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Peacemaking in Early Civilizations 1 Powerpoint.Pptx Peacemaking in Early Civilizations Introduction Having learned that primates are social and that many primate species have developed ways of getting along in their bands, and having realized that nomadic hunter/gatherers and Neolithic farmers were non-warring, how can we explain the advent of warfare at the beginning of civilization? And furthermore, how can we explain the kind of peacemaking that occurred when early peoples settled violent conflicts and restored good relations with their former enemies? Why did Warfare arise in History? Warfare arose when farmers and herders claimed private ownership of their land and animals. Once people in the Neolithic era (Agricultural era) learned farming and discovered how to herd domesticated animals, they realized they were putting their hard labor into their livelihoods. This then led them to become protective of their animals and territory. Once city life arose, people became specialized in various trades; this led to social class hierarchies and social and economic inequality. New Social Relationships While Hunter/Gatherer bands and Neolithic villages were egalitarian societies based on kinship ties and the sharing of land, tools, and food, the rise of cities in early civilizations brought new social relationships. People moving to cities did not know each other, so kinship ties gave way to more formalized relationships. Getting along meant observing written contracts, keeping oaths, learning new skills, and heeding advice. If warfare began with the rise of civilization, then peace settlements ending these early wars were something new in history. They were unchartered territory. Usually the victorious side would dictate the terms of the peace settlement, and these terms included non-aggression agreements, ransom or enslavement of captured people, forced labor, or redrawing a boundary. Peace treaties varied, some reflected the warring parties were on an equal basis and some showed the winning side dominating the losers. Religion played a significant role in maintaining peace. Early religions required leaders to promote unity and protect the common good. Peacemaking in Early Egyptian Civilization In Egypt, religion played a significant role in maintaining peace and solidifying the power of the pharaohs. Peace was based on two central spiritual beliefs: • Maat - truth, justice, and order. It was the Pharaoh’s duty to uphold the cosmic order of the heavens and transmit heaven’s ORDER to people’s collective and social order on earth. This was the basis of the pharaoh’s absolute power • Ka – the peaceful life force within each individual (the soul) and, in the case of the Pharaoh, the source of his authority and power The goddess Maat bound all things together in an orderly way because all things were part of the immutable harmony and unity of the cosmos. Cosmic harmony was achieved through correct ritual and public life. The Goddess Maat • stood for all aspects of existence, including the basic equilibrium of the universe, • determined the cycle of the seasons and heavenly movements • insisted on fair dealings, honesty, and truthfulness in social interactions Pharaohs, who had a divine right to rule, mediated between the spiritual and physical worlds using rituals to insure peace. The most sacred ritual took place everyday at all of the temples in Egypt. The chief priest, acting on behalf of the pharaoh, lit a fire, burned candles and incense, said prayers and awakened Ra or Amun saying “Awake in peace, Great God.” Then the priest opened the sanctuary, kissed the ground in front of the god’s shrine, and offered flowers, food and drink. This ritual was thought to prevent chaos and evil. Many Egyptologists think pre-dynastic Egypt was relatively peaceful due to the absence of evidence of force and violence at this time. Nevertheless, one artifact, the Narmer Palette, shows a king engaged in violence in connection with what could have been the annexation of territory. While Pharaoh Menes is usually credited with unifying upper and lower Egypt and locating the capital at Memphis a city in- between upper and lower Egypt, he is now being associated with Narmer who could have also been involved in this unification. The second figure from the left, Narmer, is represented wearing the Red Crown, that is associated with Lower Egypt and on the other side he wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt. He holds a mace in his left hand, while his right arm is bent over his chest, holding some kind of flail. The two signs in front of him represent his name. The object of this procession is made clear on the right hand side of the scene: 10 decapitated corpses are shown lying on the ground, their heads thrown between their legs. Above the victims, is a ship with a harpoon and a falcon in it. On the back is a falcon, the sign of the pharoah, and marshlands. Other signs represent conquest and victory. Other signs are often interpreted as the name of the conquered region in the Nile delta. Some think the region conquered by Narmer was the Mareotis-region, the 7th Lower- Egyptian province. Others say he conquered all of Lower Egypt. Horus Falcon, representing the Pharoah, wearing the double crown signifying the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3,000 BCE. The white is Upper Egypt and the red is lower Egypt. The idea was to show that the peoples of these two regions were now one and the pharoah ruled over a united Egypt. Conciliation in Ancient Egypt In any case, whether King Narmer or Pharaoh Menes played a role in uniting Upper and Lower Egypt, the capital Memphis was located in the middle of the two regions. And, according to common practice, tribes in these regions were allowed to keep their own gods and traditions. These approaches involved conciliation, which means overcoming apprehension, making compatible agreements, and settling disagreements by mutually beneficial arrangements. Egyptologists also have evidence that the annexation of neighboring territories was often accomplished by negotiation and accommodation. Despite the Narmer palette, Egyptologists now consider the Old Kingdom period a time of relative peace and security because the building of such massive structures as the pyramids requiring so much manpower, could not have been accomplished in a time of warfare where a competing need for manpower would exist. Therefore, the pyramids are not only impressive architectural and engineering feats, they may also represent 700 years of peace and prosperity. Egyptian armies at this time served more to keep peace and order rather than embark on wars of conquest. There is evidence the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom: • hired foreigners for peacekeeping so Egyptians would not fight one another. • Developed a rhetoric of peace judging from official and lay records of that era. Pharaoh Amenemhet I of the Middle Kingdom To unite an unstable country, after the first Intetrmediate, the Pharaoh Amenemhet used a policy of top-down coercion and forced submission and fought rebel groups to achieve peace. New Kingdom pharaohs’ peace policies • Buffer zones • Extra-territorial trading posts • Diplomatic outposts • Hostels • Permitted permanent settlements of foreigners Foreigners paid tribute to the pharaoh who enforced a top-down, coercive peace. These policies protected borders and encouraged peaceful relations with neighboring tribes and kingdoms. Peace Treaty of Kadesh between Ramses II and Hittite King Hattusilis III, 1258 BCE The historic actions of Pharaoh Ramses II and King Hattusilis III show how the Egyptian peace principle was applied. In one of the world’s earliest known written peace treaties, they articulated conciliatory and collaborative intentions to end hostilities and foster peace. The agreement included: • Pledges of non-aggression and mutual defense against attack by third parties • Rules of repatriation of exiles • No reprisals • Invocations to gods of both countries to be witnesses and guarantors of the treaty Pharaoh Ramses II • King Ramses on Chariot at Battle of Kadesh near Orontes River Battle of Kadash Egyptian soldiers with horse-drawn chariots Treaty of Kadesh in Akkadian language The purpose of the treaty was explicit: “To not permit hostilities to occur between them forever.” (James B. Pritchard, “Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament” Princeton, NJ, 1969) The treaty kept the peace for 100 years until the fall of the Hittite Empire. First labor strike in recorded history • Recorded on papyrus, occurred in 1170 BCE • 29th year of the Pharaoh Ramses III artisans building his burial chamber complained of insufficient food and late deliveries of food • One day the workers lay down their tools and marched off their worksite to talk with local officials. The mayor was able to obtain a ration payment, and the workers returned to work • The success of this strike caused workers to continue to use this method. ( from website http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/print/content/egyptian-laborers-strike-pay-1170bce) Egyptian artisan in first labor strike War and Peace in Mesopotamian Civilization Nature of conflicts Because Mesopotamian civilization consisted of separate, independent city-states, competition between city states caused disputes. Archeological evidence shows city-state defensive walls 30 feet high with towers even higher from where soldiers with bows and arrows defended their home cities from attackers. Deterrence was a method to avoid conflict. Other conflicts were those between herders and farmers. These wars were often over vast differences between the lifestyles of these different peoples. Herders plundered farmers in desperate search of food and goods. War was a burden for farmers with its raids, plundering, and destruction. World Historian Kevin Reilly called wars between herders and farmers “the longest wars.” Role of Rulers Rulers were supposed to be fair and wise in dealing with policies within their own city-states. When privately-owned property and social hierarchy became part of life, some people became wealthier and more powerful than others.
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