sign in sign up
<<
Home , Pax (goddess), Temple of Janus (Autun)

Peacemaking in Early Civilizations Introduction

Having learned that primates are social and that many primate species have developed ways of getting along in their bands, and having realized that nomadic hunter/gatherers and farmers were non-warring, how can we explain the advent of warfare at the beginning of civilization? And furthermore, how can we explain the kind of peacemaking that occurred when early peoples settled violent conflicts and restored good relations with their former enemies?

Why did Warfare arise in History?

Warfare arose when farmers and herders claimed private ownership of their land and animals. Once people in the Neolithic era (Agricultural era) learned farming and discovered how to herd domesticated animals, they realized they were putting their hard labor into their livelihoods. This then led them to become protective of their animals and territory. Once city life arose, people became specialized in various trades; this led to social class hierarchies and social and economic inequality. New Social Relationships

While Hunter/Gatherer bands and Neolithic villages were egalitarian societies based on kinship ties and the sharing of land, tools, and food, the rise of cities in early civilizations brought new social relationships. People moving to cities did not know each other, so kinship ties gave way to more formalized relationships. Getting along meant observing written contracts, keeping oaths, learning new skills, and heeding advice. If warfare began with the rise of civilization, then settlements ending these early wars were something new in history. They were unchartered territory. Usually the victorious side would dictate the terms of the peace settlement, and these terms included non-aggression agreements, ransom or enslavement of captured people, forced labor, or redrawing a boundary. Peace treaties varied, some reflected the warring parties were on an equal basis and some showed the winning side dominating the losers.

Religion played a significant role in maintaining peace. Early required leaders to promote unity and protect the common good.

Peacemaking in Early Egyptian Civilization

In Egypt, played a significant role in maintaining peace and solidifying the power of the pharaohs.

Peace was based on two central spiritual beliefs: • Maat - truth, , and order. It was the Pharaoh’s duty to uphold the cosmic order of the heavens and transmit heaven’s ORDER to people’s collective and social order on earth. This was the basis of the pharaoh’s absolute power • Ka – the peaceful life force within each individual (the soul) and, in the case of the Pharaoh, the source of his authority and power The Maat bound all things together in an orderly way because all things were part of the immutable harmony and unity of the cosmos. Cosmic harmony was achieved through correct and public life. The Goddess Maat

• stood for all aspects of existence, including the basic equilibrium of the universe, • determined the cycle of the seasons and heavenly movements • insisted on fair dealings, honesty, and truthfulness in social interactions Pharaohs, who had a divine right to rule, mediated between the spiritual and physical worlds using to insure peace. The most sacred ritual took place everyday at all of the temples in Egypt. The chief priest, acting on behalf of the pharaoh, lit a fire, burned candles and incense, said prayers and awakened Ra or Amun saying “Awake in peace, Great God.” Then the priest opened the sanctuary, kissed the ground in front of the god’s shrine, and offered flowers, food and drink. This ritual was thought to prevent chaos and evil. Many Egyptologists think pre-dynastic Egypt was relatively peaceful due to the absence of evidence of force and violence at this time. Nevertheless, one artifact, the Narmer Palette, shows a king engaged in violence in connection with what could have been the annexation of territory. While Pharaoh Menes is usually credited with unifying upper and lower Egypt and locating the capital at Memphis a city in- between upper and lower Egypt, he is now being associated with Narmer who could have also been involved in this unification. The second figure from the left, Narmer, is represented wearing the Red Crown, that is associated with Lower Egypt and on the other side he wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt. He holds a mace in his left hand, while his right arm is bent over his chest, holding some kind of flail. The two signs in front of him represent his name. The object of this procession is made clear on the right hand side of the scene: 10 decapitated corpses are shown lying on the ground, their heads thrown between their legs. Above the victims, is a ship with a harpoon and a falcon in it. On the back is a falcon, the sign of the pharoah, and marshlands. Other signs represent conquest and victory. Other signs are often interpreted as the name of the conquered region in the Nile delta. Some think the region conquered by Narmer was the Mareotis-region, the 7th Lower- Egyptian province. Others say he conquered all of Lower Egypt. Horus Falcon, representing the Pharoah, wearing the double crown signifying the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3,000 BCE. The white is Upper Egypt and the red is lower Egypt. The idea was to show that the peoples of these two regions were now one and the pharoah ruled over a united Egypt.

Conciliation in Ancient Egypt

In any case, whether King Narmer or Pharaoh Menes played a role in uniting Upper and Lower Egypt, the capital Memphis was located in the middle of the two regions. And, according to common practice, tribes in these regions were allowed to keep their own gods and traditions. These approaches involved conciliation, which means overcoming apprehension, making compatible agreements, and settling disagreements by mutually beneficial arrangements. Egyptologists also have evidence that the annexation of neighboring territories was often accomplished by negotiation and accommodation. Despite the Narmer palette, Egyptologists now consider the Old Kingdom period a time of relative peace and security because the building of such massive structures as the pyramids requiring so much manpower, could not have been accomplished in a time of warfare where a competing need for manpower would exist. Therefore, the pyramids are not only impressive architectural and engineering feats, they may also represent 700 years of peace and prosperity. Egyptian armies at this time served more to keep peace and order rather than embark on wars of conquest.

There is evidence the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom: • hired foreigners for peacekeeping so Egyptians would not fight one another. • Developed a rhetoric of peace judging from official and lay records of that era. Pharaoh Amenemhet I of the Middle Kingdom To unite an unstable country, after the first Intetrmediate, the Pharaoh Amenemhet used a policy of top-down coercion and forced submission and fought rebel groups to achieve peace. New Kingdom pharaohs’ peace policies • Buffer zones • Extra-territorial trading posts • Diplomatic outposts • Hostels • Permitted permanent settlements of foreigners Foreigners paid tribute to the pharaoh who enforced a top-down, coercive peace. These policies protected borders and encouraged peaceful relations with neighboring tribes and kingdoms. Peace Treaty of Kadesh between Ramses II and Hittite King Hattusilis III, 1258 BCE The historic actions of Pharaoh Ramses II and King Hattusilis III show how the Egyptian peace principle was applied. In one of the world’s earliest known written peace treaties, they articulated conciliatory and collaborative intentions to end hostilities and foster peace. The agreement included: • Pledges of non-aggression and mutual defense against attack by third parties • Rules of repatriation of exiles • No reprisals • Invocations to gods of both countries to be witnesses and guarantors of the treaty Pharaoh Ramses II

• King Ramses on Chariot at Battle of Kadesh near Orontes River Battle of Kadash Egyptian soldiers with horse-drawn chariots Treaty of Kadesh in Akkadian language The purpose of the treaty was explicit: “To not permit hostilities to occur between them forever.” (James B. Pritchard, “Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament” Princeton, NJ, 1969) The treaty kept the peace for 100 years until the fall of the Hittite Empire. First labor strike in recorded history • Recorded on papyrus, occurred in 1170 BCE • 29th year of the Pharaoh Ramses III artisans building his burial chamber complained of insufficient food and late deliveries of food • One day the workers lay down their tools and marched off their worksite to talk with local officials. The mayor was able to obtain a ration payment, and the workers returned to work • The success of this strike caused workers to continue to use this method. ( from website http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/print/content/egyptian-laborers-strike-pay-1170bce) Egyptian artisan in first labor strike War and Peace in Mesopotamian Civilization Nature of conflicts

Because Mesopotamian civilization consisted of separate, independent city-states, competition between city states caused disputes. Archeological evidence shows city-state defensive walls 30 feet high with towers even higher from where soldiers with bows and arrows defended their home cities from attackers. Deterrence was a method to avoid conflict. Other conflicts were those between herders and farmers. These wars were often over vast differences between the lifestyles of these different peoples. Herders plundered farmers in desperate search of food and goods. War was a burden for farmers with its raids, plundering, and destruction. World Historian Kevin Reilly called wars between herders and farmers “the longest wars.”

Role of Rulers

Rulers were supposed to be fair and wise in dealing with policies within their own city-states. When privately-owned property and social hierarchy became part of life, some people became wealthier and more powerful than others. Kings needed to balance public needs and private initiatives. If there was an imbalance, people would perceive unfairness and conflict would arise. Early edicts in Mesopotamian city-states reflected the desire for fairness. Some of the laws in Hammurabi’s code suspended taxes, prohibited exploitation of the poor, and prohibited price gouging. Struggles for Justice despite Differences Social stratification brought what is called in the field of peace studies “structural violence.” This is institutional and systemic injustice. Distinctions between slave and free, native and foreign, and men and women brought discontent especially when slaves and foreigners were conscripted into forced labor and military service. There is evidence people understood the need for justice and peaceful co-existence. Early epics such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, the first written peace treaties, and legal codes such as Hammurabi’s Code, were thought-out with justice as a controlling principle. Peace Elements in Code of Hammurabi Hammurabi (1810-1750 BCE) ruled the Old Babylonian empire peacefully for the first two decades of his reign. The famous Introduction to the Code says: “Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared God, to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; so that the strong should not harm the weak; so that I enlighten the land to further the well-being of mankind.” The code aimed to balance public good and private enterprise, promote equitable economic practices, and safeguard citizens’ rights. The laws assumed mutual dependence on one another, which is a pro-peace point of view.

Peace lessons of Epic of Gilgamesh

• The moral of the Epic of Gilgamesh is that wisdom is more valuable than immortality. Gilgamesh realized it is wiser to live life in the here and now than pursue everlasting life. • In the end, when he finally returned to Uruk, he realized his city-state was a marvel of ingenuity which would live on after him and continue to flourish. The implication may be that mortals can achieve immortality through lasting works of civilization and culture. He also realized that the female force which brings children into the world and tends the hearth, is to be respected. Gilgamesh

Leaders initiated warfare to gain land and resources and to reinforce their status and control. Early warfare reinforced hierarchy and hierarchy facilitated warfare. Warfare may or may not have benefited their societies. Royal propaganda which had, at first, justified warfare in the name of religion, gradually legitimized fighting in a war as manifesting heroism, bravery, and loyalty. This began a severe masculinizing of public life where warriors were an elite, bravery in battle was heroic, war was a masculine preserve, and women were subordinated. Warrior cultures were highly gendered. Warfare thus became a global constant in the world’s civilizations with arms races, weapons, and warriors common in all civilizations. An arbitration in Mesopotamia also called The Treaty of Mesilim

Divine aid was sought to resolve disputes. In 2550 BCE Lagash and Umma two city states with the border between them in a valley submitted a boundary dispute for arbitration to the oracle of the chief God Enlil. Enlil’s decision is recorded on a cuneiform inscription: “Enlil, by his authoritative command, demarked the boundary, and Mesilim, King of Kish, at the command of Ishtaran, measured it off and erected a monument there marking the border. The arbitration procedure was clear: after the god’s decision had been rendered, a neutral third party, Mesilim, King of Kish, overlord of all Sumer, was commissioned to implement the God’s decision. Stele with the terms of the arbitration or Treaty of Mesilim now located in the Louvre Museum in Mesopotamian storm god Enlil Relationship between Peace and Spiritual Beliefs • Spiritual beliefs bonded people in the ancient world. Local gods were sometimes fused into one regional god. A common spirituality became a uniting factor for the people. • In Mesopotamia people worshipped their own god without denying the legitimacy of other gods. Assyrian armies were known to return religious objects to people of a conquered city. Post-war peace settlements were finalized by oaths evoking Assyrian and non-Assyrian gods.

Rulers Sought Equitable Economic Policies When rulers of the city of Nippur paid government officials by giving them land, these officials often amassed great wealth. Sometimes the lands had been taken away from small farmers and conflicts broke out prompting the ruler to divide up and return these privately-owned tracts to the farmers. In that way peace and prosperity were restored. Rulers needed to strike a balance between expenditures on forced labor for public infrastructure and defense and allowing the privatization of businesses and property. Early writings and legal codes show rulers realized equitable economic policies were related to peace. Mesopotamian War and Peace Mosaic (2650 BCE) called the Standard of Ur The mosaic is divided into two tableaux inlaid with shell and lapis lazuli. The top tableaux represents war showing donkey-drawn chariots charging over fallen enemies, spears men in helmets seizing prisoners, and naked, bound captives brought before an authority figure who stands out in the middle, taller than any other figure. War and Peace Mosaic of Ur 2650 BCE The bottom tableau portrays peace as a lively banquet with people enjoying themselves, musicians serenading with lyres, and plentiful grains, , goats and fish.

Some historians think the peace tableaux depicts a post-victory feast.

Whether this was a centerpiece at a feast or a standard(or banner) in battle, it depicts both war and peace as human experiences.

The pictorial evidence in the Standard of Ur indicates militia foot soldiers with no armor and few weapons, only bows and arrows and spears. At this time battles were primarily sieges where a surprise assault had to break a city’s defenses immediately, otherwise a ramp had to reach the top of the city wall to make an attack possible. Failing that, cities had to be starved into submission, and the attacking army might run out of food before that happened. Small, unprofessional armies, massive walls, and limited logistics meant the defense had an advantage and successful attacks meant putting together coalitions. Thus, Sumarian city states waged low intensity, indecisive warfare from 3500-2000 BC. Enheduanna

Priests and priestesses in ancient Mesopotamia were often the sons and daughters of kings and . Enheduanna, an ancient Sumerian priestess, was the daughter of Sargon of Akkad, the world’s first , who reigned from 2334-2279 BCE. Enheduanna was appointed chief priestess of the temple of Ur. In this position she became the high priestess of the moon goddess Nanna. She consolidated the worship of many local into the worship of Inanna, a major Sumerian goddess. Enheduanna, believed to be one of the world’s first writers, wrote what may be the world’s first written poem in response to war, in approximately 2300 BCE.

Enheduanna

Endheduanna’s anti-war Poem

Lament to War

You hack everything down in battle…. God of War, with your fierce wings you slice away the land and charge disguised as a raging storm, growl as a roaring hurricane, yell like a tempest yells, thunder, rage, roar, and drum, expel evil winds! Your feet are filled with anxiety! On your lyre of moans I hear your loud dirge scream.

Like a fiery monster you fill the land with poison. As thunder you growl over the earth, trees and bushes collapse before you. You are blood rushing down a mountain, Spirit of hate, greed and anger, dominator of heaven and earth! Your fire wafts over our land, riding on a beast, with indomitable commands, you decide all fate. You triumph over all our rites. Who can explain why you go on so?

Peacemaking in Persian Civilization Faravahar, symbol of the Zoroastrian faith, was a guardian spirit whose soul fights in the battle of good vs evil. Investiture of a Sassanid king Shapur II by Ahura Mazda (right) and Mithras (left) Gold clasp of Ahura Mazda as a winged god Creator of all good things Darius Cyrus Cambyses II

Peacemaking in Greek Civilization Peace in Ancient Greece

Mythology and literature fostered peace, but competition over land and trade often led to warfare.

Greek concept of Peace

• A harmonious, prosperous natural order • The Greek Goddess of Peace was identified with the seasons, the fertility of the earth, and the God of wealth Plutos. • Greeks did believe war is a natural aspect of state relations and that in nature the strong dominate the weak

Mythology Eirene with Branch Goddess Irene, of peace (who Romans called Pax), with in her right hand and scepter in her left hand. She is depicted as a beautiful young woman carrying a , scepter and torch. In Athens they built altars to her and held an annual state to her. They also placed a famous bronze statue of her in the agora The olive branch represented plenty and the driving away of evil spirits Another Greek Goddess of Peace Harmonia … and her Necklace Harmonia was the daughter from an affair between Aphrodite and Ares. Because Aphrodite cheated on her husband Hephaestus, the god of fire, he gave Harmonia a cursed necklace as a gift on her wedding day. The gold necklace was bedecked with jewels so stunning, people were unable to see the curse beneath its sparkling surface. While it promised to keep its wearer young and beautiful, it actually brought tragedy and suffering. Harmonia was transformed into a serpent. Harmonia and her necklace Gaia

Mother Earth in was Gaia who brought forth earth and the human race from “the gaping void, Chaos”. A holistic definition of peace often seen these days is Gaia peace. This state of peace goes well beyond making peace with other people, it supports making peace with the planet since all living creatures’ most fundamental relationship is with the earth. Literature

HOMER’S ILIAD

Homer wrote using metaphors and literary conventions from oral traditions which preceded him. His works are full of “the pity of war”. The first line of the Iliad is as follows: “The wrath of Achilles is my theme, that fatal wrath which, in fulfillment of the will of Zeus, brought the Achaeans so much suffering and sent the gallant souls of many noblemen to their deaths, leaving their bodies as carrion for the dogs and passing birds. “

Hector, Prince of Troy, fought, not because he was a fool rushing into battle, but because he was a prince bound by a code of honor which to warrior aristocrats meant more than life itself. The Homeric warrior had a passionate desire to assert himself, to demonstrate his excellence and worth, and to live up to the warrior’s code of honor.

• To Anaktoria, A Soldier’s Wife in Lydia by Sappho of Lesbos

Some say cavalry and some would claim infantry or a fleet of long oars is the supreme sight on the black earth I say it is

the girl you love. And easily proved. Did not Helen, who was queen of mortal beauty become the scourge of Trojan honor? Haunted by love She forgot kinsmen, her own dear child and wandered off, oh weak and fitful

Women bending before any man: so Anaktoria, although you are far, Do not forget your loving friends, I for one Would rather listen to your soft step and see your radiant face – than watch all the dazzling horsemen and armored hoplites of Lydia Aristophanes’ Lysistrata Written 2400 years ago, this comedy solves the problem of war by having the women of Greece rebel, seize the Acropolis, and refuse to sleep with their husbands until they stopped fighting wars. This would have been, then, a sex strike to end the Peloponnesian War. Early Greek Diplomacy

With hundreds of independent, rival city-states, retaliatory warfare over disputed territory or damage to property was endemic. The war itself was a way to settle disputes. It was a form of low- intensity warfare so that it would not pose a threat to the survival of Greece. Greeks contained the scale, extent, and violence of warfare by limiting it. (They did not pursue the modern goals of extermination warfare or total destruction of the enemy). For example, they declared sacred truces during , and there were many festivals throughout the year. Other methods for containing warfare were: • signing armistices which specified the length of time they had to wait before hostilities could resume, • banning the use of slings and bows and arrows on Euboea • banning use of arrow poison, for example the gods denied Odysseus its use as told in a passage in the Odyssey (1:260-263) • holding ritualized duels called duels of champions where each city-state would field a certain number of men who would fight until one side or another had so many people killed, they would surrender. • arbitration where states submitted their dispute to a mutually agreeable third party.

Peace in Roman Civilization

Olive branch

Early Christians depicted a dove with olive branch on sepulchers and catacomb walls This symbolism came from the story of Noah and his ark in the Hebrew Bible. A dove returned to Noah with a freshly plucked olive branch from the land of Israel.

Goddess

Concordia (also called Pax) was the Roman goddess of peace

Sculpture of Concordia standing between Emperor Tiberius (right) and his

Julius Caesar and Pax, Goddess of Peace

Altar of Peace The Augustae "Altar of Augustan Peace“, commonly shortened to Ara Pacis, is an altar to Pax, the Roman goddess. The monument was commissioned by the Roman Senate on 4 July 13 BC to honor the return of to Rome after his three years in Hispania and , and consecrated on 30 January 9 BC by the Senate in celebration of the peace brought to the by Augustus' military victories.

The altar was meant to be a vision of the Roman civil religion. It is made up of a small functional altar at its center, and four surrounding walls: two-tier friezes run along the walls and portray the peace and fertile prosperity enjoyed as a result of the peace brought to Rome by Augustus' military supremacy. The Altar was built to remind Romans, through a visual medium, of the competence and achievements of the Julio Claudian dynasty. The sculpture on the outside of the monument emphasize the importance of piety () and peace within the empire. Pietas meant respect for the family, the community, and the emperor.

The Altar was originally located on the northern outskirts of Rome —a formerly open area that Augustus developed as a complex of monuments—and on the flood plain of the river Tiber, where it became buried under four meters of silt over the centuries. The Ara Pacis was substantively rediscovered in the twentieth century, and moved to its current location in 1937–8.

Ara Pacis: Processional frieze showing Augustus as high priest of Rome, accompanied by members of his family

Detail from Frieze of Altar of Peace

Ara Pacis: The processional frieze showing members of the Senate (north face)

Pax Romana

Policies initiated by Emperor Augustus which brought relative peace to the Roman empire from 27 BCE-180 CE. Augustus closed the gates of 3 times (27,25,13 BCE). The empire protected and governed the provinces permitting each to make its own laws while accepting Roman taxation and military control. The term is misleading, the Romans continued to expand their territory. Peace in the

The Roman poet (70–10 BC) associated "the plump olive" with Pax and used the olive branch as a symbol of peace in his Aeneid

High on the stern takes his stand, And held a branch of olive in his hand, While thus he spoke: "The ' arms you see, Expelled from Troy, provoked in Italy By Latian foes, with war unjustly made; At first affianced, and at last betrayed. This message bear: The Trojans and their chief Bring holy peace, and beg the king's relief."

• (Con’t from previous slide)

• For the Romans, there was an intimate relationship between war and peace. , the god of war, had another aspect, Mars the Pacifer, Mars the bringer of Peace, who is shown on coins of the later Roman Empire bearing an olive branch.

• Appian described the use of the olive-branch as a gesture of peace by the enemies of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus in the Numantine War and by Hasdrubal of Carthage

Coin with Emperor (emperor 69-79 CE) on one side and the goddess Pax with olive branch in right hand and scepter in left hand In Rome the main Temple of Janus stood in the . It had doors on both ends, and inside was a statue of Janus, the two- faced god of boundaries. The Temple doors (“the Gates of Janus") were closed in times of peace and opened in times of war. The closing of the Temple doors was a very rare event.

Plutarch in 's Lives, Vol. I

“Janus also has a temple at Rome with double doors, which they call the gates of war; for the temple always stands open in time of war, but is closed when peace has come. The latter was a difficult matter, and it rarely happened, since the realm was always engaged in some war, as its increasing size brought it into collision with the barbarous nations which encompassed it round about. But in the time of Augustus it was closed, after he had overthrown Mark Antony; and before that, when Marcus Atilius and Titus Manlius were consuls, it was closed a short time; then war broke out again at once, and it was opened.”

An example of a Roman Imperial coin is a bronze coin of Nero struck in 65 AD on the rare occasion when the doors to the Temple of Janus were closed as a sign of universal peace. The coin shows the temple with encircling legend: ‘Peace for the People of Rome everywhere, the doors of Janus are closed.”

Roman Warrior Ethic

In Roman civilization people believed the gods favored conquerors and warriors. Therefore elite men lived up to warrior codes of honor and these men led Roman legions in imperial wars of conquest. In negotiations after they were victorious, they negotiated from a position of strength to make sure they were in control of the vanquished peoples. Peacemaking In Indian Civilization Apparent peace in this early civilization • In 3300 BCE hundreds of villages lined the Indus river with no sign of defensive walls or fortifications • Farming was the basis of this civilization • Towns and cities were built with people of similar trades living together in the same sector • Resources were used to meet basic needs of people. Cities were built with streets in orderly grids and sewerage systems

Arrival of Aryans (Indo-Europeans)

• Aryans brought a dominator, warrior culture and the caste system, although they intermarried with indigenous peoples • They organized in chiefdoms (rashtras) across northern India with chiefs (rajas) fighting other chiefs for tributary revenue. This proto-civilization was called Vedic civilization, because the Vedas were the basis of • When kingdoms were formed, kings fought each other for hegemony in larger-scale wars. • Paradoxically, all of the considerable warfare led to many prescribed forms of peacemaking. Vocabulary of Peacemaking

• Arthashastra by Kautilya is a book of advice on statecraft to India’s first empire builder, Chandragupta I. Kautilya believed, similar to Greek thinkers of those times, that war and violence werean inevitable and natural part of life.

• However, Arthashastra delineates six possible relationships between states: peace, war, neutrality, alliances, preparing for war, and making peace with one state while waging war against another. • Additionally, peace processes are: peace with or without a promise, ruler of defeated group turned over or not, goods offered to winning side or not, and peace bought with a payment from losing side. “Golden peace” would be achieved when neighboring kingdoms were united in amity with one another. Inner peace in Vedism and Hinduism

In Vedism, inner peace could be achieved through singing, reciting hymns, and performing rituals. In Hinduism, yoga and meditation were required. If an individual’s atman (soul) lost peace, decontamination rituals were performed to encourage purity and positive karma and drive out negative karma. The proportion of positive karma people in society would be a measure of how peaceful the entire society was. Belief in was a tremendous impetus for peace. This is called reincarnative peace – that actions in this lifetime determine our state in the next lifetime. Hindu socio-political and religious traditions prevailed in India until the Islamic sultanates of the 1200’s and 1300’s CE.

Bhagavad Gita

In a famous story within the Bhagavad Gita, the chariot warrior, Arjuna, faced an ethical dilemma on the battlefield which his chariot driver Krishna (the god Vishnu in disguise) helps him solve. He asked if was of brother against brother was right. In this story the warrior ethos becomes the metaphor for ethical thought about social duty throughout Hindu society. Thus religious development was tied closely to warfare and warrior elites in Persia and India, but in China there was a more secular focus on how to govern efficiently and humanely. Modern Indian flag with emblem of a crest which symbolizes the Buddhist 8-fold Path as was seen atop an Asoka pillar

Peacemaking in Early Chinese Civilization The character on the left, he, means together with, harmony or union.

The character on the right, ping, means flat, level, equal or to make the same score or tie.

Another character for peace is an which means calm, still, quiet, or to pacify. Many Chinese street names have an in them as does Tien An Men square which means Gate of Heavenly Peace. These characters date back to the earliest Chinese ideograms on oracle bones when diviners were asked to predict success in war or peace. Time of 3 Sovereigns (2997 – 2697 BCE)

In accounts which are legendary as much as historical, three sovereigns first ruled early China. They were demigods representing Heaven, Earth and Human realms. In these accounts, The Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian and the Bamboo Annals by an anonymous author, both dating to the 100’s BCE, peace was described as being central to the origins of Ancient China. They presided over a time of universal harmony. These 3 sovereigns not only ruled benevolently in their own realms, but they also kept a perfect balance between them.

The gifts they gave to humanity were fire, fishing, , and writing. Since cultivating rice required cooperation, coordination and social cohesion, it can be assumed peace prevailed in these early times. Confucius later wrote “from agriculture social harmony and peace arise.” Rule of the 5 Emperors (2697-2195 BCE) The first of the 5 emperors, the Yellow Emperor, is said to have limited warfare and fostered peace. He strove to make his people prosperous and obedient. Since ancient times, Chinese emperors have realized peace is essential to insure people’s livelihood. Accounts of his reign say “Only in cases of necessity will sage rulers undertake military actions.” Statue of Yellow Emperor in his hometown in Henan Province The Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BCE) China’s first historical dynasty came to power by coup, formed a permanent military class, and eventually the scale and intensity of warfare increased along with the scale of life in general. Shang bronzes were magnificent, but ties binding the traditional elite of distant regions were weak not to mention ties binding conquered and subjugated peoples. A lack of social cohesion led to the decline in efforts to maintain peace. Zhou Dynasty (1122-256 BCE)

Rulers of the Zhou Dynasty created three remarkable institutions: The Mandate of Heaven, the Fengjian (a feudal system with reciprocal obligations and mutual limitations of action), and Zongfa (clan law), which together established order, hierarchy and accountability in China. Western Zhou - The first 340 years of the Zhou Dynasty, the capital was in Hao near Xi’an. They gained extensive territory and were dominated by one family, the Ji, but, during a civil war, were defeated by nomads.

The Zhou dynasty then moved their capital eastward to Luoyang and became known as the Eastern Zhou. The Eastern Zhou period is divided into two parts: the Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BCE) and the Warring States Period (475-221 BCE). During the Spring and Autumn period the Ji family was able to enforce a top down peace despite unrest and external threats. Interstate diplomacy and Zongfa law were successful.

Hundreds of treaties (meng) were negotiated creating trade and defense alliances between fiefs. A class of ambassadors, people who represented the Fengjian lords, created a precise diplomatic vocabulary with specific words for ambassadorial meetings, diplomatic rituals, and various types of agreements. Certain Fengjian lords, however, annexed territory and competed for land and power with members of the Ji family. Then 7 Warring states vied for power during the next 300 years, called the Warring States period. This hostile environment then opened the way for a Hundred Schools of Thought which spawned 4 schools which ineradicably influenced the rest of Chinese history, even Asian history. CONCLUSIONS § Old Kingdom Egypt experienced 700 years of relative peace due to traditions of peace, a centralized monarchy with pro-peace spiritual beliefs, and a good climate and plentiful resources § City-State civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Greece experienced considerable warfare as each city-state had a proud identity and interests clashed. Paradoxically, this meant these peoples became adept at devising peacemaking strategies as did the Chinese families who fought for dominance during the Zhou dynasty.