Bruce Sinclair Gustavus A. Hyde, Case Institute of Technology Professor Espy's volunteers, Cleveland, Ohio and the development ol systematic weather observation

In December 1842, James P. Espy, meteorologist, some- time professor of mathematics for the U. S. Navy but better known as the "Storm King" for his theories on the cause of storms, issued a public call for volunteer weather observers. Addressed to the "Friends of Science," via the medium of newspapers throughout the country, Espy requested all those interested in weather phenom- ena to record meteorological data in their own localities and send him the information for use in testing his weather theories.1 One of the readers of Professor Espy's circular was Gustavus A. Hyde, a seventeen year old student at the Framingham, Massachusetts Academy. Fired with en- thusiasm for the new project "I wrote to him," Hyde later recalled, "and in return received blank slips on which to take my readings."2 He purchased a ther- mometer and together with a barn weather vane and a home-made rain gauge he began making a record of the weather. Hyde's zeal lasted for well over half a century, a record perhaps unmatched by any of the other volunteers who answered the call for their serv- ices. During the period of Hyde's career, meteorology advanced from the empirical compilation of amateur observations to a science, based on the interpretation of data systematically collected by professional meteor- ologists. Gustavus A. Hyde Espy's call for volunteers came at a time of particular interest in weather. His own theory of storms was in sharp conflict with that of William Redfield, another was triumphantly received in France. Meteorology was 3 meteorologist and first president of the American Asso- developing into a science. ciation for the Advancement of Science; debates between Weather recording has exercised a universal fascina- the two continued in and out of scientific circles for tion in all ages, especially among men of some intel- several years. During the 1840's and 1850's meteorology lectual attainment. Benjamin Franklin proposed a commanded the attentions of almost all America's fore- theory of storm movement, for instance, based on a most scientists—Robert Hare, Joseph Henry, A. D. comparison of observations at Philadelphia and Boston. Bache and Benjamin Apthorp Gould, among others— Thomas Jefferson also carried out extensive observa- and those in Europe as well. Redfield corresponded tions on the subject and in his wide correspondence with Charles Darwin on the subject and Espy's work exchanged weather information with those who shared his interests.4 But it was early realized that any scien- 1 James P. Espy, First Report on Meteorology to the Sur- tific understanding of weather conditions required the geon General of the United States Army (Washington, Sur- geon General's Office, 1843), 1. For a discussion of Espy's 3 Nathan Reingold, Science in Nineteenth-Century America related meteorological interests see J. E. McDonald's recent (New York, Hill and Wang, 1964), 93. article, ''James Espy and the Beginnings of Cloud Thermo- 4 Donald R. Whitnah, A History of the United States dynamics," Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 44, 634-641. Weather Bureau (Urbana, Illinois, University of Illinois 2 Cleveland News (Cleveland, Ohio), November 15, 1909. Press, 1961), 5.

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systematic collection of knowledge. This obvious need observers, with or without equipment, to observe cloud for a network of observers inevitably suggested the fa- patterns and movement, wind direction, rainfall and cilities of the federal government and the first step in the times of its starting and stopping, temperature and that direction was taken in 1814 when James Tilton, barometric pressure. The future development of the the army's Surgeon General, directed post surgeons to science of meteorology rested on these observations record weather details.5 Although it was another half- Espy claimed, and he exhorted his readers: "Let none century before the plan became significantly effective, think their mite too insignificant to be thrown into a precedent was established for the successive efforts of this common treasury." 9 the government Land Office, the Patent Office, the Army In the spring of 1842, Espy went to Boston. Hyde Corps of Engineers and the Signal Corps.6 State gov- visited him there and apparently worked with Espy for ernments also experimented with systems of weather ob- a short period of time in the analysis of meteorological servers, New York beginning in 1825 and Pennsylvania data. Espy's visit to Boston was of short duration, how- in 1839. In fact, it was Espy who supervised efforts in ever. He helped Hyde find a position in the Boston city the latter state which had appropriated $4000 to be engineering department and returned to Washington to used by the Franklin Institute in the establishment of settle in his new headquarters in the Surgeon General's meteorological stations throughout the commonwealth.7 office.10 As head of a joint committee representing both the For the next three years, Hyde worked on land sur- American Philosophical Society and the Franklin In- veys for the Boston water works and from 1846 to 1849 stitute, Espy developed in 1834 the outline of a system on the construction of an aqueduct from Lake Cochitu- of volunteer observers which he later duplicated in ate to Brookline, a Boston suburb. Frequent moving 1839. His meteorological investigations had won the interrupted his meteorological observations and his re- Magellanic Prize of the American Philosophical Society ports from 1843 to 1849 were sporadic. However, during in 1836 and from about that time on, Espy devoted all the six year period he successfully completed what his efforts to weather science. He lectured on his theory amounted to an apprenticeship as a civil engineer and of storms before the British Association for the Advance- in 1850 went west to seek his fortune, arriving in ment of Science and the French Academy of Sciences in Cleveland, Ohio, in April of that year.11 He secured a 1840 and in 1841 published his Philosophy of Storms. position as assistant engineer on the Cleveland 8c Pitts- These activities brought Espy a great scientific reputa- burgh railroad then under construction. In the follow- tion; in France he was compared with Newton. The ing year Hyde obtained the post of resident engineer wide esteem in which he was held also earned him a for the Lake Shore 8c Michigan Southern Railroad and Congressional appointment as meteorologist to the War was in charge of the construction of that line from Department in 1842.8 Toledo to Cleveland, work which occupied him until His new position provided Espy with the opportunity 1854.^2 to project a grand scheme for weather observations, and Hyde was a personable, attractive young man and he one which he hoped would ultimately be world-wide. soon found his way into local politics. He was advanced Foreign ministers, consuls, and other diplomatic agents as the Republican candidate for city engineer in 1855, had been requested to keep w;eather records and for- won the election and served in that capacity until 1858.13 ward them to Espy through the Secretary of State. His association with the city continued for another year, Masters of sailing vessels were asked to transmit a copy however, when he was hired to superintend the con- of their logs to the Surgeon General's office. Weather struction of the Euclid Avenue sewer. A local newspaper journals standardized according to Espy's plan were to called the work "one of the most important and neces- be maintained at all military posts, naval stations, and sary improvements now in contemplation," and urged ships at sea. Light-house keepers were to receive his its rapid completion.14 Early in 1859 Hyde was hired as forms on which to make their reports, and the Gov- engineer of the Cleveland Gas Light and Coke Com- ernor of Bermuda promised his assistance as did other pany, a position he held for the next forty-eight years. observers in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The final The steady regularity of his work as engineer for the link in his system was the corps of domestic volunteer gas company ideally suited Hyde's scientific avocation. Espy's plan for reporting called for observations at 7 s Ibid., 10. a.m., 2 p.m. and 9 p.m. The essence of his scheme de- 6 Gustavus A. Weber, The Weather Bureau, Its History, pended upon the regular and simultaneous recording Activities and Organization (New York, D. Appleton and of weather data. Gustavus A. Hyde was the perfect man Company, 1922), 2. 7 Whitnah, A History of the United States Weather Bu- 9 Espy, First Report, 1. reau, 12. 10 Cleveland News, November 15, 1909; Reingold, Science s James P. Espy, The Philosophy of Storms (Boston, C. C. in Nineteenth-Century America, 129. Little and J. Brown, 1841), 77 ff; Dictionary of American 11 "Autobiography of Gustavus A. Hyde, Oct. 10th, 1910." Biography (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1931), VI, Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, Ohio. 185. Other details of Espy's life are related by his niece, 12 Ibid. Mrs. L. Morehead, in A Few Incidents in the Life of Prof. is Cleveland Leader (Cleveland, Ohio), March 2, 1855. James P. Espy (Cincinnati, R. Clarke & Company, 1888). 1* Ibid., June 17, 1858.

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"A solar radiation thermometer, with blackened bulb, in a stout glass tube exhausted of air within one-tenth of an inch of the mercurial guage, constructed agreeably to the sugges- tion of Sir John Herschel." Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution . . . for the Year 1859 (Washington, Thomas H. Ford, 1860), 434. for Espy's system. For over fifty years he faithfully re- corded Cleveland weather and each month sent a report of his observations to Washington. When compiled with the observations from a wide number of sources, the work of any one volunteer lost its identity. In Washington, Hyde was important simply as one of many who forwarded his findings. But the total effect of individual reports was considerable. Of particular significance was Espy's development of the synoptic weather chart.15 By reducing the raw data of his observers to symbols which would show wind direc- tion and force, precipitation, temperature, and baro- "A portable anemometer for registering the velocity of the metric pressure, Espy could plot the weather on a map. wind in miles and furlongs. . . . This instrument may also be used for showing the ventilation of public buildings or The synopsis of weather in this fashion graphically il- dwellings, by an inspection of its dial in combination with lustrated the general character of weather conditions of a watch or clock, by which the rate of the progress of venti- any given locality. The synoptic weather chart stimu- lation may be seen." Annual Report of the Board of Regents lated interest in two directions. In the first instance, of the Smithsonian Institution . . . for the Year 1859 (Wash- ington, Thomas H. Ford, 1860), 437-438. generalization of data lent itself to theoretical specu- lation and in succeeding years meteorology became in- creasingly abstruse. On the other hand, synoptic charts ferred from the Surgeon General's office to the Navy clearly presented the mass movement of weather in a Department in 1849 and he was directed to work with fashion which irresistibly pointed toward prediction, a the Smithsonian.17 It was a happy combination of ef- development of immense practical interest and value. forts. The Smithsonian's facilities provided Espy with Espy's meteorological work had succeeded in two im- a place to conduct his research experiments and their portant respects; he had developed an organized system joint funds allowed for a re-organization of the corps of collecting information and a suggestive technique for of volunteer observers. handling the data which had been gathered. Much of the re-organization work fell on Joseph Professor Espy's original band of volunteers com- Henry, first Secretary of the Smithsonian. Three dif- prised one hundred and twenty observers. He listed ferent reporting forms were drawn up, corresponding them in his Second Report on Meteorology.1€ Many to three classes of observers: those with no instruments, were teachers, doctors, or ministers, men of some learn- those with thermometers, and those with a complete ing, or like Hyde, individuals with a modest degree of set of instruments furnished by the Institution. Henry's scientific curiosity. These interests and occupations, how- system did more than simply enlarge Espy's plan with ever, naturally led to a concentration of observers in the addition of a third class of observers. By providing the settled, eastern portion of the country, an ironic instruments, Henry was able to control the distribution handicap to the collection of information over a wide of observations as well as extend the range of data area. There was an obvious need to extend the system. which could be collected. The system also lent itself to The new Smithsonian Institution, which had been the standardization of instruments and thus of data. founded in 1846, provided the means to enlarge the After a comparison of various types of equipment, network. Appropriations for Espy's work were trans- Henry devised a set of specifications for the instruments to be used by all his observers and then hired instru- is Whitnah, History of the United States Weather Bu- ment makers to produce weather vanes, barometers, and reau, 6. is James P. Espy, Second Report on Meteorology to the 17 Fourth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Secretary of the Navy (Washington, Navy Department, 1849), Smithsonian Institution (Washington, By the Printers to the 2. Senate, 1850), 14.

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Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 07:24 PM UTC Vol. 46, No. 12, December 1965 psychrometers according to Smithsonian standards. As servations in the local newspaper by 1855. Henry noted the final step in the development of his weather report- in his report the following year that several observers ing system, Henry made arrangements with telegraph did so and he recommended the general adoption of companies to transmit daily weather information from the idea: 22 18 a selected number of posts. It serves to direct attention to the importance of pre- Under Henry's careful direction, the Smithsonian's cise records of the weather, to awaken a greater public observational network grew steadily more effective. interest in the subject of meteorology, and to gratify a Army surgeons, many of whom were stationed strategi- laudable curiosity in the comparison of the variations of cally west of the Mississippi, were re-organized to co- the different seasons. ordinate their activities with the Smithsonian and were The Smithsonian's system of volunteer observers was furnished with standardized equipment. The efforts of seriously disrupted by the Civil War. The number of various state governments were brought into cooperation southern observers was sharply reduced and they were and instrument makers were authorized to sell equip- not re-organized following the war. Many northern ob- ment at reduced prices to individuals who would agree servers continued their work, however, and the value of to provide reports to the Smithsonian. By 1854, the systematic collection and analysis of data had been Smithsonian had added four hundred regular observers clearly demonstrated. The Army's Signal Service, casting 19 to Professor Espy's original number. about for a peacetime justification for its activities, ulti- Hyde belonged to the second class of observers—those mately claimed the remnants of the Smithsonian's sys- with thermometers. Three times daily, at the same hours tem.23 Henry had not opposed the transfer; as early as Espy had used, Hyde recorded the appearance of the 1854 he had stated that "the Institution will cheerfully sky, wind direction, the beginning and ending of rain relinquish this field, and devote its labors to other ob- or snow, and temperature. He forwarded these observa- jects," should the federal government prove a more tions monthly. A register of all observers was kept at logical agency.24 The establishment of a federally-sup- the Smithsonian. When the monthly report was re- ported weather service making regular analysis of the ceived, an entry was made in the register by which it data it collected was, in fact, the rationalization of me- was possible to determine the regularity of observa- teorology Henry and his scientific colleagues sought. tions. Annually, in March, the reports were assembled The establishment of the Signal Service's weather and collated, a task which by the 1850's severely taxed activities did not initially alter the role of the volunteer 20 the abilities of Henry's own staff. observer. In Cleveland, Gustavus Hyde continued to The system did not always run smoothly. The amount forward his monthly reports to Washington. Over a of instrument breakage by careless observers curtailed period of years he had reported to Espy in the Surgeon the distribution of equipment on as wide a scale as Generals' office, the Navy Department, the Smithsonian, originally planned. Some observers failed to appreciate and the Patent Office when for a time it worked in co- the need for regularity in their observations. Others operation with the Smithsonian. One more address sought pay for their services. But these were relatively seemingly made little difference. "Mr. G. A. Hyde is a minor problems. The corps of observers grew in size meteorologist of long experience and recognized ability, and as the amount and quality of data increased, a clear having for many years been a volunteer observer in pattern of utility emerged. Henry occasionally cau- connection with the Smithsonian Institution," the Cleve- tioned against an overemphasis on the practical value land Herald noted in 1878, "and now stands in the same 25 of meteorology, but he was not unaware that popular position with the Signal Service Bureau." interest had some benefits. In his own reports he sug- The unvarying regularity of Hyde's Cleveland ob- gested the assistance agriculture could derive from a servations and the period of time over which they had knowledge of the weather, and he used synoptic maps been conducted gave him a modest local scientific repu- at the Smithsonian to forecast storms and to demon- tation. He was elected a curator of the Cleveland Acad- strate the possibilities of prediction from the informa- emy of Natural Science in 1867, and provided a paper 26 tion which his corps of observers had gathered.21 In for the organization's proceedings. Hyde also con- Cleveland, Hyde had begun to publish his own ob- tributed occasional articles to local newspapers on me- is Ibid., 15. For further information on Henry see Thomas teorological questions and was periodically called upon 27 Coulson, Joseph Henry, His Life and Work (Princeton, to explain unusual phenomena. In 1882, for instance, Princeton University Press, 1950), 194 ff. 22 ibid., 35. 19 Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the 23 Weber, The Weather Bureau, 3. Smithsonian Institution (Washington, Beverley Tucker, 1854), 24 Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the 25. Smithsonian Institution, 24. 20 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smith- 25 Cleveland Herald (Cleveland, Ohio), March 25, 1878. sonian Institution . . . for the Year 1859 (Washington, 26 Cleveland Leader, April 25, 1867. See also Walter B. Thomas H. Ford, 1860), 45-46. Hendrickson, The Arkites and Other Pioneer Natural His- 21 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smith- tory Organizations of Cleveland (Cleveland, Press of Western sonian Institution . . . for the Year 1856 (Washington, A. O. Reserve University, 1962). P. Nicholson, 1857), 37. 27 Cleveland Herald, March 10, 1881.

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Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 07:24 PM UTC Bulletin American Meteorological Society a sudden dip in the water level of New York Bay was there was a peculiar pleasure in the knowledge that the explained by the New York Herald as a result of high low temperatures set a new record. The same psychology barometric pressure. To the Cleveland Herald the analy- obtained with hot summer weather. From the 1880's sis seemed to suggest a rationale for the same occasional until the end of the first decade of the twentieth cen- variations in Lake Erie's level and a reporter was sent tury Hyde's records were the primary source for a large to Hyde for the opinion of a local scientist. His long ex- number of weather articles in local newspapers. When a perience "recording meteorological phenomena for the cold spell during the winter of 1899 broke a forty-five Smithsonian Institution and the Signal Service Bureau, year record, the Plain Dealer noted: 33 gives weight to whatever he may say in regard to atmos- These observations, taken with such care by Mr. Hyde, pheric phenomena," the paper noted.28 When the great are of particular value to the local scientific world from cyclone of 1878 brought a spate of letters to the editor the fact that they are the only accurate records which regarding the apparent contradictions of several reports exist prior to thirty years ago, when the government of wind directions, Hyde satisfactorily explained the first established a branch of the weather bureau service differences for local readers, using Espy's theory of storm in Cleveland. movement. In somewhat the same vein he wrote news- paper analyses of the Signal Corps' annual statement With the passage of time Hyde added the venerability of meteorological data, rendering the information more of age to the authority of his records. He became a easily understandable in terms of the general develop- patriarch as well as weather expert. Age did not dim ment of weather conditions.29 These activities gave his activities. He continued to speak before various civic Hyde's pronouncements something of an academic flavor groups on meteorology and he steadily maintained his even though he was never connected with an educa- weather journal. In 1896 he was honored by the First tional institution. By 1880 his learned status received Baptist Church in Cleveland for his long service as popular recognition. When he lectured before a young deacon of that body. His comments on that occasion re- men's church group that year the press announced the veal something of his personality. "It is only when I look in the mirror and see my reflection," he remarked, speaker of the evening as "Professor G. A. Hyde of this 34 city." ao "that I think perhaps I am old." In 1896 Hyde published a book summarizing his me- In part, Hyde's local stature was a reflection of greater teorological observations, with the expressed hope that popular interest in the weather. Shortly after the estab- it would be of "interest to the general resident public." 35 lishment of a Signal Corps weather station in Cleveland The work was almost entirely a factual statement of lo- in 1870, the local officer posted a daily weather map cal weather conditions with few theoretical conclusions. showing meteorological conditions throughout the coun- It contained maximum and minimum temperatures for try, the technique which Joseph Henry had inaugurated the forty-year period, weekly, monthly and yearly average at the Smithsonian several years earlier. These activities, temperatures, amounts of precipitation, and sky and together with daily weather forecasts, stimulated wide wind conditions. From his observations Hyde concluded concern. Meteorology was no longer "a crazy theory of mainly that contrary to popular belief, there was no the savants, of no practical value of permanence in the gradual change in the seasons taking place and that ordinary affairs of life;" it was now a matter of daily long range weather forecasts were impossible to make. interest to everyone according to the editor of the His approach to meteorology was direct, simple and is Leader*1 If perhaps best suggested by the poem with which he By the end of the century Hyde had also become the prefaced the work: 36 local weather authority simply by virtue of the longevity of his observations. His records extended back further The years, with us, roll on apace, than any official records and with the passage of time, And we make record of the race; they became increasingly valuable for comparative pur- Of Wind and Sky; of Rain and Snow; poses. "Mr. Hyde is, without a doubt, the pioneer ob- Of Heat and Cold; which all would know. server of Northern Ohio," the Cleveland Sun and Voice 32 Hyde distributed his book widely. Through the agency claimed in 1893, "and has the oldest record ever kept." of the director of the Ohio section of the Weather Bu- Unusual weather in Cleveland invariably brought a re- reau, H. W. Richardson, copies were sent to each of the porter to Hyde's doorstep. If it had been especially cold 33 Cleveland Plain Dealer (Cleveland, Ohio), February 1, 28 Ibid., February 1, 1882. 1899. 29 Gustavus A. Hyde, Records of Cleveland Weather. MSS 34 Exercises at the Unveiling of the Portrait of Deacon G. collection 3128, Western Reserve Historical Society. A. Hyde [Cleveland, Privately printed, 1896]. One of his soibid. William G. Rose also conferred the academic title favorite photographs was entitled "Dr. Jekell," and showed on Hyde as "Professor Gustavus A. Hyde, the citys' weather Hyde with his hat at a jaunty angle, seated at a table and authority." Cleveland: The Making of a City (Cleveland, surrounded by evil-looking bottles. World Publishing Company, 1950), 389. 35 G. A. Hyde, The Weather at Cleveland, Ohio. What It si Cleveland Leader, July 3, 1871; October 17, 1872. Has Been for Forty Years (Cleveland, Hill & Coggshall, 1896), 32 Cleveland Sun and Voice (Cleveland, Ohio), April 16, 4. 1893. 36 Ibid.

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Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 07:24 PM UTC Vol. 46, No. 12, December 1965 state's one hundred and forty-six volunteer observers. position with the gas company in the spring of the fol- "It is a splendid effort," Richardson wrote Hyde, "I lowing year, after nearly fifty years' work. only wish there were more like you—may your tribe in- In his retirement Hyde planned a busy travel sched- crease." 37 To the Ohio observers who received Hyde's ule and on one of his tours, in 1909, he visited Willis L. book, Richardson added in a circular letter: 38 Moore, Chief of the Weather Bureau in Washington. Moore expressed an interest in Hyde's career as an ob- Mr. Hyde's effort in this regard will be duly appreciated by all who take an interest in the subject of climate. An server and on his return to Cleveland, Hyde sent him a unbroken record of forty years as an observer of weather brief autobiographical sketch along with several photo- conditions certainly deserves commendation; a monumen- graphs. He had long been proud of his early relation- tal record of climate facts that cannot fail to be of value ships with Professor Espy and saw it as an "incident" in and interest to not only this but future generations, be- the beginning of the Weather Bureau. As the years re- sides being an example of painstaking and continual ef- ceded into the distance, one of his major concerns was fort seldom equalled. that he might be the last of the original weather ob- 41 In 1901 Hyde's work came to the attention of the servers of 1843. Hyde died in 1912; "Old Weather Man Weather Bureau's journal, the Monthly Weather Re- Called by Death," the newspaper reported. His obituary view. "Mr. Hyde," the editor noted, "is one of Espy's had already been written—he had sketched it out him- original observers, and is now still engaged in meteoro- self on a number of occasions. And almost all versions 42 logical work as a voluntary observer of the United States had essentially the same introduction: Weather Bureau. So far as we know, Mr. Hyde is the He began his weather work when a boy of 17. At that only one of Espy's pioneer observers who can show an time, in response to a call for volunteers, he bought a 39 uninterrupted record down to the present time." thermometer and started his observations. In December 1905, Hyde was given a reception by the Civil Engineers' Club of Cleveland. He had been one During the course of Hyde's lifetime, meteorology of the charter members of the organization when it was became a science. Once a systematic method of collect- founded in 1880, and in his talk he discussed the weather ing observational data was developed, theoretical solu- observations he had made in Cleveland over the past tions to meteorological problems were extended with half-century. On the last day of the year, Hyde made increasing success. Hyde himself conducted no scientific his final official observation. "Cleveland's oldest weather research. He had mastered the general outline of Espy's statistician" the Plain Dealer announced, "yesterday laid theory of storms, but there is no evidence that he fol- aside his records and cased his instruments after sending lowed later developments in the science of meteorology. reports to the United States government for a period of If not a scientist, however, Hyde faithfully collected the fifty years and eight months." 40 Hyde retired from his data which was used to develop a science. He saw him- self as a private in the small army which Professor Espy 37 H. W. Richardson to G. A. Hyde, May 2, 1896. MSS 3128, formed in 1843, as a pioneer in the service which ulti- Western Reserve Historical Society. ss Circular Letter, H. W. Richardson, May 13, 1896. MSS mately became the nation's Weather Bureau. 3128, Western Reserve Historical Society. 39 Hyde, Records of Cleveland Weather, MSS collection 41 Gustavus A. Hyde to Prof. Willis L. Moore, January 15, 3128, Western Reserve Historical Society. 1910. MSS 3128, Western Reserve Historical Society. 40 Cleveland Plain Dealer, January 1, 1906. 42 Cleveland Plain Dealer, November 28, 1912.

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