The in Russian. featured practically being minority Gagauz the of life cultural the of ruled in Bessarabia. circle, as speaking they were usedto in Russian social the evenenvironment, Romania when forlanguage the family using outside in the villages, the Gagauz especially the population, Ibid., 213. Ibid., 212. King, Brezianu, Andrei Russification was the doctrine and the administrative practice applied in Moldova in in Moldova applied practice the administrative and doctrine Russification the was At the end of the 19 The Moldovans 138 Historical Dictionary of theRepublic of Moldova The situationhas not improved in followingthe years. By1990, only 647 140 , 211. Until had 1990, only books 33 been publishedin Cyrillic Gagauz, most th century, Gagauz illiteracy rates stood at 88% men stoodat for century, Gagauzilliteracy andnearly rates 43 , 182-183. 139 137 There was little demand among One consequence was the was consequence One CEU eTD Collection Gagauzia are pro-Russian and tend to reject the Romanian Moldovans who constitute the constitute who Moldovans Romanian the reject to tend and pro-Russian are Gagauzia andMoscow. between Bucharest of contention remained apoint has Moldova Curtain falland the Iron not taken has after of pan-Romanian place the union However, inthecensus. Romanian declare they in as Romania; heroes people same national nation; they speak alanguage thatis fully intelligible Romanians;to they worship many of the on dangerthe future of deprivation in independentan Moldovain or a GreatRomania. pro-Soviet separatist group even Russian group adopted pro-Soviet asthe officiallanguage, separatist successful perceive they didnot themselvesthat asculturally colonized bySovietregime. The in republic. culture the celebration of Gagauz administrativeor autonomy.holdJuly 1991thegovernmentdecided In long to aweek 146 145 144 143 142 nationalism, apro-Russian movementemerged, never acceptedwith in Russian the minorities groupsthatand Ukrainian eastandwith Gagauzinsouth, the conflicts creating opposite, the was result the but cohesion, a national get to republic of the the pro-with thatfought forces the unite Moldova to with Romania weresupposedtohelp thepeople Romanianadopting languageThe lawlanguage official together about inMoldova, the asthe Romanian orientation. only books were published30-40 in Gagauz. As a result of the rise of Moldovan 141 Gagauz. into translated in andoccasionally were Russian, writers Gagauz of the literature the Gagauzor the about works other of the regime. Most Soviet the King, “Modovan Identity and the Politics of Pan- Romanianism”, 348. Romanianism”, of Pan- Politics the and Identity “Modovan King, 97. Chistensen, and Bollerup in quoted Nahaylo Cavanaugh quoted in Bollerup and Christensen, 97. Bollerup and Christensen,225. Crowther, 194. King, About 65%About of populationthe in Moldova itself declares belongingMoldovan as to At the beginning, the leaders only considered a cultural autonomy andnot a territorial The Gagauz music, dress The Gagauzmusic, dress andfolkin large art rule. underthe Soviet partdisappeared The Moldovans , 213. 143 44 The assimilation of hadso been of Gagauz some Theassimilation Edinstvo . 142 141 146 In the post war period Also, most leaders of 144 but they butfocused they 145 CEU eTD Collection 150 149 148 them as an ally in strugglethe againstRussification. TheGagauz intellectuals originally in TheMoldovan sector. supported Gagauzcultural governmentthe win demands in to order be employedin public it for Gagauzto possibilities reduced the the wasthat Moldovans by language voted situation against the Thebestargument changed. law gradually the language. Russian the into for acculturation mainreason and wasthe this Russian schools and kindergartens. This was opening more possibilities jobs getting to better insteadspeak Russian of their language. native majority, Gagauzidentity becausethemajority the remains confused them of to continue changing. inof process was identity the that saysKolstolinguistic that Russification notmeandid a lackofidentity but instead showed 147 culture. or literature develophave language, to between 1950s-1960s.not their theopportunity own did They They anddegree. write had readwith study difficulty. chance the They in to it schools only a very limited to in mother tongue their toexpressthemselves able Gagauzwere Yet the same motherRussian, and atthe tongue. time Gagauzconsideredthe 90%of Gagauztheir identity survival.and their GagauzandBulgariansthe claimed cultural 80%of spoke they Gagauz mother in as their how tongue important the language1989 showing their isfor the language. declared people the mainly Paradoxically,entities 90%of Russian the use Ankara. in byin languageSociety a Latin official was endorsed the alphabet Turkish 1993, which national majority. encouraged TheMoldovan the government ties with Turkey and approved Ibid. Ibid. Skvortsova,171. King, It was part of the Soviet society that urban families were sending their children families sending theirchildren was to urban society part of were Sovietthat It the Moldovan critics and foreign observers as well, allege that the Gagauzgovernmental the that allege as well, foreign observers and Moldovan critics The Moldovans 147 148 , 214. For social and professional purposes social For andthey professional purposes definitely Russian. preferred 45 149 Despite the concessions received from from the received concessions the Despite 150 After 1990,this CEU eTD Collection governmentdid not show much in interest changing situation this and by efforts respective the 1991, is also Russian due tothepressures local of leaders. TheformerRussian regional university. individuals and Turkey village communities. and Bulgaria funds also for donated the local donations from establishedto thanks was TheUniversity Gagauz andBulgarians. such byminorities inas populated teach communities to the of developmentspecialists the and minorities for accessibility Education Higher ensure to Minorities National for Gagauz languages. or Romanian the either with familiar not are cases, of majority in the people, young Russian, it bodies,government unfortunately is heard”. rarely in Gagauz of Regarding use the in respect. very this isGagauz society tolerant that Still, one can often hear Russian, Moldovan, and Ukrainian as well. However, one must admit language in villages. life, atall. In especially population daily the uses Gagauz, primarily Gagauz the for studying necessary handouts [or] materials methodological no are cases, there in some and, books enough not are there is that problem main the schools, In development. its to resources allocate not does state a smallThe degree. only to protected is currently 152 , Region”, 151 inChi existed already there though even happened This autonomy. the of city main the Comrat, in University extent. large a to accommodate to ready was government Moldovan the that demands conditions inparticular, and Gagauzculture for language the the better for 1987 demanded http://www.linguapax.org/congres/taller/taller3/article15_ang.htmlat Available 2002). Barcelona, policies, on language congress USAWorld at presented (paper model” linguistic 153 “From Ethnopolitical Conflict to Inter-Ethnic Accord in Moldova”, Conflict’ An‘Unfrozen As Of Gagauz-Yeri Example The “Moldova: Haring, Melinda Tuohy, Emmet Ana Coretchi, Ana Pescaru, Cynthia Stevens, “The Republic of Modova: Dimensions of the Gagauz socio- In response to Gagauz demands, the central inGagauz demands, established 1992 anew central In response the government to Even the Even RFE/RL 152 Because until now the subjects at the University of Comrat are taught in are taught Comrat of attheUniversity subjects the now until Because , 5April 2007. bashkan 153 The language of The language University,which education of was foundedat Comrat in ú in ă of Gagauz Eri, Mihai Formuzal, admits that “the Gagauz language that“the Gagauz admits Formuzal, Eri, of Mihai Gagauz u, at the State Pedagogical University “Ion “Ion Creang Pedagogical State the University u, at 46 151 , Internet accessed December 2007. December accessed , Internet ECMI Report 1 (March 1998), 17. ă ”, aDepartment CEU eTD Collection 155 Issues 1,(2002): 14. the the Republic of Moldova”, ed. Kinga Gal, 154 understandnative their tongue. speak oreven in70-80s, cannot born young Gagauzpeople, The generation speakers. of stagnation. Usage in latefrom decades, 80s,Gagauzlanguage three 60s to early remained and culture of Gagauz was limited almost continuedof identity. literacy the For of during this cultural period process repression to a family encirclement that andscholars intelligentsia firstits of with emerging forward leaped Gagauz culture and mostlyyears in in again three closed these but weresoon 1961, The schools native tongue. the to its older Gagauzthe language followed. Thatspurred writing activity inand publishing of textbooks inalphabet version Cyrillic 30,1957.Classesandelementary July in schools of on teaching study of languagethe of majoritythe of populationthe is further marginalized. lack of the qualified in theautonomy in in Gagauzlanguage teaching even failed because primary teachersthe school of the and Gagauz develop to attempts the But established. in was Gagauzlanguage textbooks.and textbooks terminology On the otherelite. side, For theexample, circulation withina Gagauz one,butin reality a population produces remains to that hostage localthe political University and of Comrat a new language, the ideaof a creating factsupports utopian language. Thisa dialectof Turk the centre for the creation ofRussian language means maintainingin it the anddevelopingCyrillic alphabet, not Gagauzas the educational organized by opposition,the wasnot supported, but harassed for political reasons. a Gagauzlibrary, with met Moreover, were of Moldovan Ministry a cool response. Education Yakut. Claus Neukirch, “Autonomy and Conflict Transformation: The Case of the Gagauz Territorial Autonomy in With initiatives of the Soviet government and turcologists the Gagauz received their is inthe cultural Gagauzethnicity The factpromotion the completed the of that 155 MinorityGovernance in Europe 47 , Series on Ethnopolitics and Minority 154 CEU eTD Collection 157 156 “suffered” official in the Romanian after that main group Dobrogea 1878 andtheywerethe 2.4.1. The Tatars class. middle working in the in inpopulations work enrolled agriculture, theareas joinedcooperative rural others the while elites andwere predominantly farmingdealing with Only and agriculture. few of them joined the urban became part ofsituation 2.4. Economic the entrepreneurial autonomy. asaresultof the expected class. and Gagauz language, culture probably developnot did identity also as shouldone have With of development the Asaresult, in Gagauz. curriculum whole the teaching school single no the communistsubject of instudy 1986.Although Gagauz alanguage as isin today taught region,the is there regime, inadequacy inteachingof new alphabet andavailability inbooks of it. the inin for problem 60shasshifted the materials 90stothe newly the of readers published preparing and literacy of problem The phonetics. its to suitable more is which alphabet, Latin from language tothe for of Since Gagauz hasbeenaperiod 1995there transition Cyrillic writingfor the aLatin of Academy alphabet Gagauzlanguage. developed the Sciences of Anatolieva quoted in Yakut. Brezianu, 80. The Tatars and the Turks were the majority population before the annexation of Gagauz populations and the Tatar the Europe, in modernization East emerged When Along foreign with languages, other inrestored Gagauz was in schools of status the a After Moldova’sindependence, proclamation of the Gagauz Section Moldova the of 48 157 156 CEU eTD Collection the beginningthe of 20 the at by inindustrial middle incorporated started that development class,attracted the urban the was that population a also was there emigrate not did who those Among Romanians. sector. agrarian tothe wereconnected minorities while other the cities, the monopolized urbanism in changing Dobrogea, alot demographicsthe of population.the The Romanians aplan adopted state the theannexation, of After majorfor thenational the economy. provider investments in communication, transport, commerce. Soon, the harbor in Constan harbor the Soon, commerce. transport, in communication, investments theseapotential material from advantages and has. the province important benefited Thus,the of country because of the the mine agoldeconomical development forwas considered the province. the of character theRomanian strengthen in to order ethnic Romanians to redistributed lands were therefore they attractcolonists landfrom used this to In Romania’s 1889- 1914,the Diaspora. most, drain the a workers feared alabor agricultural at they needed landlordstime when thirds of lands Dobrogean the from the managedacquire state two- to of the Romanian period colonization the after landand the andstockbreeding. practiced agriculture and countryside the in predominantly living were Tatars the moment, that At religion. theircommunities to according fiscal,autonomy confessional to and conferred educational, 159 158 nation- buildingcampaign homogenizingof region. the During Ottomans, the Toma Ionescu quoted in Iordachi, 31-32. Müstecip Ulküsal, “Dobruca ve Türkler”(Dobrogea and the Turks),quoted Aliin Ekrem, 95. The consequence was the creation of a new Dobrogean elite composed mostly mostly of composed elite newof wasthe creation a Dobrogean The consequence Romanian political elites implemented a policy of modernization in Dobrogea which Dobrogea in modernization of a policy implemented elites political Romanian 159 th century. reaya 158 Togetherwith Turks,they the owned almost50% population that failed toredeem their tithes. The 49 millet Ġ a became a system CEU eTD Collection Gagauz have been economically disadvantaged becausein they Gagauz have at been working economically disadvantaged agriculture were unable to establish effective control over their territory. system. banking and financial aseparate as well as economy, their of functioning independent some enterprises. some of economic development the facilitated hastherefore problems political of The resolution privatesector. the being to started given andfactories a180%turn economictook strategy Sovieteconomics. anddemands supported land to satisfy ownershipprivate of land.ButMoldova’s the argued isenoughgovernment therethat not the demands of the farmers. market economy reforms and asked for the break up of upof the break the andaskedfor economy marketreforms for Moldovan demands the supported party The anti-communist centre. Soviet blamed the autonomists while the blamedtheMoldovans, territory differed. separatists Moldova of The 163 162 161 160 republics. productivity,lowest investment,industrial and capital rates of employment any union the of waste and ran fraud in rampant As agricultural the sector. as late mid the had1960s, it the developmentbehind remains andindustrial its lags economy behind national standards, while 2.4.2. The Gagauz 165 164 Bollerup and Christensen,95. Ibid., 186. Crowther, 185. King, “Moldovan Identity and the Politics of Pan- Romanianism”, 362. Romanianism”, of Pan- Politics the and Identity “Moldovan King, Bollerup and Christensen,95 ECMI Report The Gagauz still rely on Chi In Gagauz Eri, after the Law on Special Status of Gagauzia was adopted, the regional the of wasadopted, Gagauzia Status theLawonSpecial after In GagauzEri, The perceptions of who is to blame for the backward economic state of the south Moldova was among the less developed countries in the Soviet Union Union its inthe and countries Soviet was Moldova lessdeveloped the among 164 160 The peasantry as Thepeasantry was deported 1 (March1998), 23. 163 At this moment, the Gagauz Parliament started to aim at securing an securing at aim to started Parliament Gagauz the moment, this At ú in ă u to subsidizeu to the local budgetand they have proved kulaks 50 162 The communists strongly opposed such The communistsopposed strongly andforced collectivization. suffereda 165 Charles King believes that the that believes King Charles kolkhozy and introduction of introduction and 161 CEU eTD Collection at nationalism. 167 166 in communities Dobrogea. Tatar small from the emerged landsactually Ottoman former of the Diaspora Crimean Tatar politically and publishjournals founded nationalist ideas.on Theinfluential most in the freetoorganize Dobrogea wererelatively yetfullyandhad Tatars incorporated Romania not movements. Pan-Turkish the and Pan-Islamism of rise by the nurtured century nineteenth 2.5.1. The Tatars and president( votesthe donot reach 5% the threshold.in The Gagauz Moldova have theirgovernment own evenif Parliament, have in Romanian to the arepresentative national minorities recognized elections or have their own representatives in the central government. Romania allows to the aspect for the rights of the minorities. The electoral systems notalways permit them to have important is an decisions political in taking minorities cultural ethno- the of participation 2.5. Politics links. energy and industry loss of the notwith threaten area do of in andMoldova Transdnister The Gagauzlive unlike poorest the farms collective livingthe andtheir wasbelowMoldovan the of standard average average. http://tatar.yuldash.com/079.html Sabirzyan Badretdin, “Pan-Turkism: Past,Present and Future”, Bollerup and Christensen,95. ø of began quarter the in last the of Crimean Tatars the The national awakening the and engine mobilization the represent leaders the minority ethnic one For smail Gasp 167 However, it However,is is thepoetMehmetNiyazi with most who credited spreading bashkan Õ ral ). Õ was considered by many to be the father of Tatar father be of Crimean the bymany to wasconsidered , internet accessed December 2007. December accessed internet , 51 Turkoman , London, December1998 available 166 CEU eTD Collection beloved nation land...” Muslim inpopulation that we willDobrogea be faithful andGreat useful Romania,to our showed loyalty the Romanianto state.A speech of 1919 said:“I declarein name the of the andrights your life. Respect its laws and don notbe afraid of anything!” iswas: your motto“The army.the homeland that your country guarantees newspaper’s The discrimination publicto jobs education, in publicadministration the and superior positions in Romania “among in in that of theonly Romania Balkaniccountries 1934 population wrote Turkish the is the one respectingCrimea waspreferable. in Tataremigrationto Turkey, from protested believing resettlement nationalists Dobrogea the rights He and other inof leader Dobrogea. community the Ulküsal) tookthe surname was (later of its national minorities, allowing without to practice their religionspeak and to language Romanianization.policy their Turks Tatars desireof Today the and of is not seen as a threat to Romanian national security. Both groups love”. newspaper saidthat“thebiggest part of populationthe leavewill not the nation land they that 171 170 169 168 During Hac Müstecip independencefornationalities. aimed this period, the Soviet of in whichMany inspired were Prometheusmovement tojoin refugees these of Europe the from placeforCrimea. of Tatars becamerefuge in the foremost Dobrogea government 1917, nationalist ideas among the Tatars of Dobrogea. In the wake of the fall of the Crimean Tatar Ibid., 119. Ali Ekrem, 88-89. Badretdin. Türk Birli 171 The political representatives of the Tatar community in the Romanian Parliament Romanian the in community Tatar the of representatives political The sideOn of other the the barricade, the newspaper“Türk Birli Currently, Romania respects the minority rights of Tatars and does not follow not any anddoes Tatars of minority the rights respects Romania Currently, ÷ i , 27 September1934. 168 170 S. Hamdi, the Tatar deputy, in an interview in “Tatar Birligi” “Tatar in interview in an deputy, Tatar the Hamdi, S. 52 ÷ i” Turkish Union) (the 169 Õ Faz Õ l CEU eTD Collection at tendencieslies West between andand Romania East,betweenorienting towards Europe and 2.5.2. The Gagauz institutional mechanisms impose to a greaterresponsibility. lack of a considering community, of the interes the represent to waytheyunderstand the in lie representatives minorities’ the of mandates the of flaws The Parliament. Romanian the by hassupported been greatly Tatars, Romanian dayof the national the decrete to proposal minorities. other of representatives other the among activemost deputy the minorities report on activity the in of national the Aledinof deputies Romania,the Ametwas party. Among allthe deputies,previous onlyAledinAmet distinguished. a According to member of the UDTTMR (The Democratic Union of The Muslim Turco- Tatars of Romania) official minutes are keptin Romanian. held intheminority language, provided that intotranslation Romanianis and thatprovided, be can meetings local population, council makemore 30%of the than up villages wherethey towns andmore makefor villageswhere they than up population.the 20% of and Intowns in public accessto administration language native minorities areoffered education. Ethnic 2006), available at 173 172 minority. have from minority, toRomania’s benefited concessions the Hungarian largest the 174 accessed May 2008. http://www.edrc.ro/docs/docs/raport_monitorizare_1_final.pdf Romanian Information Centre in Bruxelles, Romanian Contemporary Society, EuropeanCommision, (April 158. Eminov, “Monitorizarea activit Moldova is a country with a bigdiversity minoritiesof and self-determination is a who deputy, byanelected arerepresented of Tatars the rights The political in language native their use can minorities ethnic declarations, official to According 172 www.crib.mae.ro/upload/docs/8862_1Romanian%20Contemporary%20Society.ppt ăĠ ii parlamentare a reprezentan 173 53 Ġ ilor minorit , Internet, accessed November2007. ăĠ ilor na Ġ ionale,September 2007”, available 174 His law , internet CEU eTD Collection 178 177 province. union with Romania. presentandon Moldovan the Romanian proclaimedterritory, Moldova troops aconditional By thelandlords. the end of the against peasant from andrebellions by numerous front Romanian the units thathaddeserted year, Bessarabia pretext of military protecting stockpiles military and the fighting anarchy caused byRussian became the under byinvading Bessarabia Romania into Greater the Moldova theintegration started of an ordinaryin aseparation from Moldovaseizure of time ledto Atthat Russia Romania of Russia. power Romanian andbecause stability shortthe of experience inleadership management. and organizational democracy to society for the as obstacle an or cease conflict to Moldovaasaway people of Gagauz of the differentiation seethe researchers Some in circumstances. certain accomplished 176 175 process of wherethe socialism namedRepublic, Union toSoviet Moldovan territories, return inBessarabia’s finalized coalition of anti-Nazi victory The the with Germans. the agreement legislation. international to contrary fact, in are that rights demanded and uncertainty political advantage of took the like others, Gagauzminority, since thefall of The communism. Europe Eastern and in Central time first the for rights, collective minorities' of and autonomy both territorial of an set example It differences. by cultural the so much andnot discourse as Moldova a curseof faiththe hasand history be “condemned Moldovato astate”. Charles Russia independenceof or Kingnamesthe republics. andtheformertowards Soviet Ibid. Skvortsova,162. ElviraAnghel, “Identitatea na 345. Romanianism, of Pan- Politics the and Identity Moldovan King, The political with context ofindependence declaration Ukraine’s the and Bolshevik Elvira Anghel says that the hatred among hatred the peopleby the hasbeenfuelled says political that Elvira Anghel the 178 176 Bessarabia stayed part of Bessarabiastayed partof Romania until 1940,when Union Soviet the signed an The Soviet Gagauzfollowed a inseen tendency post- societies, butonly 177 On political March 27 1918, dueto from pressure Romanianthe government Ġ ional ăú i cea european 54 ă ” (National and European Identity),in Mo ú neag 175 ă , 42. CEU eTD Collection 183 182 181 180 179 a national territory, a allow Gagauz the to in agreed Chisinau thegovernment statehood, for demand the cool Inexchange to tendencies. separatist in the to down restricted order world. whole the towards borders the open will alphabet Latin the to switching that admit they Today Latin characters. from to Cyrillic language of the in place took transcript the that changes the against republic. They occupationalthe mobility chancereacted within of or citizenship prisoners. former of comprised anti-communist Movement, and Cooperation the sector, agricultural Russia People, made members pro- of of from Party Communist the and bureaucrats the Gagauz the dissimilation: both aspiring the for werecreated, political two organizations Republic. Socialist Soviet Gagauz of proclamation the secession and decidedthe withoutrights place toitsgroup Consequently, ownterritory.in thattook a congress Comrat sustained Gagauzindigenous thatthe were and notbehad they considered to simply ethnic an in August 1989. country of language the declared official the language was Moldovan the Romania and after Russo-mobilizationUkrainian, aidentify Moldovan the againststruggle to and unitewith collectively. organize to right policy of freedom allowedPerestroika more the ethnic as to freedom groups speech of and the equally new to all of them- the Soviet lifestyle. was imprint of what received astrong groups all of Thecultures beingimplemented. started Anatol M Bollerup and Christensen,79. Anatol M Bollerup and Christensen,79. Skvortsova,164. 183 The Gagauz refused to comply with the policies to become bilingual or to lose any and state report itsAugust parliamentary asovereign In became 19,Moldova 1990, from tobe when The voices soviet 1986 onwards heard the Gagauzstarted the of Starting with freedoms1990-1991, the of expression and association have been 182 ă ă cri cri ú ú , , “G *ăJă ăJă uzii uzii din Basarabia”, in (The Gagauz People)(Bucure 180 The national revival initiated at the same time with the Curierul na 55 179 ú ti: ti: Agerpress Typo, 1999),32. Ġ ional , 13 December2003. 181 In1989, CEU eTD Collection Estonia andEstonia Moldova 187 186 185 Soviet Societies: the cases of Estonia and Moldova constraints on the secession strategies. thesecession on constraints economic severe therewere as community mostly Gagauz rural in the lackof resources the led state-like formation Gagauz national of tothe revival a separate unit. The USSR. the part of asaconstituent Gagauz republic for anindependent voted electorate 90%of the of state. the for president Stefan leader,Topal, People TheGagauz for the voted (83%) in elections participated the that The population for USSR. arenewed proposal the in elections 1990and inOctober in March population 1991 the participated a referendum on firstits held Parliament newcreated The USSR. of the subject afederal as Gagauzregion the 184 successful intervention of troops from the Soviet Minister of Internal Affairs. Most observers would agreedthatblood undoubtedly have been shed hadnot been itfor the lesson. a them teach to settlement Gagauz the thugsto armed of busloads sent activists radical Chi in regime nationalizing same the towards directed both they and were sametime at the in Chi government Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic initiative which immediately by was abolished the subordinateto the anti-communists. November 1989they aGagauz proclaimed In turning the country intoa federation of three republics: Moldova, Dniestria and Gagauz Eri. In by of presidentare decided theidea1992 the Moldova Mirceaof Snegurrefused Comrat. under jurisdiction the of WhileChisinau. thecultural exchangesand trade with countriesother government with its own legislature. The currency and the foreign defence affairs remained Kolsto, “Conclusion” in “Conclusion” Kolsto, Ibid, 219. Ibid. Munteanu, “Social Multipolarity and Political Violence”, in ú in ă According to Munteanu, the major reason for the absence of violence in Comrat was inComrat violence for absence the of Munteanu, major reason the According to Munteanu says that the Gagauz People party turned to be more powerful managed and tobemore powerful turned GagauzPeopleparty the that Munteanu says u. The links between Comrat and Tiraspol linksandComrat between u. The andmany. verystrong Tiraspol were Moldovan , ed. Pal Kolsto, 268. ú in ă u. Separate state institutions were created helpof statethestatus werecreated institutions to obtain Separate u. National Integration and violent conflict in post- Soviet Societies: the cases of 186 The two revivals, Transdniesters and Gagauz, came and Gagauz, revivals, Transdniesters Thetwo , ed. Pal Kolsto, 221. 56 National Integration and violent conflict in post- 185 187 184 CEU eTD Collection the area for centuries and have tended historically to resort toTurkishameans resort as nationalism to historically andhave centuries areafor the tended 2.5.3. Pan-Turkism ideological”. and political but isnot ethnic, demands main for “the thesecessionist that reason Russia and Turkey financialthrough assistance. negotiate. 193 192 191 190 189 188 of Gagauz Eri. specialstatus the 2001. In exchangetheir of Gagauzreceivedthe support, theapplication of some demands of inin politician Chisinau that25deputieswith the anagreementgovernment made admitted existing units andconstitutional republican rights. by Sovietregime andeasedbyalready formerly repressive the liberal policies adopted occupied by Gagauz. were Sheehy inposts the administrative1987 only separate 2.3% of to According unit. Bruchis. The politicalconsiders therepublicancentre, nor federal by favoured neither the were they because deprivation was reflected in the fact that they were never assigned a Gagauz government itself has in large part made a virtue out of madeitself out has of a necessity. inlargepart avirtue Gagauz government from coming ismore the tone for the Chisinau that and GagauzEri conciliatory partly due to Bloed quoted by Munteanu,Igor ed.Pal Kolsto, 226. Ibid., 338. Frunta 362. Romanianism”, of Pan- Politics the and Identity “Moldovan King, Ibid., 80. Bollerup, and Christensen, 96. Ethnic TurksandMuslims in Balkansthe are populations thathave indigenous to been Iulian Frunta Iulian Bollerup and Christensen that the nationalconsider revival becould explainedby the Moldova Party Communistof the role in asignificant neverplayed The Gagauz ú u, 360. 193 ú 188 u says that the ethnic mobilization was caused by the leaders helpedleadersby by the wascaused mobilization ethnic u says the that 191 Therefore, the Gagauz leaders to willingness Gagauz showed the Therefore, 57 192 189 In 1993, an OSCE observer also reported King believes that the concession made concession the that believes King 190 A Gagauz CEU eTD Collection West and Russia, Turkey has long been reluctant to play an active role in the Turkic revival. play intheTurkic role to anactive haslongbeen reluctant Turkey West andRussia, contribution”. esteem I do Turkey's peacefully. So conflict international this andinautonomous, resolving Turkish Republic: “Itis Turkey played that adecisive role inacknowledging Gagauzia as autonomy the made possiblea was thanksgreat to deal andof support assistance givenby the go”. let not will and other each found have We you. abandon be“Do not will concerned. Turkey not Union. of collapse Heconfessed: Soviet the the after minorities national issue of explosive the to solutions best the of as one autonomy presidentSüleyman Demirel visitedwho Moldova in 1996 and 1998.Heconsidered the Region”, 197 196 195 194 in Chi invest million via Eri, central authorities Turkey to Moldova’s 35 inGagauz pledged dollars governmentwhofor their gaveabigsupport “revival” the and economic development. many made not investments there,exceptfor some madeby ones minor Turkish the unitof is and Gagauzautonomous were the very there organization.poor Theinfrastructure for construction the of needed housing, schools andcultural organizations. Turkishsupport them governmentinto gain theirstruggle money land to and tocollect rights, Turkey Tatars, whereverto may they haveThe been. Tatar Diaspora in lobbyTurkey the by wielded protection evokethe gratefully The Tatars of state Turkey. modern with after the Empire. For centuries Ottoman of the states successor from the pressures assimilatory overt against of defence Tatars had an alliance with the Turks from the Ottoman Empire and Emmet Tuohy, Melinda Haring, “Moldova: The Example Of Gagauz-Yeri As An 'Unfrozen Conflict' An 'Unfrozen As Of Gagauz-Yeri Example The “Moldova: Haring, Melinda Tuohy, Emmet “Demirel in Moldova”, in “Demirel Brezianu, 213. Williams, 277. ú in Sabirzyan Badretdin considers that in order not to jeopardize its relations with with the jeopardize relations its to innot considersorder that Sabirzyan Badretdin Moldova’s policy toward its Moldova’s Turcophone Christian policy minority by was praised toward Turkey’s Pan-Turkism orientation distanced the ethnic group from the pro-Slav and the Dniester RFE/RL ă u. 195 197 , 5 April, 2007. RFE/RL Daily Report Daily RFE/RL 105, 6June 1994. 58 196 Formuzal believes that the existence of existence the that believes Formuzal 194 CEU eTD Collection at 198 leadership”. Turkey’s of aspect thecultural emphasize instead, integration of and, initial at the stage Turkic role leadership Turkey’s of aspect political the de-emphasize to expedient seems it Therefore, “Turkish expansionism has always beenviewed with suspicion by Westand the Russia. The Tatars, whose ancestors came from Crimea, may consider Crimea their homeland, but homeland, their Crimea may consider cameCrimea, from ancestors whose The Tatars, upon themselves primarily as Romanian citizens, andonlysecondly Muslimsas orTatars.” a degree Tatars, “tendtolook is much to than education that Turks, andthe religion greater One Romanian privilege reason havewhy tried overTurksinmatters authorities to Tatars of needed. theirwhen which aid will come to isstate akin eventually.there Turkey To them homelandhope toreturn and true their Turkey Romania.Turkey consider Many than with with identification stronger a have hand, other the on Romania, in Turks The emigrate, feelings.experience patriotic not time over andspacedid beingscattered repression and acommunity Gagauz undergone and the argues Tatars the that It identity. basis ethnic the of one’s forming characteristic important Thismost identifying isperhapsthe ethnicgroup. a certain asamemberof oneself be defined Ethnic as can self-consciousness in factor mobilization relevant group. one of the consciousness 2.6. Ethnic support. ought to person moral any that aim noble a is economically and politically, culturally, them uniting 199 http://tatar.yuldash.com/079.html Sabirzyan Badretdin, “Pan-Turkism: Past,Present and Future”, De Jong, While Tatars identify While nothavestrongstrongly desire anddid Tatars with Romania to a The construction identity of and ethnic in consciousness Romania and Moldova is The Muslim Minorities in the Balkans 198 The goal The goal liberating of from Turkic colonial peoples and oppression , internet accessed December 2007. December accessed internet , , 416. 59 Turkoman , London, December1998 available 199 CEU eTD Collection 204 203 202 201 200 Hungarians. the or Slavs the seeing were they as Gagauz land firstly themland,giving consider Moldovans the not did them as theirenemies oppression. large or scale atrocities significant contain not does relations Gagauz of Moldovan- record national identity. writes unlike Bollerup that Moldovan- the Slavic relations, historical the researching and preparing population. the The Gagauz showed astrong ethnic base and without affiliation political a certain imposing foreseen has that propaganda the of a result entitiesinto as two separate hadto population TheGagauz characteristics. ethnic cultural and more researchmadethe people byKolsto, declared themselvesGagauzthan Soviet. to given from As seen isvery the powerful. of Gagauz generation.awareness Self to from were generation that ancestors their with bond territorial important very a is land The towns. predominantly rural. Theinhabitants are mostly farmers and livein villages in small two says Bollerup. social a senseof solidarity, preservation of of affairs. state the of passive acceptance toremainethnocentrism.to exitinferiorin canchoose Members silent or of groups the Neither group, subordinateTatars the nor dominantthe Romanian shows much group groupidentity markermembers ofits of for community Tatar in contexts. the various Ukraine. outside living in fate of itCrimean Tatars and nointeresthas the Ukraine is certainly not a kin state to them. Ukraine does not want Tatars to return to Crimea, Bollerup and Christensen,85. 33. Kolsto, Bollerup and Christensen,82. Williams, 4. 136. Eminov, The national identity The national identity includes politicalthe configuration of not society,the only the to contributed most probably few been have urbanized Gagauz The factthat isit provided primary the theconceptof thatalostWilliams homelandthat considers 204 Even if the Moldovans did not like the present the Russian tsar made to the 60 202 The region of Gagauz Eri is 200 203 201 CEU eTD Collection 207 Russian led Soviet dominance. The Moldovans did not perceive them as a threat to the perceive to asathreat did them not dominance. Moldovans The Russian ledSoviet under Soviet and rule that the twonation hadgroups incommonin interest opposing the them than underprivileged economically more even been had Gagauz the that Moldvovans in this be future threat apotential be to werethey acauseperceived and neither to of deprivation the respect.perceived werenot The Gagauz of Gagauz. the be interests the with inconflict deprivation to On political and economic the inavoiding interests theinstrumental their perceive not did Moldovans contrary,well as an obstacle toidentify mobilizing elites. there as an membersidentity mixed affront than Their ethnic represents other of do communities. was strong identities both on sides of boundary. mixedthe Culturally groupsfeel vulnerable more widespread acknowledgement among the 206 205 identify Gagauz. as that leaders areBulgarians are68% Gagauz.Some today citizens Bulgarians, Comrat’s 20ththe century was Comratinhabited in equal by proportion Gagauz Moldavians, and interests. in their of unite in action defence they to tend graveinjustice; collective what they consider gaining autonomy. the organization could notsucceed by thehostilityusing Moldovansagainst the like for tool pro-Russian the of leaders and the werealways peaceful relations like theSlavs did.The from no andthere mother support like a nation never outside and against turned they them Kolsto, 250. Kolsto, M 249. Kolsto, ă cri A long cultural distance and a clear demarcation line between groups doindeed A long linebetween groups anda create cultural demarcation clear distance Gurr and Harff describe the groups with a high degree of common identity suffer from identity of with ahigh common degree the groups Gurr andHarff describe resources significant no were asthere Moldovans tothe threat no were The Gagauz ú , 205 *ăJă The Gagauz have a powerful force to assimilate others. While at the beginningthe of While others. at assimilate force to apowerful have TheGagauz uzii (The Gagauzpeople), 23. 206 61 207 Vladimir Socor believes that the CEU eTD Collection 208 status, beitwithin boundariesthe of USSRor the within independentan Moldova. ininterest ifstriving, not foranindependent state, then leastforat some kind of autonomous primordial hadfar Thesomisrecognized astrong Gagauz for aGagauznation-state. sense andinin Odessa Oblast contiguous thisthe wastheonly Ukraine, whichwouldplace make intermarriagesurprising that is condemned. potential thereis Since upon much disloyalty. emphasis importance the itisof ancestry, not This is by interpreted authorities in andelsewhere Romania as a sign of unreliability and outside of Turkey developedhave not identities strong with countriesthe in whichthey live. have is Onein anddonot desire toemigrate. astrong thatTurks Romania consequence interests. their political with compatible as cultural autonomy the considered functioning of a Moldovan dominated democracy because of the sheer size. They also Bollerup and Christensen,222. As approximately 90% of all Gagauz livedas of 1989 in southern the part of Moldova Tatars consider Romania their homeland, identify strongly with it, they wish to remain 62 208 CEU eTD Collection town in Romania, Constan in Romania, town individuals. and Gagauz theTatar on results the test and thecasestudies on literature the to theories linkthe Iwill primarily Moldova. in and Romania communities andTatar Gagauz research consistscontribution in conducting analysing and interviews with members of the between 22-50, but who those showed moreinterest in responding werethe young people. included group inThe Eri malesrespondents targeted andfemalesaged eight. Gagauz reached prospects of group. the asked what they feel aboutthey believetheir cultureabout their and theirculture, the resultscommunity. their rights,of autonomy, The andculture, language,minority/citizenleadership religion, rights, andviews theirfuture of questions of the the directionas well addressed as ofthe politics. future at Tatars The Gagauz in Romania were in Eri teaching schools. Gagauz professors were Turkish aimed at finding out whatThe mostmet peopleinandwere before I I contacted to talked peopleComrat that and some speak. not languageI do a that people’s accent, powerful Russian dueto linguistic obstacles some met communication the individuals, Gagauz to talking When in Romania). Turco-Tatars Union Muslim of Democrat (The members of UDTTMR in issue more were this interested their views with someonesharing feltbecause people interviews and community conduct Tatar tothe have access to who knew and understood their problems. The people that were In April 2008 I conducted a research trip in the capital In April capital my a 2008Iconducted city inthe of Bucharest, home research trip my main topic, on the literature academic the evaluating critically to In addition A total number of twelve Tatars responded to my survey, while the number of the of people theperception these hasThe sample their targeted considering of questions CHAPTER THREE: Causes of assimilation and dissimilation and future predictions Ġ a, and the capital city of Gagauz Eri, Comrat. It was easier for me was easierfor It Comrat. Eri, of Gagauz city capital the a, and 63 CEU eTD Collection mother everyday life tongue, problems,mixed of marriagesand discrimination. Most them inandbooks is the language lackof schools the languageand the the thetraditions, primitive, mother community,donot the athome,ignorance tongue teach speakparents towards and the small sizeof are:the perceived causesthey Among the culture. arelosing Tatars their the that pragmatic is very scarce. Asked how they they feel about Asked how isvery scarce. pragmatic should culture the inunderstand butbeinterest that their preserved something doing learned that only the old people keep the traditional culture alive, while the young generations problems Culture andcommunity’s questions on culture, language, political, following: as The Tatars processes. divided causesthe into andsolutionspeople gavetothe assimilationist/dissimilationist theme the and to interviews according findingspresent will the of the try I on, Further to As a result of the answers concerning the culture of the Tatar and Gagauz culture, I 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Beginning with Beginning community Tatar the with in Constan How do you see the future of the Tatar community? rights? your represent leaders community’s the that consider you do extent what To community? the of How do you contribute to the preservation of the Tatar ethnicity and culture Whatdo you thinkeducation about in language? Tatar Romania? If you think they preserve/lose it, what are the causes? in dofeelyou and culture Tatars the the languageHow of the about 64 the Tatar the Tatar culture Ġ a, the samplequestions includeda, the , the majority agreed majority , the CEU eTD Collection (male, 26) thinks that is thatreligion an says, butshe inmarriage. fewerpeople for obstacle knows religion isshe must marry someone of Islamic faiththe even if she does not comply with everything religion only onea sure way to assimilation. S.I.A. (female, 27, student)that confessed that she has been taught that can relevant instop only marriage situations. All respondents the reject mixed marriages,is it thinking or at least notpractice becomes butimportance they do its it. understand The religion respondents slow down The ethnic groups. from other andadistinction customary practices to some attachment the a job. a identify orherselfasTurkish,himself admitting theusefulness language inof Turkish finding Tatars, especially basicthe history the knowledge about theirof aboutTatar cultural people or heads. Many amonginknow not Romania, meaning shethe does not of day.90%of this have respondentsdo the the younger generation, modernto the life. in cause lays adaptation the preferof the whole population of Romania. One subject, L.Z. (41, female, professor), thinks that theto learn inhabitants, issmall in 0.1% 25,000 which process anatural community caseof of represents and speak Turkish and forare also thelack blamed in of mother tongue. education the parents The shamefelt. added the One subject ignorance. of because lose their Tatars culture weddingsor people.is said bytheelder everything and done Threerespondents that the The youngreason is the get that donot involved in baptismorganizing ceremonies, funerals much know traditions. said the they youngernotabout traditions,about that the do subjects Whenhelp talking future. in not will them the language their and culture considered that Only one subject mentioned religion inmaintainingas important identity. one’s F.C. Religion Tatars the of national day the voted even been has if agued that there One respondent mentioned sizeof the assimilation Two respondents community, the that considering is an important in factor identity. defining isan BeingMusliminvolves one’s 65 CEU eTD Collection 209 Romanian mother as tongue languagemotheris declaredas by tongue 92% of population,the consider whilethe rest usedanymore languagethe isbeing Tatar forgotten and generations. not except bythe older special the wherevertraditions, foods in he world. the travels by the his culture of preservation the to contribute hecan 31) thinks (male, music. G.S. professor) is teaching the younger ones about the culture andmaking them listen to Tatar from but individual level, an and learn they language.try to speakthe L.Z.(female, 41, language, 80%of respondents answered that they are notinvolved in anyhow community,the use.” theTatars factor isthemain powerful mostculture and use and differentiate Tatars is to factorthat culture identity the the themain as anation, and identity. I believe our history, culture, language and the religion are the essential elements of with constitutional thattriesrights tokeepand by efforts considerable affirm its ethnical (female, 31, parliamentaryhad S.A opinion The same a national 1989. after we areassistingrevival to saying that counsellor)do not losewho said:their “theculture. Tatars C.A (male,are today 40 years a (Christiannational Orthodox old,religion) given at school. PhD candidate)minorityShe denied saysthe assimilation, in. religion consists what insistteaching them on she not thatfact did that the regrets and children her at thislooks she when only family her in religion of role the understands professor) 41, is also somehowassimilation process, and itis the only marker todifferentiate from the majority. L.Z. (female, normal as her children attend the religion classes student) said that she speaks Tatar with her parents, but she speaks Romanian with her brother her with Romanian speaks she but parents, her with Tatar speaks she that said student) The Romanian census held in 2002, available at available 2002, in held census Romanian The All the interviewed subjects declared they declaredthey want All theinterviewed subjects they how asked When they that and assimilated not are Tatars the that think twelve of out respondents Two 209 . 50%admit notthey do speak Tatar. S.I.A. (female, 27, contribute to the preservation the to contribute www.recensamant.ro 66 education inTatar language , Internet, accessed November2007 of the Tatar culture and and that CEU eTD Collection the young generation, unity in emphasize ambition, tongue, mother the people, young education the unity as generation, towards and of interest are: give they solutions the Among bright. be to order in conditions many on depends future the that say given answers the of most and negative, it see others Future implications them or consider only them blameto for the success or the lack of success of the community. from everything expect not she does that says one at sametime the But community. ethnic rights of minority one shouldgroups have. in interested the is not he arerespected, rights hisas long citizen as that 28)considers (male, funds of cultural the remain orareusedfororganizations personal unused E.C. expenses. contextthe of education, sayingleaders the that donothelpyoung the people andthat the aware of (male, their S.R. problemthe 28)puts activities. interestthe of politiciansof the in language. the Turkish as languagethe similarity of study of Tatarfor mentioned and 30) M.M, (female, the person. Tatar each inof its theeducation place back will take TurkishTatar languagesminority and break, startingyear. with 2008-2009 school as Shehopesconsidered in that Tatar the language future the one way theof replacementassimilation inyears of 50 which curriculum after the beintroduced teaching the regarding of will Tatar, of Tatar of withthe in it because in communicate is Romanian. to to herchildren easier Tatar interviewer, L.Z. (41, female, professor), said that even if she knows Tatar she does notspeak One teenagers. and in children seen mostly is tongue mother the of rejection The sister. and The future of The future of has divided community the opinions, some itsee as optimistic, and The other 20% trust the political leaders, arguing that they represent the rights of an About the About knew parliamentary S.A. Only aboutfuture (31, the one subject, prospects counsellor), leaders of the community 67 , 80% does not have a good opinion or is not CEU eTD Collection language. According to the answers received in Gagauz Eri, the accent on important the on Eri, accenttwo in the Gagauz answersreceived According tothe language. and havefreedom culture autonomy andshoulddevelopingof and their the the ability distinct fought for the recognition of their ethnicity problems Culture andcommunity’s as a nation with its own territorial and cultural as well as people I came across with during the journey. The questions I asked were: The Gagauz many vanities beto visionary too!” language, thetraditionsthattoday only olderthe people has keep.Theyoung generation too the with assimilated totally be will we “Slowly generations: young in the believe not L.Z.(female,doessubject, notview 41,professor), the future optimistically becauseshe does ethnically One survive. to have chances Tatars and the traditions, the religion, culture, the for aminority does stopand state Romanian forbidnot the practice of language,the the are necessary that therights Romania all offers that in context the saidthat interviewers Three history. traditionson the establishing proposed andreligion. amuseum One subjects Tatar of Contrary to the passivity of the Tatar population in Romania, inin theGagauz Moldova population Romania, Tatar passivity the the of Contrary to 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. The respondents in Comrat were among the people Icontacted before I travelled there, How do you see the future of the Gagauz? doHow you contribute to preservationthe yourof and culture language? administration? you usage think the do Whatof the about and Gagauz languagein education leaders not? or the of political trifle How do you see the autonomy of Gagauz Eri and its consequences? Was it a importantHow is ethnicthe identity you?for 68 CEU eTD Collection used to live in the neighbouring countries. neighbouring in the live to used that connection somewith grandparents making assuch, themselves young present people Moldovans, butidentity as Bulgarian or Ukrainian. R.N. Russianculture. tothe adaptation (female, 24,mother tongue, theimmigration tendencies of incompetent youngthe population,leaders, and NGO worker) says that life. of the sectors the in all used is predominantly language Russian the political lack there’snoand ofinterest, longer inpressures education mother but their tongue, inlanguage teach schools,today,Gagauz dueto Even ifin 1990sthereto wasacampaign the people apowerful experienced mobilization for revival now but admit they that failed. in factors preserving one’s ethnicity has fadedin away After gaining time. autonomy, the invest in this area. One subject blames the policy of drivein governmentblames away to of Moldovan the invest policy the subject area.One this is years, last of the formain very GagauzEri. Germany willing For source to two-three profit is the used,whereas agriculture the were German technologies In agriculture, agriculture. industry in and countries areasof withthe western and contracts economic are trade there investments in the region that might create employment.is M.T. (male,the 46, professor) sayssame that forleave toRussia, Turkey or European countries findto better life, but they alsoall believe that this the young is is asthe people that citizensmy interviewers agreedon that, reality The today development. of economical and a cultural for theconditions all were there ago years if ten even Gagauz Eri Moldova. Onedenied theautonomy. 90%of interviewersthe has a negative opinion of situationthe in subject were they if same the was situation the that and expectations the beyond are results the said describes the problems of the Asked about the mainthe Asked about that say asGagauz,they identify areGagauz themselves and subjects Although 6 Among the causes mentioned for the problems they perceive: the lack of interestin the is fading away with the new generations, they no longer identify as Gagauz or Gagauz as identify longer no they generations, new the with away fading is consequences oftheautonomy 69 of Gagauz Eri, the majority CEU eTD Collection region. English. words, Turkey In imageother has a good andis it welcome in offering helpin the is inTurkish and whereeducation a Turkishmentioned college of given theexistence helpingin the developmentbroadcasting,of TV industry textile (male,and education. 29) I.B. inmore interested were economical and survival. situation first Also the (economical reasons). states more developed to leaves population the whowere supporting the culture buildingin GagauzErileft country the for samethe reasons people believes those that NGOworker) languageN.R. (female,its Russia 24, policy. and accept in they situation, current But the group. speakers in theRussian Gagauz remained Moldova hadgroups, beenseparatedinto two Romanian and Russianspeakers.And the in living disintegration, nationalities the Russia. After Soviet influenceand theareanot the Gagauz language is more usedamong in living people rural the regions. use most language.The not the hein probably fluentmust Gagauz,as Gagauz Eri will be future.their R.N. (female, 24,NGOworker) said that itis obligatory the that mother majority tongue, needlanguage populationthe the notthe that the for considers does arenothere Evenifthe subjects in admit lack schools Gagauz language. the education of onelesson and peris week compulsory subject, me, Gagauzlanguage the interviewers told Gagauzs has significantly. improved sayingwell-beingthe of autonomy that life the a betterquality after of referssubject to Voronin's (the President of Moldava)here policy and autonomy can notdoanything. One main importers of wines, already the were forRussia and as Byelorussia “Where says: (male, professor) two S.B. development. the years the wines do not go there because of the Mr. About the role of Turkey in the region’s development, one subject said that it is it that said subject one development, region’s the in Turkey of role the About About the In Gagauz Eri basic In GagauzEri the political leadership education , 80% of idea the , 80%of opinionsthe supported of Turkish in schools is still given in Russian. As the inRussian. given isstill inschools 70 bashkan bashkans of CEU eTD Collection customs, but he is pessimistic there will be people to do that. to geteducation in theirmother tongue, talk language, theirown continue their and traditions toexistin order asanation in Gagauzpeople this world, be needGagauzEri so they will able change isto are tooproud by opinion (male, Thesame sharedsays that something. S.B. PhD) young preserved.(male, political thinks people elite andthe not thatthe M.T. 46,professor) and gloomy. They are all aware of the risks of globalization and feel sorry that the culture is Future implications The answers of the interviewers concerning the future of their community are doubtful their of community future the concerning interviewers the of The answers 71 CEU eTD Collection 210 will decay. lead to only way new the group, the of values traditional the ignoring that saying others the and majority into the be absorbed will group minority later small or sooner that opinions There were life. of way modern and traditional the between dichotomy a is there and phenomenon natural fearedleaders economical of the and political languagelaw.the consequences but important, perceivethe cultural not as deprivation political the inGagauz Eri did party widespreadsupport. received independentModova in will an worsen deprivation that Eri and in Gagauz situation economical for the is Chisinau responsible that feared theywilljobs lose their because not speak they language.the ideasthe do Moreover, group; dominant speakthey not do theirlanguage. native languages arenotbeingin taught Theschools. generations young speak languagethe of the and Gagauz of demand,because Tatar theirlanguage. lackof the promote and Today culture consequences significantly. differ of minoritythe Both donotgroups highlight, invest and mentioned butinthe by factors eachgroup’s development existed theoreticians the that the assimilation Gagauzwecansee andthe Tatars of the excerpts and opinion the literature From available the that led toassimilationand and dissimilation, and elaborate dissimilationwhat I consider the mostimportant. consequences do not differ in many aspects. The Bollerup and Christensen,96. When Moldovan language was adopted as inofficial language language wasadopted Moldova, Gagauz When the Moldovan Given the limited time and space, I hope I have managed to reflect some of the factors As shown in the interviews, the perceptions regard assimilation and dissimilation as dissimilation and assimilation regard perceptions the interviews, the in shown As CONCLUSIONS 72 210 The dominant CEU eTD Collection Tatar even though they do not speak the language, are not familiar even not they speaklanguage, culturenot Tatar and are the with though do Tatar the helpedhas culture. notcall Some of Tatar thedevelopment to people areproud themselves and education to use mother whereleadership political the threshold tongue of the population’s surpasses20%, minorities national its entitles constitution Romanian the if Even loyalties. either TurkishorRussian. orientation Gagauzleaders,the wasadispute regarding andpolitics, of there culture their ofsomeAmong such Gagauz Russia Turkey. externalpatron the support as and elite enjoyed the hand, other the On Gagauz. the of deprivation economic the correct to means the or will for granted Gagauzdid The in than have Moldovanswould nottake that the the Dobrogea. 10% of republic’sthe territory. received more than special status Gagauz who tothe inallowing which itsresulted minorities, governing independentstate. Thean republic hasalso been accused of being tootolerantwith in have not experience the does andMoldova feelings of xenophobe the exaggeration an than rather anomy acivic likely more is Moldova in democracy installing of process The solution. only the adaptation and saw inintegration population that Tatar the perceptions of self- the transformed life social in developments contemporary the and minorities the be andit formed, in identity resulted Romaniaan crisis. communist In the adoptedto policy cultural inferiority of cultural Gagauz. the and political so-called the to resorted ideology Soviet and Tsarist The cleavages. complex and resources control over support. substantial political competition gained by instrumental theories. Therefore, I believe the assertion that ethnicmovements rely on Comparing to the Gagauz, the Tatars never had a nation-state competingfor their nation-state a never had Tatars Gagauz,the the Comparing to On incomparably economicand lifein hand,the one political was weaker Gagauzia Gagauz Eri had followed a different path than the Tatars in Romania due to Moldova’s given explanation the in lie dissimilation and assimilation of causes the Undoubtedly, Perestroika 73 had the effect of allowing alternative groups to groups alternative effectof hadallowing the CEU eTD Collection traditional life style. my judgement, socialthe followchanges modernization the leavingpath, behind the previous chapters,it still persists even after the ethnic mobilization. Among the predictions,in in tolosing asdemonstrated and saying culture withoutrefers goes assimilation cause. Itthat economic the was separation and integration to contributed what but many, are assimilation should give up one’s nationality or religion or considerone that itsmean own not ethnicity does integration inferior. but life modern of condition essential is an Integration society. modern into the tointegrate therefore and age modern the of requirements the hasaccepted. assimilation beenunconditionally the a secularso “Fatherland”, to attachment or identity modern national senseof articulated no diversity. Their nationalism could not have been ignited by an internal factor. The Tatars have multiculturalism of of Romania tothe ethnic contributes preservation puzzlethe and the that areseen of one piece Theas Tatars resources. human andfinancial lack of and modernization teenagers wanttoidentify modern with everythingthemselves fashionable. and Most complex. inferiority an and low self-esteem to contribute can marginalization and position, the Tatars had a social have and in society the tobe accepted In order ones. important most the are probably to give up their own culturalnotadheredo toIslam.Amongmany theself- reasons, possible life and esteem the quality of features. The rejection of assimilation My overall conclusion confirms the hypothesis that the causes that contributed to the contributed to thehypothesis causesthat My overallconclusionconfirmsthat the adapt to managed to not have populations Gagauz andthe Tatar timethe of In course The alternatives for ethnic survival are banned by other reasons that link the forThe reasonsthat to banned ethnic byother alternatives are survival 74 CEU eTD Collection Berry, John. 1994. Acculturation Stress. In policies, 2002,in Barcelona, Spain. model. at Gagauzsocio-linguistic the presented USA the Paper languageWorld on congress Coretchi, Ana, Ana Pescaru and Cynthia Stevens. The Republic of Modova: Dimensions of PolskiejWydawnictwo Akademii Nauk. im. Ossolinskich Narodowy Zaklad Wroclaw: Europe. in East-Central borderlands in ethnic Chlebowczyk, Jozef.On 1980. Small and Young Nations in nation-formingEurope: processes Press. Scarecrow Brezianu, Andrei. 2000. Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Moldova. Lanham, Md: Press. Martin's St. York: New Europe. Eastern century Causes Europe, and Consequencesof National and Revivals the inlate-twentieth-Conflicts Bollerup, Soren Rinder and Christian Dons NationalismChristensen. 1997. in Eastern Roy S. Malpass, 211-215. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. of the Tatars from Genghis Han to Gorbachev). Bucure Ablay, Mehmet. 1997. Din istoria t Secondary sources: interviewedS.R., by 17May author, the 2008, Constanta, Romania. S.I.A., interviewed by 16May author, the 2008, Constanta,Romania. S.D., interviewed by 18May author, the 2008, Bucharest,Romania. interviewedS.B., by 5May author, the 2008, Comrat, Moldova. N.R., interviewed by the author, 5 May 2008, Comrat, Moldova. M.T., interviewed by 5May author, the Moldova.2008, Comrat, M.M., interviewed by 16May author, the Romania. 2008, Constanta, L.Z., interviewed by 16 author, the I.B., interviewed by 5May author, the Moldova.2008, Comrat, G.S., interviewed by 16May author, the Romania.2008, Constanta, interviewedF.C., by 16May author, the 2008, Constanta, Romania. interviewedE.S., by 5May author, the 2008, Comrat, Moldova. E.G., interviewed by the author, 5 May 2008, Comrat, Moldova. interviewedE.F., by 17May author, the 2008, Constanta,Romania. interviewedE.C., by 16May author, the Romania.2008, Constanta, interviewedD.H., by 16May author, the 2008, Constanta, Romania. C.M., interviewed by the author, 5 May 2008, Comrat, Moldova. C.A., interviewed by the author, 18 May 2008, Bucharest, Romania. 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