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History of the Christian Church

VOLUME 5. The Middle Ages, the Papal Theocracy in Conflict with the Secular Power from Gregory VII to Boniface VIII, AD 1049 to 1294

By Philip Schaff

CH501

Chapter 1: The Hildebrandian , AD 1049 to 1073

History of the Christian Church Volume 5 The Middle Ages, the Papal Theocracy in Conflict with the Secular Power from Gregory VII to Boniface VIII, AD 1049 to 1294

CH501 Table of Contents

Preface to Volume 5 ...... 2 The Fifth Period of Church History ...... 5 5.1. General Literature ...... 5 5.2. Introductory Survey ...... 6 Chapter 1. The Hildebrandian Popes, AD 1049 to 1073 ...... 8 5.3. Sources and Literature on Chapters I. and II ...... 8 5.4. Hildebrand and his Training ...... 9 5.5. Hildebrand and Leo IX. 1049–1054 ...... 11 5.6. Victor II. and Stephen IX. (X.). 1055–1058 ...... 12 5.7. Nicolas II. and the Cardinals. 1059–1061 ...... 12 5.8. The War against Clerical Marriage ...... 14 5.9. Alexander II. and the Schism of Cadalus. 1061–1073 ...... 14

HISTORY OF THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH appeared, Preface to Volume 5 first in its original German form, IT was the constant hope of Dr. Philip Schaff, Mercersburg, Pa., pp. xvi, 576, and Leipzig, the author of the HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN 1853, and then in English translation, New CHURCH, that he might live to finish the York and Edinburgh, 1853, 1854. Before that treatment of the Middle Ages, to which he had time, he had shown his taste for historical devoted one volume, covering the years 600– studies in his tract on WHAT IS CHURCH 1050. He frequently said, during the last years HISTORY? translated by Dr. John W. Nevin, of his life, “If I am able to accomplish this, my Phila., 1846, pp. 128, and the address on the HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH will be PRINCIPLE OF , which he measurably complete and I will be satisfied delivered at his inauguration as professor in then to stop.” He entered upon the task and the theological seminary at Mercersburg, had completed his studies on the pontificates 1844. This address was published in its of Gregory VII. and Alexander III., when his German form and in an English translation by pen was laid aside and death overtook him, Dr. Nevin, Chambersburg, 1845. Oct. 20, 1893. The two volumes found lying Dr. Schaff continued his publications in this open on his study table, as he had left them department with the issue of his HISTORY OF the day before, Jeremy Taylor’s HOLY LIVING THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH 1–600, in 2 volumes, N. AND HOLY DYING and a volume of Hurter’s Life Y., 1858–1867. In the meantime, his attention of INNOCENT III., showed the nature of his had been called to the subjects of biblical thoughts in his last hours. literature and , and his labors Dr. Schaff’s distinction as a writer on Church resulted in the publication of the American History dated from the year 1851 when his edition of Lange’s Commentary in 25 volumes

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 3 CH501: Volume 5, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course and other works. In 1887 he issued his the work anew, using the materials Dr. Schaff CREEDS OF CHRISTENDOM in 3 volumes. had left as the basis of the first four chapters. Left free to devote himself to the continuation The delay in the issue of the present volume of his HISTORY, which he was inclined to is due chiefly to the requirements of study regard as his chief literary work, he found it and in part to the difficulty in getting all the necessary, in order to keep abreast of the necessary literature. The author has felt times and to present a fresh treatment, to unwilling to issue the volume without giving begin his studies again at the very beginning to it as thorough study as it was possible for and consequently the series, to which this him to give. This meant that he should volume belongs, is an independent work familiarize himself not only with the medieval written afresh and differing in marked writings themselves but with the vast amount features from its predecessors. For example, of research which has been devoted to the the first volume, on the Apostolic age, devotes Middle Ages during the last quarter of a an extensive treatment to the authorship and century and more. As for the literature, not a dates of the Apostolic writings to which little of it has been, until recently, inaccessible scarcely any space was given in the HISTORY to the student in this country. OF THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH of 1851 and the At Lane seminary, where the author was a HISTORY OF THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH of 1858– professor, he found in the library an 1867. The treatment was demanded by the unusually well selected collection of works on new attitude of scholarship to the questions the medieval period made fifty years ago by presented by the Apostolic age. the wise judgment of two of its professors, Dr. Schaff lived to prepare six volumes of this Calvin E. Stowe and the late George E. Day, new work, three on early Christianity, one on who made tours in Europe for the purpose of medieval Christianity, and two on the making purchases for its shelves. He also Protestant Reformation. It is of some interest owes a debt to the Rev. Dr. Henry Goodwin that Dr. Schaff’s last writing was a pamphlet Smith, for some time professor in the on the Reunion of Christendom, pp. 71, a seminary and its librarian, for his liberal use subject which he treated with warm practical of the library funds in supplementing the sympathy and with materials furnished by works in the medieval department. In the studies of the historian. The substance of passing, it may be also said that the Cincinnati the pamphlet had been used as a paper read Public Library, by reason of a large before the Parliament of Religions at the permanent fund given more than a half Columbian Exposition, Chicago. It was a great century ago for the purchase of theological satisfaction to him to have the Faculty of the works and by the wise selection of such men Berlin University,—where he had spent part as Professor George E. Day, is unusually rich of his student life, 1840–1841, and which had in works for the historical student, some of conferred on him the doctorate of divinity in which may perhaps not be duplicated in this 1854,—bear testimony in their country. congratulatory letter on the semi-centennial On removing to the Western Theological of his professorial career that his “HISTORY OF seminary, the author found its librarian, THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH is the most notable Professor James A. Kelso, most ready to fill up monument of universal historical learning the shelves of the medieval department so produced by the school of Neander” (LIFE OF that it now possesses all the more important PHILIP SCHAFF, p. 467). works both original and secondary. To the The further treatment of the Middle Ages, Dr. librarians of the two Roman libraries Schaff left to his son, the author of this of Cincinnati and to other librarians the volume. It was deemed by him best to begin

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 4 CH501: Volume 5, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course author is indebted for the courtesy of the free collections of medieval documents, besides use of their collections. the older ones by Mabillon, Muratori, and An explanation is due for devoting an entire Migne, are the MONUMENTA GERMANIAE, volume to the middle period of the Middle intended to give an exhaustive collection of Ages, 1050–1294, when it was the intention medieval German writers, the series of of Dr. Philip Schaff to embrace it and the third collections of the papal documents called the period of the Middle Ages, 1294–1517, in a REGESTA, edited by Jaffé, Potthast, Auvray, single volume. It is doubtful whether Dr. Berger, and others, the CHARTULARIUM Schaff, after proceeding with his studies, UNIVERSITATIS PARISIENSIS, a collection of would have thought it wise to attempt to documents edited by Denifle and Chatelain of execute his original purpose. However this the highest importance for the study of the might have been, to have confined the university system, the RECUEIL DES HISTORIENS treatment of 500 years to the limits of a single DES CROISADES, the remarkable collection of volume would have meant to do a relative medieval sacred poetry edited by Dreves and injustice and, in the light of recent study, to Blume filling about 15 volumes, the Boehmer- have missed a proper proportion. To the first Friedberg edition of the Canon Law, and the 600 years, 1–590, the HISTORY devotes three Rolls Series, containing the writers of volumes. medieval England. To such works must be added the new editions of Schoolmen, Dr. Schaff intended to devote three volumes Albertus Magnus by Borgnet, Bonaventura by to the Protestant Reformation, two of which Peltier, Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas, he lived to prepare. The intervening 900 and the editions of such writers as Caesar of years deserve an equal amount of space. The Heisterbach, De Voragine, Salimbene, and period covered by this volume is of great Etienne de Bourbon. Among the recent importance. Here belong the Crusades, the students who have made a specialty of this rejuvenation of monasticism by the period are Giesebrecht, Gregorovius, Scheffer- mendicant orders, the development of the Boichorst, Karl Mueller, Hauck, Deutsch, canon law, the rise of the universities, the Lempp, and other Protestants of Germany, determined struggles of the papacy with the and among German Catholic scholars empire, the development of the Inquisition, Doellinger, Father Denifle, Ehrle, Knoepfler, the settlement of the sacramental system, and Schwane, Schulte, Funk, and Felder. In France some of the most notable characters the we have Rémusat, Hauréau, Chevalier, Christian Church has produced. Vacandard, Sabatier, Alphandéry. In England No one can fully understand the spirit and and America, we have Dr. Henry Charles Lea, doctrinal system of the Roman communion who deserves to be mentioned first, the late without knowing this period. Nor can any Bp. Stubbs, R. L. Poole, Rashdall, Bridges, the one, without such knowledge, fully editors of the Rolls Series, such as Brewer and understand the meaning of the Protestant Luard, and Prof. D. C. Munro, O. T. Thatcher, Reformation, for the Reformation was a and Shailer Mathews. protest against the medieval and Except in rare cases, the quotations are taken medieval practices. The best evidence for the from the original works, whether they were truth of the latter statement is found in the written in the Middle Ages or are modern work of the learned Dominican Denifle, discussions. An exception is the History of the entitled Luther und Lutherthum, and the City of Rome by Gregorovius. It has required Protestant rejoinders to its assaults. severe discipline to check the inclination to A partial list of the more modern works show extend the notes to a far greater length than the amount of study that has recently been they have been carried, especially in such spent upon this period. Among the great

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 5 CH501: Volume 5, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course chapters as those on the sacramental system successors, WATTENBACH, BOEHMER, etc. More and the Schoolmen. than 50 vols. Han., 1826 sqq. They cover the whole history of the empire and papacy.— In the preparation of the volume for the Scriptores rerum Germanicarum for use in press, efficient aid has been rendered by the schools and drawn from the preceding, ed. by Rev. David E. Culley, fellow and tutor in the Pertz, 42 vols. Han., 1840–1894.—Die Western Theological seminary, whose literary Geschichtschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit, ed. by and historical tastes and sober judgment have Pertz, etc., in German trans, 92 vols. Berlin and been confirmed by studies abroad. Leipzig, 1849–1892.—The Rolls Series, Rerum The second part of this volume, carrying the Britannicarum medii aevi scriptores, 97 vols., London, 1858–1891, contains splendid edd. of history from Boniface VIII. to the William of Malmesbury, Roger of Wendover, Reformation, is in an advanced stage of Ralph of Coggeshall, Richard of Hoveden, preparation. Matthew Paris (7 vols.), Grosseteste, and other In closing, the author indulges the hope that English medieval writers.—Bohn’s Antiq. Dr. Philip Schaff’s spirit of toleration may be Library, 41 vols. London, 1848–1864 sqq., found permeating this volume, and its general gives translations of M. Paris, Richard of historic judgments to be such as Dr. Schaff Hoveden, etc.—J. F. BOEHMER: Regesta imperii, himself would have expressed. 1198–1254. New ed. by J. Ficker and Winkelmann, Innsbruck, 1881–1894. Regesta DAVID S. SCHAFF. pontificum romanorum from St. Peter to THE WESTERN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, Innocent III., ed. by Jaffé, d. 1878, Berlin, 1851, pp. 951; 2d ed. by WATTENBACH, LOEWENTHAL, ALLEGHENY, PA KALTENBRUNNER, and EWALD, vol. I. Lips., 1885, The Fifth Period of Church History from Peter to Innocent II., 64–1143; vol. II. Lips., 1888 from Coelestin II. to Innocent III., 5.1. General Literature 1143–1198.—Continuation by Aug. Potthast, from Innocent III., to Benedict XI., 1198–1304, SOURCES: J. P. MIGNE: Patrologiae cursus 2 vols. pp. 2157, Berlin, 1873, 1875.—J. VON completus, etc. The Latin series containing the PFLUGK HARTTUNG: Acta pontificum rom. inedita, writings of the “Fathers, Doctors, and Writers 3 vols. Tuebing. 1881–1888. CARL MIRBT: of the Latin Church from Tertullian to Innocent Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums und des Ill.,” 221 vols. Paris, 1844–1864. Indispensable. roem. Katholizismus, 2d ed. Tuebing. 1901, pp. The writers of the 11th century begin with vol. 482. Very convenient and valuable, giving the 139.—PHILIP LABBAEUS, S. J., d. 1667: original Latin documents.—SHAILER MaTHEWS: Sacrosancta concilia ad regiam editionem Select Medieval Docts. etc., illustr. the Hist. Of exacta, 18 vols. Paris, 1662 sqq. Labbaeus lived the Church and Empire, 754–1254, N. Y. 1892.— to see vol. IX. in print. Completed by Gabriel HEINRICH DENIFLE, O. P., archivarius of the Cossart. This collection has been used in places Vatican Library, d. 1905, and FRANZ EHRLE, S. J.: in this volume.—JOHN D. MANSI, abp. of Lucca, d. Archiv fuer Literaturund Kirchengeschichte des 1769: Sacrorum conciliorum nova et Mittelalters, Freib. im Br. 1885 sqq. Many amplissima collectio, 31 vols., Florence and important documents were published here for Venice, 1759–1798. Extends to the Council of the first time.—Quellen und Forschungen aus Florence, 1439. New facsimile ed. with italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken continuation. Paris, 1901 sqq. Thus far 38 vols., herausgegeben vom Koenigl-Preussichen 0–37, reaching to 1735.—L. A. MURATORI, d. Historischen Institut in Rom., thus far 8 vols. 1750: Rerum Italicarum scriptores, 500–1600, 1897–1905. 25 vols. Milan, 1723–1761, with supplemental SECONDARY WORKS: Histoire Littéraire de la vols., Florence, 1748, 1770, Venice, 1771, in all France, 1733 sqq. Dicty. of Natl. Biogr., ed. by 31 parts. Repub. and ed. by G. Carducci et V. Leslie Stephen, 63 vols. with Supplem., London, Fiorini, Citta di Castello 1902 sqq.— 1885–1903,—WETZER-WELTE: Kirchen Lexikon, Monumenta Germaniae historica, ed. by G. H. 2d ed. 12 vols. Freib. im Br. 1882–1901.— Pertz, d. 1870, and his coeditors and HERZOG: Realencyklopaedia fuer protestantische

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Theologie und Kirche, ed. by A. Hauck, 3d ed. Geschichtswerke des europaeischen Mittelalters 1896 sqq. Thus far 18 vols.—W. GIESEBRECHT: bis 1500, 2 vols. Berlin, 1864–1868, 2d ed. Gesch. der deutschen Kaiserzeit, 3 vols. 5th ed. Berlin, 1896. A work of great industry and Leipzig, 1890.—DOELLINGER-FRIEDRICH: Das value.—U. CHEVALIER: Répertoire des sources Papstthum, Munich, 1892. A revision of historiques du moyen âge, Paris, 1877–1886, Doellinger’s The and the Council, which Supplem. 1888.—W. WATTENBACH: Deutsche appeared in 1869 under the pseudonym Janus, Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, to 1250, 2 as a protest against the doctrine of Papal vols. Berlin, 1858, 6th ed. 1893 sq. Infallibility about to be taken up at the Vatican For other works relating to the whole period of Council.—FERDINAND GREGOROVIUS: Geschichte the Middle Ages, see vol. IV. 1–4. der Stadt Rom. im Mittelalter, Engl. trans. from the 4th German, ed. 1886–1893, Stuttg., by 5.2. Introductory Survey Annie Hamilton, 8 vols. (13 parts), London, The fifth period of general Church history, or 1894–1902. The most valuable general work of the second period of medieval Church history, the Middle Ages.—JAMES BRYCE: The Holy begins with the rise of Hildebrand, 1049, and Roman Empire, new ed. London, 1904, pp. 575. ends with the elevation of Boniface VIII. to the Thorough and lucid.—CARL J. VON HEFELE, Bishop of Rottenburg, d. 1893: papal dignity, 1294. Conciliengeschichte to 1536, 2d ed. 9 vols. In this period the Church and the papacy Freib. im Br. 1873–1890. Vols. V.–VII. in 2d ed. ascend from the lowest state of weakness and by A. Knoepfler. Vols. VIII. IX. were prepared corruption to the highest power and influence by CARDINAL HERGENROETHER.—A. Hauck: over the nations of Europe. It is the classical Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, 4 vols. Leipzig, age of Latin Christianity: the age of the papal 1887–1903; vols. I. II 4th ed. 1904.—GIBBON: theocracy, aiming to control the German Decline and Fall of Rome, ed. by J. B. BURY, 7 Empire and the kingdoms of France, Spain, vols. London, 1897–1900.—LEOPOLD VON RANKE: Weltgeschichte to 1453, 9 vols. Leipzig, and England. 1883–1888.—The Church Histories of It witnessed the rise of the great Mendicant NEANDER, GIESELER, BAUR, Die christl. Kirche des orders and the religious revival which Mittelalters, 1861, MILMAN, HAGENBACH, K. HASE, followed. It beheld the full flower of chivalry RICH. C. TRENCH: Med. Ch. History, 1877. The and the progress of the crusades, with the Manuals of Church History of HEFELE- heroic conquest and loss of the Holy Land. It KNÖEPFLER, 3d ed. 1902, F. X. FUNK, 4th ed. saw the foundations laid of the great 1902, W. MOELLER Engl. trans. 3 vols. 1898– universities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford. It was 1900, KARL MULLER, 2 vols. 1892–1902, HERGENROETHER, rev. by J. P. KIRSCH, 4th ed. the age of scholastic philosophy and theology, 1902 sqq. LOOFS, 1901, HANS VON SCHUBERT, and their gigantic efforts to solve all 1904, GEO. P. FiSHER, 1887, H. C. SHELDON, 5 conceivable problems and by dialectical skill vols. N. Y. 1890, A. C. ZENOS, Phil. 1899, A. H. to prove every article of faith. NEWMAN, 2 vols. 1900 sqq. The Histories of During its progress Norman and Gothic Christian Doctrine, of HARNACK Engl. trans. architecture began to rear the cathedrals. All from 3d Ger. ed. 7 vols. Boston, 1897–1900. the arts were made the handmaids of LOOFS, 3d ed. 1893, GEO. P. FISHER, 1896, SEEBERG, 2 vols. 1895, H. C. SHELDON, 2 vols. 4th religion; and legendary poetry and romance ed. 1905.—HALLAM: Hist. of the Middle Ages.— flourished. Then the Inquisition was GUIZOT: Hist. of Civilization from the Fall of the established, involving the theory of the Rom. Emp. to the French Revolution.—LECKY: persecution of Jews and heretics as a divine Hist. of Rationalism in Europe and European right, and carrying it into execution in awful Morals.—H. WEINGARTEN: Zeittafeln und scenes of torture and blood. It was an age of Ueberblicke zur Kirchengeschichte, 6th ed. by bright light and deep shadows, of strong faith Arnold, Leipzig, 1905. and stronger superstition, of sublime heroism FOR LITERATURE: A. POTTHAST: Bibliotheca and wild passions, of ascetic self-denial and Historica medii aevi, Wegweiser durch die

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 7 CH501: Volume 5, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course sensual indulgence, of Christian devotion and not of this world.” The pope coveted both barbarous cruelty. Dante, in his Divina kingdoms, and he got what he coveted. But he Commedia, which “heaven and earth” was not able to hold the power he claimed combined to produce, gives a poetic mirror of over the State, and aspiring after temporal Christianity and civilization in the thirteenth authority lost spiritual power. Boniface VIII. and the opening years of the fourteenth marks the beginning of the decline and fall of century, when the Roman Church was at the the papal rule; and the seeds of this decline summit of its power, and yet, by the abuse— and fall were sown in the period when the of that power and its worldliness, was calling hierarchy was in the pride of its worldly forth loud protests, and demands for a might and glory. thorough reformation from all parts of In this period also, and chiefly as the result of Western Christendom. the crusades, the schism between the A striking feature of the Middle Ages is the churches of the East and the West was contrast and co-operation of the forces of completed. All attempts made at extreme self-abnegation as represented in reconciliation by pope and council only ended monasticism and extreme ambition for in wider alienation. worldly dominion as represented in the The ruling nations during the Middle Ages papacy. The former gave moral support to the were the Latin, who descended from the old latter, and the latter utilized the former. The Roman stock, but showed the mixture of monks were the standing army of the pope, barbaric blood and vigor, and the Teutonic. and fought his battles against the secular The Italians and French had the most learning rulers of Western Europe. and culture. Politically, the German nation, The papal theocracy in conflict with the owing to its possession of the imperial crown secular powers and at the height of its power and its connection with the papacy, was the is the leading topic. The weak and degenerate most powerful, especially under the popes who ruled from 900–1046 are now Hohenstaufen dynasty. England, favored by succeeded by a line of vigorous minds, men of her insular isolation, developed the power of moral as well as intellectual strength. The self-government and independent nationality, world has had few rulers equal to Gregory VII. and begins to come into prominence in the 1073–1085; Alexander III. 1159–1181; and papal administration. Western Europe is the Innocent III. 1198–1216; not to speak of scene of intellectual, ecclesiastical, and other pontiffs scarcely second to these political activities of vast import, but its arms masters in the art of government and aspiring and devotion find their most conspicuous aims. The papacy was a necessity and a arena in Palestine and the East. blessing in a barbarous age, as a check upon Finally this period of two centuries and a half brute force, and as a school of moral is a period of imposing personalities. The discipline. The popes stood on a much higher names of the greatest of the popes have been plane than the princes of their time. The spirit mentioned, Gregory VII., Alexander III., and has a right to rule over the body; the Innocent III. Its more notable sovereigns intellectual and moral interests are superior were William the Conqueror, Frederick to the material and political. But the papal Barbarossa, Frederick II., and St. Louis of theocracy carried in it the temptation to France. Dante the poet illumines its last years. secularization. By the abuse of opportunity it St. Bernard, Francis d’Assisi, and Dominic, the became a hindrance to pure religion and Spaniard, rise above a long array of famous morals. monks. In the front rank of its Schoolmen Christ gave to Peter the keys of the kingdom were Anselm, Abelard, Albertus Magnus, of heaven, but he also said, “My kingdom is Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Duns

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Scotus. Thomas à Becket and Grosseteste are and Hist. of .—F. NEUKIRCH: Das Leben des prominent representatives of the body of Petrus Damiani bis 1059, Goett., 1875.—J. episcopal statesmen. This combination of LANGEN: Geschichte der roem. Kirche von Gregor great figures and of great movements gives to VII. bis Innocent III., Bonn, 1893.—HAUCK: this period a variety of interest such as Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, vols. III. IV.— W. F. BARRY: The Papal Monarchy from 590– belongs to few periods of Church history or 1303, N. Y. 1902. the history of mankind. III. SPECIAL SOURCES AND WORKS ON HILDEBRAND:— Chapter 1. The Hildebrandian Popes, His letters (359), the so-called Registrum, in MIGNE, vol. 148, MANSI, XX. 60–391, and best in AD 1049 to 1073 JAFFÉ, Monumenta Gregoriana, Berol., 1865, 712 pp. (in “Bibliotheca Rerum 5.3. Sources and Literature on Chapters I. Germanicarum,” vol. II.). The first critical and II edition. Jaffé gives the Registrum in eight I. SOURCES FOR THE WHOLE PERIOD from 1049 to books, with fifty-one additional letters 1085:— collected from MSS., and Bonithonis episcopi MIGNE: Patrol. Lat., vols. 140–148.—DAMIANI Sutrini ad amicum. Gregory’s biographies by Epistolae, in Migne, vol. 144.—BONIZO or Cardinal Petrus of Pisa, Bernried, Amalric, BONITHO (Bishop of Sutri, 1091; prisoner of Lambert, etc., in MURATORI: Rerum Italicarum Henry IV., 1082; a great admirer of Gregory Scriptores, vol. III.; and WATTERICH: Pontif. Boni. VII.): Liber ad amicum, sive de persecutione Vitae, Lips., 1862, I. 293 sqq.; Acta Sanct. Maii, ecclesiae (in Jaffé’s Monum. Gregor., p. 628 sqq., die 25, VI. 102–159. where he is charged with falsehood; but see Modern works: JOH. VOIGT (Prof. of Hist. in Giesebrecht and Hefele, IV. 707). PHIL. JAFFÉ (d. Koenigsberg, d. 1863): Hildebrand als Papst 1870): Regesta Pontif. Rom., pp. 366–443, 2d Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter, 1815, 2d ed. ed. I. 629–649.—JAFFÉ: Monumenta Gregoriana Weimar, 1846, pp. 625. The first attempt at an (see below).—K. FRANCKE: Libelli de lite impartial estimate of Gregory from the imperatorum et Pontificum Saeculi XI. et XII. Protestant historical standpoint. The first conscripti, 3 vols. Hannov. 1891–1897, edition was translated into French and Italian, contains the tractarian lit. of the Hildebrandian and gave rise to a remarkable Latin age. On other sources, see WATTENBACH: correspondence with Clemens Villecourt, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bishop of La Rochelle, which is printed in the II. 220 sqq. and MIRBT: Publizistik, 6–95. preface to the second edition. The bishop tried II. WORKS ON THE WHOLE PERIOD FROM 1049 TO to convert Voigt to the , but in 1085:— vain.—SIR ROGER GREISLY: The Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII., London, 1832, pp. HOEFLER: Deutsche Paepste, Regensb., 1839 372. Impartial, but unimportant.—J. W. sqq., 3 vols.—C. WILL: Anfaenge der Restauration der Kirche im 11 ten, Jahrh., BOWDEN: The Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII. London, 1840, 2 Vols. pp. 374 and 411.—ARD. Marburg, 1859–1862, 2 parts.—THS. NEWMAN: Hist. Essays, II. 249–336.—SIR JAMES GREENWOOD: Cathedra Petri, books X. and XI. STEPHEN: Hildebrand, in “Essays on London, 1861.—GIESEBRECHT: Gesch. der deutschen Kaizerzeit, vols. II. and III. Ecclesiastical Biography,” 1849, 4th ed. London, 1860, pp. 1–58. He calls “Hildebrand (Braunschweig, 5th ed. 1881).—RUD. BAXMANN: Die Politik der Paepste von Gregor I. bis auf the very impersonation of papal arrogance and Gregor VII., Elberfeld, 1868, 1869. 2 vols. vol. II. of spiritual despotism.”—SOELTL: Gregor VII., Leipzig, 1847.—FLOTO: Kaiser Heinrich IV. und 186–434.—WATTENBACH: Geschichte des roem. Papstthums, Berlin, 1876 (pp. 97–136).— sein Zeitalter. Stuttg., 1865, 1856, 2 vols. Sides with Henry IV.—HELFENSTEIN: Gregor VII. GREGOROVIUS: Hist. of the City Of Rome.—HEFELE: Conciliengeschichte, IV. 716–900, and V. 1– Bestrebungen nach den Streitschriften seiner Zeit., , 1856.—A. F. GFROERER (first a 185.—L. V. RANKE: Weltgeschichte, vol. VII.— rationalist, then a convert to Rome, 1853; d. BRYCE: Holy Roman Empire.—FREEMAN: Hist. of Norman Conq. of England, vol. IV. Oxford, 1871, 1861): Papst Greg. VII. und sein Zeitalter. 7 vols. Schaffhausen, 1859–1861.—GIESEBRECHT: l.c.,

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vol. III.—A. F. VILLEMAIN: Hist. de Grégoire VII. 2 feelings of Christendom during the tenth and vols. Paris, 1873. Engl. trans. by J. B. Brockley, 2 the first half of the eleventh century, could vols. London, 1874.—S. BARING-GOULD, in “The not overthrow the papacy any more than Lives of the Saints” for May 25, London, idolatrous kings could overthrow the Jewish 1873.—W. MARTENS: Die Besetzung des monarchy, or wicked emperors the Roman paepstlichen Stuhls unter den Kaisern Heinrich III und Heinrich IV. 1887; *Gregor VII., sein Empire. In the public opinion of Europe, the Leben und Wirken, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1894.—W. R. papacy was still a necessary institution W. STEPHENS: Hildebrand and his Times, London, established by Christ in the primacy of Peter 1888.—O. DELARC: S. Gregoire VII. et la réforme for the government and administration of the de l’église au XI. siècle, 3 vols. Paris, 1889.—C. church. There was nothing to take its place. It MIRBT (Prof. in Marburg): Die Stellung needed only a radical reformation in its head, Augustins in der Publizistik des Gregorianischen which would be followed by a reformation of Kirchenstreits, Leipzig, 1888. Shows the the members. Good men all over Europe influence of St. Augustine on both parties in the anxiously desired and hoped that Providence Gregorian controversy over the relation of would intervene and rescue the chair of Peter Church and State; Die Wahl Gregors VII., Marburg, 1892; *Die Publizistik im Zeitalter from the hands of thieves and robbers, and Gregors VII., Leipzig, 1894, pp. 629. An turn it once more into a blessing. The idea of exhaustive treatment of the copious tractarian abolishing the papacy did not occur to the Lit. of the Hildebrandian age and its attitude on mind of the of that age as possible the various objects of Gregory’s policy; art. or desirable. Gregor VII., in Herzog, VII. 96–113.—MARVIN R. At last the providential man for effecting this VINCENT: The Age of Hildebrand, N. Y. 1896.— necessary reformation appeared in the Also J. GREVING: Paul von Bernried’s Vita person of Hildebrand, who controlled five Gregorii VII., Berlin, 1893, pp. 172. successive papal administrations for twenty- 5.4. Hildebrand and his Training four years, 1049–1073, then occupied the The history of the period begins with a survey papal chair himself for twelve years, 1073– of the papacy as the controlling power of 1085, and was followed by like-minded Western Christendom. It embraces six stages: successors. He is one of the greatest, if not the 1. The Hildebrandian popes, 1049–1073. 2. greatest, of popes, and one of the most Gregory VII., 1073–1085, or the assertion of remarkable men in history. He excited in his the supreme authority of the papacy in age the highest admiration and the bitterest human affairs. 3. From Gregory’s death to the hatred. Opinions about his principles and Concordat of Worms, 1122, or the settlement policy are still divided; but it is impossible to of the controversy over investiture. 4. From deny his ability, energy, earnestness, and the Concordat of Worms to Innocent III., achievements. 1198. 5. The Pontificate of Innocent III., Hildebrand was of humble and obscure 1198–1216, or the papacy at its height. 6. origin, but foreordained to be a prince of the From Innocent III. to Boniface VIII., 1216– Church. He was of small stature, but a giant in 1294, or the struggle of the papacy with intellect and character. His figure was Frederick II. and the restoration of peace ungainly and his voice feeble; but his eyes between the papacy and the empire. were bright and piercing, bespeaking The papacy had reached its lowest stage of penetration, a fiery spirit, and restless weakness and degeneracy when at Sutri in activity. His early life is involved in obscurity. 1046, under the influence of Henry III., two He only incidentally alludes to it in his later popes were deposed and a third was forced to Epistles, and loved to connect it with the abdicate. But the worthless popes, who supernatural protection of St. Peter and the prostituted their office and outraged the Holy Virgin.

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With a monkish disregard of earthly relations, among the three rivals, and followed him, as he never mentions his family. The year of his his chaplain, to Germany into exile. birth is unknown. The veneration of friends “Victrix causa Deis placuit, sed victa Catoni.” and the malice of enemies surrounded his He visited Worms, Spires, Cologne, Aix-la- youth with legends and lies. He was the son of Chapelle, the old seats of the empire, and a peasant or goatherd, Bonizo, living near spent much time at the court of Henry III., Soana, a village in the marshes of Tuscany, a where he was very kindly treated. After the few miles from Orbitello. The oft-repeated death of Gregory at Cologne, 1048, tradition that he was the son of a carpenter Hildebrand went to Cluny, the nursery of a seems to have originated in the desire to moral reformation of monasticism. According draw a parallel between him and Jesus of to some reports, he had been there before. He Nazareth. Of his mother we know nothing. His zealously gave himself to ascetic exercises name points to Lombard or German origin, and ecclesiastical studies under the excellent and was explained by his contemporaries as abbot Hugo, and became prior of the convent. hell-brand or firebrand. Odilo, the abbot of He often said afterwards that he wished to Cluny, saw sparks of fire issuing from his spend his life in prayer and contemplation raiment, and predicted that, like John the within the walls of this sacred retreat. Baptist, he would be “great in the sight of the Lord.” But the election of Bishop Bruno of Toul, the cousin of Emperor Henry III., to the papal He entered the Benedictine order in the chair, at the Diet of Worms, brought him on convent of St. Mary on the Aventine at Rome, the stage of public action. “Reluctantly,” he of which his maternal uncle was abbot. Here said, “I crossed the Alps; more reluctantly I he had a magnificent view of the eternal city. returned to Rome.” He advised Bruno (either Here he was educated with Romans of the at Cluny or at Besancon) not to accept the higher families. The convent was under the triple crown from the hands of the emperor, influence of the reformatory spirit of Cluny, but to await canonical election by the clergy and the home of its abbots on their and people of Rome. He thus clearly asserted, pilgrimages to Rome. He exercised himself in for the first time, his principle of the severe self-discipline, and in austerity and supremacy of the Church over the State. rigor he remained a monk all his life. He cherished an enthusiastic veneration for the Bruno, accompanied by Hildebrand, travelled Virgin Mary. The personal contemplation of to Rome as a pilgrim, entered the city the scandalous contentions of the three rival barefoot, was received with acclamations, popes and the fearful immorality in the canonically elected, and ascended the papal capital of Christendom must have raised in chair on Feb. 12, 1049, as Leo IX. his earnest soul a deep disgust. He associated From this time on, Hildebrand was the himself with the party which prepared for a reigning spirit of the papacy. He understood reformation of the hierarchy. the art of ruling through others, and making His sympathies were with his teacher and them feel that they ruled themselves. He used friend, Gregory VI. This pope had himself as his aide-de-camp Peter Damiani, the severe bought the papal dignity from, the wretched monk and fearless censor of the immoralities Benedict IX., but he did it for the benefit of the of the age, who had conquered the world Church, and voluntarily abdicated on the within and helped him to conquer it without, arrival of Henry III. at the Synod of Sutri, in the crusade against simony and 1046. It is strange that Hildebrand, who concubinage, but died, 1072, a year before abhorred simony, should begin his public Hildebrand became pope. career in the service of a simonist; but he regarded Gregory as the only legitimate pope

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5.5. Hildebrand and Leo IX. 1049–1054 The reformatory synods of Pavia, Rheims, and The moral reformation of the papacy began Mainz, held in the same year, legislated with Hildebrand as leader. He resumed the against the same vices, as also against usury, work of the emperor, Henry III., and carried it marriage in forbidden degrees, the bearing of forward in the interest of the hierarchy. He arms by the clergy. They likewise revealed a was appointed cardinal-sub deacon, treasurer frightful amount of simony and clerical of the Roman Church, and abbot of St. Paul’s. immorality. Several bishops were deposed. He was repeatedly sent as delegate to foreign Archbishop Wido of Rheims narrowly countries, where he acquired an extensive escaped the same fate on a charge of simony. knowledge of affairs. He replenished the On his return, Leo held synods in lower empty treasury and became wealthy himself and in Rome. He made a second tour across through the help of a baptized Jew, the Alps in 1052, visiting Burgundy, Lorraine, Benedictus Christianus, and his son Leo, who and Germany, and his friend the emperor. We did a prosperous banking business. But find him at Regensburg, Bamberg, Mainz, and money was to him only a means for exalting Worms. Returning to Rome, he held in April, the Church. His great object was to reform the 1053, his fourth Easter Synod. Besides the clergy by the destruction of two well-nigh reform of the Church, the case of Berengar universal evils: simony (Acts 8:18), that is. the and the relation to the Greek Church were traffic in ecclesiastical dignities, and topics of discussion in several of these Nicolaitism (Rev. 2:6, 15), or the concubinage synods. Berengar was condemned, 1050, for of the priests. In both respects he had the full denying the doctrine of transubstantiation. It sympathy of the new pope, and was backed is remarkable with what leniency Hildebrand by the laws of the Church. The reformation treated Berengar and his eucharistic doctrine, was to be effected in the regular way of in spite of the papal condemnation; but he synodical legislation under the personal was not a learned theologian. The negotiation direction of the pope. with the Greek Church only ended in greater separation. Leo, accompanied by Hildebrand, held several synods in Italy, France, and Germany. He was Leo surrounded himself with a council of almost omnipresent in the Church, and knew cardinals who supported him in his reform. how to combine monastic simplicity with Towards the close of his pontificate, he acted papal dignity and splendor. He was believed inconsistently by taking up arms against the to work miracles wherever he went, and to Normans in defense of Church property. He possess magic powers over birds and beasts. was defeated and taken prisoner at Benevento, but released again by granting In his first synod, held in Rome at Easter, them in the name of St. Peter their conquests 1049, simony was prohibited on pain of in Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. The Normans excommunication, including the guilty kissed his toe, and asked his absolution and bishops and the priests ordained by them. But blessing. He incurred the censure of the strict it was found that a strict prosecution would reform party. Damiani maintained that a well-nigh deprive the churches, especially clergyman dare not bear arms even in those of Rome, of their shepherds. defense of the property of the Church, but A penance of forty days was, therefore, must oppose invincible patience to the fury of substituted for the deposition of priests. The the world, according to the example of Christ. same synod renewed the old prohibitions of Leo spent his remaining days in grief over his sexual intercourse of the clergy, and made the defeat. He died at Rome, April 19, 1054, in his concubines of the Roman priests servants of fifty-third year, after commending his soul to the Lateran palace. The almost forgotten duty God in a German prayer of humble of the tithe was enjoined upon all Christians. resignation, and was buried near the tomb of

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Gregory I As he had begun the reformation of its former control of the papacy by electing the Church, and miracles were reported, he Benedict X. (1058–1060). But this was a brief was enrolled in the Calendar of Saints. intermezzo. On his return, Hildebrand, with Desiderius, afterwards Victor III., wrote, “All the help of Duke Godfrey, expelled the ecclesiastical interests were reformed by Leo usurping pope, and secured, with the consent and in him a new light arose in the world.” of the empress, the election of Gerhard, bishop of Florence, a strong reformer, of 5.6. Victor II. and Stephen IX. (X.). 1055– ample learning and irreproachable character, 1058 who assumed the name of Nicolas II. at his Hildebrand was absent in France when Leo consecration, Jan. 25, 1059. Benedict was died, and hurried to Rome. He could find no deposed, submitted, and obtained absolution. worthy successor in Italy, and was unwilling He was assigned a lodging in the church of St. to assume the burden of the papacy himself. Agnes, where he lived for about twenty years. He cast his eye upon Gebhard, bishop of Eichstaedt, the ablest, richest, and most 5.7. Nicolas II. and the Cardinals. 1059– influential prelate of Germany, who was 1061 warmly devoted to the emperor. He The pontificate of Nicolas II. was thoroughly proceeded at the head of a deputation, under the control of Hildebrand, who became appointed by the clergy and people, to the archdeacon and chancellor of the Roman German court, and begged the emperor to Church in August or September, 1059. His raise Gebhard to the papal chair. After long enemies said that he kept Nicolas like an ass delay, Gebhard was elected at a council in in the stable, feeding him to do his work. Regensburg, March, 1055, and consecrated in Peter Damiani calls him the lord of the pope, St. Peter’s at Rome, April 13, as Victor II. He and said that he would rather obey the lord of continued the synodical war against simony, the pope than the lord-pope himself. He also but died as early as July 28, 1057, at Arezzo, grimly calls Hildebrand his “holy Satan,” of a fever. He was the last of the German because he had sometimes to obey him popes. against his will, as when he desired to lay The cardinal-abbot of Monte Cassino was down his bishopric at Ostia and retire to a elected and consecrated as Stephen IX., Aug. convent, but was not permitted to do so. He 3, 1057, by the clergy and people of Rome, disliked the worldly splendor which without their consulting the German court; Hildebrand began to assume in dress and but he died in the following year, March 29, mode of living, contrary to his own ascetic 1058. principles. In the meantime a great change had taken Two important steps were made in the place in Germany. Henry III. died in the prime progress of the hierarchy,—a change in the of manhood, Oct. 5, 1056, and left a widow as election of the pope, and an alliance with the regent and a son of six years, the ill-fated Normans for the temporal protection of the Henry IV. The long minority reign afforded a pope. favorable opportunity for the reform party to Nicolas convened a Lateran Council in April, make the papacy independent of the imperial 1059, the largest held in Rome down to that power, which Henry III. had wisely exerted time. It consisted of a hundred and thirteen for the benefit of the Church, yet at the bishops and a multitude of clergymen; but expense of her freedom. more than two-thirds of the prelates were The Roman nobility, under the lead of the Italians, the rest Burgundians and counts of Tusculum, took advantage of Frenchmen. Germany was not represented at Hildebrand’s absence in Germany to reassert all. Berengar was forced at this synod to

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 13 CH501: Volume 5, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course submit to a formula of recantation (which he they played in the history of the papacy. Early revoked on his return to France). in the eleventh century four brothers of the A far-reaching act of this council was the house of Hauteville, starting from Normandy, transfer of the election of a pope to the began their adventurous career in Italy and “cardinal-bishops” and “cardinal-clergy.” At Sicily. They were welcomed as crusaders the pope’s death the initiative was to be taken liberating the Christian population from the by the cardinal-bishops. In case they agreed rule of the Saracens and its threatened they were to call in the cardinal-clergy. In extension. case of agreement between both these classes The kingdom their arms established was of functionaries they were to present the confirmed by the , and under the candidate to the Roman clergy and people for original dynasty, and later under the house of ratification. Anjou, had a larger influence on the destinies The stress thus laid upon the cardinal- of the papacy for three centuries than did bishops is a new thing, and it is evident that Norman England and the successors of the body of cardinals was accorded a place of William the Conqueror. Robert Guiscard, who importance and authority such as it had not had defeated the army of Leo IX., and held enjoyed before. Its corporate history may be him a prisoner for nine months, was said to begin with these canons. The election confirmed by Nicolas as duke of Apulia and of the pope was made its prerogative. The Calabria. The duchy became a fief of Rome by synod further prescribed that the pope an obligation to pay yearly twelve dinars for should be chosen from the body of Roman every yoke of oxen and to defend the Holy See clergy, provided a suitable candidate could be against attacks upon its authority. Robert’s found among their number. In usual cases, brother, Roger, d. 1101, began the conquest of Rome was designated as the place of holding Sicily in earnest in 1060 by the seizure of the election. The cardinals, however, were Messina, and followed it up by the capture of granted liberty to hold it elsewhere. As for the Palermo, 1071, and Syracuse, 1085. He was emperor, the language of the canons leaves it called Prince of Sicily and perpetual legate of uncertain whether any part was accorded to the Holy See. him in the ratification of the elected pope. His One of his successors, Roger II., 1105–1154, name is mentioned with respect, but it would was crowned king of Sicily at Palermo by the seem that all that was intended was that he authority of the anti-pope Anacletus II. A half should receive due notification of the election century later the blood of this house became of the new pontiff. The matter was, therefore, mingled with the blood of the house of taken entirely out of the emperor’s hands and Hohenstaufen in the person of the great lodged in the college of cardinals. As Henry Frederick II. In the prominent part they took was still young and not yet invested with the we shall find these Norman princes now imperial dignity, it was a favorable supporting the plans of the papacy, now opportunity for the papal circle to secure the resisting them. perpetual control of the papal office for the About the same time the Hautevilles and Romans and the Roman clergy. With rare other freebooting Normans were getting a exceptions, as in the case of the period of the foothold in Southern Italy, the Normans Avignon exile, the election of the pope has under William the Conqueror, in 1066, were remained in the hands of the Romans ever conquering England. To them England owes since. her introduction into the family of European The alliance which Nicolas entered into, 1059, nations, and her national isolation ceases. with the Normans of Southern Italy, was the second act in the long and notable part which

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5.8. The War against Clerical Marriage populace, contemptuously called “Pataria” or The same Lateran Council of 1059 passed “Patarines,” i.e. “Ragbags.” Violent and severe laws against the two heresies of sanguinary tumults took place in the simony and Nicolaitism. It threatened all churches and streets. Peter Damiani, a sincere priests who were unwilling to give up their enthusiast for ascetic holiness, was sent as wives or concubines with the loss of their papal legate to Milan. He defended the Pataria benefices and the right of reading mass, and at the risk of his life, proclaimed the warned the laity against attending their supremacy of the Roman see, and exacted a services. “No one,” says the third of the repudiation of all heretical customs. thirteen canons, “shall hear mass from a This victory had great influence throughout priest who to his certain knowledge keeps a Lombardy. But the strife was renewed under concubine or a subintroducta mulier.” the following pope and under Gregory VII., These severe measures led to serious and it was not till 1093 that Urban II. disturbances in Northern Italy, especially in achieved a permanent triumph over the diocese of Milan, where every Nicolaitism at a great council at Piacenza. ecclesiastical office from the lowest to the 5.9. Alexander II. and the Schism of highest was for sale, and where marriage or Cadalus. 1061–1073 concubinage was common among priests of all grades, not excluding the archbishop. Pope Nicolas II. died July 27, 1061. The Sacerdotal marriage was regarded as one of cardinals elected, in some unknown place the liberties of the church of St. Ambrose, outside of Rome, Anselm, bishop of Lucca, which maintained a certain independence of Sept. 30, 1061. He was conducted to Rome in Rome, and had a numerous and wealthy the following night by Norman soldiers, and clergy. The Milanese defended such marriage consecrated, Oct. 1, as Alexander II. His first by Scripture texts and by a fictitious decision act was to administer the oath of fealty to of Ambrose, who, on the contrary, was an Richard, the Norman leader. enthusiast for celibacy. Candidates for holy The anti-Hildebrandian party of the Roman orders, if unmarried, were asked if they had nobles, headed by Count Girard of Galeria (an strength to remain so; if not, they could be excommunicated robber), with the aid of the legally married; but second marriages were disaffected Lombard clergy, and the young forbidden, and the Levitical law as to the emperor Henry IV., elected Cadalus (or virginity of the bride was observed. Those Cadalous), bishop of Parma, anti-pope. He who remained single were objects of was consecrated Oct. 28, 1061, as Honorius suspicion, while those who brought up their II., and maintained a schism of ten years. He families in the fear of God were respected and had been repeatedly charged with simony, eligible to the episcopate. Concubinage was and had the sympathy and support of the regarded as a heinous offense and a bar to married or concubinary clergy and the promotion. simoniacal laity, who hoped that his success But the Roman Church and the Hildebrandian would lead to a modification of discipline and party reversed the case, and denounced legalization of clerical marriage. sacerdotal marriage as unlawful concubinage. The opposition thus became an organized The leader of this party in Lombardy was party, and liable to the charge of heresy, Anselm of Baggio (west of Milan), a zealous which was considered worse than carnal sin. and eloquent young priest, who afterwards Damiani and Humbert defended the principle became bishop of Lucca and then pope (as that a priest who is guilty of simony or Alexander II.). He attacked the immorality of concubinage, and believes himself innocent, is the clergy, and was supported by the lowest more criminal than he who knows himself to

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 15 CH501: Volume 5, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course be guilty. Damiani hurled the fiercest excommunication in case he persisted in his denunciation of a Hebrew prophet against the purpose to divorce his queen Bertha. anti-pope. Cadalus entered Rome with an armed force, and maintained himself in the castle of St. Angelo for two years; but at length he sought safety in flight without a single follower, and moved to Parma. He died in 1072. His party was broken up. Alexander held a council at Mantua, May 31, 1064, and was universally recognized as the legitimate pope; while Cadalus was anathematized and disappeared from history. During the pontificate of Alexander, the war against simony and Nicolaitism went on under the lead of Hildebrand and Damiani with varying success. The troubles in Lombardy were renewed. Archbishop Wido of Milan sided with Cadalus and was excommunicated; he apologized, did penance, and resumed office. After his death in 1071 the strife broke out again with disgraceful scenes of violence. The Patarine party, supported with gold by the pope, gained the ascendancy after the death of Cadalus. The Normans repelled the Mohammedan aggression and won Southern Italy and Sicily for the Church of Rome. This good service had some weight on the determination of Hildebrand to support the claim of William of Normandy to the crown of England, which was a master-stroke of his policy; for it brought that island into closer contact with Rome, and strengthened the papal pretension to dispose of temporal thrones. William fought under a banner blessed by the pope, and founded the Norman dynasty in England, 1066. The conquest was concluded at Winchester by a solemn coronation through three papal delegates, Easter, 1070. But in Germany there arose a powerful opposition, not indeed to the papacy, which was the common ground of all parties, but to the Hildebrandian policy. This led to the conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. Alexander threatened Henry with