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Mighty to the End: Utilizing Military Models to Study the Structure, Composition, and Effectiveness of the Mamlūk Army

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Mighty to the End: Utilizing Military Models to Study the Structure, Composition, and Effectiveness of the Mamlūk Army Mighty to the End: Utilizing Military Models to Study the Structure, Composition, and Effectiveness of the Mamlūk Army by Adam Ali A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto © Copyright by Adam Ali 2017 Mighty to the End: Utilizing Military Models to Study the Structure, Composition, and Effectiveness of the Mamlūk Army Adam Ali Doctor of Philosophy The Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 2017 Abstract This dissertation investigates the structure, composition, and effectiveness of the Mamlūk army through the use of two military models, the Diversified Army Model and the Ṣāliḥī Mamlūk Model, that dominated its organization between 1250 CE and 1517 CE. The Diversified Army Model was the dominant form of military organization in the polities of the Muslim world prior to the rise of the Mamlūk sultanate. The Ṣāliḥī Mamlūk Model came into existence in the late Ayyūbid period during the reign of al-Ṣāliḥ Ayyūb (r. 1240-1249 CE) and continued to dominate the military organization of the Mamlūk sultanate until the third reign of al-Nāṣir Muḥammad (r. 1310-1340 CE), when the Diversified army Model once again came to the fore. This period has often been viewed as one of major change or a turning point by several historians. However, there was a return to the Ṣāliḥī Mamlūk Model under several Circassian sultans and by the latter half of the sixteenth century, there was a merging of the two military models. The current study thus argues that the Mamlūk army was constantly in a state of change and that the reign of every sultan, not only that of al-Nāṣir Muḥammad, was a turning point for the military. Despite the transformations and changes in the structure and composition of the Mamlūk army, it remained a formidable force throughout the entire Mamlūk period. Through their training, the mamlūks became exceptional horsemen and proficient in the use of a variety of melee and ranged weapons. Furthermore, the slow promotion of officers (with a few exceptions), ensured that the men who rose up the ranks were seasoned and experienced soldiers. It was often from among these officers that a new sultan emerged. Finally, the Mamlūk army’s excellent track record on the battlefield demonstrates its enduring strength. This strength is signified by the ii fact that the sultanate’s force’s remained militarily effective and largely undefeated between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. The instances in which the Mamlūks suffered military defeats are few and far apart and until the Ottoman conquest of 1517 CE they quickly recovered from such setbacks. iii For my wife Maryam and son Aydeen iv Acknowledgments I am grateful to many people who have helped and supported me throughout the years on the long academic road that has led to the culmination of this project. I am very thankful to my teacher, advisor, and mentor Professor Linda S. Northrup. Her advice, guidance, and encouragement have been invaluable and have helped propel me forward time and again throughout both the MA and PhD programs that have culminated in the completion of this thesis. Professor Northrup’s meticulousness and attention to detail have also had a big impact on my research and writing. I recall her encouraging me to “dig deeper” into the sources and every time I found that hidden gem that added new depths and dimensions to my research. Professor Northrups seminar courses on Mamlūk documents, biographical dictionaries, and chronicles were invaluable in preparing me to write this thesis. Professor Northrup’s support goes beyond academia. I am truly grateful for the chance to be a part of her own research through the opportunities to work on some of her projects as a research assistant. I also owe her thanks for being my advocate the first time I taught a course on Islamic history, which also happened to be her own class. I will always fondly remember my meetings with Professor Northrup and the conversations we had on topics pertaining to academia and beyond. I am also grateful to the other members of my thesis advisory committee at the University of Toronto, Professor Maria E. Subtelny and Professor Victor Ostapchuk. Their advice and expertise in Iranian and Ottoman history helped to broaden the scope of this thesis to go beyond the Mamlūks. Professor Ostapchuk’s courses on Ottoman history and the Islamic steppe frontier helped to push the scope of this study beyond the core regions of the Islamic world into Central Asia and the Ottoman empire. Professor Subtelny’s course on medieval Persian ethical and advice literature was instrumental in shaping the direction I took in researching and writing this thesis. Reading about the diverse armies as they are described in the Siyāsat Nāmeh and the Qābūs Nāmeh inspired me to focus on the composition and structure of the Mamlūk army and to devise the Diversified Army Model, one of my military models at the center of this thesis. I was very happy to have Professor Virginia Aksan of McMaster University as my internal reader. Her positive attitude, encouragement, and sound advice helped to improve the thesis and broaden its horizons. Professor Aksan’s advice was especially helpful in broadening the scope of the study to include a section on the Ottomans highlighting the continuities and changes from the Mamlūk period after 1517 CE. v I would also like to thank Professor Walid Saleh of the University of Toronto for his encouragement and support as the graduate coordinator during the final stages of my PhD. Professor Saleh also graciously read the thesis and participated in the defense on short notice, for which I am very grateful. I am also grateful to my undergraduate History professors at the University of Toronto at Scarborough: Professors John Corbett, Modris Eksteins, Michael Gervers, Jonathan Pearl, and Stephen Rockel. Their inspirational teaching and love for the subject of history guided me onto the path of academia in this field. I am especially grateful to Professor Gervers who was not only my teacher, but also a good friend whose advice and support for me throughout my undergraduate and graduate studies have been invaluable. I wish to thank Professor Azita Taleghani of the University of Toronto for her excellent Persian language courses. Professor Taleghani’s teaching style made the arduous process of learning a new language smooth and enjoyable and equipped me with a language that allowed me to access sources and material I would have otherwise overlooked. Thanks are also due to Professor Shafique Virani who has kindly included me, time and again, in his research projects in the capacity of a research assistant. Throughout the years Professor Virani has been a wonderful friend and employer. I am also greatly indebted to Mrs. Anna Sousa, the Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations’ graduate coordinator. Mrs. Sousa attended to all of my administrative needs throughout the entire process with thoughtfulness, diligence, and care. Thanks are also due to Professors Timothy Harrison, Paul-Alain Beaulieu, and Robert Holmstedt as well as Maria Leonor Vivona, Jennie Jones, Megan Tate, Sandra Bremner, and Danielle Giles, the administrative staff and faculty of the NMC Department. I would also like to thank all my peers and friends who enriched my experience on this journey. I especially would like to thank Dr. Amar Baadj and Dr. Mustafa Banister for taking the time to read the thesis and to provide their feedback. I cannot imagine having undergone this journey without the love and support of my family. I cannot thank my parents, Dr. Ali Abdel Moneim Ali and Aranka Kereszturi, enough, who supported me wholeheartedly on my academic journey and whose love spanned across continents. I am grateful also to my in-laws, Mr. Aliasghar Daneshgar and Mrs. Mahin Dadkhahipour, who have been a second set of parents to me. I am very thankful for their constant support and their unconditional willingness to help out in any way in order to allow me to dedicate more time to work on this thesis. vi Finally, my wife, Maryam. Where would I be without your love, support, and patience? Words cannot express how grateful I am to you. Your unwavering faith and your constant encouragement gave me the strength and resolve to keep going, even when things were looking down. And my little Aydeen, thank you for brightening every one of my days with your smile and laughter. A father could never have hoped for a better son and best friend. vii Table of Contents Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………….ii Aknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………...v Periodical Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………xiv Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 1: Review of the Literature................................................………………………….16 Modern Scholarship on Mamlūk Military History……………………………………...16 1.1 New Approaches…………………………………………...………………..………16 1.11 Jo Van Steenbergen…………………………………………………………..16 1.12 Amina Elbendary……………………………………………………………..26 1.13 Julien Loiseau...………………………………………………………………29 1.14 Henning Sievert………………………………………………………………34 1.2 Earlier Research on Mamlūk Military History…………….………………...............40 1.21 David Ayalon.…………...…………………………………………………....40 1.22 Stephen Humphreys…………………………………………………………..47 1.23 Amalia Levanoni….……….………………………………………………….50 1.24 Reuven Amitai-Preiss…………………………….…………………………..54 1.3 Other Scholarship………………..…………………………………………………..69 1.4 Assessment of the Literature...………………………………………………………75
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