Ba s e l i n e St u d y o f t h e Fl o r a i n Of f a k a Su b Co u n t y , Ar u a Di s t r i c t Abridged (Shortened) version

Pr e p a r e d b y : Andama Edward Le a d Co n s u l t a n t

For Trócaire and Adraa Agriculture College

Ma r c h 2015

Ba s e l i n e St u d y o f t h e Fl o r a in Of f a k a Su b Co u n t y , Ar u a District

Ta b l e Of Co n t e n t s

TABLE OF CONTENTS ______1

FOREWORD______3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ______4

1.0 INTRODUCTION ______5

1.1 Pr o b l e m s t a t e m e n t ______5 1.2 Ra t i o n a l e o f t h e s t u d y ______5 1.3 Aim a n d o b j e c t i v e s ______5 2.0 STUDY AREA CHARACTERISTICS ______6

2.1 Cu l t u r a l i d e n t i t y a n d t r a d i t i o n a l l i v e l i h o o d s t r a t e g i e s ______6 2.2 Lo c a t i o n , Cl i m a t e a n d Ve g e t a t i o n ______6 2.3 So i l s a n d r i v e r s y s t e m ______7 2.4 Th e p o p u l a t i o n a n d e c o n o m y ______7 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ______8

4.0 RESULTS ______9

4.1 So c i o e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ______9 4.2 Pl a n t u s e s a n d e t h n o -b o t a n i c a l k n o w l e d g e ______9 4.2.2 Ch a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d b u s i n e s s ______9 4.2.4 Medicinal pl a n t u s e b y t h e c o mm u n i t y ______9 4.3 Ke y h u m a n t h r e a t s t o n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e ______12 4.4 Hu m a n w i l d l i f e c o n f l i c t s ______13 4.5 En v i r o n m e n t a l degradation c o n c e r n s ______13 4.6 Institutiona l s t r u c t u r e s f o r m a n a g e m e n t o f biodiversity ______13 4.7 Pl a n t biodiversity ______14 4.7.2 Ve g e t a i o n a n d a g r o -e c o l o g y a n d v e g e t a t i o n c o v e r c h a n g e s ______14 4.8 Ma mm a l Diversity ______14 4.9 Co mpl i m e n t a r y s t a k e h o l d e r activities in t h e Su b Co u n t y ______15 5.0 DISCUSSION ______17

5.1. Biodiversity u s e a n d i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e ______17 5.2. Un s u s t a i n a b l e f l o r a l r e s o u r c e utilisation ______17 5.3 Po t e n t i a l f o r v a l u e a d d i t i o n t o biodiversity ______18 6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ______19

6.1. Co n cl u s i o n s ______19 6.2. Re c o mm e n d a t i o n s ______19 REFERENCES ______20

Li s t o f f i g u r e s Fi g u r e 1 Lo c a t i o n a n d r i v e r s o f Of f a k a Su b Co u n t y in Ar u a District ______7 Fi g u r e 2. So m e o f t h e Medicinal pl a n t s r e c o r d e d in t h e s t u d y a r e a ______11 Fi g u r e 3. So m e o f t h e c o mm o n f r u i t pl a n t s r e c o r d e d in t h e Su b Co u n t y w i t h p o t e n t i a l f o r . v a l u e a d d i t i o n ______12 Fi g u r e 4. La n d c o v e r in t h e y e a r 2000 (l e f t ) a n d t h e y e a r 2014 (r i g h t ) f o r Of f a k a Su b Co u n t y ______15

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Li s t o f Ac r o n y m s AAC: Adraa Agriculture College CFM: Collaborative Forest Management FGD: Focus Group Discussion FMNR: Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature NAADS: National Agricultural Advisory Services NFA: National Forest Authority OSLG: Offaka Sub County Local Government UBOS: Uganda Bureau of Statistics ZARDI: Abii Zonal Agricultural Research Development Institute

Au t h o r Dr. Andama Edward works as Senior Lecturer at Busitema University, Faculty of Science and Education. He is also the initiator and coordinator of Greater Eastern Uganda Regional Center of Expertise. His study interests have for long focused on indigenous plants knowledge utilization and management for sustainable development of the local community.

Di s c l a i m e r This research, commissioned by Trócaire Uganda and Adraa Agriculture College, was undertaken and written by Dr. Andama Edward, Mr. Robert Ocatre and Constance Alezuyo.

The opinions expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the author (s) and do not necessarily represent the official position of Trócaire Uganda and Adraa Agriculture College unless otherwise stated.

The report is property of Trócaire Uganda and copyright for material in this report is held by Trócaire Uganda and Adraa Agriculture College.

All photographs in this report are courtesy of Andama Edward and the research team unless otherwise stated.

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Fo r e w o r d rócaire is very pleased to have been for biodiversity destruction in Offaka in Tassociated with this study, done with the next 10 years. Don’t say you weren’t ADRAA and Dr. Andama and his team, warned. One wonders to what extent given its global interest in environmental Offaka is replicated in other Sub Counties justice and climate change. in Uganda. From anecdotal evidence many As far as we are aware this is the first other Sub Counties are already further down comprehensive botanical study of a Sub County carried out in Uganda. Given that the route of environmental destruction. the Sub County is the lowest autonomous From my rough conservative calculations, geographical unit of action in the Offaka Sub County is exporting 300 bags Government system – which functions of charcoal a day which is equivalent to socially, economically and politically as about 75 trees every day! independent unit - it is the crucial level at which planning, implementation and It seems like there is a very short window management must and does take place. to try and turn this juggernaut around and Genetically modified food is one route to get back to sustainable management. This trying to meet the ever growing food needs report gives recommendations that can of the world but it hardly looks a sustainable help get us back on track and reverse this one. There seem to be significant dangers biodiversity destruction before it is too late. of focusing on a narrow range of crops – Even in economic terms the study shows the maize, banana, cassava, potatoes or rice. potential of a number of plants identified. A couple of bad seasons or a resistant disease can have devastating effects as we This report highlights the great need for in Ireland know all too well from the Great sustainable land use planning as well as Potato Famine of the 1840s. environmental management. I hope that planners, agriculturalists, educationalists, This study shows that there is still great medical people, administrators, and diversity of flora in Offaka and that we researchers in every Sub County and district neglect this rich biodiversity at our peril. in Uganda will study this report and relate the outcome of the study to their own However, there have been dramatic, not to ethno-botanical ecosystems. say drastic, changes in land use patterns in Offaka Sub County in the last 14 years. I hope that this reflection will lead our An 87% reduction in closed woodland, a administrators, planners and leaders at all 77% increase in use of land for agriculture, levels of Government system to debate and communal lands that are not being actively come up with development approaches, managed, a doubling of the human processes and strategies that will ensure we population in the Sub County every 23 manage our biodiversity holistically and that years, a doubling of the livestock population the multifunctional role of ethnobotanical in the eight years to 2008, massive exports plants be highlighted in government of charcoal (made from communal precious development policies, development and trees) from the Sub County, growing action plans. tobacco which demands large amounts of fuel wood for curing leaves, bush burning and practically no replacement by tree Ian Dolan, planting – it all looks like a “perfect storm” Trócaire Uganda Country Director

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Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

n the behalf of the research team I want to thank the community of Offaka OSub County termed “Madi Okollo” with whom and for whom this project was carried out. Their hospitality and keen interest in the proceedings was an inspiration during field work and training sessions. This report owes much to the dedicated work of the Offaka Botanic Study committee, clan leaders, traditional herbalists, bee keeping associations, Shea nut oil processors, and others far too many to name individually here. The documentation of biological knowledge of Offaka Sub County and its presentation in accessible form has been one of the objectives formulated by the Offaka Botanic Study Team. Adraa Agriculture College supported the project by providing logistic support and availing its staff for training to support the research activity. In this regard we are indebted to the College Principal Bro. Tony Dolan, the Ag. Deputy Principal Ms. Sarah Oates and the field team from Adraa Agriculture College particularly Mr. Dan Dunia and Mr. Bayua Richard.

The project was funded by Trócaire Uganda country office and we are grateful to the Country Director Mr. Ian Dolan, Rose Hogan Trócaire technical advisor and Programme Officer Ms. Mary Baganzi for entrusting my team with the opportunity to do the work. Our thanks also go to vehicle driver Mr. Geoffrey Naluwayiro who ensured safe travelling to various parts of the study area for data collection. The volunteer team at Adraa Agriculture College worked with dedication, particularly Mr. Adaku Kennedy, Ms. Oturu Peace, Ms. Driciru Hellen, Mr. Asiku Robert, Mr. Aliama Godwin, Mr. Olea Primus, Mr. Acidri Gilbert, Mr. Oyella Adamic, and Mr. Atabua Geoffrey. We thank the Offaka Sub County administration, clan elders in Offaka and many other stakeholders for their vigilance and cooperation.

We are very grateful for very useful comments from key institutional stakeholders which shaped the report. These include Trócaire Uganda, Adraa Agriculture College, Uganda Wildlife Authority, National Forest Authority, Abii ZARDI, District Local Government Departments of Environment and Forestry among others. At individual level Trócaire Uganda country Director Mr. Ian Dolan, Principal Adraa Agriculture College Bro. Tony Dolan, and Programme Officer Ms. Mary Baganzi are among many persons who contributed many valuable suggestions which shaped the presentation of the content and design of the report. To you all I say awadifo!

The research team was led by Dr. Andama Edward, and supported by Mr. Ocatre Robert, Ms. Constance Alezuyo, Mr. Rwaburindore Protase, and Mr. Amandu Benard as technical/expert persons in their various fields of expertise.

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1.0 In t r o d u c t i o n 1.2 Rationale of the study baseline study of plants was undertaken Effective planning for sustainable utilisation A in Offaka Sub County in . of plant resources requires knowledge of The study focused on the terrestrial the availability, quantity and distribution plants, community knowledge, attitudes of the resources, the threats to the and practices in relation to the use of the resources and the knowledge of the level plant resources and looked at the threats of dependence of the local communities to biodiversity. The survey was conducted on goods and services provided by plant from June to August 2014. The study resources. This ethno-botanical study was established a body of knowledge to provide deemed vital to identify strategies for the basis for designing interventions to managing plant resources for promoting promote sustainable utilisation of the plant their sustainable utilization. The study resources. was also to provide information on local environmental management practices 1.1 Problem statement that could be used to design culturally The FAO (2000) vegetation cover map appropriate conservation strategies (Casas for Offaka Sub County had high (68.8%) et al., 2007). This is the first study of its vegetation cover, consisting mainly of kind in Arua District, West Nile region and indigenous plant species. Over 14 year perhaps in the country which focuses on period the vegetation was degraded due to the biological resource base at Sub County uncontrolled extraction of the plant resources level. The information gained is intended to by the population. These changes have be used to develop sustainable modules of negative consequences for conservation natural resource use that link conservation of biodiversity, agricultural productivity, goals with the economic well-being of the regulation of the water cycle, retention of community who depend upon wildlife for soil fertility and for the general well being their livelihoods. of the human societies. According to the Offaka Sub County five year development plan (2010/2011- 2014/2015), about 1.3 Aim and objectives 95% of the community depend on natural Aim resources for their livelihood and 99% are The general objective of the study was to employed in agriculture and 100% depend identify and draw up an inventory of the on wood fuel for their domestic needs. Tree flora of Offaka Sub County, focusing on the cutting for charcoal, timber and firewood economic, medicinal and environmental for tobacco curing without replacement and importance of the plants to the community agricultural land expansion were identified and to make recommendations on how as key challenges to sustainable natural stakeholders working in the Sub County resource use. The consequences of the loss can rehabilitate, conserve, propagate and of biodiversity are already being felt by the promote such flora for sustaining livelihoods local community. For example within West and the environment. Nile region Offaka Sub County is listed among those with high levels of poverty Specific Objectives were to: which according to the Sub County strategic (i) Identify and document vegetation plan (2010-2015) is a result of the low types, mosaics and plant species crop production because of the degraded which make up the flora of the Sub soils, unreliable rainfall patterns arising County. from climate change impacts in the region.

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(ii) Document flora which have economic, over the past ten year period in the nutritional, medicinal and social Sub County. potential to make a contribution to the achievement of sustainable (vii) Describe the responsibilities of all levels livelihoods of the community. of governance and of households and individuals in relation to indigenous (iii) Identify medium sized to large plant and habitat protection outside mammal species occurring in the of the officially protected areas in area. Uganda.

(iv) Describe current female and male (viii) Make recommendations on the dominated human practices that are management, rehabilitation and affecting either positively or negatively propagation of economically, the maintenance of a rich bio-diverse nutritionally, medicinally and socially flora. important flora.

(v) Identify key challenges facing (ix) Recommend approaches, processes conservation and sustainable use of and strategies for promoting the plant resources. identified flora to support sustainable livelihoods while maintaining (vi) Determine vegetation cover change ecosystem services.

2.0 St u d y Ar e a Ch a r a c t e r is t i c s 2.1 Cultural identity and basis, headed by the male clan leaders traditional livelihood strategies termed “elders”, usually elected from the The indigenous communities who live in community (ADLG 2011). These elders Offaka Sub County are generally referred play an important role in land resource to as “Madi”. The “Madi” and the Lugbara allocation, management and in resolving communities in West Nile region had inter-clan conflicts. a common ancestor who is said to have migrated from Sudan southwards and 2.2 Location, Climate and as a result the “Madi” are referred to as Vegetation Sudanic people (Katende et. al., 1999). Offaka Sub County is located in southern part Based on language differences, there are of Arua District (figure 1.), approximately many ethnic groups of “Madi” who settled 56 kms from Arua district headquarters within West Nile Region. To distinguish along Arua to Packwach road (Offaka Sub the Madi community who settled in Offaka County Development Plan 2010-2015). Sub County and for the purpose of this The Sub County covers a total land area of report we adopted the term “Madi Okollo” approximately 204.5km2 and is bordered which refers to the larger area (County) by Logiri Sub County to the north-west, occupied by this ethnic community in Ullepi and Arivu sub counties to the north, the West Nile region. The “Madi Okollo” Okollo Sub County to the east, Anyiribu Sub coexist with other tribal communities County to the south and Zombo district to such as Lugbara, Kebu, Alur, Rigbo and the south west. The area experiences bi- Jonam in the West Nile region. The Madi modal rainfall pattern, with the first season community are organised on patrilineal

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in March-April, ending in May. The second rainy season starts in July up to November, with the wettest months being August and September which receive 120mm/month. In the dry season (December-March) temperatures are usually high, ranging between 28 to 30 degrees Centigrade.

The dominant vegetation in the Sub County consists of savannah woodland. The important common tree species include Shea nut butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa -formerly Butyrospermum paradoxum) locally called “Awa” (in Madi Language), Oli (Acacia species), Adu / emeku (Combretum species), Zabibu (Ficus species) among others. The common grass species include spear grass (Imperata cylindrica) and elephant grass (Napier grass, Uganda grass) (Pannisetum purpureum).

Fi g u r e 1 Location and rivers of Offaka Sub County in Arua District

2.3 Soils and river system Madi Okollo people live in rural peasant The soils are sandy with loose structure, communities with the main source of which are easily eroded and leached. Most income being crop agriculture and livestock of soils in the Sub County are acidic and the rearing which employs over 98% of the texture varies from place to place. The Sub population. The common food crops grown County is endowed with several rivers and include: cassava, simsim, ground nuts, streams which pass through or originate sweet potatoes, finger millet, sorghum, from the area, some of which include maize, beans, and pigeon pea. Before Nyagak, Nyara, Aji and Ajugi rivers. 1980s cotton was the main cash crop of the Sub County but has been replaced by tobacco. The community members keep livestock such as goats, pigs, sheep, 2.4 The population and economy poultry and cattle. Charcoal production The 2014 provisional national population has recently become an important source census result (UBOS 2014) indicate that of income to many families from the year Offaka Sub County population was 18,934 2008 when northern Uganda became within 3,991 households, with the average peaceful. Bee keeping is being promoted of 4.7 persons per household distributed within communities as additional source of as 9,041 males and 9,893 females. The income for families by various stakeholders Sub County population density increased such as NAADs, AAC and the Sub County 2 from 95 persons /km in 1980 to 179.60 (AAC, 2013). persons /km2 in 2002.

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3.0 Ma t e r ia l s a n d Me t h o d s

he study focused on wildlife and in informant interviews were undertaken for Tparticular terrestrial plants consisting officers from National Forestry Authority of trees, shrubs and herbs. It targeted (NFA), District Forest Department, NARO composition, conservation status and staff at Abii ZARDI, Sub County health vegetation cover. Information on mammal unit and parish chief to collect specific species was collected from hunters in information in relation to their specialized the area. Information was collected on areas of work. Vegetation ground truthing human impacts on vegetation use which was done using Village transect walks. The have potential to influence vegetation vegetation survey was conducted using the cover. Household questionnaire was used standard nested quadrants laid alternately to collect socio-economic and cultural along 9 transects with lengths ranging information in relation to livelihood from 800 to 1,200 meters to record tree practices. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) species. Landsat and Google Spot images method targeted traditional herbalists, were used to undertake vegetation change hunters, charcoal sellers, Shea nut analysis between the 2000 FAO land cover oil sellers and clan leaders. Targeted map and the 2014 land cover map.

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4.0 re s u l t s

4.1 Socio economic background not from woodlots. During FGD female of the respondents respondents noted that tree species for The respondents consisted of 154 persons wood fuel had become scarce and as a distributed as 51.3% males and 48.7% result they travelled over one kilometer females. The findings indicated that or more on average to collect wood fuel. the majority (74%) dropped out before During the FDG with the women groups completing primary school education. The the most important plant species to them average household family size was 6.7 in the order of importance were; Shea persons per home, ranging from 1 to 17 butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa), persons. The occupation of the majority Mangoes (Mangifera indica), Oranges (80%) of the respondents was farming. As (Citrus lemoni), Eucalyptus, Cassia, a proxy to household wealth status 37.6 % Lira (Melia Azadirachta), Cassia (Senna of the respondents owned key household spectabilis), Acacia species, Tamarind items such as bicycle, radio and phone. (Tamarindus indica) and Brother heart The majority of the respondents owned (Annona maricata). livestock especially goats (91.6%), and chickens (77.3%). The majority (74%) had an annual income of below 500,000 UGX. 4.2.2 Charcoal production and Only a small percentage (19%) earned business more than one million UGX per year.The Charcoal was produced and sold for average land size owned by respondents gaining cash by most families. The was 3.5 acres, with the majority (87%) charcoal collected from production site owning ranging from 0.5 to 10 acres. The was either sold along the road side by the small land size ownership depicts increased middle business persons organised into land shortage and fragmentation in the associations or large quantities were sold area as the limited land resource continues directly to the transporters who reach up to be sub divided along the traditional to the production site. Charcoal was sold patrilineal land inheritance system due to using standard bags for packaging 50 kg population increase. Some of the land was of sugar. The Sub County government was owned communally as common property said to receive 2,000 UGX fee for every resource by the clans. The household (self bag of charcoal sold. The trees targeted declared) food security status indicate that for charcoal production were those with 10 about 50% of the families had insufficient cm diameter at breast height and above. food supply during the months of the year Under this scenario about 0.5 hectare of when crops are not yet mature. intact woodland is cleared to produce 22 bags of charcoal.

4.2 Plant uses and ethno- botanical knowledge 4.2.3 Tobacco production and 4.2.1 Plants use for wood fuel associated environmental costs The tree species favoured for domestic The common variety of tobacco crop wood fuel were Combretum, Grewia, introduced in Offaka Sub County was Acacia and Lannea which were mainly the Flue Cured Tobacco (FCT) which is collected from the nearby bushes but dried using heat produced from burning

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firewood. Three tobacco leaf buying companies operate in the Sub County 4.2.4 Medicinal plant use by the viz; British American Tobacco (BAT), Leaf community Tobacco Company (LTC) and Continental 88% percent of the respondents reported Tobacco Company. Each tobacco farmer that they used herbal medicine in their had at least one tobacco burn (a house family. Commonly cited plants for medicinal for drying or curing tobacco) which used purposes included; Tabernaemontana at least 20 cubic meters of wood every ventricosa (Kanza), Solanum sp. year. This results in total of 2,000 cubic (Elianga), Ricinnus cummunis (Olu), Aloe meters of wood fuel used by the 100 BAT lateritia, Kigelia africana, Tamarindus farmers alone every year, an equivalent indica (Iti), Mangifera indica (Mango), of 40 hectares of forest cut per year in Melia Azadirachta (Lira), Euphobia hirta. the Sub County (UCCEE, www, 1999 in Vernonia amygadalia (Eciro), Eucalyptus Nor consult Tanzania Limited 2002). One globulus (Kalatusi), Capsicum fruitescens acre of tobacco farm yields about 600 (Pilpili), Moringa oliefera, Datura kilograms of dry tobacco leaf (which is sold stramonium (Ulu), Azadirachta indica at various grade prices) and from which (Neem), Citrus lemoni (Ndima), Cassia a famer may get about 3 million Uganda alata (Cassia) (figure 2). The herbalists shillings in one year. interviewed mostly collected medicinal plants from the wild or communal areas. Tobacco cultivation contributes negatively Most of the respondents (65%) (including to the environment because it uses herbalists) reported that the medicinal large quantities of chemical fertilizers, plants had become rare, while 24% pesticides and most importantly, tobacco reported that they were still common and requires large quantities of wood for 11% reported that some of the useful curing the leaves which is obtained from plants had disappeared in the area. Only the wild trees in the communal woodlands. 19% propagated some of the medicinal Additionally, growing tobacco contributes plants at their home gardens. Generally, to food insecurity because family labour there was no deliberate cultural effort to is mainly used for tobacco production at propagate the medicinal plants within the the expense of food crops for most of the community. year due to the labour intensive nature of the crop.

Tabernaemontana ventricosa Solanum sp. (Elianga) Ricinnus cummunis (Olu) Aloe lateritia (Kanza)

Kigelia africana Aloe sp. Tamarindus indica (Iti) Mangifera indica (Mango)

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Melia Azadirachta (Lira) Datura stramonium (Ulu) Euphobia hirta Vernonia amygadalia (Eciro)

Moringa oliefera Kalanchoe pinnata Capsicum fruitescens (Pilpili) Eucalyptus globulus (Kalatusi)

Alum species (Ojoo) Azadirachta indica (Neem) Citrus lemoni (Ndima) Cassia alata (Cassia)

Fi g u r e 2. Some of the Medicinal plants recorded in the study area.

4.2.5 Plant species used for food. The common plant species harvested for food either from the wild or planted (figure 3) included Saba comorensis (Ogo), Carisa edulis (Esisi), Ximenia caffra (Ecifi), Vitex doniana (Awa), Balanities aegyptiaca (Eto), Psidium guava, Annona maricata, Jack fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Aframomum angustifolium, Annona senegalensis (Lipa), Persea americana, Carica papaya (pepei), African ebony tree, Vitex doniana (Odo), Sclerocarya birrea (Nungu/Amarula), Syzygium gueneese, Strychnos spinosa (Ndri- lomgboro), S. innucua (Ti lomgboro), Ziziphus abyssinica (Liria) and Borussus aethipium (Itu) among others. The parts of the plants consumed varied from fruits to seeds or both, depending on the species. Most adults regarded wild fruits as “children’s food”, undermining their use as source of nutrients for the whole family.

Saba comorense (Ogo) Carisa edulis (Esisi) Ximenia caffra (Ecifi) Vitex doniana (Awa)

Jack fruit Annona maricata Balanities aegyptiaca (Eto) Psidium guava (Guava) (Artocarpus heterophyllus) (Brother heart)

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Aframomum angustifolium Persea americana (Avocado) Carica papaya (pepei) Annona senegalensis (Lipa)

Dispyros mesipiliformis Sclerocarya birrea Sclerocarya Vitex doniana (Odo) (African ebony tree) Dulumu birrea (Nungu/Amarula ) Syzygium gueneese

Strychnos spinosa S. innucua (Iti) lomgboro) Ziziphus abyssinica (Liria) Borassus aethipium (Itu) (Ndri-lomgboro) Figure 3. Some of the common fruit plants recorded in the Sub County with potential for value addition

4.2.6 The plants commonly used for the traditional hunting grounds during the constructing houses and crafts dry season. The hunters used traditional The plants commonly used for construction weapons, consisting of bows, arrows, work included both indigenous and exotic spears, accompanied by dogs. Most species such as Lira (Melia Azadirachta), respondents (66%) reported that at least Eucalyptus, Combretum species, one of their family members go to hunt Grewia species, Bamboo (Arundinaria every year. The common wild animals alpina), Acacia, species, Linnea species, hunted included wild pigs (Ngiri), warthogs Vernonia species among others. For craft (Ezo), bush duiker (Ova), Oribi (Oce), Bush construction the favored tree species were back (Eba),Waterbuck (Yere), Uganda Kob Grewia moli (Onzu), Acacia species (Oli), (Tili), Aardvark (Apino), African hare (Eto) Philenoptera laxiflora (Wawa), Piliostigma and cane rat (Alu), guinea fowl (Ope), thonnongi (Aza), and Stereospermum Francolins (Alibo) and doves (Alua). The kunthianum (Lepe) among others. The persistence of hunting expeditions is an crafts commonly produced and sold indication of the existence of reasonable locally in the area included beds, benches, wildlife populations in the area which chairs, stool, hoe handles, chicken houses, could be used to promote sustainable use mingling sticks among others. of these resources.

4.2.7 Wild animal hunting 4.3 Nature Based Enterprises The traditional annual wild mammal 4.3.1 Bee keeping and bee forage hunting expeditions organized communally Bee products were one of the key by the clan leaders locally termed “Dori” resources from the wild. The majority still persists up to the present day in (77%) of respondents reported that they Madi Okollo community. The hunting was harvest honey from the wild while 60.8 exclusively undertaken by adult males, % of the respondents had bee hives near accompanied by talented teenagers to their homes. The community also formed

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associations for group bee keeping and by 4.4 Key human threats to natural the time of this study the harvested honey resource was sold to Adraa Agriculture College The human impacts recorded in the study honey processing unit. The respondents area included degradation of vegetation demonstrated good knowledge of due to grazing by large herds of livestock, beekeeping and identified the following fire deliberately lighted to burn dry plants as favourable bee forage; flowers of vegetation to facilitate wildlife hunting and Awa (Shea nut tree), Mango, Oli (Acacia also to initiate regeneration of fresh grass sp.), Iti (Tamarindus), Chawo, Oliro, for livestock, cutting trees for fire wood Sweet potatoes, Simsim, Pumpkin, Ijiribi and charcoal production and clearing (Amaranthus), Osunyiriki (beans), Maize, vegetation for farming. Cassava among others.

4.3.2 Shea nut oil processing 4.5 Human wildlife conflicts The Shea nut tree produces fruits with The communities similarly experienced the soft fleshy sweet outer part consumed crop raiding by the wild animal species while fresh. The seeds are enclosed in a that came from the nearby bushes such hard shell and are used for extracting the as bush pigs, duikers, baboons, vervet famous and valued Shea nut oil. Culturally monkeys and patas monkey. Due to the no one owns Shea nut tree in Offaka area above challenge many of them invest in and as such it is regarded as a public guarding their crops to reduce crop loss good. Every family collects the seeds and to the crop raiders. processes the oil for home consumption and excess is sold in the local markets. A few groups of women undertake commercial 4.6 Environmental degradation Shea nut oil production for sale at Ullepi concerns Trading center along the main Arua to The majority (71.7 %) of the respondents Packwach tarmac high way. confirmed that rampant cutting of trees for charcoal production, overgrazing by the 4.3.3 Gender and participation in livestock, tree cutting for curing tobacco household decision and bush burning among others had Rural women and men usually perform degraded the land, leading to soil erosion different tasks and responsibilities in food and reduced crop yield. Uncontrolled production and natural resource extraction cutting of trees was especially rampant which results in different needs, priorities, in land under communal ownership and and concerns. Women in particular were management. Culturally the tree resources more concerned with wood fuel collection are still regarded as communally owned for domestic use and processing of Shea and therefore no one takes responsibility nut oil among others. At household level to promote sustainable utilisation. women dominated weeding, processing As demonstrated in this study, the of farm products and transportation of communal land and resource ownership farm produce to the market. Women impacts negatively on sustainable were said to have equal (50.7%) control resource utilization. The respondents of household cash, which confirms their proposed various remedies to address the equal involvement in decision making in degradation which included; tree planting, regard to the use of the cash from sale of controlled grazing and good farming agricultural produce. practices among others.

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4.7 Institutional structures for endangered plant species. These findings management of biodiversity indicate that Offaka Sub County contains nationally and internationally important There exist both traditional and local plant species which need to be conserved government institutional structures for for the benefit of humanity. regulating the use of natural resources in the Sub County. Clan leaders regulate cutting of important tree species and could 4.8.2 Vegetaion and agro-ecology and only permit cutting of such trees for house vegetation cover changes construction and craft production but not The natural Offaka Subcounty vegetation for commercial gain. The Sub County was dominated by woodland-savanna local government also enacted bye-laws mosaic. Closed woodland and closed to prevent rampant cutting of the Shea to open woodland were dominated by nut trees. Despite the social, economic Combretum and Acacia species, while and cultural attachments to the trees and wooded grassland were dominated by the existence of the elaborate cultural Combretum sp., Pseudocedrella kotschyi, and government institutional structures, Gardenia ternifolia and Acacia species. cutting of the traditionally important tree It was noted that the local community species continues unabated as the existing purposely preserved certain plant species measures are ignored and law enforcement in their gardens which they considered fails. important. Some of these included fruit plants such as Vitellaria paradoxa, Vitex doniana, Balanities eagyptiaca, 4.8 Plant biodiversity Carssa edulis, Tamarindus indica, Cordia sinensi, and Zizyphus mauritiana among 4.8.1 Tree species diversity others. Abandoned agricultural land was dominated by grass species such as A total of 193 different plant species were Panicum maximum, Setaria kagerensis recorded during the study, belonging to and Sporobolus pyramidalis. 57 families. This indicates richer plant biodiversity compared to other savannah The land cover change analysis between woodlands such as in 2000 and 2014 (figure 4) shows that land (Acworth 2005.). In the natural habitat the converted to agriculture use increased to dominant tree species were Combretum 11,249.51 ha in 2014 from 6,374.68 ha (Adu), Acacia (Oli). The shrub layer was in 2000. Closed woodland vegetation area dominated by Grewia (Inzu) and Annona reduced from 11,912.88 ha to 1,582.78 senegalense (Lipa) species. While tree ha. These changes were mainly due to the species on the farm land were dominated clearing of the natural vegetation to open by Vitellaria, Vitex, Tamarindus and Ficus up land for agriculture and through use of tree species. Whereas the grass cover communal lands for charcoal production. was dominated by Hyperthermia dissolute In general 86.71% of the closed woodland (embetia), Branchiaria (Licoo) and was transformed to other uses and 23.8% Enteropogan (Tangu) species. In this study of the natural vegetation was cleared for four plant species Afzelia Africana (Lokoko), charcoal production during the last 14 Dalbergia melanoxylon (Poyi), Vitellaria year period. These results indicate that paradoxa (Awa) and Khaya anthotheca agricultural land use is expanding very are categorized in the IUCN category as rapidly coupled with charcoal production

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and extraction of wood fuel for tobacco production and that these practices are threatening the biodiversity based ecosystem services to sustain the community.

Figure 4. Land cover in the year 2000 (left) and the year 2014 (right) for Offaka Sub County

4.8.3 Herbage plant species Setaria sphacelata, Brachiara species Of the plant species enumerated a (signal grass) Panisetum clandestunum total of 24 were suitable for herbage (kikuyu grass), Hyperhenia rufa (thatching (feeding livestock). Herbage plant species grass). Fodder trees promoted in the recorded were dominated by the Poaceae area included; Calliandra, calathysus family which formed the largest number (Calliandra), Leucaena leucocephala of species followed by Asteraceae and and Gliricidia sepium (Glicidia) species. Euphorbiaceae. The most common species Macroptilium atropurpureum (Sirato), found in the study areas was Hyperthelia Desmodium intortum, Desmodium dissolute. Other common species were; ancinatum. Usually in wet season herbage Brachiaria brizantha, Enteropogon availability exceeds the quantity required macrostachyus, Hyperhenia filipendula, by livestock. The excess could therefore be Phyllanthus amarus, and Digitaria harvested to make hay and silage within diagonalis. These plant species have been the community as a strategy for feeding reported to be important fodder plants livestock during dry season when herbage elsewhere (Kabirizi, 2014). Among others is scarce. they include grasses such as Elephant (Napier) grass (Panisetum purpureum, P. 4.9 Mammal Diversity clandestunum), Cailver leaf desmodium), Clitori ternatea, Chloris gayana (Rhodes During this study a total of 24 mammal grass), Panicum maximum (Guinea grass), species (table 1) were reported to occur

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in the area. These included, Uganda Kob, management of natural resource included; Waterbuck, Bushbuck, Bushpig, Bush World Vision Uganda-Offaka Programme duiker, Wild rabbit, Warthog, Aardvark, which recently implemented the Farmer Serval cat, Genet cat, Civet cat, banded Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) mongoose, Baboon, Black and White project aimed at restoring and improving Colobus Monkey, Vervet monkey, Patas agricultural productivity in degraded monkey and Tree Squirrel. Some of the areas. Abii Zonal Agricultural Research species such as Sitatunga, Side stripped Development Institute (ZARDI) is testing Jackal; Hyrax among others were not the possibility of domesticating indigenous be confirmed due to their secretive and fruit plants such as Dulu (Saba comorensis), nocturnal foraging behaviour. Iti (Tamarindus indica), Awa (Vitellaria paradoxa), Eto (Balanities aegytiaca). They also promote exotic fruit plants such 4.10 Complimentary stakeholder as Apples, Mangoes, Avocadoes, Oranges, activities in the Sub County and Avocados. Abii ZARD can be targeted The key stakeholders of Offaka Sub for provision of technical support for County that were already actively involved introducing indigenous fruit plants in the in supporting communities in sustainable Sub County.

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is c u ssi o n efforts by the tobacco companies and 5.0 d other stakeholders to promote tree 5.1. Biodiversity use and planting is not yielding success, this trend indigenous knowledge is likely to pose constraints on the resource availability for the future generations. Compared to other similar habitats Unfortunately, the traditional taboos studied elsewhere, Offaka Sub County and the bye-laws that are expected to recorded higher (over 193 species) plant govern the collection of wild plants are species compared to 191 (Ripples Consult not an effective safeguard against over- Ltd, 2012) recorded in Queen Elizabeth harvesting in the Sub County as is also National Park Dura area which is natural noted across East Africa (Dharani and with similar land area. The study also Yenese, 2010, and Kalema and Beentje, indicated that the local communities have 2012). This presents a big challenge to valuable knowledge on the plant resource sustainable utilisation of plant species in management where they sometimes the area and thus requires urgent attention deliberately maintained important tree by all stakeholders including cultural and species such as Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa), the local government leaders. There is Annona senegalensis, Vitex species and a need to take urgent action to combat Tamarindus indica in the gardens. This the situation through restricting charcoal practice has also been recorded elsewhere production from indigenous trees, the in the world, and is normally termed as promotion of increased tree planting “Agroforestry parkland” system (Raison, efforts – including their protection, as well 1988). The consumption and marketing as a holistic adoption of fuel wood saving of these useful fruit plants can contribute stoves. All these have to go along with substantially to household livelihoods adequate efforts and resources devoted not only during critical famine periods to law enforcement. but as future investment in natural plant products. The use of plants and plant based derivatives for preventing and treating human diseases and afflictions is as old as civilization itself (Dharani and Yenesew 5.2. Unsustainable floral resource 2010). Indeed plants are backbone of utilisation modern medical and health care systems in The widespread vegetation loss was a all places around the world including Offaka result of expansion of agricultural land, the Sub County as was recorded in this study. rampant felling of the trees for wood-fuel By far the most pressing conservation production (mainly charcoal) and tobacco concern to medicinal plants in the Sub curing. Charcoal burning was recorded County is the alarming rate at which the to be rampant in the area to fulfill the natural habitats of the plants are being nationally high demand for charcoal in degraded to make way for agricultural the country. These are currently the main cultivation, charcoal production and wood driving forces resulting in unsustainable logs as was noted in the area despite the utilisation of plant resources. The challenge traditional taboos and bye-laws. Therefore currently faced in Offaka Sub County is how the need to develop new and adaptable to reverse the high rate of degradation of strategies to save not only medicinal plants plant resources while meeting increasing but also other natural vegetations has demands for them. Considering that become very urgent for all stakeholders

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at different levels to consider. Initiatives indigenous plant fruit were generally to promote use of herbal medication are neglected by the general community as already underway at Kuluva Hospital and “children’s food”. Currently there was no promotion of growing of these plants by deliberate effort to promote indigenous the Traditional Medicinal Practitioners and fruit trees as source of income. Instead households is vital. a narrow range of exotic plant species such as Neem tree (Azadirachta indica) and Moringa (Moringa oliefera Lam.) 5.3 Potential for value addition to have been promoted by the government biodiversity and development agencies resulting in further neglect of indigenous fruit plants. This study demonstrated that the local Elsewhere many high value products have community possessed diverse knowledge been developed from Shea nut oil e.g. in on uses of plant resources. The key uses Ghana and recently Uganda. In Southern included building, craft, food, medicines Africa Sclerocarya birrea is used to produce and fuel. While fruit collection by the the famous Amarula wine (and liquor) families was only limited to few plants and fruit drink, such opportunities can such as Vitellaria paradoxa (Awa) and be tried in Offaka Sub County to promote Tamarindus indica (Iti), and exotic sustainable us of the plant resources. or introduced species, the rest of the

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6.0 co n c l u si o n s An d Re c o mm e n d a t i o n s

6.1. Conclusions (b) Promote home herbal gardens to help revive local knowledge on This study showed that Offaka Sub County medicinal plants and conserve the still has reasonably high plant biodiversity plants of medicinal value within the which is being used for food, biomass community. energy, and as a source of medicine among other uses. The wide portfolio of (c) Promote Farmer Managed Natural plant biodiversity resources provides a Regeneration (FMNR) as a strategy crucial opportunity to adapt and develop for promoting rapid, low cost and sustainable mechanisms to support easily replicated approach to restoring community needs, production systems and improving agricultural, forested and for regulating local ecosystems to and pasture lands. FMNR facilitates meet the needs of the current and future environmental sustainability due to generations. The study indicates that in the fact that it promotes regeneration Offaka Sub County women are key players of the indigenous plant species. in natural resource management through collection of wild foods that provide (d) Substitute tobacco growing with important micronutrients in diets that are economically attractive crops which vital for households during food shortages, will provide an alternative source of and processed for income. It is important to income to them. note that there is a promising potential to (e) Promote sustainable management and improve crop yields through maintenance production of biomass fuel through of the plant biodiversity, while providing promoting improved technologies food, fuel wood, medicinal and promoting for charcoal production such as commercialization of these useful products Casamance kiln, half orange kiln and from the plants. drum kiln among others.

(f) Promote habit of producing charcoal 6.2. Recommendations from established tree plantations. Deliberately promote household The following are recommended for woodlots. These measures will lead to sustainable use and management of the more sustainable charcoal production floral and faunal resource of Offaka Sub and biomass energy business. County. (g) Promote energy saving stoves, the (a) Promote value addition to plant improved version of the traditional products which offer financial incentive charcoal “jikos” that use little wood to the community through initiating fuel thereby saving forest from being enterprises for processing, value destroyed. addition and provide financial incentives to the community. For example (h) Initiate community ownership and processing of fruits and seeds of Shea management of the communal forest nut tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), Amarula resources in less utilized communal tree (Sclerocarya birrea), Annona lands. senegalensis, Saba comorensis, Carisa Promote additional research on other edulis among others. (i)

19 A Publication o f Tr ó c a i r e : Su mm a r y Re p o r t biodiversity of the Sub County that Re f e r e n c e s remains largely uninvestigated. Key taxa recommended for study include Acworth J. 2005. Opportunities for the bird species and insects. PRIMELWEST initiatives in Hoima and Masindi districts: draft road map. Report (j) Develop nature based tourism in the to USAID and DAI. Sub County. Identify areas of cultural, Adraa Agriculture College (AAC) (2012), botanic and scenic importance that report on primary and secondary education could be developed into tourism situation in Offaka Sub County, Arua attractions. This coupled with the district- complied by Br. Peter Mokaya. biodiversity especially birds, butterflies and other biodiversity, could be linked Adraa Agriculture College (AAC) (2013) to the traditional clan based hunting Offaka development Programme: bee ceremonies, dancing as a source of keeping survey report. Offaka Sub County, tourism attraction. Arua district, Uganda. Arua District Local Government (ADLG) (k) Education is key to building a better 2011. Arua District development Plan and stronger future for the community. 2011-2015. Promote community education on the Casas A, Otero-Arnaiz A, Pérez-Negrón floral and other resources of the area E, et al : In situ management and within the youth and adults at primary, domestication of plants in Mesoamerica. secondary and schools, vocational Ann Bot2007,100: 1101 – 1115. training institutions and community based associations. Kabirizi J. Mugerwa, S. Lukwago, G. Zziwa , E. Kirunda H, Butungi S., Oluka J. (l) Establishing a botanical garden and Mulindwa H. Ssemambo D. K. N.Mubiru F. herbarium as a tool for educating the and Nakimbugwe H. 2014. Feed resource stakeholders targeting medicinal, fruit management, genetic improvement and indigenous fodder plants. and disease control in stallholder dairy production systems. MPK Graphics Limited (m) Initiate Collaborative Forest . ISBN 9789970926909 Management, targeting communities Kalema J. and Beentje, H. J. 2012 living adjacent to the Central Forest Conservation check list of trees of Uganda Reserves at Ajupane, Laura and Iyi. Royal Botanic Garden Kew . (n) Develop and enact bye-laws to regulate Katende A. B. , P. Ssegawa and Ann B. activities that are detrimental to the 1999. Wild food plants and mushrooms flora/vegetation e.g. charcoal burning of Uganda. from the wild tree sources, bushfires, Offaka Development Programme (ODP) and compulsory tree planting. 2013. Beekeeping Survey Report 2013 Offaka Sub County, Arua District, (o) Develop Sub County environmental Uganda. action plan to for promoting sustainable management of the biological Ripples Consult Ltd, 2012. The Impact of resources. Limestone Mining on the Biodiversity of Dura Sector of Queen Elizabeth National (p) Undertake land evaluation and land Park, . Unpublished use planning to develop appropriate report to Hima Cement Ltd. land use systems for communities to Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) adopt so as to promote most profitable 2014. National Population and Housing land use practices on the available land Census 2014: Provisional result November and to realize maximum output. 2014.

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