“We are the Prisoners of our Dreams:“ Long-distance Nationalism and the Eritrean Diaspora in Germany Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades des Doktors der Philosophie im Fachbereich Sozialwissenschaften der Universität Hamburg vorgelegt von Bettina Conrad aus Simmern/Hunsrück Hamburg, April 2010 Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Rainer Tetzlaff Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit Datum der mündlichen Prüfung: 14. Juli 2010 Copyright Bettina Conrad, 2012 Content __________________________________________________________________________ Acknowledgements iv Illustrations vi Abbreviations viii Glossary ix Introduction 1 The absent diaspora (or how I came to research “Eritrea Abroad”) 2 Researching “Eritrea Abroad”: chances and challenges 8 Some relevant themes and research questions 15 Conceiving the Eritrean diaspora: key terms and concepts 17 Overview and organisation 24 Chapter 1: From Exile to Diaspora: A Short History of the Eritrean Refugee Community in Germany 28 Of nationalism and exile: a background note on the beginnings of the Eritrean struggle 26 Early years of exile in Europe: before the EPLF, before “Unity in Diversity” 34 Eritreans for Liberation and the EPLF’s struggle for domination at home and abroad 40 Mass-flight and mass-mobilization: building the EPLF’s “infrastructure of absorption” 44 Adi ertra abroad: life in exile and the need for community 51 Beyond adi ertra: mobilising international solidarity and financial support 54 Free at last: going back or staying on? 60 i Chapter 2: “A Culture of War and a Culture of Exile.” Young Eritreans in Germany and their Relations to Eritrea 69 Long-distance nationalism, diaspora and the dilemmas of the second generation 66 Exile childhoods 71 Eritrean youth groups in Germany: between alienation and agitation 78 War and the transnational “Generation Warsay” 85 Strange encounters and lost illusions: ambiguous experiences 89 From myth of return to myth of origin: reinventing the diaspora 96 Beyond war and warsay: a transnational second generation in the making? 100 Chapter 3: CyberEritrea: Wars, Voices and (Di)Visions 107 Diasporas and the Internet: some ideas and questions 104 A short history of Eritrea-online 107 Dehai: from virtual home to cyber war 110 Other on-line warriors 116 Freedom or fragmentation? The un-imagining of Eritrean unity on the web 118 Chapter 4: The Warsay of Eritrea in Diaspora: Contested Identities Contested Identities in an On- and Off-line Diaspora Youth Organisation 128 Warsay of Eritrea in diaspora: the story of an on- and off-line youth movement 126 Warsay.de: whose warsa? – Claiming a virtual heritage 131 Squaring the circle, or ‘how to be a critical patriot’ 136 Transcending boundaries or creating new ones – limitations and chances for Web-use in 142 the diaspora Summary and outlook 149 Chapter 5: We are the Prisoners of our Dreams: Exit, Voice and Loyalty in the Eritrean Diaspora in Germany 156 Diasporas and homeland politics 153 Dilemmas of exit, voice and loyalty 155 The double face of loyalty 162 ii No channels for voice? 167 Of dreams and nightmares 174 Considering the alternatives: exit or disengagement 181 By way of conclusion: some consequences for the diaspora and for Eritrea 186 Chapter 6: From Revolution to Religion? The Politics of Religion in the Eritrean Diaspora in Germany 192 Religion in Eritrea 191 From a religious to a revolutionary people 193 “Back to the roots?“ The revival of religion in the context of diaspora-building 199 Precarious relations: religious and political networks in the diaspora 202 Chapter 7: Out of the ‘Memory Hole:’ Alternative Narratives of the Eritrean Revolution in the Diaspora 211 Ghosts in the closet 208 Eritrean “official history” and the exigencies of a nationalist mass movement 212 Diasporic nationalist narratives: collective memory and collective amnesia 215 The (re-)emergence of alternative diasporic narratives 221 Reconciling memories: some concluding remarks 227 Conclusion & Outlook 234 References 239 Lebenslauf 256 iii Acknowledgements __________________________________________________________________________ The list of people who contributed to this work in one way or the other, is long, and got all the longer as its completion drew out towards the end. While I am most grateful to all of them, any possible misinterpretation or factual fault is my sole responsibility. A large debt remains with numerous Eritrean interviewees and conversation partners, though for various reasons not all of them can be mention by name. Let me say Yegeniele - Thank you - Danke in this place! Others I can and must name personally: Goitom Ahferom helped me to make my first contacts within the Eritrean community in Germany. Sifaf Adem welcomed me to various events organised by and for Eritrean youth groups in Germany. Special thanks go to Huria Ogbamichael for the fruitful conversations and co- operations we had over the years. The Warsay youth group in Frankfurt has been particularly patient and hospitable and more than once offered me a platform to discuss my research with members and others that were interested. A group of friends took a lot of time to critically debate my research. With fondness I remember the late Bahlbi Kubrom as an open-minded, humorous interview partner, and a gifted narrator. Mehari Dunfo and Dr Abraham Gebreyesus, two more wonderful “storytellers,” have helped me to understand the complex challenges and social problems Eritrean exiles were, and still are, confronted with in Germany. Warm thanks also go to Salomon Ykealo for many a fruitful debate and the occasional liberating lament over the state of affairs in Eritrea, Germany and the world at large. I also wish to thank Zeresensay Ogbai for his friendship and guidance through the maze of Adi Ertra Frankfurt. In spite or because of our divergent political views, I learned a lot from our discussions. In Gaffar Kaladus, too, I found a friend and “battlesome” discussion partner to whom I owe many insights. Hagos, Isaac and others from the Eritrean opposition welcomed me to their Club and to various events. Temesghen Kubrom, as well as Abraham Gebreyesus Mehreteab and Yohannes Kidane from the Eritrean Anti-militarist Initiative, alerted me to the situation “new” Eritrean asylum seekers are faced with. Thank you for your interest, hospitality, patience, criticism and encouragement. Even where I choose not to adopt your views, they still have influenced my analysis and challenged me to probe my own world-view and level of tolerance. In Asmara, Yirgalem Keleta of NUEYS helped me to participate in the Know-Your- Country-Tour. Thanks also go to the tour participants for sharing their “home coming experience” with me. Kiflom Kidane, Ermias Adhanom, and “my little brother,” presented me with a local Eritrean perspective on the diaspora and provided insights into Eritrean everyday life. I am aware that there is little I can offer in return. I just hope this study may at least serve as a – however coarse, faulty and fragmentary – record of Eritrean diaspora life, and perhaps will inspire others to do further work on this topic. iv On the academic side, I was more than fortunate that Professor Rainer Tetzlaff agreed to supervise this study. I owe him great thanks for the enthusiasm and patience he accompanied this project with, and also for finally pushing me to complete it. Looking back, I realize how privileged I was to have experienced a remarkable spirit of cooperativeness, solidarity and integrity amongst the small transnational community of “Eritreanists” – including academics as well as activists and journalists. Eva-Maria Bruchhaus read my first exposé and facilitated many interesting contacts. Wolbert Smidt, too, put me in touch with other Eritrea-researchers and provided a sounding board for my early ventures into the “field.” Tom Dassel has been a knowledgeable and loyal friend to bounce ideas with: Thank you for sharing research materials and experiences and for providing technical support on many occasions! Mussie Tesfagiorgis, who also helped with some translation problems, and Christine Matzke, my “sister-in-crime,” were sympathetic listeners when times were rough. The amazing Günter Schröder served me as an all-around resource book on Eritrea and the Horn of Africa. Like few others, he embodies the spirit of academic sharing: not only of his sources, but also of his unparalleled insights and experiences. Heartfelt thanks go to Tricia Redeker Hepner for her continued “long-distance” friendship, the wonderful cooperation on the Diaspora issue of the Eritrean Studies Review and other projects. I am also very grateful for the advice, expertise and encouragement I received from Mengsteab Tesfayohannes, Nicole Hirt, Tekle Woldemichael, Abdulkadir Saleh, Amanuel Mehreteab, Victoria Bernal, the late Tekie Fessehatzion, Gaim Kibreab, Amanuel Melles, Jonas Berhe, Asia Abdulkadir, Yohannes Kidane and many others. Afe Adogame, Gabriele Cappai, Dieter Götze, Robert Hettlage, Roman Loimeier, Leif Manger, Munzoul Assal, Abdoulaye Gaye and Jim Spickard commented on parts of my work and/or invited me to contribute to a publication, but also inspired me look beyond the field of Eritrean studies. My fieldwork in Frankfurt would have been impossible without the hospitality of Jörg Rohm and the Matzke/Fey family. The lovely Michaela Koch did some last-minute proofreading of revised chapters. A big thank you goes to family and friends for various acts of kindness as well as for bearing with me when I would turn all conversation into a lecture on Eritrea. I am deeply indebted to Nikolai Weiss: thank you for your invaluable technical assistance, but even more so for your love and patience, and for forcing me to leave the treadmill occasionally – especially during the last nerve-racking stages of this endeavour. My largest personal debt, however, is with my colleague, friend and companion Tilman Schiel. All the way through the long process from developing a research idea to writing-up, I benefited immensely from your scholarship and your readiness to act as a sounding board. Thank you for your intellectual as well as your moral support and, most of all, for your continued friendship.