a Grace Notes course

History of the Christian Church

VOLUME 6 The Middle Ages, the Decline of the Papacy and the Preparation for Modern Christianity from Boniface VIII to the Reformation, AD 1294 to 1517

By Philip Schaff

CH601

Chapter 1: The Decline of the Papacy and the Avignon Exile, AD 1294 to 1377

History of the Christian Church Volume 6 The Middle Ages, the Decline of the Papacy and the Preparation for Modern Christianity from Boniface VIII to the Reformation, AD 1294 to 1517

CH601 Table of Contents

Chapter 1. The Decline of the Papacy and the Avignon Exile, AD 1294 to 1377 ...... 2 Preface to Volume 6 ...... 2 6.1. Introductory Survey ...... 3 CHAPTER 1. THE DECLINE OF THE PAPACY AND THE AVIGNON EXILE. A.D. 1294–1377 ...... 5 6.2. Sources and Literature ...... 5 6.3. Pope Boniface VIII. 1294–1303 ...... 8 6.4. Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France ...... 11 6.5 Literary Attacks against the Papacy ...... 17 6.6. The Transfer of the Papacy to Avignon ...... 24 6.7. The Pontificate of John XXII, 1316–1334 ...... 31 6.8. The Papal Office Assailed...... 35 6.9. The Financial Policy of the Avignon Popes ...... 40 6.10. The Later Avignon Popes ...... 46 6.11. The Re-establishment of the Papacy in Rome. 1377 ...... 51

attracts more scholarly and earnest attention and research. Chapter 1. The Decline of the Papacy The author has had no apologetic concern to and the Avignon Exile, AD 1294 to contradict the old notion, perhaps still 1377 somewhat current in our Protestant circles, that the Middle Ages were a period of Preface to Volume 6 superstition and worthy of study as a This volume completes the history of the curiosity rather than as a time directed and Church in the Middle Ages. Dr. Philip Schaff overruled by an all-seeing Providence. He has on one occasion spoke of the Middle Ages as a attempted to depict it as it was and to allow terra incognita in the United States,—a the picture of high religious purpose to reveal territory not adequately explored. These itself side by side with the picture of words would no longer be applicable, hierarchical assumption and scholastic whether we have in mind the instruction misinterpretation. Without the medieval age, given in our universities or theological the Reformation would not have been seminaries. In Germany, during the last possible. Nor is this statement to be twenty years, the study of the period has been understood in the sense in which we speak of greatly developed, and no period at the reaching a land of sunshine and plenty after present time, except the Apostolic age, having traversed a desert. We do well to give to St. Bernard and Francis d’Assisi, St.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 3 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

Elizabeth and St. Catherine of Siena, Gerson, hope which Dr. Philip Schaff expressed in the Tauler and Nicolas of Cusa a high place in our last years of his life, that his History of the list of religious personalities, and to pray for Christian Church which, in four volumes, had men to speak to our generation as well as traversed the first ten centuries and, in the they spoke to the generations in which they sixth and seventh, set forth the progress of lived. the German and Swiss Reformations, might Moreover, the author has been actuated by no be carried through the fruitful period from purpose to disparage Christians who, in the 1050–1517. alleged errors of Protestantism, find an DAVID S. SCHAFF. insuperable barrier to Christian fellowship. THE WESTERN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, Where he has passed condemnatory PITTSBURG. judgments on personalities, as on the popes of the last years of the 15th and the earlier 6.1. Introductory Survey years of the 16th century, it is not because The two centuries intervening between 1294 they occupied the papal throne, but because and 1517, between the accession of Boniface they were personalities who in any walk of VIII. and the nailing of Luther’s Ninety-five life would call for the severest reprobation. Theses against the church door in The unity of the Christian faith and the Wittenberg, mark the gradual transition from promotion of fellowship between Christians the Middle Ages to modern times, from the of all names and all ages are considerations universal acceptance of the papal theocracy in which should make us careful with pen or Western Europe to the assertion of national spoken word lest we condemn, without independence, from the supreme authority of properly taking into consideration that the priesthood to the intellectual and spiritual interior devotion to Christ and His kingdom freedom of the individual. Old things are which seems to be quite compatible with passing away; signs of a new order increase. divergencies in doctrinal statement or Institutions are seen to be breaking up. The ceremonial habit. scholastic systems of theology lose their On the pages of the volume, the author has compulsive hold on men’s minds, and even expressed his indebtedness to the works of become the subject of ridicule. The abuses of the eminent medieval historians and the earlier Middle Ages call forth voices investigators of the day, Gregorovius, Pastor, demanding reform on the basis of the Mandell Creighton, Lea, Ehrle, Denifle, Finke, Scriptures and the common well-being of Schwab, Haller, Carl Mirbt, R. Mueller Kirsch, mankind. The inherent vital energies in the Loserth, Janssen, Valois, Burckhardt-Geiger, Church seek expression in new forms of piety Seebohm and others, Protestant and Roman and charitable deed. Catholic, and some no more among the living. The power of the papacy, which had asserted It is a pleasure to be able again to express his infallibility of judgment and dominion over all indebtedness to the Rev. David E. Culley, his departments of human life, was undermined colleague in the Western Theological by the mistakes, pretensions, and worldliness Seminary, whose studies in medieval history of the papacy itself, as exhibited in the policy and accurate scholarship have been given to of Boniface VIII., the removal of the papal the volume in the reading of the manuscript, residence to Avignon, and the disastrous before it went to the printer, and of the schism which, for nearly half a century, gave printed pages before they received their final to Europe the spectacle of two, and at times form. three, popes reigning at the same time and all Above all, the author feels it to be a great professing to be the vicegerents of God on privilege that he has been able to realize the earth.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 4 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

The free spirit of nationality awakened during While coarse ambition and nepotism, a total the crusades grew strong and successfully perversion of the ecclesiastical office and resisted the papal authority, first in France violation of the fundamental virtues of the and then in other parts of Europe. Princes Christian life held rule in the highest place of asserted supreme authority over the citizens Christendom, a pure stream of piety was within their dominions and insisted upon the flowing in the Church of the North, and the obligations of churches to the state. The mystics along the Rhine and in the Lowlands leadership of Europe passed from Germany to were unconsciously fertilizing the soil from France, with England coming more and more which the Reformation was to spring forth. into prominence. The Renaissance, or the revival of classical The tractarian literature of the fourteenth culture, unshackled the minds of men. The century set forth the rights of man and the classical works of antiquity were once more, principles of common law in opposition to the after the churchly disparagement of a pretensions of the papacy and the dogmatism thousand years, held forth to admiration. The of the scholastic systems. Lay writers made confines of geography were extended by the themselves heard as pioneers of thought, and discoveries of the continent in the West. a practical outlook upon the mission of the The invention of the art of printing, about Church was cultivated. With unexampled 1440, forms an epoch in human advancement, audacity Dante assailed the lives of popes, and made it possible for the products of putting some of St. Peter’s successors into the human thought to be circulated widely among lowest rooms of hell. the people, and thus to train the different The Reformatory councils of Pisa, Constance, nations for the new age of religious and Basel turned Europe for nearly fifty enfranchisement about to come, and the years, 1409–1450, into a platform of sovereignty of the intellect. ecclesiastical and religious discussion. To this generation, which looks back over the Though they failed to provide a remedy for last four centuries, the discovery of America the disorders prevailing in the Church, they and the pathways to the Indies was one of the set an example of free debate, and gave the remarkable events in history, a surprise and a weight of their eminent constituency to the prophecy. In 1453, Constantinople easily principle that not in a select group of passed into the hands of the Turk, and the hierarchs does supreme authority in the Christian empire of the East fell apart. In the Church rest, but in the body of the Church. far West the beginnings of a new empire were The hopelessness of expecting any permanent made, just as the Middle Ages were drawing reform from the papacy and the hierarchy to a close. was demonstrated in the last years of the At the same time, at the very close of the period, 1460–1517, when ecclesiastical Rome period, under the direction and protection of offered a spectacle of moral corruption and the Church, an institution was being spiritual fall which has been compared to the prosecuted which has scarcely been equaled corrupt age of the Roman Empire. in the history of human cruelty, the The religious unrest and the passion for a Inquisition,—now papal, now Spanish,— better state of affairs found expression in which punished heretics unto death in Spain Wycliffefefe, Huss, and other leaders who, by and witches in Germany. their clear apprehension of truth and Thus European society was shaking itself readiness to stand by their public utterances, clear of long-established customs and dogmas even unto death, stood far above their own based upon the infallibility of the Church age and have shone in all the ages since. visible, and at the same time it held fast to some of the most noxious beliefs and

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 5 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course practices the Church had allowed herself to of Lucca, Vitae Pontif. of Bernardus Guidonis, accept and propagate. It had not the original Chron. Pontif. of Amalricus Augers Hist. rerum genius or the conviction to produce a new in Italia gestarum of Ferretus Vicentinus, and system of theology. The great Schoolmen Chronica universale of Villani, all in MURATORI: continued to rule doctrinal thought. It Rerum Ital. Scriptores, III. 670 sqq., X. 690 sqq., XI. 1202 sqq., XIIL 348 sqq.—Selections from established no new ecclesiastical institution Villani, trans. by ROSE E. SELFE, ed. by P. H. of an abiding character like the canon law. It WICKSTEED, Westminster, 1897.—FINKE: Aus exhibited no consuming passion such as went den Tagen Bonifaz VIII., Müenster, 1902. Prints out in the preceding period in the crusades valuable documents pp. i–ccxi. Also Acta and the activity of the Mendicant Orders. It Aragonensia. Quellen … zur Kirchen und had no transcendent ecclesiastical characters Kulturgeschichte aus der diplomatischen like St. Bernard and Innocent III. The last Korrespondenz Jayme II, 1291–1327, 2 vols., period of the Middle Ages was a period of Berlin, 1908.—DOELLINGER: Beitraege zur intellectual discontent, of self-introspection, a politischen, kirchlichen und Culturgeschichte period of intimation and of preparation for an der letzten 6 Jahrh., 3 vols., Vienna, 1862– 1882. Vol. III., pp. 347–353, contains a Life of order which it was itself not capable of Boniface drawn from the Chronicle of Orvieto begetting. by an eye-witness, and other documents.— DENIFLE: Die Denkschriften der Colonna gegen CHAPTER 1. THE DECLINE OF THE Bonifaz VIII., etc., in Archiv fuer Lit. und PAPACY AND THE AVIGNON EXILE. Kirchengeschichte des M. A., 1892, V. 493 A.D. 1294–1377 sqq.—DANTE: Inferno, XIX. 52 sqq., XXVII. 85 sqq.; Paradiso, IX. 132, XXVII. 22, XXX. 147. 6.2. Sources and Literature MODERN WORKS.—J. RUBEUS: Bonif. VIII. e familia Cajetanorum, Rome, 1651. Magnifies For works covering the entire period, see V. 1. Boniface as an ideal pope.—P DUPUY: Hist. du 1–3, such as the collections of MANSI, MURATORI, différend entre le Pape Bon. et Philip le Bel, and the Rolls Series; Friedberg’s Decretum Paris, 1656.—BAILLET (a Jansenist): Hist. des Gratiani, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1879–1881; HEFELE- désmelez du Pape Bon. VIII. avec Philip le Bel, KNOEPFLER: Conciliengeschichte; MIRBT: Paris, 1718.—L. TOSTI: Storia di Bon. VIII. e Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums, 2d ed., de’suoi tempi, 2 vols., Rome, 1846. A 1901; the works of GREGOROVIUS and BRYCE, the glorification of Boniface.—W. DRUMANN: Gesch. General Church and Doctrinal Histories of Bonifatius VIII. 2 vols., Koenigsberg, 1862.— GIESELER, HEFELE, FUNK, HERGENROETHER-KIRSCH, CARDINAL WISEMAN: Pope Bon. VIII. in his KARL MUELLER, HARNACK LOOFS, and SEEBERG; the Essays, III. 161–222. Apologetic.—BOUTARIC: La Encyclopedias of Herzog, WETZER-WELTE, LESLIE France sous Philippe le Bel, Paris, 1861.—R. STEPHEN, POTTHAST, and CHÉVALIER; the Atlases HOLTZMANN: W. von Nogaret, Freiburg, 1898.— of F. W. PUTZGER, Leipzig, HEUSSI and MULERT, E. RENAN: Guil. de Nogaret, in Hist. Litt. de Tuebingen, 1905, and LABBERTON, New York. L. France, XXVII. 233 sq.; also Études sur la PASTOR: Geschichte der Päpste, etc., 4 vols., 4th politique Rel. du règne de Phil. Ie Bel, Paris, ed., 1901–1906, and MANDELL CREIGHTON: 1899.—DOELLINGER: Anagni in Akad. Vortraege, History of the Papacy, etc., London, 1882– III. 223–244.—HEINRICH FINKE (Prof. in 1894, also cover the entire period in the body Freiburg): as above. Also Papsttum und of their works and their Introductory Chapters. Untergang des Tempelordens, 2 vols., There is no general collection of ecclesiastical Muenster, 1907.—J. HALLER: Papsttum und author far this period corresponding to Kirchenreform, Berlin, 1903.—RICH. SCHOLZ: Migne’s Latin Patrology. Die Publizistik zur Zeit Philipps des Schoenen For §6.3, 4. BONIFACE VIII. Regesta Bonifatii in und Bonifaz VIII., Stuttgart, 1903.—The Ch. POTTHAST: Regesta pontificum rom., II., 1923– Histt. of GIESELER, HERGENROETHER-KIRSCH 4th 2024, 2133 sq.—Les Registres de Boniface ed., 1904, II. 582–598, F. X. FUNK, 4th ed., 1902, VIII., ed. DIGARD, FAUÇON ET THOMAS, 7 Fasc., HEFELE 3d ed., 1902, K. MÜELLER, HEFELE- Paris, 1884–1903.—Hist. Eccles. of Ptolemaeus KNÖPFLER: Conciliengeschichte, VI. 281–364.—

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 6 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

RANKE: Univers. Hist., IX.—GREGOROVIUS: Registries relating to Great Britain and Ireland, History of the City of Rome, V.—WATTENBACH: I.–IV., London, 1896–1902.—GIOVANNI and Gesch. des röm. Papstthums, 2d ED., Berlin, MATTEO VILLANI: Hist. of Florence sive Chronica 1876, pp. 211–226.—G. B. ADAMS: Civilization universalis, bks. VIII. sq.—M. TANGL: Die during the Middle Ages, New York, 1894, ch. paepstlichen Regesta von Benedict XII.–Gregor XIV.—Art. Bonifatius by HAUCK in Herzog, III. XI., Innsbruck, 1898. MANSI: Concil., XXV. 368 291–300. sqq., 389 sqq.—J. B. CHRISTOPHE: Hist. de la For 6.6. Literary Attacks upon the Papacy. papauté pendant le XIVesiècle, 2 vols., Paris, DANTE ALLIGHIERE: De monarchia, ed. by WITTE, 1853.—C. von HOEFLER: Die avignonesischen Vienna, 1874; GIULIANI, Florence, 1878; MOORE, Paepste, Vienna, 1871.—FAUÇON: LA LIBRAIRE Oxford, 1894. Eng. trans. by F. C. CHURCH, DES PAPES D’AVIGNON, 2 vols., Paris, 1886 sq.— together with the essay on Dante by his father, M. SOUCHON: Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz R. W. CHURCH, London, 1878; P. H. Wicksteed, VIII.–Urban VI., Braunschweig, 1888.—A. EITEL: Hull, 1896; Aurelia Henry, Boston, 1904.— D. Kirchenstaat unter Klemens V., Berlin, Dante’s De monarchia, Valla’s De falsa 1906.—CLINTON LOCKE: Age of the Great donatione Constantini, and other anti-papal Western Schism, pp. 1–99, New York, 1896.—J. documents are given in De jurisdictione, H. ROBINSON: Petrarch, New York, 1898.— auctoritate et praeeminentia imperiali, Basel, SCHWAB: J. Gerson, pp. 1–7.—DOELLINGER- 1566. Many of the tracts called forth by the FRIEDRICH: Das Papstthum, Munich, 1892.— struggle between Boniface VIII. and Philip IV. PASTOR: Geschichte der Papste seit dem are found in MELCHIOR GOLDAST: Monarchia S. Ausgang des M. A., 4 vols., 3d and 4th ed., 1901 Romani imperii, sive tractatus de jurisdictione sqq., I. 67–114.—STUBBS: Const. Hist. of imperiali seu regia et pontificia seu sacerdotali, England.—CAPES: The English Church in the etc., Hanover, 1610, pp. 756, Frankfurt, 1668. 14th and 15th Centuries, London, 1900.— With a preface dedicated to the elector, John WATTENBACH: Roem. Papstthum, pp. 226– Sigismund of Brandenburg; in DUPUY: Hist. du 241.—HALLER: Papsttum, etc.—HEFELE- Différend, etc., Paris, 1655, and in Finke and KNOEPFLER: VI. 378–936.—RANKE: Univers. Scholz. See above.—E. ZECK: De recuperatione Hist., IX.—GREGOROVIUS: VI.—The Ch. Histt. of terrae Sanctae, Ein Traktat d. P. Dubois, Berlin, GIESELER, HERGENROETHER-KIRSCH, II. 737–776, 1906. For summary and criticism, S. RIEZLER: MUELLER, II. 16–42.—EHRLE: Der Nachlass Die literarischen Widersacher der Paepste zur Clemens V. in Archiv fuer Lit. u. Kirchengesch., Zeit Ludwig des Baiers, pp. 131–166. Leipzig, V. 1–150. For the fall of the Templars, see for 1874.—R. L. POOLE: Opposition to the Lit. V. 1. p. 301 sqq., and especially the works Temporal Claims of the Papacy, in his of BOUTARIC, PRUTZ, SCHOTTMUELLER, Illustrations of the Hist. of Med. Thought, pp. DOELLINGER.—FUNK in Wetzer-Welte, XI. 1311– 256–281, London, 1884.—FINKE: Aus den 1346.—LEA: Inquisition, III. FINKE: Papsttum Tagen Bonifaz VIII., pp. 169 sqq., etc.—DENIFLE: und Untergang des Tempelordens, 2 vols., Chartularium Un. Parisiensis, 4 vols.—HALLER: 1907. Vol. II. contains Spanish documents, Papsttum.—Artt. in Wetzer-Welte, Colonna, III. hitherto unpublished, bearing on the fall of the 667–671, and Johann von Paris, VI. 1744– Templars, especially letters to and from King 1746, etc.—RENAN: Pierre Dubois in Hist. Litt. Jayme of Aragon. They are confirmatory of de France, XXVI. 471–536.—HERGENROETHER- former views. KIRSCH: Kirchengesch., II. 754 sqq. For 6.7. THE PONTIFICATE OF JOHN XXII. Lettres For 6.6. TRANSFER OF THE PAPACY TO AVIGNON. secrètes et curiales du pape Jean XXII. relative BENEDICT XI.: Registre de Benoît XI., ed. C. a la France, ed. AUG. COULON, 3 Fasc., 1900 sq. GRANDJEAN.—For Clement V., Clementis papae Lettres communes de p. Jean XXII., ed. MOLLAT, V. regestum ed. cura et studio monachorum 3 vols, Paris, 1904–1906.—J. GUÉRARD: ord. S. Benedicti, 9 vols., Rome, 1885–1892.— Documents pontificeaux sur la Gascogne. ETIENNE BALUZE: Vitae paparum Avenoniensium Pontificat de Jean XXII., 2 vols., Paris, 1897– 1305–1394, dedicated to Louis XIV. and placed 1903.—BALUZE: Vitae paparum.—V. VELARQUE: on the Index, 2 vols., Paris, 1693. RAYNALDUS: ad Jean XXII. sa vie et ses aeuvres, Paris, 1883.—J. annum, 1304 sqq., for original documents.—W. SCHWALM, Appellation d. Koenig Ludwigs des H. BLISS: Calendar of Entries in the Papal Baiern v. 1324, RIEZLER: D. Lit. Widersacher.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 7 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

Also Vatikanische Akten zur deutschen Gesch. Papstthum; Pastor, I. 82 sqq.; Gregorovius, VI. zur Zeit Ludwigs des Bayern, Innsbruck, 118 sqq., the Artt. in Wetzer-Welte, Alvarus 1891.—K. MUELLER: Der Kampf Ludwigs des Pelagius, I. 667 sq., Marsiglius, VIII., 907–911, Baiern mit der roemischen Curie, 2 vols., etc., and in Herzog, XII. 368 370, etc.—N. Tuebingen, 1879 sq.—EHRLE: Die Spirituallen, VALOIS: Hist. Litt., Paris, 1900, XXIII., 628–623, ihr Verhaeltniss zum Franciskanerorden, etc., an Art. on the authors of the Defensor. in Archiv fuer Lit. und Kirchengesch., 1885, p. For 6.9. THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE AVIGNON 509 sqq., 1886, p. 106 sqq., 1887, p. 553 sqq., POPES. EHRLE: Schatz, Bibliothek und Archiv der 1890. Also P. J. Olivi: S. Leben und s. Schriften Paepste im 14ten Jahrh., in Archiv fuer Lit. u. 1887, pp. 409–540.—DOELLINGER: Kirchengesch., I. 1–49, 228–365, also D. Deutschlands Kampf mit dem Papstthum unter Nachlass Clemens V. und der in Betreff Ludwig dem Bayer in Akad. Vortraege, I. 119– desselben von Johann XXII. gefuehrte Process, 137.—HEFELE: VI. 546–579.—LEA: Inquisition, V. 1–166.—PH. WOKER: Das kirchliche I. 242–304.—The Artt. in Wetzer-Welte, Finanzwesen der Paepste, Noerdlingen, Franziskanerorden, IV. 1650–1683, and Armut, 1878.—M. TANGL: Das Taxenwesen der I. 1394–1401. Artt. John XXII. in Herzog, IX. paepstlichen Kanzlei vom 13ten his zur Mitte 267–270, and Wetzer-Welte, VIII. 828 sqq.— des 15ten Jahrh., Innsbruck, 1892.—J. P. HALLER: Papsttum, p. 91 sqq.—STUBBS: Const. KIRSCH: Die paepstl. Kollektorien in Hist. of England.—GREGOROVIUS, VI.—PASTOR: Deutschland im XIVten Jahrh., Paderborn, I. 80 sqq. 1894; Die Finanzverwaltung des For 6.8. THE PAPAL OFFICE ASSAILED. Some of the Kardinalkollegiums im XIII. u. XIV. ten Jahrh., tracts may be found in GOLDAST: Monarchia, Muenster, 1896; Die Rueckkehr der Paepste Hanover, 1610, e.g. Marsiglius of Padua, II. Urban V. und Gregor XI. con Avignon nach 164–312; Occam’s Octo quaestionum Rom. Auszuege aus den Kameralregistern des decisiones super potestate ac dignitate papali, Vatikan. Archivs, Paderborn, 1898; Die paepstl. II. 740 sqq., and Dialogus inter magistrum et Annaten in Deutschland im XIV. Jahrh. 1323– discipulum, etc., II., 399 sqq. Special edd. are 1360, Paderborn, 1903.—P. M. BAUMGARTEN: given in the body of the chap. and may be Untersuchungen und Urkunden ueber die found under Alvarus Pelagius, Marsiglius, etc., Camera Collegii Cardinalium, 1295–1437, in POTTHAST: Bibl. med. aevi.—Un trattato Leipzig, 1898.—A. GOTTLOB: Die paepstl. inedito di Egidio Colonna: De ecclesiae Kreuzzugsteuern des 13ten Jahrh., potestate, ed. G. U. OXILIA et G. BOFFITO, Heiligenstadt, 1892; Die Servitientaxe im 13ten Florence, 1908, pp. lxxxi, 172.—SCHWAB: Jahrh., Stuttgart, 1903.—EMIL GOELLER: Gerson, pp. 24–28.—MUELLER: D. Kampf Mittheilungen u. Untersuchungen ueber das Ludwigs des Baiern.—RIEZLER: Die Lit. paepstl. Register und Kanzleiwesen im 14ten Widersacher der Paepste, etc., Leipzig, 1874.— Jahrh., Rome, 1904; D. Liber Taxarum d. MARCOUR: Antheil der Minoriten am Kampf paepstl. Rammer. Eine Studie zu ihrer zwischen Ludwig dem Baiern und Johann XXII., Entstehung u. Anlage, Rome, 1906, pp. 106.— Emmerich, 1874.—POOLE: The Opposition to HALLER: Papsttum u. Kirchenreform; also the Temporal Claims of the Papacy, in Illust. of Aufzeichnungen ueber den paepstl. Haushalt the Hist. of Med. Thought, pp. 256–281.— aus Avignonesischer Zeit; die Vertheilung der HALLER: Papsttum, etc., pp. 73–89. English Servitia minuta u. die Obligationen der trans. of Marsiglius of Padua, The Defence of Praelaten im 13ten u. 14ten Jahrh.; Die Peace, by W. MARSHALL, London, 1636.—M. Ausfertigung der Provisionen, etc., all in BIRCK: Marsilio von Padua und Alvaro Pelayo Quellen u. Forschungen, ed. by the Royal ueber Papst und Kaiser, Muehlheim, 1868.—B. Prussian Institute in Rome, Rome, 1897, LABANCA, Prof. of Moral Philos. in the Univ. of 1898.—C. LUX: Constitutionum apostolicarum Rome: Marsilio da Padova, riformatore politico de generali beneficiorum reservatione, 1265– e religioso, Padova, 1882, pp. 236.—L. JOURDAN: 1378, etc., Wratislav, 1904.—A. SCHULTE: Die Étude sur Marsile de Padoue, Montauban, Fugger in Rom, 1495–1523, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1892.—J. SULLIVAN: Marsig. of Padua, in Engl. 1904.—C. SAMARIN and G. MOLLAT: La Fiscalité Hist. Rev., 1906, pp. 293–307. An examination pontifen France au XIVe siècle, Paris, 1906.—P. of the MSS. See also DOELLINGER-FRIEDRICH: THOMAN: Le droit de propriété des laïques sur

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 8 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

les églises et le patronat laïque au moy. âge, papal office, was followed by Benedict Paris, 1906. Also the work on Canon Law by T. Gaetani,—or Cajetan, the name of an ancient HINSCHIUS, 6 vols., Berlin, 1869–1897, and E. family of Latin counts,—known in history as FRIEDBERG, 6th ed., Leipzig, 1903. Boniface VIII. At the time of his election he For 6.10. LATER AVIGNON POPES. Lettres des was on the verge of fourscore, but like papes d’Avignon se rappor-tant a la France, viz. Gregory IX. he was still in the full vigor of a Lettres communes de Benoît XII., ed. J. M. strong intellect and will. If Celestine had the VIDAL, Paris, 1906; Lettres closes, patentes et curiales, ed. G. DAUMET, Paris, 1890; Lettres … reputation of a saint, Boniface was a de Clement VI., ed. E. DEPREZ, Paris, 1901; politician, overbearing, implacable, destitute Excerpta ex registr. de Clem. VI. et Inn. VI., ed. of spiritual ideals, and controlled by blind and WERUNSKY, Innsbruck, 1886; Lettres … de Pape insatiable lust of power. Urbain V., ed. P. LECACHEUX, Paris, 1902.—J. H. Born at Anagni, Boniface probably studied ALBANS: Actes anciens et documents canon law, in which he was an expert, in concernant le bienheureux Urbain V., ed. by U. Rome. He was made cardinal in 1281, and CHEVALIER, Paris, 1897. Contains the fourteen early lives of Urban.—BALUZE: Vitae paparum represented the papal see in France and Avenionen-sium, 1693;—MURATORI: in Rer. ital. England as legate. In an address at a council scripp, XIV. 9–728.—CERRI: Innocenzo VI., in Paris, assembled to arrange for a new papa, Turin, 1873. MAGNAN: Hist. d’ Urbain V., crusade, he reminded the mendicant monks 2d ed., Paris, 1863.—WERUNSKY: Gesch. karls that he and they were called not to court IV. u. seiner Zeit, 3 vols., Innsbruck, 1880– glory or learning, but to secure the salvation 1892.—GEO. SCHMIDT: Der Hist. Werth der 14 of their souls. alten Biographien des Urban V., Breslau, Boniface’s election as pope occurred at Castel 1907.—KIRSCH: Rueckkehr der Paepste, as above. In large part, documents for the first Nuovo, near Naples, Dec. 24, 1294, the time published.—LECHNER: Das grosse Sterben conclave having convened the day before. The in Deutschland, 1348–1351, 1884.—C. election was not popular, and a few days CREIGHTON: Hist. of Epidemics in England, later, when a report reached Naples that Cambridge, 1891. F. A. GASQUET: The Great Boniface was dead, the people celebrated the Pestilence, London, 1893, 2d ed., entitled The event with great jubilation. The pontiff was Black Death, 1908.—A. JESSOPP: The Black accompanied on his way to Rome by Charles Death in East Anglia in Coming of the Friars, II. of Naples. pp. 166–261.—VILLANI, WATTENBACH, p. 226 sqq.; PASTOR, I., GREGOROVIUS, Cardinal The coronation was celebrated amid Albornoz, Paderborn, 1892. festivities of unusual splendor. On his way to For 6.11. The Re-Establishment of the Papacy the Lateran, Boniface rode on a white palfrey, in Rome. The Lives of Gregory XI. in Baluz, I. a crown on his head, and robed in full 426 sqq., and Muratori, III. 2, 646.—Kirsch: pontificals. Two sovereigns walked by his Ruerkkehr, etc., as above.—Leon Mirot: La side, the kings of Naples and Hungary. The politique pontif. et le rétour du S. Siege a Rome, Orsini, the Colonna, the Savelli, the Conti and 1376, Paris, 1899.—F. Hammerich: St. Brigitta, representatives of other noble Roman die nordische Prophetin u. Ordenstifterin, families followed in a body. The procession Germ. ed., Gotha, 1872. For further Lit. on St. Brigitta, see Herzog, III. 239. For works on had difficulty in forcing its way through the Catherine of Siena, see ch. III. Also Gieseler, II., kneeling crowds of spectators. But, as if an 3, pp. 1–131; Pastor, I. 101–114; Gregorovius, omen of the coming misfortunes of the new VI. Lit. under §10. pope, a furious storm burst over the city while the solemnities were in progress and 6.3. Pope Boniface VIII. 1294–1303 extinguished every lamp and torch in the The pious but weak and incapable hermit of church. The following day the pope dined in Murrhone, Celestine V., who abdicated the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 9 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course the Lateran, the two kings waiting behind his among the simoniacs in “that most afflicted chair. shade,” one of the lowest circles of hell. Its While these brilliant ceremonies were going floor was perforated with holes into which on, Peter of Murrhone was a fugitive. Not the heads of these popes were thrust. willing to risk the possible rivalry of an anti- “The soles of every one in flames were wrapt— pope, Boniface confined his unfortunate … whose upper parts are thrust below predecessor in prison, where he soon died. Fixt like a stake, most wretched soul The cause of his death was a matter of Quivering in air his tortured feet were seen.” uncertainty. The Celestines party ascribed it Contemporaries comprehended Boniface’s to Boniface, and exhibited a nail which they reign in the description, “He came in like a declared the unscrupulous pope had ordered fox, he reigned like a lion, and he died like a driven into Coelestine’s head. dog. With Boniface VIII. began the decline of the In his attempt to control the affairs of papacy. He found it at the height of its power. European states, he met with less success He died leaving it humbled and in subjection than failure, and in Philip the Fair of France to France. He sought to rule in the proud, he found his match. dominating spirit of Gregory VII. and In Sicily, he failed to carry out his plans to Innocent III.; but he was arrogant without secure the transfer of the realm from the being strong, bold without being sagacious, house of Aragon to the king of Naples. high-spirited without possessing the wisdom In Rome, he incurred the bitter enmity of the to discern the signs of the times. The times proud and powerful family of the Colonna, by had changed. Boniface made no allowance for attempting to dictate the disposition of the the new spirit of nationality which had been family estates. Two of the Colonna, James and developed during the crusading campaigns in Peter, who were cardinals, had been friends the East, and which entered into conflict with of Celestine, and supporters of that pope the old theocratic ideal of Rome. France, now gathered around them. Of their number was in possession of the remaining lands of the Jacopone da Todi, the author of the Stabat counts of Toulouse, was in no mood to listen Mater, who wrote a number of satirical pieces to the dictation of the power across the Alps. against Boniface. Resenting the pope’s Striving to maintain the fictitious theory of interference in their private matters, the papal rights, and fighting against the spirit of Colonna issued a memorial, pronouncing the new age, Boniface lost the prestige the Celestine’s abdication and the election of Apostolic See had enjoyed for two centuries, Boniface illegal. It exposed the haughtiness of and died of mortification over the indignities Boniface, and represented him as boasting heaped upon him by France. that he was supreme over kings and French enemies went so far as to charge kingdoms, even in temporal affairs, and that Boniface with downright infidelity and the he was governed by no law other than his denial of the soul’s immortality. The charges own will. The document was placarded on the were a slander, but they show the reduced churches and a copy left in St. Peter’s. In 1297 confidence which the papal office inspired. Boniface deprived the Colonna of their Dante, who visited Rome during Boniface’s dignity, excommunicated them, and pontificate, bitterly pursues him in all parts of proclaimed a crusade against them. The two the Divina Commedia. He pronounced him cardinals appealed to a general council, the “the prince of modern Pharisees,” a usurper resort in the next centuries of so many who “who turned the Vatican hill into a common found themselves out of accord with the sewer of corruption.” The poet assigned the papal plans. Their strongholds fell one after pope a place with Nicholas III. and Clement V. another. The last of them, Palestrina, had a

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 10 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course melancholy fate. The two cardinals with foreigners 15 days were announced to be ropes around their necks threw themselves at sufficient. the pope’s feet and secured his pardon, but A subsequent papal deliverance extended the their estates were confiscated and bestowed benefits of the indulgence to all setting out for upon the pope’s nephews and the Orsini. The the Holy City who died on the way. The only Colonna family recovered in time to reap a exceptions made to these gracious provisions bitter vengeance upon their insatiable enemy. were the Colonna, Frederick of Sicily, and the The German emperor, Albrecht, Boniface Christians holding traffic with Saracens. The succeeded in bringing to an abject city wore a festal appearance. The submission. The German envoys were handkerchief of St. Veronica, bearing the received by the haughty pontiff seated on a imprint of the Saviour’s face, was exhibited. throne with a crown upon his head and sword The throngs fairly trampled upon one in his hand, and exclaiming, “I, I am the another. The contemporary historian of emperor.” Albrecht accepted his crown as a Florence, Giovanni Villani, testifies from gift, and acknowledged that the empire had personal observation that there was a been transferred from the Greeks to the constant population in the pontifical city of Germans by the pope, and that the electors 200,000 pilgrims, and that 30,000 people owed the right of election to the Apostolic reached and left it daily. The offerings were See. so copious that two clerics stood day and In England, Boniface met with sharp night by the altar of St. Peter’s gathering up resistance. Edward I., 1272–1307, was on the the coins with rakes. throne. The pope attempted to prevent him So spectacular and profitable a celebration from holding the crown of Scotland, claiming could not be allowed to remain a memory. it as a papal fief from remote antiquity. The The Jubilee was made a permanent English parliament, 1301, gave a prompt and institution. A second celebration was spirited reply. The English king was under no appointed by Clement VI. in 1350. With obligation to the papal see for his temporal reference to the brevity of human life and acts. The dispute went no further. The conflict also to the period of our Lord’s earthly career, between Boniface and France is reserved for Urban VI. fixed its recurrence every 33 years. more prolonged treatment. Paul II., in 1470, reduced the intervals to 25 An important and picturesque event of years. The twentieth Jubilee was celebrated in Boniface’s pontificate was the Jubilee Year, 1900, under Leo XIII. Leo extended the celebrated in 1300. It was a fortunate offered benefits to those who had the will and conception, adapted to attract throngs of not the ability to make the journey to Rome. pilgrims to Rome and fill the papal treasury. For the offerings accruing from the Jubilee An old man of 107 years of age, so the story and for other papal moneys, Boniface found ran, travelled from Savoy to Rome, and told easy use. They enabled him to prosecute his how his father had taken him to attend a wars against Sicily and the Colonna and to Jubilee in the year 1200 and exhorted him to enrich his relatives. The chief object of his visit it on its recurrence a century after. favor was his nephew, Peter, the second son Interesting as the story is, the Jubilee of his brother Loffred, the Count of Caserta. celebration of 1300 seems to have been the One estate after another was added to this first of its kind. Boniface’s bull, appointing it, favorite’s possessions, and the vast sum of promised full remission to all, being penitent more than $15,000,000 was spent upon him and confessing their sins, who should visit St. in four years. Nepotism was one of the Peter’s during the year 1300. Italians were to offences for which Boniface was arraigned by prolong their sojourn 30 days, while for his contemporaries.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 11 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

6.4. Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of his conflict with France. Members of the papal France court encouraged him in these haughty assertions of prerogative. The Spaniard, The overshadowing event of Boniface’s reign Arnald of Villanova, who served Boniface as was his disastrous conflict with Philip IV. of physician, called him in his writings lord of France, called Philip the Fair. The grandson of lords. Louis IX., this monarch was wholly wanting in the high spiritual qualities which had On the other hand, Philip the Fair stood as the distinguished his ancestor. He was able but embodiment of the independence of the state. treacherous, and utterly unscrupulous in the He had behind him a unified nation, and use of means to secure his ends. Unattractive around him a body of able statesmen and as his character is, it is nevertheless with him publicists who defended his views. that the first chapter in the history of modern The conflict between Boniface and Philip France begins. In his conflict with Boniface he passed through three stages: (1) the brief tilt gained a decisive victory. On a smaller scale which called forth the bull Clericis laicos; (2) the conflict was a repetition of the conflict the decisive battle, 1301–1303, ending in between Gregory VII. and Henry IV., but with Boniface’s humiliation at Anagni; (3) the a different ending. In both cases the pope had bitter controversy which was waged against reached a venerable age, while the sovereign the pope’s memory by Philip, ending with the was young and wholly governed by selfish Council of Vienne. motives. Henry resorted to the election of an The conflict originated in questions touching anti-pope. Philip depended upon his the war between France and England. To councilors and the spirit of the new French meet the expense of his armament against nation. Edward I., Philip levied tribute upon the The heir of the theocracy of Hildebrand French clergy. They carried their complaints repeated Hildebrand’s language without to Rome, and Boniface justified their possessing his moral qualities. He claimed for contention in the bull Clericis laicos, 1296. the papacy supreme authority in temporal as This document was ordered promulgated in well as spiritual matters. In his address to the England as well as in France. Robert of cardinals against the Colonna he exclaimed: Winchelsea, archbishop of Canterbury, had it “How shall we assume to judge kings and read in all the English cathedral churches. Its princes, and not dare to proceed against a opening sentence impudently asserted that worm! Let them perish forever, that they may the laity had always been hostile to the clergy. understand that the name of the Roman pontiff The document went on to affirm the is known in all the earth and that he alone is subjection of the state to the papal see. most high over princes.” Jurisdiction over the persons of the The Colonna, in one of their proclamations, priesthood and the goods of the Church in no charged Boniface with glorying that he is wise belongs to the temporal power. The exalted above all princes and kingdoms in Church may make gratuitous gifts to the state, temporal matters, and may act as he pleases but all taxation of Church property without in view of the fullness of his power. In his the pope’s consent is to be resisted with official recognition of the emperor, Albrecht, excommunication or interdict. Boniface declared that as “the moon has no Imposts upon the Church for special light except as she receives it from the sun, so emergencies had been a subject of legislation no earthly power has anything which it does at the third and fourth Lateran Councils. In not receive from the ecclesiastical authority.” 1260 Alexander IV. exempted the clergy from These claims are asserted with most special taxation, and in 1291 Nicolas IV. pretension in the bulls Boniface issued during warned the king of France against using for

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 12 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course his own schemes the tenth levied for a The pontiff’s business is confined to the crusade. Boniface had precedent enough for forgiving of sins, prayer, and preaching. Philip his utterances. But his bull was promptly met continued to lay his hand without scruple on by Philip with an act of reprisal prohibiting Church property; Lyons, which had been the export of silver and gold, horses, arms, claimed by the empire, he demanded as a part and other articles from his realm, and of France. Appeals against his arbitrary acts forbidding foreigners to reside in France. This went to Rome, and the pope sent Bernard of shrewd measure cut off French contributions Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, to Paris, with to the papal treasury and cleared France of commission to summon the French king to the pope’s emissaries. Boniface was forced to apply the clerical tithe for its appointed reconsider his position, and in conciliatory purpose, a crusade, and for nothing else. letters, addressed to the king and the French Philip showed his resentment by having the prelates, pronounced the interpretation put legate arrested. He was adjudged by the civil upon his deliverance unjust. tribunal a traitor, and his deposition from the Its purpose was not to deny feudal and episcopate demanded. freewill offerings from the Church. In cases of Boniface’s reply, set forth in the bull Ausculta emergency, the pope would also be ready to fili—Give ear, my son—issued Dec. 5, 1301, grant special subsidies. The document was so charged the king with high-handed treatment offensive that the French bishops begged the of the clergy and making plunder of pope to recall it altogether, a request he set ecclesiastical property. The pope announced aside. But to appease Philip, Boniface issued a council to be held in Rome to which the another bull, July 22, 1297, according French prelates were called and the king thereafter to French kings, who had reached summoned to be present, either in person or the age of 20, the right to judge whether a by a representative. The bull declared that tribute from the clergy was a case of necessity God had placed his earthly vicar above kings or not. A month later he canonized Louis IX., a and kingdoms. To make the matter worse, a further act of conciliation. false copy of Boniface’s bull was circulated in Boniface also offered to act as umpire France known as Deum time,—Fear God,— between France and England in his personal which made the statements of papal capacity as Benedict Gaetanus. The offer was prerogative still more exasperating. This accepted, but the decision was not agreeable supposititious document, which is supposed to the French sovereign. The pope expressed to have been forged by Pierre Flotte, the a desire to visit Philip, but again gave offence king’s chief councilor, was thrown into the by asking Philip for a loan of 100, 000 pounds flames Feb. 11, 1302. Such treatment of a for Philip’s brother, Charles of Valois, whom papal brief was unprecedented. It remained Boniface had invested with the command of for Luther to cast the genuine bull of Leo X. the papal forces. into the fire. The two acts had little in common. In 1301 the flame of controversy was again started by a document, written probably by The king replied by calling a French the French advocate, Pierre Dubois, which parliament of the three estates, the nobility, showed the direction in which Philip’s mind clergy and representatives of the cities, which was working, for it could hardly have set aside the papal summons to the council, appeared without his assent. The writer complained of the appointment of foreigners summoned the king to extend his dominions to French livings, and asserted the crown’s to the walls of Rome and beyond, and denied independence of the Church. Five hundred the pope’s right to secular power. years later a similar representative body of the three estates was to rise against French royalty and decide for the abolition of

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 13 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course monarchy. In a letter to the pope, Philip Six months later the pope sent a cardinal addressed him as “your infatuated Majesty,” legate, John le Moine of Amiens, to announce and declined all submission to any one on to the king his excommunication for earth in temporal matters. preventing French bishops from going to The council called by the pope convened in Rome. The bearer of the message was Rome the last day of October, 1302, and imprisoned and the legate fled. Boniface now included 4 archbishops, 35 bishops, and 6 called upon the German emperor, Albrecht, to abbots from France. It issued two bulls. The take Philip’s throne, as Innocent III. had called first pronounced the ban on all who detained upon the French king to take John’s crown, prelates going to Rome or returning from the and Innocent IV. upon the count of Artois to city. The second is one of the most notable of take the crown of Frederick II. Albrecht had all papal documents, the bull Unam sanctam, wisdom enough to decline the empty gift. the name given to it from its first words, “We Philip’s seizure of the papal bulls before they are forced to believe in one holy Catholic could be promulgated in France was met by Church.” Boniface’s announcement that the posting of a bull on the church doors of Rome was It marks an epoch in the history of the sufficient to give it force. declarations of the papacy, not because it contained anything novel, but because it set The French parliament, June, 1303, passed forth with unchanged clearness the stiffest from the negative attitude of defending the claims of the papacy to temporal and spiritual king and French rights to an attack upon power. It begins with the assertion that there Boniface and his right to the papal throne. In is only one true Church, outside of which 20 articles it accused him of simony, sorcery, there is no salvation. The pope is the vicar of immoral intercourse with his niece, having a Christ, and whoever refuses to be ruled by demon in his chambers, the murder of Peter belongs not to the fold of Christ. Both Celestine, and other crimes. It appealed to a swords are subject to the Church, the spiritual general council, before which the pope was and the temporal. The temporal sword is to summoned to appear in person. Five be wielded for the Church, the spiritual by it. archbishops and 21 bishops joined in The secular estate may be judged by the subscribing to this document. The university spiritual estate, but the spiritual estate by no and chapter of Paris, convents, cities, and human tribunal. The document closes with towns placed themselves on the king’s side. the startling declaration that for every human One more step the pope was about to take being the condition of salvation is obedience when a sudden stop was put to his career. He to the Roman pontiff. had set the eighth day of September as the There was no assertion of authority time when he would publicly, in the church of contained in this bull which had not been Anagni, and with all the solemnities known to before made by Gregory VII. and his the Church, pronounce the ban upon the successors, and the document leans back not disobedient king and release his subjects only upon the deliverances of popes, but upon from allegiance. In the same edifice Alexander the definitions of theologians like Hugo de St. III. had excommunicated Barbarossa, and Victor, Bernard and Thomas Aquinas. But in Gregory IX., Frederick II. The bull already had the Unam sanctam the arrogance of the the papal signature, when, as by a storm papacy finds its most naked and irritating bursting from a clear sky, the pope’s plans expression. were shattered and his career brought to an end. One of the clauses pronounces all offering resistance to the pope’s authority During the two centuries and a half since Manicheans. Thus Philip was made a heretic. Hildebrand had entered the city of Rome with

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 14 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

Leo IX., popes had been imprisoned by his Church. To the demand that he resign the emperors, been banished from Rome by its papal office, he replied, “Never; I am pope and citizens, had fled for refuge and died in exile, as pope I will die.” Sciarra was about to kill but upon no one of them had a calamity fallen him, when he was intercepted by Nogaret’s quite so humiliating and complete as the arm. The palaces were looted and the calamity which now befell Boniface. cathedral burnt, and its relics, if not A plot, formed in France to checkmate the destroyed, went to swell the booty. One of the pope and to carry him off to a council at relics, a vase said to have contained milk from Lyons, burst Sept. 7 upon the peaceful Mary’s breasts, was turned over and broken. population of Anagni, the pope’s country seat. The pope and his nephews were held in William of Nogaret, professor of law at confinement for three days, the captors being Montpellier and councilor of the king, was the undecided whether to carry Boniface away to manager of the plot and was probably its Lyons, set him at liberty, or put him to death. inventor. According to the chronicler, Villani, Such was the humiliating counterpart to the Nogaret’s parents were Cathari, and suffered proud display made at the pope’s coronation for heresy in the flames in Southern France. nine years before! He stood as a representative of a new class of In the meantime the feelings of the Anagnese men, laymen, who were able to compete in underwent a change. The adherents of the culture with the best-trained ecclesiastics, Gaetani family rallied their forces and, and advocated the independence of the state. combining together, they rescued Boniface With him was joined Sciarra Colonna, who, and drove out the conspirators. Seated at the with other members of his family, had found head of his palace stairway, the pontiff refuge in France, and was thirsting for thanked God and the people for his revenge for their proscription by the pope. deliverance. “Yesterday,” he said, “I was like With a small body of mercenaries, 300 of Job, poor and without a friend. To-day I have them on horse, they suddenly appeared in abundance of bread, wine, and water.” A Anagni. The barons of the Latium, embittered rescuing party from Rome conducted the by the rise of the Gaetani family upon their unfortunate pope to the Holy City, where he losses, joined with the conspirators, as also was no longer his own master. A month later, did the people of Anagni. The palaces of two Oct. 11, 1303, his earthly career closed. of Boniface’s nephews and several of the Outside the death-chamber, the streets of the cardinals were stormed and seized by Sciarra city were filled with riot and tumult, and the Colonna, who then offered the pope life on Gaetani and Colonna were encamped in battle the three conditions that the Colonna be array against each other in the Campagna. restored, Boniface resign, and that he place Reports agree that Boniface’s death was a himself in the hands of the conspirators. most pitiable one. He died of melancholy and The conditions were rejected, and after a despair, and perhaps actually insane. He delay of three hours, the work of assault and refused food, and beat his head against the destruction was renewed. The palaces one wall. “He was out of his head,” wrote Ptolemy after another yielded, and the papal residence of Lucca, and believed that every one who itself was taken and entered. The supreme approached him was seeking to put him in pontiff, according to the description of Villani, prison. received the besiegers in high pontifical Human sympathy goes out for the aged man robes, seated on a throne, with a crown on his of fourscore years and more, dying in head and a crucifix and the keys in his hand. loneliness and despair. But judgment comes He proudly rebuked the intruders, and sooner or later upon individuals and declared his readiness to die for Christ and institutions for their mistakes and offences.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 15 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

The humiliation of Boniface was the long- In the humiliation of Boniface VIII., the state delayed penalty of the sacerdotal pride of his gained a signal triumph over the papacy. The predecessors and himself. He suffered in part proposition, that the papal pretension to for the hierarchical arrogance of which he supremacy over the temporal power is was the heir and in part for his own inconsistent with the rights of man and presumption. Villani and other untaught by the law of God, was about to be contemporaries represent the pope’s latter defended in bold writings coming from the end as a deserved punishment for his pens of lawyers and poets in France and Italy unblushing nepotism, his pompous pride, and and, a half century later, by Wycliffe. These his implacable severity towards those who advocates of the sovereign independence of dared to resist his plans, and for his the state in its own domain were the real treatment of the feeble hermit who preceded descendants of those jurisconsults who, on him. One of the chroniclers reports that the pIain of Roncaglia, advocated the same seamen plying near the Liparian islands, the theory in the hearing of Frederick reputed entrance to hell, heard evil spirits Barbarossa. Two hundred years after the rejoicing and exclaiming, “Open, open; receive conflict between Boniface and Philip the Fair, pope Boniface into the infernal regions.” Luther was to fight the battle for the spiritual Catholic historians like Hergenröther and sovereignty of the individual man. These two Kirsch, bound to the ideals of the past, make a principles, set aside by the priestly pride and brave attempt to defend Boniface, though theological misunderstanding of the Middle they do not overlook his want of tact and his Ages, belong to the foundation of modern coarse violence of speech. It is certain, says civilization. Cardinal Hergenröther, “that Boniface was BONIFACE’S BULL, UNAM SANCTAM not ruled by unworthy motives and that he The great importance of Boniface’s bull, did not deviate from the paths of his Unam Sanctam, issued against Philip the Fair, predecessors or overstep the legal Nov. 18, 1302, justifies its reproduction both conceptions of the Middle Ages.” Finke, also a in translation and the original Latin. It has Catholic historian, the latest learned rank among the most notorious deliverances investigator of the character and career of of the popes and is as full of error as was Boniface, acknowledges the pope’s Innocent VIII.’s bull issued in 1484 against intellectual ability, but also emphasizes his witchcraft. It presents the theory of the pride and arrogance, his depreciation of other supremacy of the spiritual power over the men, his disagreeable spirit and manner, temporal, the authority of the papacy over which left him without a personal friend, his princes, in its extreme form. The following is nepotism and his avarice. He hoped, said a a translation:— contemporary, to live till “all his enemies were suppressed.” Boniface, Bishop, Servant of the servants of God. For perpetual remembrance:— In strong contrast to the common judgment of Urged on by our faith, we are obliged to believe Catholic historians is the sentence passed by and hold that there is one holy, catholic, and Gregorovius. “Boniface was devoid of every apostolic Church. And we firmly believe and apostolical virtue, a man of passionate profess that outside of her there is no salvation temper, violent, faithless, unscrupulous, nor remission of sins, as the bridegroom unforgiving, filled with ambitions and lust of declares in the Canticles, “My dove, my worldly power.” And this will be the judgment undefiled, is but one; she is the only one of her of those who feel no obligation to defend the mother; she is the choice one of her that bare papal institution. her.” And this represents the one mystical body of Christ, and of this body Christ is the head, and God is the head of Christ. In it there

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 16 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

is one Lord, one faith, one baptism. For in the one sword had been made subject to the other, time of the Flood there was the single ark of and even as the lower is subjected by the other Noah, which prefigures the one Church, and it for higher things. For, according to Dionysius, was finished according to the measure of one it is a divine law that the lowest things are cubit and had one Noah for pilot and captain, made by mediocre things to attain to the and outside of it every living creature on the highest. For it is not according to the law of the earth, as we read, was destroyed. universe that all things in an equal way and And this Church we revere as the only one, immediately should reach their end, but the even as the Lord saith by the prophet, “Deliver lowest through the mediocre and the lower my soul from the sword, my darling from the through the higher. But that the spiritual power of the dog.” He prayed for his soul, that power excels the earthly power in dignity and is, for himself, head and body. And this body he worth, we will the more clearly acknowledge called one body, that is, the Church, because of just in proportion as the spiritual is higher the single bridegroom, the unity of the faith, than the temporal. And this we perceive quite the sacraments, and the love of the Church. She distinctly from the donation of the tithe and is that seamless shirt of the Lord which was functions of benediction and sanctification, not rent but was allotted by the casting of lots. from the mode in which the power was Therefore, this one and single Church has one received, and the government of the subjected head and not two heads,—for had she two realms. For truth being the witness, the heads, she would be a monster,—that is, Christ spiritual power has the functions of and Christ’s vicar, Peter and Peter’s successor. establishing the temporal power and sitting in For the Lord said unto Peter, “Feed my sheep.” judgment on it if it should prove to be not “My,” he said, speaking generally and not good. And to the Church and the Church’s particularly, “these and those,” by which it is to power the prophecy of Jeremiah attests: “See, I be understood that all the sheep are have set thee this day over the nations and the committed unto him. So, when the Greeks or kingdoms to pluck up and to break down and others say that they were not committed to the to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to care of Peter and his successors, they must plant.” confess that they are not of Christ’s sheep, And if the earthly power deviate from the right even as the Lord says in John, “There is one path, it is judged by the spiritual power; but if a fold and one shepherd.” minor spiritual power deviate from the right That in her and within her power are two path, the lower in rank is judged by its swords, we are taught in the Gospels, namely, superior; but if the supreme power [the the spiritual sword and the temporal sword. papacy] deviate, it can be judged not by man For when the Apostles said, “Lo, here,”—that is but by God alone. And so the Apostle testifies, in the Church,—are two swords, the Lord did “He which is spiritual judges all things, but he not reply to the Apostles “it is too much,” but himself is judged by no man.” But this “it is enough.” It is certain that whoever denies authority, although it be given to a man, and that the temporal sword is in the power of though it be exercised by a man, is not a Peter, hearkens ill to the words of the Lord human but a divine power given by divine which he spoke, “Put up thy sword into its word of mouth to Peter and confirmed to Peter sheath.” Therefore, both are in the power of and to his successors by Christ himself, whom the Church, namely, the spiritual sword and Peter confessed, even him whom Christ called the temporal sword; the latter is to be used for the Rock. For the Lord said to Peter himself, the Church, the former by the Church; the “Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth,” etc. former by the hand of the priest, the latter by Whoever, therefore, resists this power so the hand of princes and kings, but at the nod ordained by God, resists the ordinance of God, and sufferance of the priest. The one sword unless perchance he imagine two principles to must of necessity be subject to the other, and exist, as did Manichaeus, which we pronounce the temporal authority to the spiritual. For the false and heretical. For Moses testified that Apostle said, “There is no power but of God, God created heaven and earth not in the and the powers that be are ordained of God;” beginnings but “in the beginning.” and they would not have been ordained unless

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 17 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

Furthermore, that every human creature is during the pontificate of John XXII. and subject to the Roman pontiff,—this we declare, extends from 1320–1340. Here the pope’s say, define, and pronounce to be altogether spiritual supremacy was attacked. The most necessary to salvation. prominent writer of the time was Marsiglius The most astounding clause of this of Padua. The third period begins with the deliverance makes subjection to the pope an papal schism toward the end of the essential of salvation for every creature. Some fourteenth century. The writers of this period writers have made the bold attempt to relieve emphasized the need of reform in the Church the language of this construction, and refer it and discussed the jurisdiction of general to princes and kings. So fair and sound a councils as superior to the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic writer as Funk has advocated pope. this interpretation, alleging in its favor the The publicists of the age of Boniface VIII. and close connection of the clause with the Philip the Fair now defended, now openly previous statements through the particle attacked the medieval theory of the pope’s porro, furthermore, and the consideration lordship over kings and nations. The body of that the French people would not have literature they produced was unlike anything resented the assertion that obedience to the which Europe had seen before. In the conflict papacy is a condition of salvation. But the between Gregory IX. and Frederick II., Europe overwhelming majority of Catholic historians was filled with the epistolary appeals of pope take the words in their natural meaning. The and emperor, who sought each to make good expression “every human creature” would be his case before the court of European public a most unlikely one to be used as opinion, and more especially of the princes synonymous with temporal rulers. Boniface and prelates. The controversy of this later made the same assertion in a letter to the time was participated in by a number of duke of Savoy, 1300, when he demanded writers who represented the views of an submission for every mortal,—omnia anima. intelligent group of clerics and laymen. They Ægidius Colonna paraphrased the bull in employed a vigorous style adapted to make these words, “the supreme pontiff is that an impression on the public mind. authority to which every soul must yield subjection.” That the medieval Church Stirred by the haughty assertions of Boniface, accepted this construction is vouched for by a new class of men, the jurisconsults, entered the Fifth Lateran Council, 1516, which, in the lists and boldly called in question the old reaffirming the bull, declared “it necessary to order represented by the policy of Hildebrand salvation that all the faithful of Christ be and Innocent III. They had studied in the subject to the Roman pontiff.” universities, especially in the University of Paris, and some of them, like Dubois, were 6.5 Literary Attacks against the Papacy laymen. The decision of the Bologna jurists on Nothing is more indicative of the intellectual the field of Roncaglia was reasserted with change going on in Western Europe in the new arguments and critical freedom, and a fourteenth century than the tractarian step was taken far in advance of that decision literature of the time directed against claims which asserted the independence of the made by the papacy. Three periods may be emperor. distinguished. In the first belong the tracts The empire was set aside as an antiquated called forth by the struggle of Philip the Fair institution, and France and other states were and Boniface VIII., with the year 1302 for its pronounced sovereign within their own limits center. Their distinguishing feature is the and immune from papal dominion over their attack made upon the pope’s jurisdiction in temporal affairs. The principles of human law temporal affairs. The second period opens and the natural rights of man were arrayed

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 18 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course against dogmatic assertions based upon embodies views in direct antagonism to those unbalanced and false interpretations of promulged in Boniface’s bull Unam sanctam, Scripture. The method of scholastic sophistry and Thomas Aquinas, whose theological was largely replaced by an appeal to common views Dante followed, is here set aside. The sense and regard for the practical needs of independence and sovereignty of the civil society. The authorities used to establish the estate is established by arguments drawn new theory were Aristotle, the Scriptures and from reason, Aristotle, and the Scriptures. In historic facts. These writers were John the making good his position, the author Baptists preparing the way for the more advances three propositions, devoting a clearly outlined and advanced views of chapter to each: (1) Universal monarchy or Marsiglius of Padua and Occam, who took the empire, for the terms are used synonymously, further step of questioning or flatly denying is necessary. (2) This monarchy belongs to the pope’s spiritual supremacy, and for the the Roman people. (3) It was directly still more advanced and more spiritual bequeathed to the Romans by God, and did appeals of Wycliffe and Luther. A direct not come through the mediation of the current of influence can be traced back from Church. the Protestant Reformation to the anti-papal The interests of society, so the argument tracts of the first decade of the fourteenth runs, require an impartial arbiter, and only a century. universal monarch bound by no local ties can The tract writers of the reign of Philip the be impartial. A universal monarchy will bring Fair, who defended the traditional theory of peace, the peace of which the angels sang on the pope’s absolute supremacy in all matters, the night of Christ’s birth, and it will bring were the Italians Ægidius Colonna, James of liberty, God’s greatest gift to man. Democracy Viterbo, Henry of Cremona, and Augustinus reduces men to slavery. The Romans are the Triumphus. The writers who attacked the noblest people and deserve the right to rule. papal claim to temporal power are divided This is evident from the fine manhood of into two groups. To the first belongs Dante, Æneas, their progenitor, from the evident who magnified the empire and the station of miracles which God wrought in their history the emperor as the supreme ruler over the and from their world-wide dominion. This temporal affairs of men. The men of the right to rule was established under the second group were associated more or less Christian dispensation by Christ himself, who closely with the French court and were, for submitted to Roman jurisdiction in the most part, Frenchmen. They called in consenting to be born under Augustus and to question the authority of the emperor. Among suffer under Tiberius. It was attested by the their leaders were John of Paris and Peter Church when Paul said to Festus, “I stand at Dubois. In a number of cases their names are Caesar’s judgment seat, where I ought to be forgotten or uncertain, while their tracts have judged,” Acts 25:10. There are two governing survived. It will be convenient first to take up agents necessary to society, the pope and the the theory of Dante, and then to present the emperor. The emperor is supreme in views of papal and anti-papal writings which temporal things and is to guide men to were evidently called forth by the struggle eternal life in accordance with the truths of started by Boniface. revelation. Nevertheless, the emperor should Dante was in nowise associated with the pay the pope the reverence which a first-born court of Philip the Fair, and seems to have son pays to his father, such reverence as been moved to write his treatise on Charlemagne paid to Leo III. government, the De monarchia, by general In denying the subordination of the civil considerations and not by any personal power, Dante rejects the figure comparing the sympathy with the French king. His theory spiritual and temporal powers to the sun and

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 19 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course moon, and the arguments drawn from the theological works and 14 of his philosophical alleged precedence of Levi over Judah on the writings were in use in the University of ground of the priority of Levi’s birth; from the Paris. oblation of the Magi at the manger and from The tract by which Ægidius is chiefly known the sentence passed upon Saul by Samuel. He is his Power of the Supreme Pontiff—De referred the two swords both to spiritual ecclesiastica sive de summit pontificis functions. Without questioning the historical potestate. It was the chief work of its time in occurrence, he set aside Constantine’s defence of the papacy, and seems to have donation to Sylvester on the ground that the been called forth by the Roman Council and to emperor no more had the right to transfer his have been written in 1301. It was dedicated empire in the West than he had to commit to Boniface VIII. Its main positions are the suicide. Nor had the pope a right to accept the following:— gift. In the Inferno Dante applied to that The pope judges all things and is judged by no transaction the oft-quoted lines:— man, 1 Cor. 2:16. To him belongs plenary “Ah, Constantine, of how much ill was cause, power, plenitudo potestatis. This power is Not thy conversion, but those rich domains without measure, without number, and Which the first wealthy pope received of thee.” without weight. It extends over all Christians. The Florentine poet’s universal monarchy has The pope is above all laws and in matters of remained an ideal unrealized, like the faith infallible. He is like the sea which fills all republic of the Athenian philosopher. vessels, like the sun which, as the universally Conception of popular liberty as it is active principle, sends his rays into all things. conceived in this modern age, Dante had The priesthood existed before royalty. Abel none. Nevertheless, he laid down the and Noah, priests, preceded Nimrod, who was important principle that the government the first king. As the government of the world exists for the people, and not the people for is one and centers in one ruler, God, so in the the government. affairs of the militant Church there can be The treatise De monarchia was burnt as only one source of power, one supreme heretical, 1329, by order of John XXII. and put government, one head to whom belongs the on the Index by the Council of Trent. In recent plenitude of power. This is the supreme times it has aided the Italian patriots in their pontiff. The priesthood and the papacy are of work of unifying Italy and separating politics immediate divine appointment. Earthly from the Church according to Cavour’s kingdoms, except as they have been maxim, “a free Church in a free state.” established by the priesthood, owe their In the front rank of the champions of the origin to usurpation, robbery, and other temporal power of the papacy stood Aegidius forms of violence. In these views Ægidius Colonna, called also Aegidius Romanus, followed Augustine: De civitate, IV. 4, and 1247–1316. He was an Augustinian, and rose Gregory VII. The state, however, he declared to be general of his order. He became famous to be necessary as a means through which the as a theological teacher and, in 1287, his Church works to accomplish its divinely order placed his writings in all its schools. In appointed ends. 1295 he was made archbishop of Bourges, In the second part of his tract, Aegidius Boniface setting aside in his favor the cleric proves that, in spite of Numb. 18:20, 21, and nominated by Coelestine. Aegidius Luke 10:4, the Church has the right to possess participated in the council in Rome, 1301, worldly goods. The Levites received cities. In which Philip the Fair forbade the French fact, all temporal goods are under the control prelates to attend. He was an elaborate of the Church. As the soul rules the body, so writer, and in 1304 no less than 12 of his the pope rules over all temporal matters. The

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 20 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course tithe is a perpetual obligation. No one has a pontiff can act according to law or against it, right to the possession of a single acre of as he chooses. ground or a vineyard without the Church’s Henry of Cassaloci, or Henry of Cremona, as permission and unless he be baptized. he is usually called from his Italian birthplace, The fullness of power, residing in the pope, d. 1312, is mentioned, contrary to the custom gives him the right to appoint to all benefices of the age, by name by John of Paris, as the in Christendom, but, as God chooses to rule author of the tract, The Power of the Pope— through the laws of nature, so the pope rules De potestate papae. He was a distinguished through the laws of the Church, but he is not authority in canon law and consulted by bound by them. He may himself be called the Boniface. He was appointed, 1302, a member Church. For the pope’s power is spiritual, of the delegation to carry to Philip the Fair heavenly and divine. Aegidius was used by his the two notorious bulls, Salvator mundi and successors, James of Viterbo, Augustinus Ausculta fili. The same year he was appointed Triumphus and Alvarus, and also by John of bishop of Reggio. The papal defenders were Paris and Gerson who contested some of his well paid. main positions. Henry began his tract with the words of Matt. The second of these writers, defending the 28:18, “All power is given unto me,” and position of Boniface VIII., was James of declared the attack against the pope’s Viterbo, d. 1308. He also was an Italian, temporal jurisdiction over the whole earth a belonged to the Augustinian order, and matter of recent date, and made by “sophists” gained prominence as a teacher in Paris. In who deserved death. Up to that time no one 1302 he was appointed by Boniface had made such denial. He attempts to make archbishop of Beneventum, and a few months out his fundamental thesis from Scripture, the later archbishop of Naples. His Christian Fathers, canon law, and reason. God at first Government—De regimine christiano—is, ruled through Noah, the patriarchs, after the treatise of Ægidius, the most Melchisedek, and Moses, who were priests comprehensive of the papal tracts. It also was and kings at the same time. Did not Moses dedicated to Boniface VIII., who is addressed punish Pharaoh? Christ carried both swords. as “the holy lord of the kings of the earth.” Did he not drive out the money-changers and The author distinctly says he was led to write wear the crown of thorns? To him the power by the attacks made upon the papal was given to judge the world. John 5:22. The prerogative. same power was entailed upon Peter and his To Christ’s vicar, James says, royalty and successors. As for the state, it bears to the priesthood, regnum et sacerdotium, belong. Church the relation of the moon to the sun, Temporal authority was not for the first time and the emperor has only such power as the conferred on him when Constantine gave pope is ready to confer. Sylvester the dominion of the West. Henry also affirms that Constantine’s Constantine did nothing more than confirm a donation established no right, but confirmed previous right derived from Christ, when he what the pope already possessed by virtue of said, “whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall heavenly gift. The pope transferred the be bound in heaven.” Priests are kings, and empire to Charlemagne, and Innocent IV. the pope is the king of kings, both in mundane asserted the papal supremacy over kings by and spiritual matters. He is the bishop of the deposing Frederick II. If in early and later earth, the supreme lawgiver. Every soul must times the persons of popes were abused, this be subject to him in order to salvation. By was not because they lacked supreme reason of his fullness of power, the supreme authority in the earth or were in anywise subject to earthly princes. No emperor can

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 21 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course legally exercise imperial functions without convened, and one should be called every ten papal consecration. When Christ said, “my years. kingdom is not of this world,” he meant Turning now to the writers who contested the nothing more than that the world refused to pope’s right to temporal authority over the obey him. As for the passage, “render to nations, we find that while the most of them Caesar the things which are Caesar’s,” Christ were clerics, all of them were jurists. It is was under no obligation to give tribute to the characteristic that besides appealing to emperor, and the children of the kingdom are Aristotle, the Scriptures, and the canon law, free, as Augustine, upon the basis of Matt. they also appealed to the Roman law. We 27:26 sq., said. begin with several pamphlets whose The main work of another defender of the authorship is a matter of uncertainty. papal prerogatives, Augustinus Triumphus, The Twofold Prerogative was probably belongs to the next period. written in 1302, and by a Frenchman. The An intermediate position between these tract clearly sets forth that the two functions, writers and the anti-papal publicists was the spiritual and the temporal, are distinct, taken by the Cardinals Colonna and their and that the pope has plenary power only in immediate supporters. In their zeal against the spiritual realm. It is evident that they are Boniface VIII. they questioned the absolute not united in one person, from Christ’s refusal power of the Church in temporal concerns, of the office of king and from the law and placed the supreme spiritual authority in prohibiting the Levites holding worldly the college of cardinals, with the pope as its possessions. Canon law and Roman law head. recognized the independence of the civil Among the advanced writers of the age was power. Both estates are of God. At best the William Durante, d. 1331, an advocate of pope’s temporal authority extends to the Gallicanism. He was appointed bishop of patrimony of Peter. The empire is one among Mende before he had reached the canonical the powers, without authority over other age. He never came under the condemnation states. As for the king of France, he would of the Church. In a work composed at the expose himself to the penalty of death if he instance of Clement V. on general councils were to recognize the pope as overlord. and the reformation of Church abuses, De The same positions are taken in the tract, The modo generalis concilii celebrandi et Papal Power,—Quaestio de potestate papae. corruptelis in ecclesiis reformandis, he The author insists that temporal jurisdiction demanded a reformation of the Church in is incompatible with the pope’s office. He uses head and members, using for the first time the figure of the body to represent the this expression which was so often employed Church, giving it a new turn. Christ is the in a later age. He made the pope one of the head. The nerves and veins are officers in the order of bishops on all of whom was Church and state. They depend directly upon conferred equally the power to bind and to Christ, the head. The heart is the king. The loose. The bishops are not the pope’s pope is not even called the head. The soul is assistants, the view held by Innocent III., but not mentioned. The old application of the agents directly appointed by God with figure of the body and the soul, representing independent jurisdiction. The pope may not respectively the regnum and the sacerdotium, act out of harmony with the canons of the is set aside. The pope is a spiritual father, not early Church except with the approval of a the lord over Christendom. Moses was a general council. When new measures are temporal ruler and Aaron was priest. The contemplated, a general council should be functions and the functionaries were distinct. At best, the donation of Constantine had no

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 22 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course reference to France, for France was distinct favor of the pope’s omnipotence in temporal from the empire. The deposition of Childerich affairs and offers a refutation for each of by Pope Zacharias established no right, for all them. that Zacharias did was, as a wise counsellor, As for the pope’s place in the Church, the to give the barons advice. pope is the representative of the ecclesiastical A third tract, one of the most famous pieces of body, not its lord. The Church may call him to this literature, the Disputation between a account. If the Church were to elect Cleric and a Knight, was written to defend the representatives to act with the supreme sovereignty of the state and its right to levy pontiff, we would have the best of taxes upon Church property. The author governments. As things are, the cardinals are maintains that the king of France is in duty his advisers and may admonish him and, in bound to see that Church property is case he persists in his error, they may call to administered according to the intent for their aid the temporal arm. The pope may be which it was given. As he defends the Church deposed by an emperor, as was actually the against foreign foes, so he has the right to put case when three popes were deposed by the Church under tribute. Henry III. The final seat of ecclesiastical In the publicist, John of Paris, d. 1306, we authority is the general council. It may depose have one of the leading minds of the age. He a pope. Valid grounds of deposition are was a Dominican, and enjoyed great fame as a insanity, heresy, personal incompetence and preacher and master. On June 26, 1303, he abuse of the Church’s property. joined 132 other Parisian Dominicans in Following Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, signing a document calling for a general John derived the state from the family and not council, which the university had openly from murder and other acts of violence. It is a favored five days before. His views of the community organized for defence and bodily Lord’s Supper brought upon him the charge well-being. With other jurists, he regarded of heresy, and he was forbidden to give the empire as an antiquated institution and, if lectures at the university. He appealed to it continues to exist, it is on a par with the Clement V., but died before he could get a monarchies, not above them. Climate and hearing. geographical considerations make different John’s chief writing was the tract on the monarchies necessary, and they derive their Authority of the Pope and King,—De authority from God. Thus John and Dante, potestate regia et papali,—which almost while agreeing as to the independence of the breathes the atmosphere of modern times. state, differ as to the seat where secular power resides. Dante placed it in a universal John makes a clear distinction between the empire, John of Paris in separate monarchies. “body of the faithful,” which is the Church, and the “body of the clergy.” The Church has The boldest and most advanced of these its unity in Christ, who established the two publicists, Pierre Dubois, was a layman, estates, spiritual and temporal. They are the probably a Norman, and called himself a royal same in origin, but distinguished on earth. attorney. As a delegate to the national council The pope has the right to punish moral in Paris, April, 1302, he represented Philip’s offences, but only with spiritual punishments. views. He was living as late as 1321. In a The penalties of death, imprisonment, and number of tracts he supported the contention fines, he has no right to impose. Christ had no of the French monarch against Boniface VIII. worldly jurisdiction, and the pope should France is independent of the empire, and keep clear of “Herod’s old error.” Constantine absolutely sovereign in all secular matters. had no right to confer temporal power on The French king is the successor of Sylvester. John adduced 42 reasons urged in Charlemagne. The pope is the moral teacher

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 23 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course of mankind, “the light of the world,” but he that they might serve as female physicians has no jurisdiction in temporal affairs. It is his among women in the more occult disorders. function to care for souls, to stop wars, to A review of the controversial literature of the exercise oversight over the clergy, but his age of Philip the Fair shows the new paths jurisdiction extends no farther. along which men’s thoughts were moving. The pope and clergy are given to worldliness The papal apologists insisted upon traditional and self-indulgence. Boniface is a heretic. The interpretations of a limited number of texts, prelates squander the Church’s money in the perpetual validity of Constantine’s wars and litigations, prefer the atmosphere of donation, and the transfer of the empire. They princely courts, and neglect theology and the were forever quoting Innocent’s famous bull, care of souls. The avarice of the curia and the Per venerabilem. On the other hand, John of pope leads them to scandalous simony and Paris, and the publicists who sympathized nepotism. Constantine’s donation marked the with him, as also Dante, corrected and change to worldliness among the clergy. It widened the vision of the field of Scripture, was illegal, and the only title the pope can and brought into prominence the common show to temporal power over the patrimony rights of man. The resistance which the king of Peter is long tenure. The first step in the of France offered to the demands of Boniface direction of reforms would be for clergy and encouraged writers to speak without reserve. pope to renounce worldly possessions The pope’s spiritual primacy was left altogether. This remedy had been prescribed untouched. The attack was against his by Arnold of Brescia and Frederick II. temporal jurisdiction. The fiction of the two Dubois also criticized the rule and practice of swords was set aside. The state is as supreme celibacy. Few clergymen keep their vows. And in its sphere as the Church in its sphere, and yet they are retained, while ordination is derives its authority immediately from God. denied to married persons. This is in the face Constantine had no right to confer the of the fact that the Apostle permitted sovereignty of the West upon Sylvester, and marriage to all. The practice of the Eastern his gift constitutes no valid papal claim. Each church is to be preferred. The rule of single monarch is supreme in his own realm, and life is too exacting, especially for nuns. the theory of the overlordship of the emperor Durante had proposed the abrogation of the is abandoned as a thing out of date. rule, and Arnald of Villanova had emphasized The pope’s tenure of office was made subject the sacredness of the marriage tie, recalling to limitation. He may be deposed for heresy that it was upon a married man, Peter, that and incompetency. Some writers went so far Christ conferred the primacy. as to deny to him jurisdiction over Church Dubois showed the freshness of his mind by property. The advisory function of the suggestions of a practical nature. He cardinals was emphasized and the proposed the colonization of the Holy Land by independent authority of the bishops Christian people, and the marriage of affirmed. Above all, the authority residing in Christian women to Saracens of station as a the Church as a body of believers was means of converting them. As a measure for discussed, and its voice, as uttered through a securing the world’s conversion, he general council, pronounced to be superior to recommended to Clement the establishment the authority of the pope. The utterances of of schools for boys and girls in every John of Paris and Peter Dubois on the subject province, where instruction should be given of general councils led straight on to the in different languages. The girls were to be views propounded during the papal schism at taught Latin and the fundamentals of natural the close of the fourteenth century. Dubois science, and especially medicine and surgery, demanded that laymen as well as clerics

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 24 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course should have a voice in them. The rule of Thus began the so-called Babylonian clerical celibacy was attacked, and attention captivity, or Avignon exile, of the papacy, called to its widespread violation in practice. which lasted more than seventy years and Pope and clergy were invoked to devote included seven popes, all Frenchmen, themselves to the spiritual well-being of Clement V., 1305–1314; John XXII., 1316– mankind, and to foster peaceable measures 1334; Benedict XII., 1334–1342; Clement VI., for the world’s conversion. 1342–1352; Innocent VI., 1352–1362; Urban This freedom of utterance and changed way V., 1362–1370; Gregory XI., 1370–1378. This of thinking mark the beginning of one of the prolonged absence from Rome was a great great revolutions in the history of the shock to the papal system. Transplanted from Christian Church. To these publicists the its maternal soil, the papacy was cut loose modern world owes a debt of gratitude. from the hallowed and historical associations Principles which are now regarded as of thirteen centuries. It no longer spoke as axiomatic were new for the Christian public from the center of the Christian world. of their day. A generation later, Marsiglius of The way had been prepared for the Padua defined them again with clearness, and abandonment of the Eternal City and removal took a step still further in advance. to French territory. Innocent II. and other popes had found refuge in France. During the 6.6. The Transfer of the Papacy to Avignon last half of the thirteenth century the The successor of Boniface, Benedict XI., 1303– Apostolic See, in its struggle with the empire, 1304, a Dominican, was a mild-spirited and had leaned upon France for aid. To avoid worthy man, more bent on healing ruptures Frederick II., Innocent IV. had fled to Lyons, than on forcing his arbitrary will. Departing 1246. If Boniface VIII. represents a turning- from the policy of his predecessor, he point in the history of the papacy, the capitulated to the state and put an end to the Avignon residence shook the reverence of conflict with Philip the Fair. Sentences Christendom for it. It was in danger of launched by Boniface were recalled or becoming a French institution. modified, and the interdict pronounced by Not only were the popes all Frenchmen, but that pope upon Lyons was revoked. the large majority of the cardinals were of Palestrina was restored to the Colonna. Only French birth. Both were reduced to a station Sciarra Colonna and Nogaret were excepted little above that of court prelates subject to from the act of immediate clemency and the nod of the French sovereign. At the same ordered to appear at Rome. Benedict’s death, time, the popes continued to exercise their after a brief reign of eight months, was prerogatives over the other nations of ascribed to poison secreted in a dish of figs, of Western Christendom, and freely hurled which the pope partook freely. anathemas at the German emperor and laid The conclave met in Perugia, where Benedict the interdict upon Italian cities. The word died, and was torn by factions. After an might be passed around, “where the pope is, interval of nearly eleven months, the French there is Rome,” but the wonder is that the party won a complete triumph by the choice grave hurt done to his ecumenical character of Bertrand de Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, was not irreparable. who took the name of Clement V. At the time The morals of Avignon during the papal of his election, Bertrand was in France. He residence were notorious throughout Europe. never crossed the Alps. After holding his The papal household had all the appearance court at Bordeaux, Poictiers, and Toulouse, he of a worldly court, torn by envies and chose, in 1309, Avignon as his residence. troubled by schemes of all sorts. Some of the Avignon popes left a good name, but the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 25 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course general impression was bad—weak if not proportions, the poverty, and the dull vicious. The curia was notorious for its happenings of a provincial town, till in 1370 extravagance, venality, and sensuality. the population numbered less than 20,000. Nepotism, bribery, and simony were She had no commerce to stir her pulses like unblushingly practised. the young cities in Northern and Southern The financial operations of the papal family Germany and in Lombardy. Obscurity and became oppressive to an extent unknown melancholy settled upon her palaces and before. Indulgences, applied to all sorts of public places, broken only by the petty cases, were made a source of increasing attempts at civic displays, which were like the revenue. Alvarus Pelagius, a member of the acts of the circus ring compared with the papal household and a strenuous supporter of serious maneuvers of a military campaign. the papacy, in his De planctu ecclesiae, The old monuments were neglected or torn complained bitterly of the speculation and down. A papal legate sold the stones of the traffic in ecclesiastical places going on at the Coliseum to be burnt in lime-kilns, and her papal court. It swarmed with money- marbles were transported to other cities, so changers, and parties bent on money that it was said she was drawn upon more operations. Another contemporary, Petrarch, than Carrara. Her churches became roofless. who never uttered a word against the papacy Cattle ate grass up to the very altars of the as a divine institution, launched his satires Lateran and St. Peter’s. The movement of art against Avignon, which he called “the sink of was stopped which had begun with the every vice, the haunt of all iniquities, a third arrival of Giotto, who had come to Rome at Babylon, the Babylon of the West.” No the call of Boniface VIII. to adorn St. Peter’s. expression is too strong to carry his biting No product of architecture is handed down invectives. Avignon is the “fountain of from this period except the marble stairway afflictions, the refuge of wrath, the school of of the church of St. Maria, Ara Coeli, erected in errors, a temple of lies, the awful prison, hell 1348 with an inscription commemorating the on earth.” But the corruption of Avignon was deliverance from the plague, and the restored too glaring to make it necessary for him to Lateran church which was burnt, 1308. Ponds invent charges. This ill-fame gives Avignon a and débris interrupted the passage of the place at the side of the courts of Louis XIV. streets and filled the air with offensive and and Charles II. of England. deadly odors. At Clement V.’s death, Napoleon Orsini assured Philip that the Eternal City was During this papal expatriation, Italy fell into a on the verge of destruction and, in 1347, Cola deplorable condition. Rome, which had been di Rienzo thought it more fit to be called a den the queen of cities, the goal of pilgrims, the of robbers than the residence of civilized center towards which the pious affections of men. all Western Europe turned, the locality where royal and princely embassies had sought The Italian peninsula, at least in its northern ratification for ambitious plans— half, was a scene of political division and social anarchy. The country districts were Rome was now turned into an arena of wild infested with bands of brigands. The cities confusion and riot. Contending factions of were given to frequent and violent changes of nobles, the Colonna, Orsini, Gaetani, and government. High officials of the Church paid others, were in constant feud, and strove one the price of immunity from plunder and with the other for the mastery in municipal violence by exactions levied on other affairs and were often themselves set aside by personages of station. Such were some of the popular leaders whose low birth they immediate results of the exile of the papacy. despised. The source of her gains gone, the Italy was in danger of succumbing to the fate city withered away and was reduced to the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 26 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course of Hellas and being turned into a desolate Boniface had done in his conflict with Philip. waste. The sixth article, which was kept secret, was Avignon, which Clement chose as his supposed to be the destruction of the order of residence, is 460 miles southeast of Paris and the Templars. It is true that the authenticity lies south of Lyons. Its proximity to the port of these six articles has been disputed, but of Marseilles made it accessible to Italy. It was there can be no doubt that from the very purchased by Clement VI., 1348, from Naples outset of Clement’s pontificate, the French for 80, 000 gold florins, and remained papal king pressed their execution upon the pope’s territory until the French Revolution. As early attention. Clement, in poor position to resist, as 1229, the popes held territory in the confirmed what Benedict had done and went vicinity, the duchy of Venaissin, which fell to farther. He absolved the king; recalled, Feb. 1, them from the domain of Raymond of 1306, the offensive bulls Clericis laicos and Toulouse. On every side this free papal home Unam sanctam, so far as they implied was closely confined by French territory. anything offensive to France or any Clement was urged by Italian bishops to go to subjection on the part of the king to the papal Rome, and Italian writers gave as one reason chair, not customary before their issue, and for his refusal fear lest he should receive meet fully restored the cardinals of the Colonna punishment for his readiness to condemn family to the dignities of their office. Boniface VIII. The proceedings touching the character of Clement’s coronation was celebrated at Boniface VIII. and his right to a place among Lyons, Philip and his brother Charles of the popes dragged along for fully six years. Valois, the Duke of Bretagne and Philip had offered, among others, his brother, representatives of the king of England being Count Louis of Evreux, as a witness for the present. Philip and the duke walked at the charge that Boniface had died a heretic. There side of the pope’s palfrey. By the fall of an old was a division of sentiment among the wall during the procession, the duke, a cardinals. The Colonna were as hostile to the brother of the pope, and ten other persons memory of Boniface as they were zealous in lost their lives. The pope himself was thrown their writings for the memory of Celestine V. from his horse, his tiara rolled in the dust, and They pronounced it to be contrary to the a large carbuncle, which adorned it, was lost. divine ordinance for a pope to abdicate. His Scarcely ever was a papal ruler put in a more spiritual marriage with the Church cannot be compromising position than the new pontiff. dissolved. And as for there being two popes at His subjection to a sovereign who had defied the same time, God was himself not able to the papacy was a strange spectacle. He owed constitute such a monstrosity. On the other his tiara indirectly, if not immediately, to hand, writers like Augustinus Triumphus Philip the Fair. He was the man Philip wanted. defended Boniface and pronounced him a It was his task to appease the king’s anger martyr to the interests of the Church and against the memory of Boniface, and to meet worthy of canonization. In his zeal against his his brutal demands concerning the Knights old enemy Philip had called, probably as early Templars. These, with the Council of Vienne, as 1305, for the canonization of Celestine V. A which he called, were the chief historic second time, in 1307, Boniface’s concerns of his pontificate. condemnation was pressed upon Clement by the king in person. But the pope knew how to The terms on which the new pope received prolong the prosecution on all sorts of the tiara were imposed by Philip himself, and, pretexts. Philip represented himself as according to Villani, the price he made the concerned for the interests of religion, and Gascon pay included six promises. Five of Nogaret and the other conspirators insisted them concerned the total undoing of what that the assault at Avignon was a religious act,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 27 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course negotium fidei. Nogaret sent forth no less surrender to Philip unqualifiedly in the than twelve apologies defending himself for matter of the Knights of the Temple. his part in the assault. In 1310 the formal trial After long and wearisome proceedings, this began. Many witnesses appeared to testify order was formally legislated out of existence against Boniface,—laymen, priests and by Clement in 1312. Founded in 1119 to bishops. The accusations were that the pope protect pilgrims and to defend the Holy Land had declared all three religions false, against the Moslems, it had outlived its Mohammedanism, Judaism and Christianity, mission. Sapped of its energy by riches and pronounced the virgin birth a tale, denied indulgence, its once famous knights might transubstantiation and the existence of hell well have disbanded and no interest been the and heaven and that he had played games of worse for it. The story, however, of their chance. forcible suppression awakens universal Clement issued one bull after another sympathy and forms one of the most thrilling protesting the innocence of the offending and mysterious chapters of the age. Döllinger parties concerned in the violent measures has called it “a unique drama in history.” against Boniface. Philip and Nogaret were The destruction of the Templar order was declared innocent of all guilt and to have only relentlessly insisted upon by Philip the Fair, pure motives in preferring charges against and accomplished with the reluctant co- the dead pope. The bull, Rex gloriae, 1311, operation of Clement V. In vain did the king addressed to Philip, stated that the secular strive to hide the sordidness of his purpose kingdom was founded by God and that France under the thin mask of religious zeal. At in the new dispensation occupied about the Clement’s coronation, if not before, Philip same place as Israel, the elect people, brought charges against it. About the same occupied under the old dispensation. time, in the insurrection called forth by his Nogaret’s purpose in entering into the debasement of the coin, the king took refuge agreement which resulted in the affair at in the Templars’ building at Paris. In 1307 he Anagni was to save the Church from renewed the charges before the pope. destruction at the hands of Boniface, and the When Clement hesitated, he proceeded to plundering of the papal palace and church violence, and on the night of Oct. 13, 1307, he was done against the wishes of the French had all the members of the order in France chancellor. In several bulls Clement recalled arrested and thrown into prison, including all punishments, statements, suspensions and Jacques de Molay, the grand-master. declarations made against Philip and his Doellinger applies to this deed the strong kingdom, or supposed to have been made. language that, if he were asked to pick out And to fully placate the king, he ordered all from the whole history of the world the Boniface’s pronouncements of this character accursed day,—dies nefastus,—he would be effaced from the books of the Roman Church. able to name none other than Oct. 13, 1307. Thus in the most solemn papal form did Three days later, Philip announced he had Boniface’s successor undo all that Boniface taken this action as the defender of the faith had done. When the ecumenical Council of and called upon Christian princes to follow Vienne met, the case of Boniface was so his example. Little as the business was to notorious a matter that it had to be taken up. Clement’s taste, he was not man enough to set After a formal trial, in which the accused himself in opposition to the king, and he pontiff was defended by three cardinals, he gradually became complaisant. The was adjudged not guilty. To gain this point, machinery of the Inquisition was called into and to save his predecessor from formal use. The Dominicans, its chief agents, stood condemnation, it is probable Clement had to high in Philip’s favor, and one of their number

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 28 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course was his confessor. In 1308 the authorities of never formally adopted in that land, but later, the state assented to the king’s plans to bring at Clement’s demand, he complied. Papal the order to trial. The constitution of the inquisitors appeared. Synods in London and court was provided for by Clement, the York declared the charges of heresy so bishop of each diocese and two Franciscans serious that it would be impossible for the and two Dominicans being associated knights to clear themselves. English houses together. A commission invested with general were disbanded and the members distributed authority was to sit in Paris. among the monasteries to do penance. In In the summer of 1308 the pope ordered a Italy and Germany, the accused were, for the prosecution of the knights wherever they most part, declared innocent. In Spain and might be found. The charges set forth were Portugal, no evidence was forthcoming of heresy, spitting upon the cross, worshipping guilt and the synod of Tarragona, 1310, and an idol, Bafomet—the word for Mohammed in other synods favored their innocence. the Provençal dialect—and also the most The last act in these hostile proceedings was abominable offences against moral decency opened at the Council of Vienne, called for the such as sodomy and kissing the posterior special purpose of taking action upon the parts and the navel of fellow knights. The order. The large majority of the council were members were also accused of having in favor of giving it a new trial and a fair meetings with the devil who appeared in the chance to prove its innocence. But the king form of a black cat and of having carnal was relentless. He reminded Clement that the intercourse with female demons. The charges guilt of the knights had been sufficiently which the lawyers and Inquisitors got proven, and insisted that the order be together numbered 127 and these the pope abolished. He appeared in person at the sent through France and to other countries as council, attended by a great retinue. Clement the basis of the prosecution. was overawed, and by virtue of his apostolic Under the strain of prolonged torture, many power issued his decree abolishing the of the unfortunate men gave assent to these Templars, March 22, 1312. Clement’s reasons charges, and more particularly to the denial were that suspicions existed that the order of Christ and the spitting upon the cross. The held to heresies, that many of the Templars Templars seem to have had no friends in high had confessed to heresies and other offences, places bold enough to take their part. The that thereafter reputable persons would not king, the pope, the Dominican order, the enter the order, and that it was no longer University of Paris, the French episcopacy necessary for the defence of the Holy Land. were against them. Many confessions once Directions were given for the further made by the victims were afterwards recalled procedure. The guilty were to be put to death; at the stake. Many denied the charges the innocent to be supported out of the altogether. In Paris 36 died under torture, 54 revenues of the order. With this action the suffered there at one burning, May 10, 1310, famous order passed out of existence. and 8 days later 4 more. Hundreds of them The end of Jacques de Molay, the 22d and last perished in prison. Even the bitterest enemies grand-master of the order of Templars, was acknowledged that the Templars who were worthy of its proudest days. At the first trial put to death maintained their innocence to he confessed to the charges of denying Christ their dying breath. and spitting upon the cross, and was In accordance with Clement’s order, trials condemned, but afterwards recalled his were had in Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, confession. His case was reopened in 1314. Cyprus and England. In England, Edward II. at With Geoffrey de Charney, grand-preceptor of first refused to apply the torture, which was Normandy, and others, he was led in front of Notre Dame Cathedral, and sentenced to

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 29 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course perpetual imprisonment. Molay then stood had secured for a sister’s dowry had involved forth and declared that the charges against him in great financial straits. He appropriated the order were false, and that he had all the possessions of the Templars he could confessed to them under the strain of torture lay his hands upon. Clement V.’s subservience and instructions from the king. Charney said it is easy to explain. He was a creature of the the same. The commission promised to king. When the pope hesitated to proceed reconsider the case the next day. But the against the unfortunate order, the king beset king’s vengeance knew no bounds, and that him with the case of Boniface VIII. To save the night, March 11, 1314, the prisoners were memory of his predecessor, the pope burned. The story ran that while the flames surrendered the lives of the knights. Dante, in were doing their grewsome (sic) work, Molay representing the Templars as victims of the summoned pope and king to meet him at the king’s avarice, compares Philip to Pontius judgment bar within a year. The former died, Pilate. in a little more than a month, of a loathsome “I see the modern Pilate, whom avails disease, though penitent, as it was reported, No cruelty to sate and who, unbidden, for his treatment of the order, and the king, Into the Temple sets his greedy sails.” by accident, while engaged in the chase, six Purgatory, xx. 91. months later. The king was only 46 years old The house of the Templars in Paris was at the time of his death, and 14 years after, turned into a royal residence, from which the last of his direct descendants was in his Louis XVI., more than four centuries later, grave and the throne passed to the house of went forth to the scaffold. Valois. The Council of Vienne, the fifteenth in the list As for the possessions of the order, papal of the Ecumenical councils, met Oct. 16, 1311, decrees turned them over to the Knights of St. and after holding three sessions adjourned John, but Philip again intervened and laid six months later, May 6, 1812. Clement claim to 260,000 pounds as a reimbursement opened it with an address on Psalm 111:1, 2, for alleged losses to the Temple and the and designated three subjects for its expense of guarding the prisoners. In Spain, consideration, the case of the order of the they passed to the orders of San Iago di Templars, the relief of the Holy Land and Compostella and Calatrava. In Aragon, they Church reform. The documents bearing on were in part applied to a new order, Santa the council are defective. In addition to the Maria de Montesia, and in Portugal to the decisions concerning the Templars and Military Order of Jesus Christ, ordo militiae Boniface VIII., it condemned the Beguines and Jesu Christi. Repeated demands made by the Beghards and listened to charges made pope secured the transmission of a large part against the Franciscan, Peter John Olivi (d. of their possessions to the Knights of St. John. 1298). Olivi belonged to the Spiritual wing of In England, in 1323, parliament granted their the order. His books had been ordered burnt, lands to the Hospitallers, but the king 1274, by one Franciscan general, and a appropriated a considerable share to himself. second general of the order, Bonagratia, The Temple in London fell to the Earl of 1279, had appointed a commission which Pembroke, 1313. found thirty-four dangerous articles in his The explanation of Philip’s violent animosity writings. The council, without pronouncing and persistent persecution is his cupidity. He against Olivi, condemned three articles coveted the wealth of the Templars. Philip ascribed to him bearing on the relation of the was quite equal to a crime of this sort. He two parties in the Franciscan order, the robbed the bankers of Lombardy and the Spirituals and Conventuals. Jews of France, and debased the coin of his realm. A loan of 500,000 pounds which he

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 30 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

The council has a place in the history of trusted relatives to account for the moneys. biblical scholarship and university education The suit lasted from 1318–1322, and brought by its act ordering two chairs each, of to light a great amount of information Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee established in concerning Clement’s finances. Paris, Oxford, Bologna, and Salamanca. His fortune Clement disposed of by will, 1312, While the proceedings against Boniface and the total amount being 814,000 florins; the Templars were dragging on in their slow 300,000 were given to his nephew, the course in France, Clement was trying to make viscount of Lomagne and Auvillars, a man good his authority in Italy. Against Venice he otherwise known for his numerous hurled the most violent anathemas and illegitimate offspring. This sum was to be interdicts for venturing to lay hands on used for a crusade; 314,000 were bequeathed Ferrara, whose territory was claimed by the to other relatives and to servants. The Apostolic See. A crusade was preached remaining 200,000 were given to churches, against the sacrilegious city. She was defeated convents, and the poor. A loan of 160,000 in battle, and Ferrara was committed to the made to the king of France was never paid administration of Robert, king of Naples, as back. the pope’s vicar. Clement’s body was by his appointment All that he could well do, Clement did to buried at Uzeste. His treasure was plundered. strengthen the hold of France on the papacy. At the trial instituted by John XXII., it The first year of his pontificate he appointed appeared that Clement before his death had 9 French cardinals, and of the 24 persons set apart 70,000 florins to be divided in equal whom he honored with the purple, 23 were shares between his successor and the college Frenchmen. He granted to the insatiable of cardinals. The viscount of Lomagne was Philip a Church tithe for five years. Next to the put into confinement by John, and turned fulfilment of his obligations to this monarch, over 300,000 florins, one-half going to the Clement made it his chief business to levy cardinals and one-half to the pope. A few tributes upon ecclesiastics of all grades and months after Clement’s death, the count made upon vacant Church livings. He was prodigal loans to the king of France of 110,000 florins with offices to his relatives. This was a and to the king of England of 60,000. leading feature of his pontificate. Five of his Clement’s relatives showed their appreciation kin were made cardinals, three being still in of his liberality by erecting to his memory an their youth. His brother he made rector of elaborate sarcophagus at Uzeste, which cost Rome, and other members of his family 50,000 gold florins. The theory is that the received Ancona, Ferrara, the duchy of pope administers moneys coming to him by Spoleto, and the duchy of Venaissin, and other virtue of his papal office for the interest of the territories within the pope’s gift. The Church at large. Clement spoke of the administration and disposition of his treasure treasure in his coffers as his own, which he occupied a large part of Clement’s time and might dispose of as he chose. have offered an interesting subject to the pen Clement’s private life was open to the grave of the modern Jesuit scholar, Ehrle. The papal suspicion of unlawful intimacy with the treasure left by Clement’s predecessor, after beautiful Countess Brunissenda of Foix. Of all being removed from Perugia to France, was the popes of the fourteenth century, he taken from place to place and castle to castle, showed the least independence. An apologist packed in coffers laden on the backs of mules. of Boniface VIII., writing in 1308, recorded After Clement’s death, the vast sums he had this judgment: “The Lord permitted Clement received and accumulated suddenly to be elected, who was more concerned about disappeared. Clement’s successor, John XXII., temporal things and in enriching his relatives instituted a suit against Clement’s most

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 31 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course than was Boniface, in order that by contrast The four notable features of John’s pontificate Boniface might seem worthy of praise where are his quarrel with the German emperor, he would otherwise have been condemned, Lewis the Bavarian, his condemnation of the just as the bitter is not known except by the rigid party of the Franciscans, his own sweet, or cold except by heat, or the good doctrinal heresy, and his cupidity for gold. except by evil.” Villani, who assailed both The struggle with Lewis the Bavarian was a popes, characterized Clement “as licentious, little after play compared with the imposing greedy of money, a simoniac, who sold in his conflicts between the Hohenstaufen and the court every benefice for gold.” notable popes of preceding centuries. Europe By a single service did this pope seem to place looked on with slight interest at the long- the Church in debt to his pontificate. The protracted dispute, which was more adapted book of decretals, known as the Clementines, to show the petulance and weakness of both and issued in part by him, was completed by emperor and pope than to settle permanently his successor, John XXII. any great principle. At Henry VII.’s death, 1313, five of the electors gave their votes for 6.7. The Pontificate of John XXII, 1316– Lewis of the house of Wittelsbach, and two 1334 for Frederick of Hapsburg. Both appealed to Clement died April 20, 1314. The cardinals the new pope, about to be elected. Frederick met at Carpentras and then at Lyons, and was crowned by the archbishop of Treves at after an interregnum of twenty seven months Bonn, and Lewis by the archbishop of Mainz elected John XXII., 1316–1334, to the papal at Aachen. In 1317 John declared that the throne. He was then seventy-two, and pope was the lawful vicar of the empire so cardinal-bishop of Porto. Dante had written long as the throne was vacant, and denied to the conclave begging that it elect an Italian Lewis recognition as king of the Romans on pope, but the French influence was the ground of his having neglected to submit irresistible. his election to him. Said to be the son of a cobbler of Cahors, The battle at Muehldorf, 1322, left Frederick a short of stature, with a squeaking voice, prisoner in his rival’s hands. This turn of industrious and pedantic, John was, upon the affairs forced John to take more decisive whole, the most conspicuous figure among action, and in 1323 was issued against Lewis the popes of the fourteenth century, though the first of a wearisome and repetitious series not the most able or worthy one. He was a of complaints and punishments from man of restless disposition, and kept the Avignon. The pope threatened him with the papal court in constant commotion. The ban, claiming authority to approve or set Vatican Archives preserve 59 volumes of his aside an emperor’s election. A year later he bulls and other writings. He had been a tutor excommunicated Lewis and all his in the house of Anjou, and carried the supporters. preceptorial method into his papal In answer to this first complaint of 1323, utterances. It was his ambition to be a Lewis made a formal declaration at theologian as well as pope. He solemnly Nuremberg in the presence of a notary and promised the Italian faction in the curia never other witnesses that he regarded the empire to mount an ass except to start on the road to as independent of the pope, charged John Rome. But he never left Avignon. His devotion with heresy, and appealed to a general to France was shown at the very beginning of council. The charge of heresy was based on his reign in the appointment of eight the pope’s treatment of the Spiritual party cardinals, of whom seven were Frenchmen. among the Franciscans. Condemned by John, prominent Spirituals, Michael of Cesena,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 32 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

Occam and Bonagratia, espoused Lewis’ and abstemiousness in dress and at the table cause, took refuge at his court, and defended which the day before he had advocated. him with their pens. The political conflict was To these acts of violence John replied by thus complicated by a recondite ecclesiastical pronouncing Lewis a heretic and appointing a problem. In 1324 Lewis issued a second crusade against him, with the promise of appeal, written in the chapel of the Teutonic indulgence to all taking part in it. Fickle Rome Order in Sachsenhausen, which again soon grew weary of her lay-crowned renewed the demand for a general council emperor, who had been so unwise as to and repeated the charge of heresy against the impose an extraordinary tribute of 10,000 pope. florins each upon the people, the clergy, and The next year, 1325, Lewis suffered a severe the Jews of the city. He retired to the North, defeat from Leopold of Austria, who had Nicolas following him with his retinue of entered into a compact to put Charles IV. of cardinals. At Pisa, the emperor being present, France on the German throne. He went so far the anti-pope excommunicated John and as to express his readiness, in the compact of summoned a general council to Milan. John Ulm, 1326, to surrender the German crown to was again burnt in effigy, at the cathedral, and Frederick, provided he himself was confirmed condemned to death for heresy. In 1330 in his right to Italy and the imperial dignity. Lewis withdrew from Italy altogether, while At this juncture Leopold died. Nicolas, with a cord around his neck, By papal appointment Robert of Naples was submitted to John. He died in Avignon three vicar of Rome. But Lewis had no idea of years later. In 1334, John issued a bull which, surrendering his claims to Italy, and, now that according to Karl Mueller, was the rudest act he was once again free by Leopold’s death, he of violence done up to that time to the marched across the Alps and was crowned, German emperor by a pope. This fulmination January 1327, emperor in front of St. Peter’s. separated Italy from the crown and Sciarra Colonna, as the representative of the kingdom—imperium et regnum—of Germany people, placed the crown on his head, and two and forbade their being reunited in one body. bishops administered unction. Villani The reason given for this drastic measure was expresses indignation at an imperial the territorial separation of the two coronation conducted without the pope’s provinces. Thus was accomplished by a consent as a thing unheard of. Lewis was the distinct announcement what the diplomacy of first medieval emperor crowned by the Innocent III. was the first to make a part of people. A formal trial was instituted, and the papal policy, and which figured so “James of Cahors, who calls himself John prominently in the struggle between Gregory XXII.” was denounced as anti-christ and IX. and Frederick II. deposed from the papal throne and his effigy With his constituency completely lost in Italy, carried through the streets and burnt. John of and with only an uncertain support in Corbara, belonging to the Spiritual wing of Germany, Lewis now made overtures for the Franciscans, was elected to the throne peace. But the pope was not ready for just declared vacant, and took the name of anything less than a full renunciation of the Nicolas V. He was the first anti-pope since the imperial power. John died 1334, but the days of Barbarossa. Lewis himself placed the struggle was continued through the crown upon the pontiff’s head, and the bishop pontificate of his successor, Benedict XII. of Venice performed the ceremony of unction. Philip VI. of France set himself against Nicolas surrounded himself with a college of Benedict’s measures for reconciliation with seven cardinals, and was accused of having Lewis, and in 1337 the emperor made an forthwith renounced the principles of poverty alliance with England against France. Princes of Germany, making the rights of the empire

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 33 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course their own, adopted the famous constitution of parties, the Spirituals, or Observants, and the Rense,—a locality near Mainz, which was Conventuals. The last testament of St. Francis, confirmed at the Diet of Frankfurt, 1338. It pleading for the practice of absolute poverty, repudiated the pope’s extravagant temporal and suppressed in Bonaventura’s Life of the claims, and declared that the election of an saint, 1263, was not fully recognized in the emperor by the electors was final, and did not bull of Nicolas III., 1279, which granted the require papal approval. This was the first Franciscans the right to use property as representative German assembly to assert the tenants, while forbidding them to hold it in independence of the empire. fee simple. With this decision the strict party, The interdict was hanging over the German the Spirituals, were not satisfied, and the assembly when Benedict died, 1342. The struggle went on. Coelestine V. attempted to battle had gone against Lewis, and his bring peace by merging the Spiritual wing supporters were well-nigh all gone from him. with the order of Hermits he had founded, but A submission even more humiliating than the measure was without success. that of Henry IV. was the only thing left. He Under Boniface VIII. matters went hard with sought the favor of Clement VI., but in vain. In the Spirituals. This pope deposed the general, a bull of April 12, 1343, Clement enumerated Raymond Gaufredi, putting in his place John the emperor’s many crimes, and anew of Murro, who belonged to the laxer wing. ordered him to renounce the imperial dignity. Peter John Olivi (d. 1298), whose writings Lewis wrote, yielding submission, but the were widely circulated, had declared himself authenticity of the document was questioned in favor of Nicolas’ bull, with the at Avignon, probably with the set purpose of interpretation that the use of property and increasing the emperor’s humiliation. Harder goods was to be the “use of necessity,”—usus conditions were laid down. They were pauper,—as opposed to the more liberal use rejected by the diet at Frankfurt, 1344. But advocated by the Conventuals and called usus Germany was weary, and listened without moderatus. Olivi’s personal fortunes were revulsion to a final bull against Lewis, 1346, typical of the fortunes of the Spiritual branch. and a summons to the electors to proceed to a After his death, the attack made against his new election. The electors, John of Bohemia memory was, if possible, more determined, among them, chose Charles IV., John’s son. and culminated in the charges preferred at The Bohemian king was the blind warrior Vienne. Murro adopted violent measures, who met his death on the battlefield of Crécy burning Olivi’s writings, and casting his the same year. Before his election, Charles sympathizers into prison. Other prominent had visited Avignon, and promised full Spirituals fled. Angelo Clareno found refuge submission to the pope’s demands. His for a time in Greece, returning to Rome, 1305, continued complacency during his reign under the protection of the Colonna. justified the pope’s choice. The struggle was The case was formally taken up by Clement ended with Lewis’ death a year later, 1347, V., who called a commission to Avignon to while he was engaged near Munich in a bear- devise measures to heal the division, and hunt. It was the last conflict of the empire and gave the Spirituals temporary relief from papacy along the old lines laid down by those persecution. The proceedings were ecclesiastical warriors, Hildebrand and protracted till the meeting of the council in Innocent III. and Gregory IX. Vienne, when the Conventuals brought up the To return to John XXII., he became a case in the form of an arraignment of Olivi, prominent figure in the controversy within who had come to be regarded almost as a the Franciscan order over the tenure of saint. Among the charges were that he property, a controversy which had been going pronounced the usus pauper to be of the on from the earliest period between the two essence of the Minorite rule, that Christ was

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 34 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course still living at the time the lance was thrust complete poverty. This dispute threatened to into his side, and that the rational soul has rend the wing of the Conventuals itself. not the form of a body. Olivi’s memory was Michael of Cesena, Occam, and others, took defended by Ubertino da Casale, and the the position that Christ and his Apostles not council passed no sentence upon his person. only held no property as individuals, but held In the bull Exivi de paradiso, issued 1313, and none in common. John, opposing this view, famous in the history of the Franciscan order, gave as arguments the gifts of the Magi, that Clement seemed to take the side of the Christ possessed clothes and bought food, the Spirituals. It forbade the order or any of its purse of Judas, and Paul’s labor for a living. In members to accept bequests, possess the bull Cum inter nonnullos, 1323, and other vineyards, sell products from their gardens, bulls, John declared it heresy to hold that build fine churches, or go to law. It permitted Christ and the Apostles held no possessions. only “the use of necessity,” usus arctus or Those who resisted this interpretation were pauper, and nothing beyond. The Minorites pronounced, 1324, rebels and heretics. John were to wear no shoes, ride only in cases of went farther, and gave back to the order the necessity, fast from Nov. 1 until Christmas, as right of possessing goods in fee simple, a right well as every Friday, and possess a single which Innocent IV. had denied, and he mantle with a hood and one without a hood. declared that in things which disappear in the Clement ordered the new general, Alexander using, such as eatables, no distinction can be of Alessandra, to turn over to Olivi’s followers made between their use and their possession. the convents of Narbonne, Carcassonne and In 1326 John pronounced Olivi’s commentary Béziers, but also ordered the Inquisition to on the Apocalypse heretical. The three punish the Spirituals who refused Spiritual leaders, Cesena, Occam, and submission. Bonagratia were seized and held in prison until 1328, when they escaped and fled to In spite of the papal decree, the controversy Lewis the Bavarian at Pisa. It was at this time was still being carried on within the order that Occam was said to have used to the with great heat, when John XXII. came to the emperor the famous words, “Do thou defend throne. In the decretal Quorumdam exegit, me with the sword and I will defend thee with and in the bull Sancta romana et universalis the pen”. They were deposed from their ecclesia, Dec. 30, 1317, John took a positive offices and included in the ban fulminated position against the Spirituals. A few weeks against the anti-pope, Peter of Corbara. Later, later, he condemned a formal list of their Cesena submitted to the pope, as Occam is errors and abolished all the convents under also said to have done shortly before his Spiritual management. From this time on death. Cesena died at Munich, 1342 He dates the application of the name Fraticelli to committed the seal of the order to Occam. On the Spirituals. They refused to submit, and his death-bed he is said to have cried out: “My took the position that even a pope had no God, what have I done? I have appealed right to modify the Rule of St. Francis. Michael against him who is the highest on the earth. of Cesena, the general of the order, defended But look, O Father, at the spirit of truth that is them. Sixty-four of their number were in me which has not erred through the lust of summoned to Avignon. Twenty-five refused the flesh but from great zeal for the seraphic to yield, and passed into the hands of the order and out of love for poverty.” Bonagratia Inquisition. Four were burnt as martyrs at also died in Munich. Marseilles, May 7, 1318. Others fled to Sicily. Later in the fourteenth century the Regular The chief interest of the controversy was now Observance grew again to considerable shifted to the strictly theological question proportions, and in the beginning of the whether Christ and his Apostles observed fifteenth century its fame was revived by the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 35 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course flaming preachers Bernardino of Siena and They sat for five days, in December, 1333. John of Capistrano. The peace of the John then made a public announcement, Franciscan order continued to be the concern which was communicated to the king and of pope after pope until, in 1517, Leo X. queen of France, that he had not intended to terminated the struggle of three centuries by say anything in conflict with the Fathers and formally recognizing two distinct societies the orthodox Church and, if he had done so, within the Franciscan body. The moderate he retracted his utterances. wing was placed under the Master-General of The question was authoritatively settled by the Conventual Minorite Brothers, and was Benedict XII. in the bull Benedictus deus, confirmed in the right to hold property. The 1336, which declared that the blessed dead— strict or Observant wing was placed under a saints, the Apostles, virgins, martyrs, Minister-General of the Whole Order of St. confessors who need no purgatorial Francis. The latter takes precedence in cleansing—are, after death and before the processions and at other great functions, and resurrection of their bodies at the general holds his office for six years. judgment, with Christ and the angels, and that If the Spiritual Franciscans had been capable they behold the divine essence with naked of taking secret delight in an adversary’s vision. Benedict declared that John died while misfortunes, they would have had occasion he was preparing a decision. for it in the widely spread charge that John The financial policy of John XXII. and his was a heretic. At any rate, he came as near successors merits a chapter by itself. Here being a heretic as a pope can be. His heresy reference may be made to John’s private concerned the nature of the beatific vision fortune. He has had the questionable fame of after death. In a sermon on All Souls’, 1331, not only having amassed a larger sum than he announced that the blessed dead do not any of his predecessors, but of having died see God until the general resurrection. In at possessed of fabulous wealth. Gregorovius least two more sermons he repeated this calls him the Midas of Avignon. According to utterance. John, who was much given to Villani, he left behind him 18,000,000 gold theologizing, Occam declared to be wholly florins and 7,000,000 florins’ worth of jewels ignorant in theology. This Schoolman, Cesena, and ornaments, in all 25,000,000 florins, or and others pronounced the view heretical. $60,000,000 of our present coinage. This John imprisoned an English Dominican who chronicler concludes with the remark that the preached against him, and so certain was he words were no longer remembered which the of his case that he sent the Franciscan Good Man in the Gospels spake to his general, Gerardus Odonis, to Paris to get the disciples, “Lay up for yourselves treasure in opinion of the university. heaven.” Recent investigations seem to cast The King, Philip VI., took a warm interest in suspicion upon this long-held view as an the subject, opposed the pope, and called a exaggeration. John’s hoard may have council of theologians at Vincennes to give its amounted to not more than 750,000 florins, opinion. It decided that ever since the Lord or $2,000,000 of our money. If this be a safe descended into hades and released souls from estimate, it is still true that John was a shrewd that abode, the righteous have at death financier and perhaps the richest man in immediately entered upon the vision of the Europe. divine essence of the Trinity. Among the When John died he was ninety years old. supporters of this decision was Nicolas of Lyra. When official announcement of the 6.8. The Papal Office Assailed decision reached the pope, he summoned a To the pontificate of John XXII. belongs a council at Avignon and set before it passages second group of literary assailants of the from the Fathers for and against his view.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 36 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course papacy. Going beyond Dante and John of emperor has full power by virtue of his Paris, they attacked the pope’s spiritual election, and does not depend for it upon functions. Their assaults were called forth by unction or coronation by the pope or any the conflict with Lewis the Bavarian and the earthly confirmation of any kind. controversy with the Franciscan Spirituals. More distinct and advanced were the Lewis’ court became a veritable nest of utterances of Marsiglius of Padua. His antipapal agitation and the headquarters of writings abound in incisive thrusts against pamphleteering. Marsiglius of Padua was the the prevailing ecclesiastical system, and lay cleverest and boldest of these writers, down the principles of a new order. In the Occam—a Schoolman rather than a practical preparation of his chief work, the Defence of thinker—the most copious. Michael of Cesena the Faith,—Defensor pacis,—he had the help and Bonagratia also made contributions to of John of Jandun. Both writers were clerics, this literature. but neither of them monks. Born about 1270 Occam sets forth his views in two works, The in Padua, Marsiglius devoted himself to the Dialogue and the Eight Questions. The former study of medicine, and in 1312 was rector of is ponderous in thought and a monster in the University of Paris. In 1325 or 1326 he size. It is difficult, if at times possible, to betook himself to the court of Lewis the detect the author’s views in the mass of Bavarian. The reasons are left to surmise. He cumbersome disputation. These views seem acted as the emperor’s physician. In 1328 he to be as follows: The papacy is not an accompanied the emperor to Rome, and institution which is essential to the being of showed full sympathy with the measures the Church. Conditions arise to make it taken to establish the emperor’s authority. He necessary to establish national churches. The joined in the ceremonies of the emperor’s pope is not infallible. Even a legitimate pope coronation, the deposition of John XXII. and may hold to heresy. So it was with Peter, who the elevation of the anti-pope, Peter of was judaizing, and had to be rebuked by Paul, Corbara. The pope had already denounced Liberius, who was an Arian, and Leo, who was Marsiglius and John of Jandun as “sons of arraigned for false doctrine by Hilary of perdition, the sons of Belial, those pestiferous Poictiers. Sylvester II. made a compact with individuals, beasts from the abyss,” and the devil. One or the other, Nicolas III. or John summoned the Romans to make them XXII., was a heretic, for the one contradicted prisoners. Marsiglius was made vicar of Rome the other. A general council may err just as by the emperor, and remained true to the popes have erred. So did the second Council principles stated in his tract, even when the of Lyons and the Council of Vienne, which emperor became a suppliant to the Avignon condemned the true Minorites. The pope may court. Lewis even went so far as to express to be pronounced a heretic by a council or, if a John XXII. his readiness to withdraw his council fails in its duty, the cardinals may protection from Marsiglius and the leaders of pronounce the decision. In case the cardinals the Spirituals. Later, when his position was fail, the right to do so belongs to the temporal more hopeful, he changed his attitude and prince. Christ did not commit the faith to the gave them his protection at Munich. But pope and the hierarchy, but to the Church, again, in his letter submitting himself to and somewhere within the Church the truth Clement VI., 1343, the emperor denied is always held and preserved. Temporal holding the errors charged against Marsiglius power did not originally belong to the pope. and John, and declared his object in retaining This is proved by Constantine’s donation, for them at his court had been to lead them back what Constantine gave, he gave for the first to the Church. The Paduan died before 1343. time. Supreme power in temporal and The personal fortunes of Marsiglius are of spiritual things is not in a single hand. The small historical concern compared with his

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 37 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course book, which he dedicated to the emperor. The teach and to warn. In all matters of civil volume, which was written in two months, misdemeanor they are responsible to the civil was as audacious as any of the earlier officer as other men are. They should follow writings of Luther. For originality and their Master by self-denial. As St. Bernard said, boldness of statement the Middle Ages has the pope needs no wealth or outward display to be a true successor of Peter. nothing superior to offer. To it may be The function of binding and loosing is a compared in modern times Janus’ attack on declarative, not a judicial, function. To God the doctrine of papal infallibility at the time of alone belongs the power to forgive sins and to the Vatican Council. Its Scriptural radicalism punish. No bishop or priest has a right to was in itself a literary sensation. excommunicate or interdict individual In condemning the work, John XXII., 1327, freedom without the consent of the people or pronounced as contrary “to apostolic truth its representative, the civil legislator. The and all law” its statements that Christ paid the power to inflict punishments inheres in the congregation “of the faithful”—fidelium. Christ stater to the Roman government as a matter said, “if thy brother offend against thee, tell it of obligation, that Christ did not appoint a to the Church.” He did not say, tell it to the vicar, that an emperor has the right to depose priest. Heresy may be detected as heresy by a pope, and that the orders of the hierarchy the priest, but punishment for heresy belongs are not of primitive origin. Marsiglius had not to the civil official and is determined upon the spared epithets in dealing with John, whom basis of the injury likely to be done by the he called “the great dragon, the old serpent.” offence to society. According to the teaching of Clement VI. found no less than 240 heretical the Scriptures, no one can be compelled by clauses in the book, and declared that he had temporal punishment and death to observe the never read a worse heretic than Marsiglius. precepts of the divine law. The papal condemnations were reproduced General councils are the supreme representatives of the Christian body, but even by the University of Paris, which singled out councils may err. In them laymen should sit as for reprobation the statements that Peter is well as clerics. Councils alone have the right to not the head of the Church, that the pope may canonize saints. be deposed, and that he has no right to inflict As for the pope, he is the head of the Church, punishments without the emperor’s consent. not by divine appointment, but only as he is The Defensor pacis was a manifesto against recognized by the state. The claim he makes to the spiritual as well as the temporal fullness of power, plenitudo potestatis, assumptions of the papacy and against the contradicts the true nature of the Church. To Peter was committed no greater authority than whole hierarchical organization of the was committed to the other Apostles. Peter can Church. Its title is shrewdly chosen in view of be called the Prince of the Apostles only on the the strife between cities and states going on ground that he was older than the rest or more at the time the book was written, and due, as steadfast than they. He was the bishop of it claimed, to papal ambition and interference. Antioch, not the founder of the Roman The peace of the Christian world would never bishopric. Nor is his presence in Rome be established so long as the pope’s false susceptible of proof. The pre-eminence of the claims were accepted. The main positions are bishop of Rome depends upon the location of the following:— his see at the capital of the empire. As for sacerdotal power, the pope has no more of it The state, which was developed out of the than any other cleric, as Peter-had no more of family, exists that men may live well and it than the other Apostles. peaceably. The people themselves are the The grades of the hierarchy are of human source of authority, and confer the right to origin. Bishops and priests were originally exercise it upon the ruler whom they select. equal. Bishops derive their authority The functions of the priesthood are spiritual immediately from Christ. and educational. Clerics are called upon to

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 38 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

False is the pope’s claim to jurisdiction over If we overlook his doctrine of the supremacy princes and nations, a claim which was the of the state over the Church, the Paduan’s fruitful source of national strife and wars, views correspond closely with those held in especially in Italy. If necessary, the emperor Protestant Christendom to-day. Christ, he may depose a pope. This is proved by the said, excluded his Apostles, disciples, and judgment passed by Pilate upon Christ. The bishops or presbyters from all earthly state may, for proper reasons, limit the dominion, both by his example and his words. number of clerics. The validity of The abiding principles of the Defensor are the Constantine’s donation Marsiglius rejected, as final authority of the Scriptures, the parity of Dante and John of Paris had done before, but the priesthood and its obligation to civil law, he did not surmise that the Isidorian the human origin of the papacy, the decretals were an unblushing forgery, a exclusively spiritual nature of priestly discovery left for Laurentius Valla to make a functions, and the body of Christian people in hundred years later. the state or Church as the ultimate source of As for the Scriptures, Marsiglius declares authority on earth. them to be the ultimate source of authority. Marsiglius has been called by Catholic They do not derive that authority from the historians the forerunner of Luther and Church. The Church gets its authority from Calvin. He has also been called by one of them them. In cases of disputed interpretation, it is the “exciting genius of modern revolution.” for a general council to settle what the true Both of these statements are not without meaning of Scripture is. Obedience to papal truth. His programme was not a scheme of decretals is not a condition of salvation. If that reform. It was a proclamation of complete were so, how is it that Clement V. could make change such as the sixteenth century the bull Unam sanctam inoperative for France witnessed. A note in a Turin manuscript and its king? Did not that bull declare that represents Gerson as saying that the book is submission to the pope is for every creature a wonderfully well grounded and that the condition of salvation! Can a pope set aside a author was most expert in Aristotle and also condition of salvation? The case of Liberius in theology, and went to the roots of things. proves that popes may be heretics. As for the The tractarian of Padua and Thomas Aquinas qualifications of bishops, archbishops, and were only 50 years apart. But the difference patriarchs, not one in ten of them is a doctor between the searching epigrams of the one of theology. Many of the lower clergy are not and the slow, orderly argument of the other is even acquainted with grammar. Cardinals and as wide as the East is from the West, the popes are chosen not from the ranks of directness of modern thought from the theologians, but lawyers, causidici. cumbersome method of medieval Youngsters are made cardinals who love scholasticism. It never occurred to Thomas pleasure and are ignorant in studies. Aquinas to think out beyond the narrow Marsiglius quotes repeatedly such passages enclosure of Scripture interpretation built up as “My kingdom is not of this world,” John by other Schoolmen and medieval popes. He 18:36, and “Render unto Caesar the things buttressed up the regime he found realized which are Caesar’s and to God the things before him. He used the old which are God’s,” Matt. 22:21. These passages misinterpretations of Scripture and produced and others, such as John 6:15, 19:11, Luke no new idea on government. Marsiglius, 12:14, Matt. 17:27, Rom. 13, he opposes to independent of the despotism of ecclesiastical texts which were falsely interpreted to the dogma, went back to the free and elastic advantage of the hierarchy, such as Matt. principles of the Apostolic Church 16:19, Luke 22:38, John 21:15–17. government. He broke the moulds in which the ecclesiastical thinking of centuries had

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 39 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course been cast, and departed from Augustine in The first dedicated his leading work to John claiming for heretics a rational and humane XXII., and the second wrote at the pope’s treatment. The time may yet come when the command. The modern reader will find in Italian people will follow him as the herald of these tracts the crassest exposition of the a still better order than that which they have, extreme claims of the papacy, satisfying to the and set aside the sacerdotal theory of the most enthusiastic ultramontane, but calling Christian ministry as an invention of man. for apology from sober Catholic historians. Germany furnished a strong advocate of the Triumphus, an Italian, born in Ancona, 1243, independent rights of the emperor, in Lupold made archbishop of Nazareth and died at of Bebenburg, who died in 1363. He remained Naples, 1328, was a zealous advocate of dean of Wuerzburg until he was made bishop Boniface VIII. His leading treatise, The Power of Bamberg in 1353. But he did not attack the of the Church,—Summa de potestate spiritual jurisdiction of the Apostolic See. ecclesiastica,—vindicates John XXII. for his Lupold’s chief work was The Rights of the decision on the question of evangelical Kingdom and Empire—de juribus regni et poverty and for his opposition to the imperii,—written after the declarations of emperor’s dominion in Italy. The pope has Rense. It has been called the oldest attempt at unrestricted power on the earth. It is so vast a theory of the rights of the German state. that even he himself cannot know fully what Lupold appeals to the events of history. he is able to do. His judgment is the judgment In defining the rights of the empire, this of God. Their tribunals are one. His power of author asserts that an election is granting indulgences is so great that, if he so consummated by the majority of the electors wished, he could empty purgatory of its and that the emperor does not stand in need denizens provided that conditions were of confirmation by the pope. He holds his complied with. authority independently from God. In spiritual matters he may err, because he Charlemagne exercised imperial functions remains a man, and when he holds to heresy, before he was anointed and crowned by Leo. he ceases to be pope. Council cannot depose The oath the emperor takes to the pope is not him nor any other human tribunal, for the the oath of fealty such as a vassal renders, but pope is above all and can be judged by none. a promise to protect him and the Church. The But, being a heretic, he ceases, ipso facto, to pope has no authority to depose the emperor. be pope, and the condition then is as it would His only prerogative is to announce that he is be after one pope is dead and his successor worthy of deposition. The right to depose not yet elected. belongs to the electors. As for Constantine’s The pope himself may choose an emperor, if donation, it is plain Constantine did not he so please, and may withdraw the right of confer the rule of the West upon the bishop of election from the electors or depose them Rome, for Constantine divided both the West from office. As vicar of God, he is above all and the East among his sons. Later, kings and princes. Theodosius and other emperors exercised The Spanish Franciscan, Alvarus Pelagius, dominion in Rome. The notice of was not always as extravagant as his Constantine’s alleged gift to Sylvester has Augustinian contemporary. He was professor come through the records of Sylvester and of law at Perugia. He fled from Rome at the has the appearance of being apocryphal. approach of Lewis the Bavarian, 1328, was The papal assailants did not have the field all then appointed papal penitentiary at Avignon, to themselves. The papacy also had vigorous and later bishop of the Portuguese diocese of literary champions. Chief among them were Silves. His Lament over the Church,—de Augustinus Triumphus and Alvarus Pelagius. planctu ecclesiae,—while exalting the pope to

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 40 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course the skies, bewails the low spiritual estate into applauded, and Marsiglius, the exponent of which the clergy and the Church had fallen. modern liberty and of the historical sense of Christendom, he argues, which is but one Scripture, continues to be treated as a heretic. kingdom, can have but one head, the pope. Whoever does not accept him as the head 6.9. The Financial Policy of the Avignon does not accept Christ. And whosoever, with Popes pure and believing eye, sees the pope, sees The most notable feature of the Avignon Christ himself. Without communion with the period of the papacy, next to its subservience pope there is no salvation. He wields both to France, was the development of the papal swords as Christ did, and in him the passage financial system and the unscrupulous traffic of Jer. 1:10 is fulfilled, “I have this day set thee which it plied in spiritual benefits and over the nations and over the kingdoms to ecclesiastical offices. The theory was put into pluck up and to break down, to destroy and to practice that every spiritual favor has its price overthrow, to build and to plant.” in money. It was John XXII.’s achievement to Unbelievers, also, Alvarus asserts to be legally reduce the taxation of Christendom to a finely under the pope’s jurisdiction, though they organized system. may not be so in fact, and the pope may The papal court had a proper claim for proceed against them as God did against the financial support on all parts of the Latin Sodomites. Idolaters, Jews, and Saracens are Church, for it ministered to all. This just claim alike amenable to the pope’s authority and gave way to a practice which made it seem as subject to his punishments. He rules, orders, if Christendom existed to sustain the papal disposes and judges all things as he pleases. establishment in a state of luxury and ease. His will is highest wisdom, and what he Avignon took on the aspect of an exchange pleases to do has the force of law. Wherever whose chief business was getting money, a the supreme pontiff is, there is the Roman vast bureau where privileges, labelled as of Church, and he cannot be compelled to heavenly efficacy, were sold for gold. Its remain in Rome. He is the source of all law machinery for collecting moneys was more and may decide what is the right. To doubt extensive and intricate than the machinery of this means exclusion from life eternal. any secular court of the age. To As the vicar of Christ, the pope is supreme contemporaries, commercial transactions at over the state. He confers the sword which the central seat of Christendom seemed much the prince wields. As the body is subject to more at home than services of religious the soul, so princes are subject to the pope. devotion. Constantine’s donation made the pope, in fact, The mind of John XXII. ran naturally to the monarch over the Occident. He transferred counting-house and ledger system. He came the empire to Charlemagne in trust. The from Cahors, the town noted for its brokers emperor’s oath is an oath of fealty and and bankers. Under his favor the seeds of homage. commercialism in the dispensation of papal The views of Augustinus Triumphus and appointments sown in preceding centuries Alvarus followed the papal assertion and grew to ripe fruitage. Simony was an old sin. practice of centuries, and the assent or Gregory VII. fought against it. John legalized argument of the Schoolmen. Marsiglius had its practice. the sanction of Scripture rationally Freewill offerings and Peter’s pence had been interpreted, and his views were confirmed by made to popes from of old. States, held as fiefs the experiences of history. After the lapse of of the papal chair, had paid fixed tribute. For nearly 500 years, opinion in Christendom the expenses of the crusades, Innocent III. had remains divided, and the most extravagant inaugurated the system of taxing the entire language of Triumphus and Alvarus is

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 41 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

Church. The receipts from this source of the occupants. In 1255, Alexander IV. developed the love of money at the papal limited the number of such expectants to 4 court and showed its power, and, no matter for each church. In 1265, Clement IV forbade how abstemious a pope might be in his own all elections in England in the usual way until habits, greed grew like a weed in his his commands were complied with, and ecclesiastical household. St. Bernard, d. 1153, reserved them to himself. The same pontiff, complained bitterly of the cupidity of the on the pretext of disturbances going on in Romans, who made every possible monetary Sicily, made a general reservation of all gain out of the spiritual favors of which the appointments in the realm, otherwise subject Vatican was the dispenser. By indulgence, this to episcopal or capitular choice. Urban IV. appetite became more and more exacting, withdrew the right of election from the and under John and his successors the Ghibelline cities of Lombardy; Martin IV. and exploitation of Christendom was reduced by Honorius IV. applied the same rule to the the curia to a fine art. cathedral appointments of Sicily and Aragon; The theory of ecclesiastical appointments, Honorius IV. monopolized all the held in the Avignon period, was that, by appointments of the Latin Church in the East; reason of the fullness of power which resides and Boniface VIII., in view of Philip IV.’s in the Apostolic See, the pope may dispense resistance, reserved to himself the all the dignities and benefices of the Christian appointments to all “cathedral and regular world. The pope is absolute in his own house, churches” in France. Of 16 French sees which that is, the Church. became vacant, 1295–1301, only one was filled in the usual way by election. This principle had received its full statement from Clement IV., 1266. Clement’s bull With the haughty assumption of Clement IV.’s declared that the supreme pontiff is superior bull and the practice of later popes, papal to any customs which were in vogue of filling writers fell in. Augustinus Triumphus, writing Church offices and conflicted with his in 1324, asserted that the pope is above all prerogative. In particular he made it a law canon law and has the right to dispose of all that all offices, dignities, and benefices were ecclesiastical places. The papal system of subject to papal appointment which became appointments included provisions, vacant apud sedem apostolicam or in curia, expectances, and reservations. that is, while the holders were visiting the In setting aside the vested rights of chapters papal court. This law was modified by and other electors, the pope often joined Gregory X. at the Council of Lyons, 1274, in hands with kings and princes. In the Avignon such a way as to restore the right of election, period a regular election by a chapter was the provided the pope failed to make an exception. The Chronicles of England and appointment within a month. Boniface VIII., France teem with usurped cases of papal 1295, again extended the enactment by appointment. In 1322 the pope reserved to putting in the pope’s hands all livings whose himself all the appointments in episcopal, occupants died within two days’ journey of cathedral, and abbey churches, and of all the curia, wherever it might at the time be. priors in the sees of Aquileja, Ravenna, Milan, Innocent IV. was the first pope to exercise the Genoa, and Pisa. In 1329 he made such right of reservation or collation on a large reservation for the German dioceses of Metz, scale. Toul, and Verdun, and in 1339 for Cologne. In 1248, out of 20 places in the cathedral of There was no living in Latin Christendom Constance, 17 were occupied by papal which was safe from the pope’s hands. There appointees, and there were 14 “expectants” were not places enough to satisfy all the under appointment in advance of the deaths favorites of the papal household and the applicants pressed upon the pope’s attention

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 42 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course by kings and princes. The spiritual and of simony. Augustinus Triumphus took the administrative qualities of the appointees same ground. The pope is not bound by laws. were not too closely scrutinized. Frenchmen He is above laws. Simony is not possible to were appointed to sees in England, Germany, him. Denmark, and other countries, who were In estimating the necessities of the papal utterly unfamiliar with the languages of those court, which justified the imposition of countries. Marsiglius complains of these customs, the Avignon popes were no longer “monstrosities” and, among other unfit their own masters. They were the creatures appointments, mentions the French bishops of the camera and the hungry horde of of Winchester and Lund, neither of whom officials and sycophants whose clamor filled knew English or Danish. The archbishop of the papal offices day and night. These Lund, after plundering his diocese, returned retainers were not satisfied with bread. Every to Southern France. superior office in Christendom had its value To the supreme right of appointment was in terms of gold and silver. When it was filled added the supreme right to tax the clergy and by papal appointment, a befitting fee was the all ecclesiastical property. The supreme right proper recognition. If a favor was granted to a to exercise authority over kings, the supreme prince in the appointment of a favorite, the right to set aside canonical rules, the supreme papal court was pretty sure to seize some right to make appointments in the Church, new privilege as a compensation for itself. the supreme right to tax Church property, Precedent was easily made a permanent rule. these were, in their order, the rights asserted Where the pope once invaded the rights of a by the popes of the Middle Ages. The scandal chapter, he did not relinquish his hold, and an growing out of this unlimited right of taxation admission fee once fixed was not renounced. called forth the most vigorous complaints We may not be surprised at the rapacity from clergy and laity, and was in large part which was developed at the papal court. That the cause which led to the summoning of the was to be expected. It grew out of the false three great Reformatory councils of the papal theory and the abiding qualities of fifteenth century. human nature. Popes had acted upon this theory of The details governing the administration of jurisdiction over the property of the Church the papal finances John set forth in two bulls long before John XXII. They levied taxes for of 1316 and 1331. His scheme fixed the crusades in the Orient, or to free Italy from financial policy of the papacy and sacred rebels for the papal state. They gave their college. The sources from which the papacy sanction to princes and kings to levy taxes drew its revenues in the fourteenth century upon the Church for secular purposes, were: (1) freewill offerings, so called, given especially for wars. In the bull Clericis laicos, for ecclesiastical appointments and other Boniface did not mean to call in question the papal favors, called visitations, annates, propriety of the Church’s contributing to the servitia; and (2) tributes from feudal states necessities of the state. What he demanded such as Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and England, was that he himself should be recognized as and the revenues from the papal state in Italy. arbiter in such matters, and it was this The moneys so received were apportioned demand which gave offence to the French between four parties, the pope, the college of king and to France itself. The question was cardinals, and their two households. Under much discussed whether the pope may John XXlI. the freewill offerings, so called, commit simony. Thomas Aquinas gave an came to be regarded as obligatory fees. Every affirmative answer. Alvarus Pelagius thought papal gift had its compensation. There was a differently, and declared that the pope is list of prices, and it remained in force till exempt from the laws and canons which treat

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 43 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course changed on the basis of new estimates of the intricate system of graft. The beneficiaries incomes of benefices. To answer objections, were almost endless. The large body of lower John XXII., in his bull of 1331, insisted that the officials are usually designated in the ledgers prices set upon such favors were not a charge by the general term “familiars” of the pope or for the grace imparted, but a charge for the camera. The notaries, or copyists, received labor required for writing the pertinent stipulated sums for every document they documents. But the declaration did not transcribed and service they performed. remove the ill odor of the practice. The taxes However exorbitant the demands might levied were out of all proportion to the actual seem, the petitioners were harried by delays cost of the written documents, and the and other petty annoyances till in sheer privileges were not to be had without money. weariness they yielded. These payments were regularly recorded in The taxes levied upon the higher clergy were registers or ledgers kept by the papal usually paid at Avignon by the parties in secretaries of the camera. The details of the person. For the collection of the annates from papal exchequer, extant in the Archives of the the lower clergy and of tithes and other Vatican, have only recently been subjected to general taxes, collectors and subcollectors careful investigation through the liberal were appointed. We find these officials in policy of Leo XIII., and have made possible a different parts of Europe. They had their fixed new chapter in works setting forth the history salaries, and sent periodical reckonings to the of the Church in this fourteenth century. central bureau at Avignon. The transmission These studies confirm the impression left by of the moneys they collected was often a the chroniclers and tract-writers of the dangerous business. Not infrequently the fourteenth century. The money dealings of carriers were robbed on their way, and the the papal court were on a vast scale, and the system came into vogue of employing transactions were according to strict rules of merchant and banking houses to do this merchandise. Avignon was a great money business, especially Italian firms, which had center. Spiritual privileges were vouched for representatives in Northern and Central by carefully worded and signed contracts and Europe. The ledgers show a great diversity in receipts. The papal commercial agents went the names and value of the coins. And it was a to all parts of Europe. nice process to estimate the values of these moneys in the terms of the more generally Archbishop, bishop, and abbot paid for the accepted standards. letters confirming their titles to their dignities. The appointees to lower clerical The offerings made by prelates at their visits offices did the same. There were fees for all to the papal see, called visitationes, were sorts of concessions, dispensations and divided equally between the papal treasury indulgences, granted to layman and to priest. and the cardinals. From the lists, it appears The priest born out of wedlock, the priest that the archbishops of York paid every three seeking to be absent from his living, the priest years “300 marks sterling, or 1200 gold about to be ordained before the canonical florins.” Every two years the archbishops of age, all had to have a dispensation, and these Canterbury paid “300 marks sterling, or 1500 cost money. The larger revenues went gold florins;” the archbishop of Tours paid directly into the papal treasury and the 400 pounds Tournois; of Rheims, 500 pounds, treasury of the camera. The smaller fees went Tournois; of Rouen, 1000 pounds Tournois. to notaries, doorkeepers, to individual The archbishop of Armagh, at his visitation in cardinals, and other officials. These 1301, paid 60 silver marks, or 250 gold intermediaries stood in a long line with palms florins. In 1350 the camera claimed from upturned. To use a modern term, it was an Armagh back payments for fifty years. Presumably no bishop of that Irish diocese

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 44 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course had made a visit in that interval. Whether the statement is extant: 2,258 marks, or 9,032 claim was honored or not, is not known. florins, went to “the Lord pope and the The servitia communia, or payments made by cardinals.” Of this sum 5,000 florins, or 1,250 archbishops, bishops, and abbots on their marks, are entered as a payment for the confirmation to office, were also listed, visitatio, and the remainder in payment of the according to a fixed scale. The voluntary idea servitium to the cardinals. The remaining 327 had completely disappeared before a fixed marks, or 1,308 florins, were consumed in assessment. Such a dignitary was called an registration and notarial fees and gifts to electus until he had paid off the tax. In certain cardinals. To Cardinal Francis of St. Maria in cases the tax was remitted on account of the Cosmedin, a nephew of Boniface, a gift was poverty of the ecclesiastic, and in the ledgers made costing more than 10 marks, or 40 the entry was made, “not taxed on account of florins. poverty,” non taxata propter paupertatem. Another abbot-elect of St. Albans, Richard II., The amount of this tax seems to have varied, went to Avignon in 1326 accompanied by six and was sometimes one-third of the income monks, and was well satisfied to get away and sometimes a larger portion. In the with the payment of 3,600 gold florins. He fourteenth century the following sees paid was surprised that the tax was so reasonable. servitia as follows: Mainz, 5,000 gold florins; Abbot William of the diocese of Autun, Oct. Treves, 7, 000; Cologne, 10,000; Narbonne, 22, 1316, obligated himself to pay John XXII., 10,000. On the basis of a new valuation, as confirmation tax, 1,500 gold florins, and to Martin V. in 1420 raised the taxation of the John’s officials 170 more. sees of Mainz and Treves to 10,000 florins The fees paid to the lower officials, called each, or $25,000 of our money, so that they servitia minuta, were classified under five corresponded to the assessment made from heads, four of them going to the officials, of old upon Cologne. When an incumbent died familiares of the pontiff, and one to the without having met the full tax, his successor officials of the cardinals. The exact amounts made up the deficit in addition to paying the received on account of servitia or assessment for his own confirmation. confirmation fees by the pope and the college The following cases will give some idea of the of cardinals, probably will never be known. annoyances to which bishops and abbots From the lists that have been examined, the were put who travelled to Avignon to secure cardinals between 1316–1323 received from letters of papal confirmation to their offices. this source 234,047 gold florins, or about In 1334, the abbot-elect of St. Augustine, 39,000 florins a year. As the yield from this Canterbury, had to wait in Avignon from April tax was usually, though not always, divided in 22 to Aug. 9 to get his confirmation, and it equal shares between the pope and the cost him 148 pounds sterling. John IV., abbot- cardinals, the full sum realized from this elect of St. Albans, in 1302 went for source was double this amount. consecration to Rome, accompanied by four The annates, so far as they were the tax levied monks. He arrived May 6, presented his case by the pope upon appointments made by to Boniface VIII. in person at Anagni, May 9, himself to lower clerical offices and livings, and did not get back to London till Aug. 1, went entirely into the papal treasury, and being all the while engaged in the process of seem to have been uniformly one-half of the getting his papers properly prepared and first year’s income. They were designated as certified to. The expense of getting his case livings “becoming vacant in curia,” which was through was 2,585 marks, or 10,340 gold another way of saying, places which had been florins; or $25,000 of our money. The ways in reserved by the pope. The popes from time to which this large sum was distributed are not time extended this tax through the use of the a matter of conjecture. The exact itemized

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 45 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course right of reservation to all livings becoming that the collectors had easy work in making vacant in a given district during a certain collections. The complaints, which we found period. In addition to the annate tax, the so numerous in England in the thirteenth papal treasury also drew an income during century, we meet with everywhere during the the period of their vacancy from the livings fourteenth century. The resistance was reserved for papal appointment and during determined, and the taxes were often left the period when an incumbent held the living unpaid for years or not paid at all. without canonical right. These were called the The revenues derived from feudal states and “intermediate fruits”—medii fructus. princes, called census, were divided equally Special indulgences were an uncertain but no between the cardinals and the pope’s private less important source of revenue. The prices treasury. Gregory X., in 1272, was the first to were graded according to the ability of the make such a division of the tribute from parties to pay and the supposed inherent Sicily, which amounted to 8000 ounces of value of the papal concession. Queen Johanna gold, or about $90,000. In the pontificate of of Sicily paid 500 grossi Tournois, or about John XXII. there is frequent mention of the $150, for the privilege of taking the oath to amounts contributed by Sicily and their equal the archbishop of Naples, who acted as the partition. The sums varied from year to year, pope’s representative. The bull readmitting to and in 1304 it was 3000 ounces of gold. The the sacraments of the Church Margaret of tribute of Sardinia and Corsica was fixed in Maultasch and her husband, Lewis of 1297 at the annual sum of 2000 marks, and Brandenburg, the son of Lewis the Bavarian, was divided between the two treasuries. The cost the princess 2000 grossi Tournois. The papal state and Ferrara yielded uncertain king of Cyprus was poor, and secured for his sums, and the tribute of 1000 marks, pledged subjects indulgence to trade with the by John of England, was paid irregularly, and Egyptians for the modest sum of 100 pounds finally abrogated altogether. Peter’s pence, Tournois, but had to pay 50 pounds which belongs in this category, was an additional for a ship sent with cargo to Egypt. irregular source of papal income. There was a graduated scale for papal letters The yearly income of the papal treasury giving persons liberty to choose their under Clement V. and John XXII. has been confessor without regard to the parish estimated at from 200,000 to 250,000 gold priests. florins. In 1353 it is known to have been at To these sources of income were added the least 260,000 florins, or more than $600,000 taxes for the relief of the Holy Land—pro of our money subsidio terrae sanctae. The Council of Vienne These sources of income were not always ordered a tenth for six years for this purpose. sufficient for the expenses of the papal John XXII., 1333, repeated the substance of household, and in cases had to be anticipated Clement’s bull. The expense of clearing Italy by loans. The popes borrowed from cardinals, of hostile elements and reclaiming papal from princes, and from bankers. Urban V. got territory as a preliminary to the pope’s return a loan from his cardinals of 30, 000 gold to Rome was also made the pretext for florins. Gregory XI. got loans of 30,000 florins levying special taxes. For this object Innocent from the king of Navarre, and 60, 000 from VI. levied a three-years’ tax of a tenth upon the duke of Anjou. The duke seems to have the Church in Germany, and in 1366 Urban V. been a ready lender, and on another occasion levied another tenth upon all the churches of loaned Gregory 40,000 florins. It was a Christendom. common thing for bishops and abbots to It would be a mistake to suppose that the make loans to enable them to pay the expense Church always responded to these appeals, or of their confirmation. The abbot of St. Albans,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 46 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course in 1290, was assessed 1300 pounds for his arose to the dignity of bishop and cardinal servitium, and borrowed 500 of it. The habit before his elevation to the papal throne. If grew until the time of the Reformation, when Villani is to be trusted, his election was an the sums borrowed, as in the case of Albrecht, accident. One cardinal after another who archbishop of Mainz, were enormous. voted for him did so, not dreaming he would The transactions of the Avignon chancellory be elected. The choice proved to be an called forth loud complaints, even from excellent one. The new pontiff at once contemporary apologists for the papacy. showed interest in reform. The prelates who Alvarus Pelagius, in his Lament over the had no distinct duties at Avignon he sent Church, wrote: “No poor man can approach home, and to his credit it was recorded that, the pope. He will call and no one will answer, when urged to enrich his relatives, he replied because he has no money in his purse to pay. that the vicar of Christ, like Melchizedek, Scarcely is a single petition heeded by the must be without father or mother or pope until it has passed through the hands of genealogy. To him belongs the honor of middlemen, a corrupt set, bought with bribes, having begun the erection of the permanent and the officials conspire together to extort papal palace at Avignon, a massive and grim more than the rule calls for.” In another place structure, having the features of a fortress he said that whenever he entered into the rather than a residence. Its walls and towers papal chambers he always found the tables were built of colossal thickness and strength full of gold, and clerics counting and weighing to resist attack. Its now desolated spaces are florins. Of the Spanish bishops he said that a speechless witness to perhaps the most there was scarcely one in a hundred who did singular of the episodes of papal history. The not receive money for ordinations and the gift cardinals followed Benedict’s example and of benefices. Matters grew no better, but built palaces in Avignon and its vicinity. rather worse as the fourteenth century Clement VI., 1342–1352, who had been advanced. Dietrich of Nieheim, speaking of archbishop of Rouen, squandered the fortune Boniface IX., said that “the pope was an amassed by John XXII. and prudently insatiable gulf, and that as for avarice there administered by Benedict. He forgot his was no one to compare with him.” To effect a Benedictine training and vows and was a fast cure of the disease, which was a scandal to liver, carrying into the papal office the tastes Christendom, the popes would have been of the French nobility from which he sprang. obliged to cut off the great army of officials Horses, a sumptuous table, and the company who surrounded them. But this vast of women made the papal palace as gay as a organized body was stronger than the Roman royal court. Nor were his relatives allowed to pontiff. The fundamental theory of the rights go uncared for. Of the twenty-five cardinals’ of the papal office was at fault. The councils hats which he distributed, twelve went to made attempts to introduce reforms, but in them, one a brother and one a nephew. vain. Help came at last and from an Clement enjoyed a reputation for eloquence unexpected quarter, when Luther and the and, like John XXII., preached after he became other leaders openly revolted against the pope. Early in his pontificate the Romans sent medieval theory of the papacy and of the a delegation, which included Petrarch, Church. begging him to return to Rome. But Clement, a Frenchman to the core, preferred the 6.10. The Later Avignon Popes atmosphere of France. Though he did not go The bustling and scholastic John XXII. was to Rome, he was gracious enough to comply followed by the scholarly and upright with the delegation’s request and appoint a Benedict XII., 1334–1342. Born in the diocese Jubilee for the deserted and impoverished of Toulouse, Benedict studied in Paris, and city.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 47 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course

During Clement’s rule, Rome lived out one of articles Clement laid before him, Sept. 18, the picturesque episodes of its medieval 1343, and wrote to the pope that, as a babe history, the meteoric career of the tribune longs for its mother’s breast, so his soul cried Cola (Nicolas) di Rienzo. Of plebeian birth, out for the grace of the pope and the Church. this visionary man was stirred with the ideals But, if possible, Clement intensified the curses of Roman independence and glory by reading placed upon him by his two predecessors. the ancient classics. His oratory flattered and The bull, which he announced with his own moved the people, whose cause he espoused lips, April 13, 1346, teems with rabid against the aristocratic families of the city. execrations. It called upon God to strike Lewis Sent to Avignon at the head of a commission, with insanity, blindness, and madness. It 1343, to confer the highest municipal invoked the thunderbolts of heaven and the authority upon the pope, he won Clement’s flaming wrath of God and the Apostles Peter attention by his frank manner and eloquent and Paul both in this world and the next. It speech. Returning to Rome, he fascinated the called all the elements to rise in hostility people with visions of freedom and dominion. against him; upon the universe to fight They invested him on the Capitol with the against him, and the earth to open and signiory of the city, 1347. Cola assumed the swallow him up alive. It blasphemously democratic title of tribune. Writing from damned his house to desolation and his Avignon, Petrarch greeted him as the man children to exclusion from their abode. It whom he had been looking for, and dedicated invoked upon him the curse of beholding with to him one of his finest odes. The tribune his own eyes the destruction of his children sought to extend his influence by enkindling by their enemies. the flame of patriotism throughout all Italy During Clement’s pontificate, 1348–1349, the and to induce its cities to throw off the yoke Black Death swept over Europe from Hungary of their tyrants. Success and glory turned his to Scotland and from Spain to Sweden, one of head. Intoxicated with applause, he had the the most awful and mysterious scourges that audacity to cite Lewis the Bavarian and has ever visited mankind. It was reported by Charles IV. before his tribunal, and headed his all the chroniclers of the time, and described communications with the magnificent by Boccaccio in the introduction to his novels. superscription, “In the first year of the According to Villani, the disease appeared as Republic’s freedom.” His success lasted but carbuncles under the armpits or in the groin, seven months. The people had grown weary sometimes as big as an egg, and was of their idol. He was laid by Clement under accompanied with devouring fever and the ban and fled, to appear again for a brief vomiting of blood. It also involved a season under Innocent V. gangrenous inflammation of the lungs and Avignon was made papal property by throat and a fetid odor of the breath. In Clement, who paid Joanna of Naples 80, 000 describing the virulence of the infection, a florins for it. The low price may have been in contemporary said that one sick person was consideration of the pope’s services in sufficient to infect the whole world. The pronouncing the princess guiltless of the patients lingered at most a day or two. murder of her cousin and first husband, Boccaccio witnessed the progress of the Andreas, a royal Hungarian prince, and plague as it spread its ravages in Florence. sanctioning her second marriage with Such measures of sanitation as were then another cousin, the prince of Tarentum. known were resorted to, such as keeping the This pontiff witnessed the conclusion of the streets of the city clean and posting up disturbed career of Lewis the Bavarian, in elaborate rules of health. Public religious 1347. The emperor had sunk to the depths of services and processions were appointed to self-abasement when he swore to the 28 stay death’s progress. Boccaccio tells how he

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 48 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course saw the hogs dying from the deadly contagion without restraint to revelling and drinking which they caught in rooting amongst cast-off from tavern to tavern and to other excesses, clothing. In England all sorts of cattle were as Boccaccio reports of Florence. affected, and Knighton speaks of 5000 sheep In England, it is estimated that one-half of the dying in a single district. The mortality was population, or 2,500,000 people, fell victims appalling. The figures, though they differ in to the dread disease. According to Knighton, it different accounts, show a vast loss of life. was introduced into the land through A large per cent of the population of Western Southampton. As for Scotland, this chronicler Europe fell before the pestilence. In Siena, tells the grewsome story that some of the 80,000 were carried off; in Venice, 100,000; Scotch, on hearing of the weakness of the in Bologna, two-thirds of the population; and English in consequence of the malady, met in in Florence, three-fifths. In Marseilles the the forest of Selfchyrche—Selkirk—and number who died in a single month is decided to fall upon their unfortunate reported as 57,000. Nor was the papal city on neighbors, but were suddenly themselves the Rhone exempt. Nine cardinals, 70 attacked by the disease, nearly 5000 dying. prelates, and 17,000 males succumbed. The English king prorogued parliament. The Another writer, a canon writing from the city disaster that came to the industries of the to a friend in Flanders, reports that up to the country is dwelt upon at length by the English date of his writing one-half of the population chroniclers. The soil became “dead,” for there had died. The very cats, dogs, and chickens were no laborers left to till it. The price per took the disease. At the prescription of his acre was reduced one-half, or even much physician, Guy of Chauliac, Clement VI. stayed more. The cattle wandered through the within doors and kept large fires lighted, as meadows and fields of grain, with no one to Nicolas IV. before him had done in time of drive them in. “The dread fear of death made plague. the prices of live stock cheap.” Horses were No class was immune except in England, sold for one-half their usual price, 40 solidi, where the higher classes seem to have been and a fat steer for 4 solidi. The price of labor exempt. The clergy yielded in great numbers, went up, and the cost of the necessaries of life bishops, priests, and monks. At least one became “very high.” The effect upon the archbishop of Canterbury, Bradwardine, was Church was such as to interrupt its ministries carried away by it. The brothers of the king of and perhaps check its growth. The English Sweden, Hacon and Knut, were among the bishops provided for the exigencies of the victims. The unburied dead strewed the moment by issuing letters giving to all clerics streets of Stockholm. Vessels freighted with the right of absolution. The priest could now cargoes were reported floating on the high make his price, and instead of 4 or 5 marks, as seas with the last sailor dead. Convents were Knighton reports, he could get 10 or 20 after swept clear of all their inmates. The the pestilence had spent its course. To make cemeteries were not large enough to hold the up for the scarcity of ministers, ordination bodies, which were thrown into hastily dug was granted before the canonical age, as pits. The danger of infection and the odors when Bateman, bishop of Norwich, set apart emitted by the corpses were so great that by the sacred rite 60 clerks, “though only often there was no one to give sepulture to shavelings” under 21. In another direction the the dead. Bishops found cause in this neglect evil effects of the plague were seen. Work was to enjoin their priests to preach on the stopped on the Cathedral of Siena, which was resurrection of the body as one of the tenets laid out on a scale of almost unsurpassed size, of the Catholic Church, as did the bishop of and has not been resumed to this day. Winchester. In spite of the vast mortality, The Black Death was said to have invaded many of the people gave themselves up Europe from the East, and to have been

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 49 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course carried first by Genoese vessels. Its victims Aegidius Alvarez of Albernoz to Rome in the were far in excess of the loss of life by any hope of establishing order. Cola was battles or earthquakes known to European appointed senator, but only a few months history, not excepting the Sicilian earthquake afterwards was put to death in a popular of 1908. uprising, Oct. 8, 1354. He dreamed of a united In spite of the plague, and perhaps in Italy, 500 years before the union of its divided gratitude for its cessation, the Jubilee Year of states was consummated, but his name 1350, like the Jubilee under Boniface at the remains a powerful impulse to popular opening of the century, brought thousands of freedom and national unity in the peninsula. pilgrims to Rome. If they left scenes of Tyrants and demagogues infested Italian desolation in the cities and villages from municipalities and were sucking their life- which they came, they found a spectacle of blood. The State of the Church had been desolation and ruin in the Eternal City which parcelled up into petty principalities ruled by Petrarch, visiting the same year, said was rude nobles, such as the Polentas in Ravenna, enough to move a heart of stone. Matthew the Malatestas in Rimini, the Montefeltros in Villani cannot say too much in praise of the Urbino. The pope was in danger of losing his devotion of the visiting throngs. Clement’s territory in the peninsula altogether. Soldiers bull extended the benefits of his promised of fortune from different nations had settled indulgence to those who started on a upon it and spread terror as leaders of pilgrimage without the permission of their predatory bands. In no part was anarchy superiors, the cleric without the permission more wild than in Rome itself, and in the of his bishop, the monk without the Campagna. Albernoz had fought in the wars permission of his abbot, and the wife without against the Moors, and had administered the the permission of her husband. see of Toledo. He was a statesman as well as a Of the three popes who followed Clement, soldier. He was fully equal to his difficult task only good can be said. Innocent VI., 1352– and restored the papal government. 1362, a native of the see of Limoges, had been In 1355, Albernoz, as administrator of Rome, appointed cardinal by Clement VI. Following placed the crown of the empire on the head of in the footsteps of Benedict XII., he reduced Charles IV. To such a degree had the imperial the ostentation of the Avignon court, dignity been brought that Charles was denied dismissed idle bishops to their sees, and permission by the pope to enter the city till instituted the tribunal of the rota, with 21 the day appointed for his coronation. His salaried auditors for the orderly adjudication arrival in Italy was welcomed by Petrarch as of disputed cases coming before the papal Henry VII.’s arrival had been welcomed by tribunal. Before Innocent’s election, the Dante. But the emperor disappointed every cardinals adopted a set of rules limiting the expectation, and his return from Italy was an college to 20 members, and stipulating that inglorious retreat. He placed his own no new members should be appointed, dominion of Bohemia in his debt by becoming suspended, deposed, or excommunicated the founder of the University of Prag. It was without the consent of two-thirds of their he also who, in 1356, issued the celebrated number, and that no papal relative should be Golden Bull, which laid down the rules for the assigned to a high place. Innocent no sooner election of the emperor. They placed this became pontiff than he set it aside as not transaction wholly in the hands of the binding. electors, a majority of whom was sufficient Soon after the beginning of his reign, for a choice. The pope is not mentioned in the Innocent released Cola di Rienzo from document. Frankfurt was made the place of confinement and sent him and Cardinal meeting. The electors designated were the archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 50 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course the Count Palatine, the king of Bohemia, the Urban chose as his residence the Vatican in Margrave of Brandenburg, and the duke of preference to the Lateran. The preparations Saxony. for his advent included the restoration of the Urban V., 1362–1370, at the time of his palace and its gardens. A part of the garden election abbot of the Benedictine convent of was used as a field, and the rest was St. Victor in Marseilles, developed merits overgrown with thorns. Urban ordered it which secured for him canonization by Pius replanted with grape-vines and fruit trees. IX., 1870. He was the first of the Avignon The papal ledger gives the cost of these popes to visit Rome. Petrarch, as he had improvements as 6,621 gold florins, or about written before to Benedict XII. and Clement $15,000. Roofs, floors, doors, walls, and other VI., now, in his old age, wrote to the new parts of the palace had to be renewed. The pontiff rebuking the curia for its vices and expenses from April 27, 1367, to November, calling upon him to be faithful to his part as 1368, as shown in the report of the papal Roman bishop. Why should Urban hide treasurer, Gaucelin de Pradello, were 15,559 himself away in a corner of the earth? Italy florins, or $39,000. was fair, and Rome, hallowed by history and During the sixty years that had elapsed since legend of empire and Church, was the Clement V. fixed the papal residence in theocratic capital of the world. Charles IV. France, Rome had been reduced almost to a visited Avignon and offered to escort the museum of Christian monuments, as it had pontiff. But the French king opposed the plan before been a museum of pagan ruins. The and was supported by the cardinals in a body. aristocratic families had forsaken the city. Only three Italians were left in it. Urban The Lateran had again fallen a prey to the started for the home of his spiritual ancestors flames in 1360. St. Paul’s was desolate. in April, 1367. A fleet of sixty vessels Rubbish or stagnant pools filled the streets. furnished by Naples, Genoa, Venice, and Pisa The population was reduced to 20,000 or conducted the distinguished traveller from perhaps 17,000. The return of the papacy was Marseilles to Genoa and Corneto, where he compared by Petrarch to Israel returning out was met by envoys from Rome, who put into of Egypt. his hands the keys of the castle of St. Angelo, Urban set about the restoration of churches. the symbol of full municipal power. All along He gave 1000 florins to the Lateran and spent the way transports of wine, fish, cheese, and 5000 on St. Paul’s. Rome showed signs of other provisions, sent on from Avignon, met again becoming the center of European the papal party, and horses from the papal society and politics. Joanna, queen of Naples, stables on the Rhone were in waiting for the visited the city, and so did the king of Cyprus pope at every stage of the journey. and the emperor, Charles IV. In 1369 John V. At Viterbo, a riot was called forth by the Palaeologus, the Byzantine emperor, arrived, insolent manners of the French, and the pope a suppliant for aid against the Turks, and launched the interdict against the city. The publicly made solemn abjuration of his papal ledgers contain the outlay by the schismatic tenets. apothecary for medicines for the papal The old days seemed to have returned, but servants who were wounded in the melee. Urban was not satisfied. He had not the Here Albernoz died, to whom the papacy courage nor the wide vision to sacrifice his owed a large debt for his services in restoring own pleasure for the good of his office. Had order to Rome. The legend runs that, when he he so done, the disastrous schism might have was asked by the pope for an account of his been averted. He turned his face back administration, he loaded a car with the keys towards Avignon, where he arrived “at the of the cities he had recovered to the papal hour of vespers,” Sept. 27, 1370. He survived authority, and sent them to him.

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 51 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course his return scarcely two months, and died Dec. league of 80 cities was formed to abolish the 19, 1370, universally beloved and already pope’s secular power. The interdict hurled honored as a saint. against the Florentines, March 31, 1376, for the part they were taking in the sedition, 6.11. The Re-establishment of the Papacy contained atrocious clauses, giving every one in Rome. 1377 the right to plunder the city and to make Of the nineteen cardinals who entered the slaves of her people wherever they might be conclave at the death of Urban V., all but four found. Genoa and Pisa followed Florence and were Frenchmen. The choice immediately fell incurred a like papal malediction. The papal on Gregory XI., the son of a French count. At city, Bologna, was likewise stirred to rebellion 17 he had been made cardinal by his uncle, in 1376 by its sister city on the Arno. Clement VI. His contemporaries praised him Florence fanned the flames of rebellion in for his moral purity, affability, and piety. He Rome and the other papal towns, calling upon showed his national sympathies by them to throw off the yoke of tyranny and appointing 18 Frenchmen cardinals and return to their pristine liberty. What Italian, filling papal appointments in Italy with its manifesto proclaimed, “can endure the French officials. In English history he is sight of so many noble cities, serving known for his condemnation of Wycliffefefe. barbarians appointed by the pope to devour His pontificate extended from 1370–1378. the goods of Italy?” But Rome remained true With Gregory’s name is associated the re- to the pope, as did Ancona. On the other hand, establishment of the papacy in its proper Perugia, Narni, Viterbo, and Ferrara, in 1375, home on the Tiber. For this change the pope raised the banner of rebellion until revolt deserves no credit. It was consummated threatened to spread over the whole of the against his will. He went to Rome, but was papal patrimony. The bitter feeling against engaged in preparations to return to Avignon, the French officials was intensified by a when death suddenly overtook him. detachment of 10,000 Breton mercenaries That which principally moved Gregory to which the pope sent to crush the revolution. return to Rome was the flame of rebellion They were under the leadership of Cardinal which filled Central and Northern Italy, and Robert of Geneva,—afterward Clement VII.,— threatened the papacy with the permanent an iron-hearted soldier and pitiless priest. It loss of its dominions. The election of an anti- was as plain as day, Pastor says, that pope was contemplated by the Italians, as a Gregory’s return was the only thing that could delegation from Rome informed him. One save Rome to the papacy. remedy was open to crush revolt on the To the urgency of these civil commotions banks of the Tiber. It was the presence of the were added the pure voices of prophetesses, pope himself. which rose above the confused sounds of Gregory had carried on war for five years revolt and arms, the voices of Brigitta of with the disturbing elements in Italy. In the Sweden and Catherine of Siena, both northern parts of the peninsula, political canonized saints. anarchy swept from city to city. Soldiers of Petrarch, who for nearly half a century had fortune, the most famous of whom was the been urging the pope’s return, now, in his last Englishman, John Hawkwood, spread terror days, replied to a French advocate who wherever they went. In Milan, the tyrant compared Rome to Jericho, the town to which Bernabo was all-powerful and truculent. In the man was going who fell among thieves, Florence, the revolt was against the and stigmatized Avignon as the sewer of the priesthood itself, and a red flag was unfurled, earth. He died 1374, without seeing the on which was inscribed the word “Liberty.” A consuming desire of his life fulfilled. Guided

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 52 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course by patriotic instincts, he had carried into his also witnessed the unhappy beginnings of the appeals the feeling of an Italian’s love of his schism. This Tuscan prophetess, called by a country. Brigitta and Catherine made their sober Catholic historian, “one of the most appeals to Gregory on higher than national wonderful appearances in history,” wrote grounds, the utility of Christendom and the letter after letter to Gregory XI. whom she advantage of the kingdom of God. Emerging called “sweet Christ on earth,” appealing to from visions and ecstatic moods of devotion, him and admonishing him to do his duty as they called upon the Church’s chief bishop to the head of the Church, and to break away be faithful to the obligations of his holy office. from his exile, which she represented as the On the death of her husband, St. Brigitta left source of all the evils with which her Scandinavian home and joined the Christendom was afflicted. “Be a true pilgrims whose faces were set towards Rome successor of St. Gregory,” she wrote. “Love in the Jubilee year of 1350. Arriving in the God. Do not bind yourself to your parents and papal city, the hope of seeing both the your friends. Do not be held by the emperor and the pope once more in that compulsion of your surroundings. Aid will center of spiritual and imperial power moved come from God.” His return to Rome and the her to the devotions of the saint and the starting of a new crusade against the Turks, messages of the seer. She spent her time in she represented as necessary conditions of going from church to church and ministering efficient measures to reform the Church. She to the sick, or sat clad in pilgrim’s garb, bade him return “swiftly like a gentle lamb. begging. Her revelations, which were many, Respond to the Holy Spirit who calls you. I tell brought upon her the resentment of the you, Come, come, come, and do not wait for Romans. She saw Urban enter the city and, time, since time does not wait for you. Then when he announced his purpose to return you will do like the Lamb slain, whose place again to France, she raised her voice in you hold, who, without weapons in his hands, prediction of his speedy death, in case he slew our foes. Be manly in my sight, not persisted in it. When Gregory ascended the fearful. Answer God, who calls you to hold throne, she warned him that he would die and possess the seat of the glorious shepherd, prematurely if he kept away from the St. Peter, whose vicar you are.” residence divinely appointed for the supreme Gregory received a letter purporting to come pontiff. But to her, also, it was not given to see from a man of God, warning him of the poison the fulfilment of her desire. The worldliness which awaited him at Rome and appealing to of the popes stirred her to bitter complaints. his timidity and his love of his family. In a Peter, she exclaimed, “was appointed pastor burning epistle, Catherine showed that only and minister of Christ’s sheep, but the pope the devil or one of his emissaries could be the scatters them and lacerates them. He is worse author of such a communication, and called than Lucifer, more unjust than Pilate, more upon him as a good shepherd to pay more cruel than Judas. Peter ascended the throne in honor to God and the well-being of his flock humility, Boniface in pride.” To Gregory she than to his own safety, for a good shepherd, if wrote, “in thy curia arrogant pride rules, necessary, lays down his life for the sheep. insatiable cupidity and execrable luxury. It is The servants of God are not in the habit of the very deepest gulf of horrible simony. giving up a spiritual act for fear of bodily Thou seizest and tearest from the Lord harm. innumerable sheep.” And yet she was worthy In 1376, Catherine saw Gregory face to face in to be declared a saint. She died in 1373. Her Avignon, whither she went as a commissioner daughter Catherine took the body to Sweden. from Florence to arrange a peace between the Catherine of Siena was more fortunate. She city and the pope. The papal residence she saw the papacy re-established in Italy, but she found not a paradise of heavenly virtues, as

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 53 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course she expected, but in it the stench of infernal amounting to 85,713 florins, were carried vices. The immediate object of the mission from Avignon to Marseilles in twelve chests was not accomplished; but her unselfish on pack horses and mules, and in boats. To appeals confirmed Gregory in his decision to this amount were added later 41,527 florins, return to Rome—a decision he had already or, in all, about $300,000 of our present formed before Catherine’s visit, as the pope’s coinage. The cost of the boats and own last words indicate. mercenaries was very large, and several As early as 1374, Gregory wrote to the times the boatmen made increased demands emperor that it was his intention to re- for their services and craft to which the papal establish the papacy on the Tiber. A member party was forced to accede. Raymund of of the papal household, Bertrand Raffini, was Turenne, who was in command of the sent ahead to prepare the Vatican for his mercenaries, received 700 florins a month for reception. The journey was delayed. It was his “own person,” each captain with a banner hard for the pope to get away from France. 24 florins, and each lance with three men His departure was vigorously resisted by his under him 18 florins monthly. Nor were the relatives as well as by the French cardinals obligations of charity to be overlooked. and the French king, who sent n delegation to Durandus Andreas, the papal eleemosynary, Avignon, headed by his brother, the duke of received 100 florins to be distributed in alms Anjou, to dissuade Gregory from his purpose. on the journey, and still another 100 to be distributed after the party’s arrival at Rome. The journey was begun Sept. 13, 1376. Six cardinals were left behind at Avignon to take The elements seemed to war with the care of the papal business. The fleet which expedition. The fleet had no sooner set sail sailed from Marseilles was provided by from Marseilles than a fierce storm arose Joanna of Naples, Peter IV. of Aragon, the which lasted several weeks and made the Knights of St. John, and the Italian republics, journey tedious. Urban V. was three days in but the vessels were not sufficient to carry reaching Genoa, Gregory sixteen. From Genoa, the large party and the heavy cargo of the vessels continued southwards the full personal baggage and supplies. The pope was distance to Ostia, anchorage being made obliged to rent a number of additional galleys every night off towns. From Ostia, Gregory and boats. Fernandez of Heredia, who had went up the Tiber by boat, landing at Rome just been elected grand-master of the Knights Dec. 16, 1377. The journey was made by night of St. John, acted as admiral. A strong force of and the banks were lit up by torches, showing mercenaries was also required for protection the feverish expectation of the people. by sea and at the frequent stopping places Disembarking at St. Paul’s, the pope along the coast, and for service, if necessary, proceeded the next day, Jan. 17, to St. Peter’s, in Rome itself. The expenses of this peaceful accompanied by rejoicing throngs. In the Armada—vessels, mercenaries, and cargo— procession were bands of buffoons who are carefully tabulated in the ledgers added to the interest of the spectacle and preserved in Avignon and the Vatican. The afforded pastime to the populace. The pope first entries of expense are for the large abode in the Vatican and, from that time till consignments of Burgundy and other wines this day, it has continued to be the papal which were to be used on the way, or stored residence. away in the vaults of the Vatican. The cost of Gregory survived his entrance into the the journey was heavy, and it should occasion Eternal City a single year. He spent the no surprise that the pope was obliged to warmer months in Anagni, where he must increase the funds at his control at this time have had mixed feelings as he recalled the by borrowing 30,000 gold florins from the experiences of his predecessor Boniface VIII., king of Navarre. The papal moneys, which had been the immediate cause of the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 54 CH601: Volume 6, Chapter 1 a Grace Notes course transfer of the papal residence to French soil. The atrocities practised at Cesena by Cardinal Robert cast a dark shadow over the events of the year. An uprising of the inhabitants in consequence of the brutality of his Breton troops drove them and the cardinal to seek refuge in the citadel. Hawkwood was called in, and, in spite of the cardinal’s pacific assurances, the mercenaries fell upon the defenceless people and committed a butchery whose shocking details made the ears of all Italy to tingle. Four thousand were put to death, including friars in their churches, and still other thousands were sent forth naked and cold to find what refuge they could in neighboring towns. But, in spite of this barbarity, the pope’s authority was acknowledged by an enlarging circle of Italian commonwealths, including Bologna. Florence, even, sued for peace. When Gregory died, March 27, 1378, he was only 47 years old. By his request, his body was laid to rest in S. Maria Nuova on the Forum. In his last hours, he is said to have regretted having given his ear to the voice of Catherine of Siena, and he admonished the cardinals not to listen to prophecies as he had done. Nevertheless, the monument erected to Gregory at Rome two hundred years later is true to history in representing Catherine of Siena walking at the pope’s side as if conducting him back to Rome. The Babylonian captivity of the papacy had lasted nearly three-quarters of a century. The wonder is that with the pope virtually a vassal of France, Western Christendom remained united. Scarcely anything in history seems more unnatural than the voluntary residence of the popes in the commonplace town on the Rhone remote from the burial- place of the Apostles and from the centers of European life.