Building the Iron Horse: The Evolving Transportation and Land Use Planning Philosophy towards Calgary’s Light Rail Transit System by Filip Mateusz Majcherkiewicz A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in Planning Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2013 © Filip Mateusz Majcherkiewicz 2013 Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract Many cities today are contemplating major investments in rail transit systems, especially Light Rail Transit (LRT), to address two significant planning issues which have characterized North American metropolitan growth patterns: increasing automobile use and decentralizing population and employment. Proponents of these systems argue that by building rail transit, travel behaviour and land use patterns can be changed. The experience in cities which have built these systems is mixed, but transportation and land use outcomes typically go hand-in-hand: San Diego, Denver, and Portland have increased transit ridership and intensification in station areas, whereas Buffalo and Cleveland have had minimal change occur as a result of investments in LRT. Calgary, Alberta presents an interesting case as its LRT system, first opened in 1981, generates tremendous ridership but has had relatively modest land use change in station areas. This thesis aims to understand why intensification has been so marginal at many stations, and to uncover what are the unique facets of Calgary’s experience which shaped this outcome. The approach taken is to examine the evolution of the City of Calgary’s planning philosophy towards transportation and land use since the need for rapid transit was first identified in 1966. This evolution is also placed within the context of the particularly severe cyclical economic forces that influenced both the city’s growth and policy planning approaches taken to manage this growth. The research finds that the combination of transportation and land use policy, in conjunction with market forces, which existed during the design, construction and operation of the first three LRT lines favoured intensification in Calgary’s downtown and low-density decentralization in suburban areas. However, the evolution of planning policy and market forces indicate that this less likely to be true in the future, both in the near and long term. The City is transitioning from a highly centralized mono-centric city to a poly- centric and increasingly multi-modal metropolitan region. The LRT, and other transit service, will be a key means of facilitating and managing this transformation. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I want to extend my thanks and appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Jeff Casello. This thesis would not have been possible without your valued advice, guidance, and most importantly, patience. Thank you for tolerating me for so long, including my endless talks of Calgary and its LRT system. I promise I will use the word ‘would’ properly from now on. I am also grateful for all you have done for me outside of academia. My experience in Kitchener-Waterloo was greatly enriched because of it. I would also like to sincerely thank the members of my committee, Dr. Pierre Filion and Dr. Mark Seasons. Your constructive feedback and critiques were important contributions towards shaping my work into its final form. To the friends, both at home and newly made in Waterloo, thank you for your encouragement, treasured memories, and putting up with me in times of stress. A special acknowledgement goes to my best friend Tyler, who has seen my interest in planning grow from Lego to Graduate School. Finally, to Mom, Dad, Joanna, and Adam. I am thankful to have had such support and love from home in completing this work. Tatuś, I will always remember the Sunday afternoon drives through downtown Calgary, which invariably had a young kid, with his nose pressed to the window, imagining the future of the city. iv Table of Contents Page Author’s Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv List of Figures vii List of Maps viii List of Tables x Chapter 1: Introduction . 1 1.1 Research Questions 2 1.2 Introduction to Calgary 3 1.3 Scope of Thesis 5 1.4 Organization of Thesis 8 Chapter 2: Literature Review . 10 2.1 Land Use Impacts on Transportation 12 2.2 Influence of Accessibility and Mobility on Land Use 19 2.3 Accessibility and Transit Network Design 23 2.4 Parking and Travel Behaviour 29 2.5 Planning Opportunities for TOD 39 2.6 Summary 44 Chapter 3: Research Methods . 46 3.1 General Methods 47 3.2 TOD Case Study – Site Selection 48 3.3 Limitations of Research Approach 49 3.4 Summary 50 Chapter 4: The Evolution of Planning in Calgary . 51 4.1 Inception (1966-1976) . 53 4.11 The Role of Downtown 53 4.12 Transit Planning and Service 55 4.13 Land Use Policy 58 4.14 Parking 61 4.15 Summary 62 v Page 4.2 First Generation (1976-1990) . 63 4.21 The Role of Downtown 64 4.22 Transit Planning and Service 65 4.23 Land Use Policy 70 4.24 Parking 75 4.25 Summary 79 4.3 Evaluation & Transition (1990-2000) . 81 4.31 The Role of Downtown 83 4.32 Transit Planning and Service 85 4.33 Land Use Policy 89 4.34 Parking 97 4.35 Summary 101 4.4 Second Generation (2000-Present) . 102 4.41 The Role of Downtown 104 4.42 Land Use Policy 109 4.43 Transit Planning and Service 136 4.44 Parking 153 4.45 Summary 162 Chapter 5: Case Study: Implementing TOD in Calgary . 165 5.1 Transit-Oriented Development – 1980s – South LRT 167 5.2 Transit-Oriented Development – 2009 – Westbrook Station 171 5.3 Transit-Oriented Development – 2008 – Chinook Station 179 Chapter 6: Synthesis . 187 Chapter 7: Conclusions . 195 7.1 Recommendations 198 7.2 Future Research 203 References . 204 Appendix A: Comparison of Plan It Growth Patterns and Current Calgary Transit Operations 217 vi List of Figures Page Figure 1 Proposed Linear Core, 1978 . 64 Figure 2 Employment, Parking & Transit – Downtown Calgary 1964-1992 77 Figure 3 Major Provincial Capital Grants, 1985-1995 81 Figure 4 Calgary Transit Ridership, 1975-2002 85 Figure 5 Downtown Mode Share vs. Parking Stalls per Employee . 97 Figure 6 Long Stay Parking Stalls per 100 jobs, Calgary Downtown 99 Figure 7 Employment in Downtown Calgary, 1966-2009 104 Figure 8 Population Growth Trend (%), 1990-2010, Centre City and Calgary 107 Figure 9 Select Development Activity since 2000 in Eastern Beltline 108 Figure 10 Plan It Calgary Decision Support Framework . 120 Figure 11 Sustainability Principles and Key Directions for Land Use and Mobility 123 Figure 12 Scenario Comparison of Transit Use and Service 125 Figure 13 Projected Mode Share for Calgary Transportation Plan Horizon, 2009 126 Figure 14 Activity Centre and Corridor Typologies, 2009 129 Figure 15 Population in Activity Centres and Corridors, 1990-2039 . 131 Figure 16 Distribution of Residents and Employment in Activity Centres and Corridors, 2010 132 Figure 17 Example of District Modifiers 133 Figure 18 Atlantic Avenue Art Block & Hanson Square 135 Figure 19 Calgary Transit Ridership, 1981-2001 137 Figure 20 Comparison of Transit Trips per capita & Transit Vehicle Hours per capita, 1975-2006 . 138 Figure 21 Changing Design at 69th Street LRT Station 142 Figure 22 Changing Design at Westbrook LRT Station 142 Figure 23 Median Price of Unreserved Monthly Parking in Select Canadian CBDs 156 Figure 24 Chinook LRT Station – Previous and Future Design . 184 vii List of Maps Page Map 1 Calgary’s LRT Network and Concentrations of Office & Industrial Employment 4 Map 2 Transportation Concept Plan for Downtown Calgary, 1966 54 Map 3 Transit CBD Desire Lines, 1964 56 Map 4 Blue Arrow System, 1981 57 Map 5 Proposed Rapid Transit Alignment, 1967. 60 Map 6 Proposed West LRT Alignments, 1983 67 Map 7 Proposed West LRT Alignments at Westbrook Mall, 1983 68 Map 8 Downtown Calgary Restricted Parking Area, 1984 76 Map 9 Travel Zones (1971-1991 travel comparison) 86 Map 10 GoPlan Proposed Transit Network, 1995 . 88 Map 11 GoPlan Preferred Land Use Concept Map, 1995 92 Map 12 Parking Supply at LRT Stations & Downtown, 1994 99 Map 13 Centre City Study Area, 2007 106 Map 14 Dwellings Per Hectare, 2012 110 Map 15 Mahogany Proposed Land Use Map, 2012 . 111 Map 16 West LRT Land Use Study: Study Area Boundary & Density Areas, 2009 117 Map 17 Land Use Projections for Dispersed Scenario and Recommended Direction 124 Map 18 Primary Transit Network, Activity Centres, and Corridors, 2009 127 Map 19 North Central LRT Alignments Under Consideration 144 Map 20 Primary Transit Network, 2012 . 148 Map 21 RouteAhead/Investing in Mobility 10-year Rapid Transit Corridors 151 Map 22 Downtown Calgary Restricted Parking Area, 1984-Present 155 Map 23 Downtown Parking Area 155 Map 24 Residential Parking Areas 159 Map 25 TOD Case Studies . 166 Map 26 Chinook Station Area, 1980 167 Map 27 Southland Station Area, 1980 169 Map 28 Heritage Station Area, 1980 170 Map 29 Westbrook Village Area Redevelopment Plan: Area Boundary 172 Map 30 Existing Land Use and Proposed Land Use Precincts – Westbrook Station 174 viii Page Map 31 Westbrook Village Area Redevelopment Plan: Height of Streetwall & Location of Towers . 176 Map 32 Westbrook Station Zoning, 2013 177 Map 33 Chinook Station Area Plan: Area Boundary 180 Map 34 Chinook Station Zoning, 2013 . 185 ix List of Tables Page Table 1 Changes in Downtown Travel, 1971-1981 .