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Home , 1490s, Age of Discovery, Book of Privileges, Columbus Quincentenary, Exploration and Empire, Friedrich Katz

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AUTHOR Foard, Douglas, Ed.; Regoli, Michael, Ed. TITLE Columbia Quincentenary. Special Issue. INSTITUTION Organization of American Historians, Bloomington, IN. REPORT NO ISSN-0882-228X PUB DATE 91 NOTE 69p. PUB TYPE Collected Works Serials (022) Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher) (052) Guides Non- Classroom Use (055) JOURNAL CIT OAH Magazine of ; v5 n4 Spr 1991

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Elementary Secondary Education; Historiography; *History Instruction; InstructionalMaterials; Teaching Methods; History; *World History IDENTIFIERS *Columbus (Christopher); *ColumbusQuincentenary ABSTRACT This special theme issue of the OAHMagazine of History contains articles that presenta variety of perspectives on the Columbian Quincentenary--the 500thanniversary of 's voyages of . Thearticles include: "Exploring the Columbian Quincentenary through Historiography"(John Hebert); "Science, Religion, and Columbus'sEnterprise of the Indies" (Pauline Moffitt Watts); "Columbus's " (JoseManuel Nieta Soria); "The Columbian Quincentenary: A NecessaryReassessment" (Kirkpatrick Sale); "The Hemispheric Rootsof the Columbian Voyages" (Lynda N. Shaffer); "The Early Black Diasporain the : The First Century after Columbus" (Colin Palmer); "TheSeeds of Change" (Herman J. Viola); "The Columbian Voyages inHistorical Perspective" (Louis R. Harlan). Three lesson plans, ideasfor teachers, an annotated list of ERIC/ChESS educationalresources concerning Columbus and the impact of his discoverieson the world, and a National History Day quincentennial supplement alsoare included. (DB)

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1991-92 Releases in History

HISTORY AND PUBLIC POLICY PUBLIC HISTORY READINGS by David B. Mock (Ed.) by Phyllis K. Leffler & Joseph Brent Orig. Ed. 1991 (Public History) 228 pp. $22.50 Orig. Ed. 1992 (Public History) ISBN 0-89464-288-X Cl. ISBN 0-89464-433-5 $39.50 Ppb. ISBN 0-89464-434-3 $31.50 THE CONSTITUTION: Our Written Legacy by Joseph A. Melusky Orig. Ed. 1991 338 pp. THE BILL OF RIGHTS: Our Written Legacy Cl. ISBN 0-89464-334-7 $25.50 by Joseph A. Melusky & Whitman Ridgway Ppb. ISBN 0-89464-550-1 $19.50 Orig. Ed. 1992 Not Set ISBN 0-89464-533-1 THE BOMB by Keith Eubank CONTEMPORARY NATIONALISM Orig. Ed. 1991 (Anvil) Ppb. $11.95 PERSISTENT ISBN 0-89464-237-5 by Louis L. Snyder Orig. Ed. 1992 Ppb. Not Set THE HISTORY OF ISBN 0-89464-570-6 IN THE MILITARY: Double V by Gary A. Donaldson CORPORATE ARCHIVES AND HISTORY: Orig. Ed. 1991 192 pp. Not Set Making the Past Work ISBN 0-89464-514-5 by Arnita A. Jones & Philip L. Cantelon Orig. Ed. 1992 (Public History) Not Set PIRATES AND ISBN 0-89464-353-3 OF THE by Jenifer Marx UNITED STATES AND Orig. Ed. 1991 RELATIONS Cl. ISBN 0-89464-483-1 $32.50 by Edelgard E. Mahant Ppb. ISBN 0-89464-633-8 $21.50 Orig. Ed. 1992 (Anvil) Ppb. Not Set ISBN 0-89464-522-6 BLACK AMERICAN MUSIC: Past and Present by Hildred Roach 2nd Ed. 1991 Not Set ISBN 0-89464-580-3

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.attik olasene S. Number 4 Spring 1991

4/OBSTEDiTOR MAGAZINE OF HISTORY 'DOng1tie Farrar ',.._MANA00.10. EDITOR FOR .1E,VCHERS OF HISTORIC woe &Iola :ASSISTANT EDITOR The Columbian QuincentenaryA Special Section lascliA. broker .nADVORTISINCI4ANA6Ek. liarb Exploring the Columbian Quincentenary Through Historiography 11 ;*.C/RCIJIIATION MANAGER John Hebert Karrit.HamM,. Science, Religion, and Columbus's Enterprise of the Indies 14 EDITORIAL OTTE/MS: Pauline Moffitt Watts Laura C. Stiele;; 18 : T. Volta Columbus's Spain Jose Manuel Nieto Soria iADViSORIT BOARD The Columbian Quincentenary: A Necessary Reassessment 20 ;flea: P. Admnonitt' Kirkpatrick Sale Anhe AnMdel County Schools The Hemispheric Roots of the Columbian Voyages 24 Annapolis,Maryland, GeorgiBurion Lynda N. Shaffer Aspen High Sett ool The Early Black Diaspora in the Americas: The First Aspen; Calorado Century After Columbus 27 Mary A- 01°0° National Historical Publications Colin Palmer and ReCords Commission TheSeeds of Change 31 Washington, DC Herman J.Viola Scott Orieinveil The Columbian Voyages in Historical Perspective 35 BOurniful.JuniOr High School Bountiful, Utah Louis R. Harlan George Henry, Jr. Highland High School. Departments and Columns Salt 4Ice City, Utah Maritynn Ilitchens World History Association FROM THE EDITOR 3 Denver, Colorado William J. McCracken DIALOGUE Pine View School 5 Samiota, Florida History's Great Surprise: The American Indian Lynette ()Alma DavidWarren University. Of New Bertram Wyatt BroWn ON TEACHING University of Florida 7 OAH Executive Board Liaison Teaching the Columbian Quincentenary Ex Officio Members Marjorie W. Bingham Terrie Epstein Chair, OAH Committee on Teaching LESSON PLANS College 36 Anthony J. Beninati A Year Long Voyage of Investigation Director, History Teaching Alliance Mary Ann Barnard University of Florida An Examination of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition 41 James A. Percoco ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN HISTORIANS Before Oglethorpe: Hispanic and Indian Cultures ee Appleby, President ryfrances Berry, Past President in the Southeast United States 43 Amite A. Jonts,Acting Executive Secretary Carmen Chaves Tesser and Charles Hudson The OAH MacanatiorifurbitrispublishedOarterly by the Organization of American Historians, 112 North Bryan.Street,Sloomington, Indiana 47408 -. NATIONAL HISTORY DAY SUPPLEMENT 4199, telephone 1812) 855-73-11. FAX: (812) 855 - 0696. Those interested in contributing articles, National History Day Commemorates the Columbian Quincentenary 49 purchasing advertising obtaining back issues or subscribing, should contact the Managing Editor. Lois Scharf and Cathy Corn The opinions expressed by authors or contributors -do not necessarily reflect theopinions or policies of the OAH or the OAH MAGAZINE OF thsrptty. EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Materials in the OAH MAGAZINE OF Elmer be Christopher Columbus: Bridge Between the Old and 47 freely covied for classroom use and must include a acknowledging the source. Vickie J. Schlene The OAH Madame or Huroxy is available on microform and article copiesthrough University 62 Microfilms Inc., 800 North Zeeb Road, Ann Atilor, HISTORY HEADLINES Michigan 48106. (800)521-0600 Copyright 0 1991 by the Organization of On the cover: From Paolo Giovio.Elogia vivorum bellica virtute illustrium, American Historians. ISSN 0882-228X Basel, 1575, courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library at Brown University.

4 A Call for Contributions

The OAH Magazine of History invites you to contribute to our upcoming issues. Our regular columns include:

Letters to the Editor DialogueA forum for issues on the teaching of history. Classroom MediaA column that explores the use of a wide range of media. National History DayA Discussion of National History Day projects. StudentspeakA column to present student opinions and views concerning history. On TeachingA discussion and analysis on various teaching strategies and activities. Lesson PlansLessons for the subject period or topic of each issue.

Topics of Upcoming Issues

History Education Reform National History Day 1993: Communication Use in History History of Sport, Recreation and Leisure Teaching the History of Religion Foreign Policy Teaching Minority History

Selection of articles will be made on the basis of interest and usefulness for our audience and the appropriateness of style. We welcome articles that are broadly related to the topic, especially articles with a multicultural approach. Authors are encouraged to query the Managing Editor about specific deadlines and topics before submitting materials.

Guidelines

Submissions should not exceed ten double-spaced typewritten pages. Longer articles may be condensed by the Guest Editor if accepted. Regular columns (Dialogue, On Teaching, Classroom Media) should approximate fifteen-hundred to two- thousand words in length. Lesson Plans arc one to two thousand words in length. Articles should be written in a style that is readable and accessible for a broad audience of high school, junior high school, and college teachers interested in all aspects of history education, including recent scholarship, curriculum, and de- velopments in educational methodology. The Magazine uses The Manual of Style (Chicago: Press, 1982). Authors should use the Author-Date System for documentation and keep footnotes to an absolute minimum. For bibliography and reference lists, we prefer that you use "Style A" for literature, history and the arts, as outlined in section 16.5 of the Chicago Manual, 13th ed. If your article has been prepared on an IBM or compatible word processing system, we would appreciate your sending us a copy of the article on 51/4" or 31/2" double-sided, double-density diskette along with the printed manuscript. Please include information about current and former teaching positions. We would appreciate your including or suggesting appropriate illustrations for your article. We encourage you to add your own lesson plans, ideas for discussion, etc., to an article that would be appropriate for use in the classroom. We invite you to send your submissions, questions, or comments to: Michael Regoli, Managing Editor OAH Magazine of History Organization of American Historians 112 North Bryan Street Bloomington, Indiana U.S.A. 47408-4199 (812) 855-7311 (8a-5p EST) (812) 855-0696 FAX [email protected] 411111,

2 OAH Magazine of history From the Editor

The Dawn of

ne Spanish writer, Ramiro de we have endeavored to be as universal Maeztu, described the events as possible in our approach to the sub- The Quincentenary of that dawn in October 1492, as "the ject. The reader will find, therefore, first moment in universal history." He that articles appear from a multitude of will afford us access believed that the real significance of perspectives and from a variety of to major issues while Columbus's voyage was that it her- specializations within the discipline. alded the attainment of an ancient Each in its own way is meant to be demonstrating the idealthe creation of a common hu- suggestive of the surprising new di- man experience, the "ecumene" of mensions contemporary historical vital of his- which the Greeks had only dreamed. scholarship is bringing to this familiar torical inquiry. We denizens of this century's "glo- subject and in-dicative as well of the bal village," especially those of us fascinating avenues of inquiry still charged with introducing the next gen- awaiting . erationtoitscultural patrimony, In completing the endeavor, we should be gratified at the timing of the have received invaluable assistance Douglas W. Foard forthcoming quincentenary obser- from Dr. John Hebert and his staff at vances. Beneath the anniversary's su- the Library of Congress, Dr. Herman perficial manifestations (the regattas, Viola, Craig Reynolds and his col- the parades, the commemorative T- leagues at the National Museum of shirts) there will be an unparalleled Natural History in Washington, D.C., opportunity to engage in our own ex- the staff at the Smithsonian Institution plorations of the origins and nature of Press, and Dr. Joel and his staff the ecumene and its increasing impact at Indiana University's Lilly Library. upon the way we live. The Columbian Several articles selected for this edition Quincentenary will afford us easy ac- derive from a teacher institute hosted cess to some of the major issues of our for National History Day last summer own time (such as global interdepen- by the Library of Congress with the dence and cultural pluralism) while si- support of the National Endowment for multaneously demonstrating the vital the Humanities. We hope that this pub- nature of historical inquiry. lication will prove a worthy vehicle for Douglas W. Foard is secretary of the We have assembled this edition of disseminating the ideas spawned at that Phi Beta Kappa Society in Washington, the Magazine of History on the basis of gathering and perhaps even encourag- D.C. and author of The Revolt of the those assumptions and, in keeping ing a championship entry in the 1991- Aesthetes. with the nature of the quincentenary, 92 National History Day competi

Spring 1991 3 Launch the New Year with SEARCH and DiscoverColumbus.

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Scholastic's FREE-TRIAL SUBSCRIPTION OFFER and GUARANTEE Scholastic SEARCHExploring the American Adventure Use SEARCH with your students for 30 Just $5.95 per student * days. During this trial period, you may for 8 exciting monthly issues revise your order or even cancel it by NAME marking the invoice. Your satisfaction Estimate is positively guaranteed or you don't the number pay. No matter what you decide, you of copies SIGNATURE are welcome to keep your trial issues you will of SEARCH absolutely FREE. need: SCHOOL

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History's Great Surprise: The American Indian

t is somewhat superficial to ad- American Indians." The Spanish monar- 1dress the encounter of 1492 by chy was sufficiently disturbed about this Europeans were ul- asking whether it was good or bad. No issue that it called a five-year halt to the matter which of those labels might be expansion of its domain in the Americas. timately attempting preferred, the undeniable fact is that con- Ultimately a new concept of international tact occurred and launched a train of events law would emerge from the deliberations. to convince the Indi- which continues right into our own day. The Spanish Crown was looking for a way Furthermore, by focusing on the horren- to accommodate native Americans within ans by one means or dous transformation of the New World, we the institutional and bureaucratic structure tend to overlook the equally profound revo- of its . It was seeking a mechanism another to cease be- lution touched off in the by to bring them in as nothing more and, in ing Indians. news of the existence of those of us whom many ways nothing less, than the citizenry Columbus described as "Indians." of the rest of the Spanish realm. Our presence effectively wrecked an The subsequent English approach was intellectual framework that had developed somewhat different. They attempted to in the West over a period of millennia, deal with Indian societies as sovereign David Warren dating hack at least as far as 's entities, a theoretical notion which abides division of mankind into civilized men and with us in the United States to this day. "natural slaves." The encounter with the Neither approach, of course, resolved the Ncw World's peoples threw that whole fundamental anomaly; i.e., that the Indian reference system into a cocked hat. Here was simply alien to European categories of was a place and a people that could not be thought. The colonial powers did the best fitted into the existing theological explana- they could to mold the native Americans tions of creation ncr accepted definitions into those categories. They sent mission- of social and political institutions. We aries among them to change their religions weren't , nor were we , and and invented innumerable designs for inte- manifestly we were not Christians. The grating the indigenous populations into Indians fit nowhere into the previously - European- style social and political sys- existing European intellectual universe, tems. The results have not been satisfac- which promptly crumbled. tory because the Europeans were ultimately Lewis Hankc has given attempting to convince the Indians by one us a wonderful sketch of the revolutionary means or another to cease being Indians. impact of this realizatiOn in such bench- The anomaly of 1492 persists today. mark works ashis All Mankind is One Indians are a people who come from (Northern University Press, 1974), the land. Itis more than a territorial David Warren is deputy director of the a study of the debates that raged in Spain concept; the land gives us our identity. In National Museum of the American Indian. during the mid-sixteenth century on "the the United States, the concept endures in Smithsonian Institution. intellectual and religious capacity of the the microcosm of the reservation, which is

Spring 1991 8 5 recognized within the structure and policy hundred years to remake the heart and soul As a result of the manifest failure of that of the federal system as belonging to the of the native Americans so that they might decade's federal policy of assimilation, Indians. They are places where the Indian conform to the institutions brought here by Indians themselves have been striving to has a sense of his or her own identity, where the Europeans. As late as the 1950s in this reconstruct their communities, not just the tribal government continues to operate country, Indians were again subjected to a economically but culturally. Consequently, for better or worse. They are home to the policy of federal abandonment, the even- there is less outward migration from the extended family, the lineage which links tual termination of all responsibility on the reservations and many who had previously the individual to the land, and (particularly part of tl,e central government for the moved to the cities are now returning to in the southwestern United States) the res- maintenance of the reservation system. A their homelands. Our young people are staying, too. Census figures tell us that today forty-five percent of 's Indian population is Are we and have we been a precivilized people, under twenty years of age. Among the Navaho, the median age is only seventeen. whose transition is to be studied, or peoples of The same reports tell us that a mere five a rich heritage whose cultures may hold in- percent of our population is age sixty-five or older. So we have a very small group of sights into the survival of mankind? tradition bearers who are being sought out by a very large and youthful generation, eager to acquire the kind of knowledge that ervations are seen as sacred spaces where "sink or swim" (conform or perish) move- once was available in every extended fam- our traditional shrine areas are located. By ment was allegedly at hand. That endeavor ily.Self-determination, therefore, is not maintaining this identification with place, failed, predictably and miserably. In re- only an economic or political endeavor; it the Indian experiences a relationship with cent years, there have been some encour- is cultural as well. an almost uninterrupted heritage that pre- aging developments. The passage in 1975, We want to make our new Museum dates the arrival of the Christians and the for example, of the act recognizing the of the American Indian in Washington, establishment in this hemisphere of a so- authority of tribal governments was en- D.C. a part of this repatriation process. It cial order that was not ours. couraging, as was the 1978 statute which will, of course, be a place to show continu- In the past century, while some were ext ended constitutional guarantees to the ity from the "traditional past" into a still concerned that we Indians were a vanish- practice of native American religions. not clearly defined future. But it will also ing race, others, who considered ther Some of these same issues are now he a place that will accommodate per- selves reformers, eagerly sought to bring affecting the museum world, especially in forming artists and serious scholars. The native Americans into the "mainstream." connection with "repatriation"the return best of material culture (both contempo- In the 1890s, we had the appearance of all of Indian remains to tribal custody rather rary and traditional) will be displayed there, the great off-reservation boarding schools. than museum curatorship. This question but we are also seeking to make the mu- Their function was to train Indian children reflects the persistence of nineteenth cen- seum a part of an informational exchange to create nuclear families, become farm- tury concerns that native Americans were network that will employ the latest tech- ers, and work the land in individual plots. a vanishing people and is also reminiscent nology to link young and old learners to our In short, they were to be detribalized. of the sixteenth-century debate in Spain. collection, our research efforts, and our In spite of these "reforms," the reser- Are we and have we been, after all, a pre- public programs. vation persisted and we continue to recog- civilized people, whose transition is to be One of our goals is to download the nize the Indian within this self-governing studied, or peoples of a rich heritage whose resources of the museum into a commu- entity. In , meanwhile, we cultures may hold insights into the survival nications system that will permit any child are witnessing areal effort on the part of the of mankind? in this country to have access to our hold- Indians to reidentify themselves, not merely We are hoping that the National Mu- ings. We want them to investigate for as vassals of the Crown or members of the seum of the American Indian will be much themselves the treaties, the photographs, national society, but as distinct cultural more than a repository. In fact, the plan- and the recordings of Indian music that entities. Consciousness of language, cer- ning process has already demonstrated that, were made in the late nineteenth and early emonial customs, and potential political in designing the facility and its mission, the twentieth centuries. We envision the power fuel this awakening. Smithsonian is simply catching up with museum to be a place of exploring and In effect, there has been an effort developments which have been underway interpreting this most fascinating of all throughout the hemisphere these past five in the Indian community since the 1950s. anomaliesthe American Indian. CI

6 9 OAH Magazine of History On Teaching

Teaching the Columbian Quincentenary

my hunch is that many American Sea," whereas in Gianni Granzotto's more historyteachers inwardly groan recent work, Christopher Columbus: The There are, I believe, at at the thought of yet one more anniver- Dream and the Obsession, he is portrayed sary-1492to commemorate.Barely as a magnificent bungler, a Don Quixote, least six major ways to recovered from the bicentennial of the pursuing a confused image of the world. Constitution and its ratification, still en- Advanced students might do a compara- celebrate this anniver- gaged in a similar recognition of the Bill of tive treatment of Columbus from these Rights, teachers may long for breathing works, of teachers might use Morison and sary with some sensi- space with no anniversary guilts. Further- Granzotto for a contrasting thematic frame- tivity within the school more, the Columbian Quincentenary seems work.Student debates or papers could particularly conflict-laden although, as respond to this contrast. curriculum. Thurgood Marshall pointed out, the ratifi- There are conflicting choices of is- cation of the original Constitution was not lands where he may first have landed in necessarily a celebratory occasion for Af- 1492. For those interested in the landfall rican Americans, native Americans, or controversy, (No- Marjorie W. Bingham women. But, at least, later civil rights and vember, 1986), devoted a special issue to suffrage movements could be examined the subject with Joseph Judge as editor. and heroes of both sexes, several races, and While the Geographic settles on Samana many ethnic groups could join those"demi- Cay as the scene of Columbus's first land- gods" (as Jefferson called them) of the ing in the Americas, the controversy con- Constitutional Era. tinues. Particularly for students who like Commemorating 1492 is still more computer puzzles of wind speeds, ocean complex and teachers need to think through currents, and topographical island maps, for themselves how complicated instruc- this debate may be of interest. For a series tion may be, especially for native Ameri- of articles at the secondary reading level, cans and African American students, whose teachers may use American History Illus- ancestors were often adversely affected by trated (January/, 1991), which the voyages and their aftermath.There pursues the question, "Where Did Colum- are, I believe, at least six major ways to bus Land?" Also, those who enjoy using celebrate this anniversary with some sensi- original documents may want to find an tivity within the school curriculum. older "Jackdaw" packet, "Columbus and Marjorie W. Bingham teaches at St. Louis 1. Focusing on Columbus may seem the Discovery of America," published in Park Senior High School in St. Louis Park, the most simple approach, yet there arc 1964 that contains maps, letters, and wood- Minnesota, and is an NEH Teacher) plenty of controversies. We do not, for cuts concerning the voyages. Scholar. She is chair of the History example, have a clear sense of Columbus's John Parker of the James Ford Bell Teaching Alliance Oversight Committee early background.In Samuel Eliot Library narrowed down the "essentials" and a charter member of the 0A11 Maga- Morison's classic biography, Columbus upon which a teacher might focus.His zine of History Advisory Board. appears as a capable " of the Ocean suggestions were three: a) 's

Spring 1991 10 7 Th. Noah Amoricon, Library of Congress

F

4

*w

Of the hoofed mammals brought to the New World by Iberian colonists in 1519, only the horse had no surviving North American relatives. The nativepeoples were among the first groups to readapt to these new animals that once roamed freely before their extinction some ten thousand years before.

Globe(toillustrateColumbus's peat effort to understand the world after reconsu I ted and new maps from an "age of worldview); b) Columbus's 1493 letter the , the fall of Byzantium, and exploration" were developed. about his voyages; and c) selections from advent of the . One of the 3.While the two approaches men- TheLog of Christopher Columbus,newly newest aids to teachers taking this ap- tioned above have been "traditional" ways translated by Robert H. Fuson. TheLog is proach is the PBS television series, "The of teaching about Columbus, their empha- an excellent source for students because so Shape of the World." Students and teach- sis on explorers as heroes has been severely many of the issues of how Columbus treated ers can obtain free packets of materials on questioned. Much of the controversy over native Americans and his calculations about the series from IBM. Each school also can the quincentenary is whether it should be wealth and honor are readily apparent for receive a free, ninety-minute videocas- celebrated at all. As the historian Alfred students analysis.Perhaps one way to sette of series excerpts. In addition, there W. Crosby said, 1492 made a "charnel handle this source is to divide the class and are various new geographic aids from Rand house" of the Americas. For teachers and have students read different sections of the McNally and the National Geographic advanced students, the clearest and briefest Log,looking at the same time for what Society, such as the McNally's Antique statement of this position is probably might be "celebrated" and what not. Map series. These may be especially help- Crosby's pamphlet, "The Columbian Voy- 2. Another way of teaching 1492 is to ful for teachers developing lessons on how ages, the , and Their see Columbus as part of a Western Euro- world views changed as old maps were Historians," published and distributed by

8 1.1 OAHMagazine of History the American Historical Association. Here Queen Isabel, but she was a vague presence tion of European attitudes toward women. the destructive quality of the European rather like a fairy godmother setting Co- Ways of teaching women's history might intrusion is recounted, both in terms of the lumbus off to the ball. Now, in the '90s, include looking at specific cultures, like diseases the Europeans introduced and the there is much more material on women's the Inca, or reading Columbus's Lt-,p with labor, crops, and metals which they ex- history to use for the quincentenary. The his claims that he was protecting women's tracted from the hemisphere. current controversy of Isabel's proposed "honor" even as he kidnapped them for use A new (1991) set of "Jackdaw" mate- elevation to sainthood makes a good exer- as interpreters. Materials for teachers would rials emphasizes cultural "encounters" cise for students about varying percep- include Marysa Navarro's section on Latin rather than the notion of "discovery" as tions. But, as Granzotto's biography makes America inRestoring Women to history: descriptive of the events of 1492. Indeed, apparent, Columbus was sustained by a 'I.,. aching Packetsfor IntegratingWomen' s the new scholarship on the period makes network of women: his first wife, Felipa History into Courses on Africa, , Latin the point of ethnocentric language (such as Moniz, gave him contacts with the nobil- America, the Caribbean, and the Middle Columbus's "discovery" of people who ity; his mother-in-law turned over her East (Organization of American Histori- knew quite well where they were) is sus- husband's navigational charts to him; his ans, 1988; second edition, 1990), pect. Terms such as the "New World" need Nash Safa'sSex and Class in Latin America, qualification in recognition of the fact that and volume one ofWomen in Latin America contact meant two new worlds on both by Susan Gross and myself. sides of the Atlantic, or perhaps many new 6.One more way of teaching the worlds as various cultures were shaped and In spite of all its dif- quincentenary is to focus on pre-Columbian reshaped by the experience. A new source ficulties, it seems to culture, whether it he Inca, Carib, Aztec, or book edited by Mervin Luncnfeld,149!, Navaho. Aim at student understanding of Discovery, Invasion, Encounter(D. C. me that this anniver- these people as they were before the Heath, 1991), does a good job of presenting West intruded upon their lives. By tak- the historiographical issues and includes sary, the Columbian ing this approach, students may gain a original documents as well as discussion greater sense of the changes that oc- questions for each section. Quincentenary, calls curred after 1492, both good and had. Once 4. But if the concept of the"Columbian again, teachers might consider dividing the Exchange" implies an interaction of Atlan- for teachers to pay class into smaller groups, each one focus- tic communities, the story may become extra attention to the ing on a different Amerindian culture. even more complex from the perspective This structure may underscore the point of world history. The closing of the emphasis and value that the responses to the Europeans of the roads with the fall of Byzantium, the rise of indigenous peoples of this hemisphere the Scljeck Turks, the Chinese explora- they place on an varied because the "New World" was a tions, the known Viking travels, the recog- complex place. nition of the African continent's event. This list of six ways to teach the and labor resourcesall form a complex quincentenary by no means exhausts the picture of global interaction.Teachers methods or sources available. The Ameri- might wish to take the year of 1492, divide mistress, Marquisn de Moya, arranged his can Historical Association, for example, their class to represent different parts of contacts with the Queen; his common-law will be publishing a series of pamphlets on the world at that time, and sec how the wife, Beatrice, supported him financially; the quincentenary which should he of par- respective areas contributed to and were and the governor of one of the Canary ticular value to teachers. In spite of all its influenced by the momentous events of Islands, Beatrice de Bobdilla, helped to difficulties, it seems to me that this anni- that single twelve-month period.Janet outfit his . versary calls for teachers to pay extra atten- Abu-Lughod'sBefore European hege- But another way to approach the sub- tion to the emphasis and value they place mony: The World System, AD 1250-1350, ject through women's history is to look at on the event. suggests interactions leading to the Co- the impact of European culture on native celebrated the Columbian Quatracentenary lumbus voyages. American women's lives.The work of a century ago with his famous essay on how 5. Remembering my days in the 1960s scholars such as June Nash, Irene the frontier keeps recreating "new worlds," teaching "the Age of Exploration" to the Silverblatt, and Ferdenand Anton, suggest overcoming the "savages" who originally eighth grade, I think that the girls and I got the variety of women's roles in pre- were there.Perhaps in our 1992 obser- pretty tired of one male explorer and map- Columbian America and the subsequent vances we can recognize the losses - maker after another. Of course, there was narrowing of choices down to the imposi- ity endured as well as its adventures.

9 Spring 1991 12 phics presents a New Educational Video Series The Great Explorers Video Series 011111494 a The drama, the daring, the imagination, the determina- ; Columbus tir.o. and sometimes the desperation of the courageous Quincentenar:t srt inmml..141.11.S explorers of the ages past are presented in The Great Explorers Videos Series. Utiliz. ng extensive on-site, live coverage, interviews with experts from , the Car . ibbean and the United States, along with extensive foot- age from the world's archives, libraries, and museums, the series discusses the challenges, the controversies and the cultural confrontations, starting with the most fa- mous of them all, Christopher Columbus.

"Christopher Columbus: Admiral of the Ocean Sea" The Admiral of the Ocean Sea videotape is ideal for classrooms, presenting in one thirty- minute program a balanced, colorful, and complete story, certain to be of interest as the nation marks the 500th anniversary of that famous first voyage.

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30-minute video, $75. Expanded Columbus Programming Reference Books

15-minute ($59) or 30-minute ($95) video. Celebrating Christopher Columbus Columbus: Man and Myth A collection of reprinted essays that pro- Columbus: The First Voyage vides an overview of Columbus's life and Columbus: Search for achievements. $48. Columbus: The New World Columbus: God and Gold Columbus: An Annotated Guide to the Columbus: Later Voyages Scholarship on His Life and Writings Columbus: The Landfall Debate Created as a new guide for history students, 45-minute video, $95. scholars, teachers, and thesis directors. $48. La Genovesita di Colombo 50-minute video, in Italian, $175. Columbus Dictionary Ready reference on hundreds of persons, Posters(set of 30, 27' x 39") places and events associated with Colum- Columbus Poster Exhibit created by the bus and his voyages of discovery. $48. Italian Ministry of Culture. $425 set. Columbus Documents: Summaries of Plaques Documents in Featuring Columbus, Magellan, or A guide to the letters, documents, . $25 each. and books dealing with the Genoese rle origins of Columbus. $60. annpapies

Penobscot Building Free Columbus Poster Detroit, Ml 48226 with your Video Order Phone: 800-234-1340 Fax: 800-875-1340 13 Exploring the Columbian Quincentenary Through Historiography

John Hebert

The sheer volume of interest that people have been writing about the man, as subjected to harsher treatment by writers. has been and is being generated a real person or as a myth. I am not sure that There is no simple answer to these interpre- with respect to the five hundredth anniver- one will have much success in separating tations. Teachers need to be aware of the sary ofColumbus's 1492 voyage to America fact from fiction but there are a number of variant interpretations of Columbus and makes it necessary for the teacher to pre- publications that will give some assistance. keep handy a number of companion docu- pare for the inevitable onslaught of ques- The classic work on Columbus has been ments that provide closer contact with tions and demands that will occur. It seems 's Admiral of the Columbus and his times. A litany of such that only every hundred years does the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Colum- publications includes Oliver Dunn and historical profession take stock of what is bus (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1942) James Kelley's The Diario of Christopher happening in the study of Columbus and which provides a useful chronology of the Columbus' s irstVoyage to America,1492- the development of lasting contact be- life and times of the Admiral in a most 1493. (Norman: University of tween America and Europe in the late favorable light.Availing himself of the Press, 1989) which provides an English fifteenth and early sixteenth centu- translation of the Las Casas render- ries.This brief essay will discuss ing of the long lost diary of the some of the publications that I have voyage; Consuelo Varela' s Cristobal found most useful in understanding The approach to the subject Colon;textosy documentos this very interesting and very impor- completos /relaciones de viajes , tant part of American history. must be broad in order to cartas y memoriales (Madrid: The approach to the subject must Alianza, 1982) which provides full be broad in order to provide the rich provide the rich and diverse transcriptions of Columbus's writ- and diverse context in which the ings; Fernando Coldn's The Life of voyage of Columbus occurred. For context in which the voyage Admiral Christopher Columbus by the study of the last voyages of ex- of Columbus occurred. HisSonFerdinand (Westport, Conn.: ploration to America in the fifteenth Greenwood Press, 1959), translated century, starting with Columbus, it by Benjamin Keen, which is an ac- is necessary to look at the various count by the son of Columbus pre- publications about Christopher Columbus, pertinent documents in existence on Co- pared in the mid-sixteenth century; Foster to look at the society out of which he lumbus, Morison wove a readable account. Provost's Columbus: An Annotated Guide emergedthe Mediterranean, to look at More recent scholarship, for example to the Study on His Life andWritings,1750- the spirit of exploration in the period, to Kirkpatrick Sale's The Conquest of Para- 1988 (Detroit: Oinnigraphics,1991) which look at America and its societies on the eve dise:Christopher Columbus and the gives clear descriptions of more than eight of European arrival, and finally, to review Columbian Legacy (: Alfred A. hundred publications on every facet of materials about the impact of contact in Knopf, 1990), approaches the subject from Columbus's life and exploits. On a lighter America. The study of Columbus's voy- a differentperspective when he casts note, Provost authored Columbus: Dream age of 1492 is a story about America and doubt on the Admiral's intentions and sug- and Act: A Tragic Suite (Providence: John the people and the cultures found in it. gests that the arrival of Europeans to late Carter Brown Library, 1986). To most educators the volume of ma- fifteenth-century America caused lasting Those who enter the subject of Colum- terials about Christopher Columbus is over- ecological damage to the world's environ- bus soon realize that he was not acting whelming. For some five hundred years ment. In recent years, Columbus has been alone and that his actions would have been

11 Spring 1991 14 Lilly Library, Voyages to Americas, 1617-34

The process of encounter and exchange that Columbus initiated hashadalasting impact on both the Old World and the L. New.European newcomers experienced a great diversity of cultures, multiplicity of languages, and later, a great deal of conflict, upon their arrival to the Americas.

impossible without the support of a huge guin, 1970); Ruth Pike's Aristocrats and recent years especially when it has been cast of players. A brief review of the Traders: Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth used incorrectly. Some literature that will Mediterranean world at the time of Colum- Century (Ithaca: Press, assist us in aspects of exploration and bus is necessary to give context to what has 1972); A.C. de C.M. Saunders's A Social contact, from mainly the European per- been treated as a singular actor story. What History of Black Slaves and Freedom in spective, but not primarily, include the two was that world out of which Columbus , 1441-1555 (New York: Cam- volume First Images of America: The Im- emerged? To obtain some inkling, the bridge University Press, 1982); and Franco pact of the NewWorld on the Old, edited by student should look at 's Cardini's Europe 1492: Portrait of a Con- Fredi Chiappelli (Berkeley: University of monumental The Mediterranean and the tinent Five IlundredYears Ago (New York: California Press, 1976); Louis de Vorsey's Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip Facts on File, 1989). The Cardini book is Keys to the Encounter (Washington, Li- 11(2 volumes, New York: Harper and Row, a general treatment of European life at the brary of Congress, 1991); and William P. 1972). The first volume is most important end of the fifteenth century. Cumming's et al., The Discovery of North in that a picture of the Mediterranean as a In the period of exploration that pre- America (New York: American Heritage diverse cultural entity becomes evident. dates Columbus's 1492 voyage, but which Press, 1972). The First Images work con- Add to this selective readings in Ida was heightened by that exploit, a number tains fifty-six separate essays on Renais- Altman's Emigrants and Society: of publications are extremely important in sance and discovery, myth and literature in Extremadura and America in the Sixteenth providing information about maps, charts, America, politics and conflict, governing Century (Berkeley: University of Califor- , and exploration. In years past the New World, images in the arts, books nia Press, 1989); William A. Christian's this literature would have been described on the New World, language, geography, Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain as material from the , and movement ofpeople, and scienceand trade. (Princeton:Princeton University Press, for Europe it was precisely thatas it reached It combines both old and new scholarship 1981); John Huxtable Elliott's Imperial out to unfamiliar parts of the world. The that provides a broad array of topics for the Spain, 1469-1716 (Harmondsworth: Pen- term discovery has taken quite a beating in classroom setting. Professor de Vorsey's

15 OAH Magazine of History recent publication Keys to the Encounter tions. Swanton's work is encyclopedic in Nahuas After the Conquest (Stanford: addresses both the contact of America and presentation and, therefore, becomes a Stanford University Press, 1992) provide a Europe and the collections of the Library of working tool for the harried teacher. good bookshelf of publications to review Congress that contribute to understanding Finally, the review of the period of the various facets of the ini'' .' contact the subject of encounter; Cumming's ex- initial contact must look at the conse- period throughout the Americas. tremely fine publication The Discovery of quences of the meeting of Europe and I have given a number of publications incorporates translations of America in the late fifteenth and early that can be of use in the study of the period contemporary documents related to Euro- sixteenth centuries. Herein lie the greatest of Columbus's voyage to America and the pean contact with America in the fifteenth, pitfalls for the teacher, since it is in this European contact and conquest of the sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. topic that the most divergent views appear. . The study of this No study of the Columbian voyages I am not sure how to steer the teacher time period is very important since out of can proceed without consideration of the through the maze of topics; sometimes one it came the shape of the entities that we peoples and the cultures of America before must simply jump into the morass. As is refer to today as the Americas. A caution and during European contact. A healthy known, the arrival of the European new- to all who enter this important study. Try recognition of the extent of the Americas' comers to America was not without major to remember to consider the study of the development, the diversity of the cultures, and lasting impact on the peoples of the period from the understanding of that time the multiplicity of languages, and interests Americas. New administration, military in history and not as we would wish it to be of the people who confronted the European implements, diseases, and organizations today. Too often history is understood newcomers after 1492, provides a com- complicated and devastated existing soci- from today's perspective and is rewritten plete approach to understanding of the eties throughout the hemisphere. New in that fashion. Now, the meaning of that significance of the Columbian voyage. relationships emerged and continue to history, in light of the present, is a neces- Numerous works exist for the study of pre- emerge. Studies such as Alfred W. Crosby's sary path to follow. The significance of 1492 America including Friedrich Katz's The Columbian Exchange: Biological and those past events, e.g., Columbus's voy- The Ancient American (New York:Praeger, 1972); Miguel Leon- Portilla's Aztec Thought and Culture (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963); ColumbianConsequences:Archaeo- The review of the period of initialcontact must logical and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands West, edited by David look at the consequences of the meeting of Hurst Thomas, (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989); and Manuel Luccna Europe and America in the late fifteenth and Salmoral's America 1492: Portrait of a early sixteenth centuries. Herein lie thegreat- Continent 500 Years Ago (New York: Facts on File, 1990). Collectively, these provide est pitfalls for the teacher, since it is in this a broad view of the diverse societies that populated the Americas before 1492. Ob- topic that the most divergent viewsappear. viously, study of these societies should include references to Indian peoples in the present-day United States, hence the David Hurst Thomas work reviews societies in Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport: age, the encounter with American societ- the U.S. Southwest. Other studies, includ- Greenwood Press, 1972); Urs Bitterli's ies, the impact on European scientific and ing James Axtell's important The Invasion Cultures in Conflict (Stanford: Stanford social thought, the development of societ- Within: The Conquest ofCultures in Colo- University Press,1989); William ies in America, and the relationship of nial North America (New York: Oxford Fitzhugh 'sedited Cultures inContact: The peoples in the Americas, is important and University Press, 1985); John R. S wanton's Impact of European Contacts on Native instructive. classic The Indians of the South-eastern American Cultural Institutions (Washing- United States (Washington: Smithsonian ton: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985); Institution Press, 1946); and Car10. Sauer's James Lockhart's editedLettersandPeople Sixteenth Century North America (Berke- in the Spanish Indies, Sixteenth Century John R. Hebert is the coordinator of the ley: University of California Press, 1971), (New York: Cambridge University Press, Quincentenary Program, An Ongoing provide particularly important contribu- 1976) and his forthcoming work, The Voyage, at the Library of Congress.

Spring 1991 6 13 Science, Religion, and Columbus's Enterprise of the Indies

Pauline Moffitt Watts

In the decade of the 1490s, Chris- their kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, and medieval sources, including the works of topher Columbus developed his their ongoing military campaigns for con- Aristotle, Pliny the Elder, Solinus, and "Enterprise of the Indies"his theory that trol of the Iberian peninsula. Columbus's . In addition to these sources, the could be reached by project was likely quite marginal to the Columbus apparently also made particular westward across the . This central designs and goals of their joint use of two other works as well. The first of enterprise would inaugurate important new monarchy. Second, when Columbus did these was a treatise entitledImago mundi, phases of hemispheric and global history attract royal interest in his project, it was written in the early fifteenth century by marked by a proliferation of contacts be- in the wake of the Portuguese voyages an influential philosopher and theologian tween European, American, African, and down the western coast of Africa, which named Pierre d'Ailly (1350-1420). The Asian peoples.Precisely because of its indicated that they might soon discover a other consisted of a pair of letters written extraordinary historical significance, the maritime route to Asia gaining consider- by the famous Renaissance cosmogra- genesis of Columbus's "Enterprise of the able economic advantages. Finally, Co- pher and physician, Paolo Toscanelli Indies" has been the subject of ongo- (1397-1482). ing study and debate. D'Ailly'sImago mundiwas Since the nineteenth century, based upon a collection of seminal well-known, popular, and scholarly Columbus was seeking to dem- ancient and medieval texts on cos- accounts of Columbus's project have mography and geography.It was usually suggested that it was scien- onstrate the special role he completed around 1410 and appar- tifically innovative. Columbus, the ently enjoyed a fairly wide circula- "Admiral of the Ocean Sea," is de- believed he was destined to tion in both manuscript and printed picted as champion of the suppos- forms throughout edly unorthodox notionthatthe play as the 'Christ-bearer' in during the fifteenth century. Colum- earthis round and that itis bus possessed and annotated an early circumnavigable.Only after a the unfolding historical events. printed edition (called an incunabu- perseverant struggle with ignorant, lum) ofImago mundi,published superstitious but influential ecclesi- sometime between 1480 and 1483 astics at the court of Ferdinand and Isabel, lumbus attached to his "Enterprise of the by John of Westphalia. This volume sur- such accounts suggest, did Columbus win Indies" a persistent demand for what vives and is located in the Biblioteca acceptance of his theories and royal fi- seemed to be an excess of titles and privi- Columbina in , Spain. nancing for his initial voyage of discovery. leges should he discover new lands. That LonL, ago, scholars noticed that chap- It is true that Columbus had difficulty this tactic almost cost him the opportunity ter eight ofImago mundi,entitled "De securing backing for his enterprise; he to sail is indicated in important contempo- quantitate terrae habitabilis" ("On the ex- spent seven years pleading his cause at rary sources such as his son Ferdinand's tent of the inhabitable earth"), contained the court of regents. But his lack of success biography of his father and Bartolomd de many annotations in Columbus's own hand. can be traced to a number of causes not las Casas'sHistory of theIndies. Because of these notes, it is wideiy pre- directly related to the novelty of his geog- Indescribingthe enterprise itself, sumed that this chapter was of particular raphy and cosmography. First, the atten- both Ferdinand Columbus and Las Casas importance to Columbus in the formula- tion of Ferdinand and Isabel was focused point out that it was in large part derived tion of his Enterprise of the Indies. In this primarily on the political consolidation of from a variety of well-known ancient and chapter, d'Ailly, following a number of

14 17 OAHMagazine of History earlier authorities, asserts that the greater that of Christoferens (the"Christ-bearer"). by Pierre d' Ailly. It emerges also through part of the globe consists of land, not water To his mind, his given name of Christopher excerpts he gathered for a book he never as some had supposed. Accordingly, the signified his divinely ordained mission to completed, titled The Book of Prophecies, Atlantic is likely to he relatively short in carry across the westward as well as through a number of letters he breadth and so should be navigable. ocean to what he presumed were the pa- addressed to Ferdinand and Isabel. Columbus appears to have found cor- gans of the Orient. Ferdinand discusses The incunabulum of d'Ailly's writings roboration for d'Ailly's theories in the two this point in chapter four of his biography which came into Columbus's hands con- letters written by Toscanelli. While it is of his father, suggesting that Columbus's tained not only Imago mundi but also a evident that the letters were composed by role as global evangelist was but an imita- number of other short pieces.In these, Toscanelli and that Columbus read them, tion of Saint Christopher, who was be- d'Ailly set forth his conception of pro- it is not clear that Toscanelli actually sent lieved to have carried the Christ child vidential history and how it could be the letters to Columbus. The first was a across a dangerous river on his shoulders. understood through astrology and the in- copy of another letter, dated 24 June 1474, Columbus's portage of Christianity to the terpretation of prophecy.Put somewhat which Toscanelli originally sent to Alfonso New World assured that, "the Indian na- differently, d'Ailly, like many other medi- V, King of Portugal. The second letter tions might become dwellers in the trium- eval thinkers, believed that significant his- purportedly was written by Toscanelli in phant Church of Heaven." To Ferdinand, torical events unfolded according to God's direct reply to a lost communication by the family surname, Columbus, was also a plan.These events were frequently Columbus. The dating of this second letter sign of his father's special destiny.It marked by unusual planetary conjunc- is controversial; some scholars place it in means "dove" in Latin and, like the dove of tions or by extraordinary celestial phenom- the , others assign it to the early Noah's ark, his father had carried the oil of ena such as the appearance of comets. . Both Toscanelli letters are tradi- baptism over the waters of the Atlantic to They could also be identified and explained tional in nature, presenting the theory that those previously confined in the darkness by the proper interpretation of scriptural the richesof the Orient described by of their paganism. and other related prophecies. Columbus's Marco Polo and others might well he reached Columbus himself apparently encoded annotations to these works show that he by sailing west rather than by traveling the mystical etymology of his name in the followed d'Ailly's discussions with con- overland to the cast. signature which he almost invariably em- siderable interest. In sum, one looks in vain for novel, ployed from the time of his first voyage A number of these short pieces indi- even esoteric elements in the cosmographi- until his death in 1506.The signature cated that d'Ailly was convinced that the cal and geographical sources used by Co- consists of a singular pattern of letters, end of the world was quickly approaching. lumbus in formulating theEnterprise of the suffixed by an abbreviated form of the His studies of earlier texts, linking various Indies. Instead, it is the conventional, if not name, "Christoferens," and appears as fol- planetary conjunctions with a succession venerable grounding of his ideas that lows: of periods in world history, told him that emerges. It seems that he believed that his .S. the present age was the penultimate one. In voyage westward would finally verify the fact, he calculated that there were but 155 theories set forth by ancient and medieval .S. .A. .S. years left.The present age, the age of authorities, not significantly alter them. Christianity, marked by the conjunction of If this conclusion is correct, then it X M Y Jupiter and Mercury, would soon give way raises the interesting question of whether to the final age of the Antichrist, markedby the usual historical accounts adequately XpoFERENS the conjunction of Jupiter and the Moon. explain the actions and motivations of This transition to the final stages of history Columbus and the genesis of his project. The words presumably designated by the would be indicated by the fulfillment of a Further examination of Columbus's writ- letters have not yet been identified, though number of famous late antique and medi- ings andrelated sources such as different possibilities have been devised. eval prophecies. Ferdinand's biography reveal that there It seems likely that Columbus's self- Columbus excerpted several key pas- was another important dimension to image as the "Christ-bearer" evolved over sages wherein D'Ailly set forth these Columbus's understanding of the "Enter- a period of several decades.Its origins ideas for inclusion in The Book of Proph- prise" and its larger historical significance. probably lie in the 1480s, the period during ecies. As mentioned earlier, this work was This is what might be called the religious which he formulated the Enterprise of the never completed. The manuscript, which or spiritual dimension. Indies and began to seek funding for it. The survives in the Biblioteca Columbina, con- While Columbus fought to he awarded evolution of "Christoferens" can be traced sists of a collection of passages from Scrip- the title of "Admiral of the Ocean Sea," he through Columbus's annotations to a num- ture and from a variety of ancient and also nurtured a second self-image. It was ber of philosophical and theological works medieval texts, particularly those of

Spring 1991 S 15 Jahn Carter Brown Library, Brown Universty

role as d'Ailly. The dating of this preordained manuscript is uncertain; "Christoferens" which un- derlies his achievements. but, it seems likely that Co- The letter states: lumbus and his collabora- I abandon all my voyag- tor, a monk named Gaspar ing from a tender age Gorricio, gathered the ma- and all the talks I have terials contained therein held with st many people over a period of years sub- in so many lands and of sequent to Columbus's first voyage. The collection is so many sects,and laban- don all the great arts and prefaced by an incomplete letter from Columbus to writings of which I spoke I hold myself Ferdinand and Isabel, writ- above. ten in late 1501 or early only to holy and sacred scripture and to certain 1502 (between his third and fourth voyages to the New prophetic authorities, who through divine rev- World). elation have said some- The pattern of excerpts contained in The Book of thing on this subject. Prophecies indicated that Columbus was seeking to Columbus also saw his demonstrate the special role discoveries as relating to the he believed he was des- fulfillment of another cru- tined to play as the "Christ- cial. penultimate prophecy, bearer" in the unfolding of the final recovery of the Holy the historical events that Land, specifically Jerusa- would mark the imminent lem, from the Muslim infi- ending of the world. His del. It was a victory which discovery of a heretofore he thought that Ferdinand unknown land of pagans and Isabel were destined to and his introduction of achieve with his assistance. Christianity to that land A number of prophecies In a fifteenth century woodcut from an illustrated letter of Christopher Columbus (1493), culled for The Book of seemed finally to fulfill the explorers encounter the New World, beginning a process of interchange that shapes Prophecies suggest that the biblical prophecy of John humankind and the environment for centuries to come. 10:16.This verse was one who would recover widely held to foretell a global conversion he followed d'Ailly's assertion that but a Jerusalem for Christianity would come of peoples to whom Christianity had previ- century and a half of post-lapsarian time from Iberia. That Columbus took this to ously been unknown ("other sheep I have and space remained. mean Ferdin ind and Isabel is also evident who arc not of this fold").This final The force of that conviction led him from his prefatory letter. It proclaims: triumph of Christianity ("there shall be one explicitly to disavow the importance of Who would doubt that this light, fold and one shepherd") would be accom- "scientific" knowledge in the formulation which urged me on with great panied by the defeat of the Antichrist; of the Enterprise of the Indies.In the haste continuously, without a these events would augur the end of time prefatory letter to The BookofProphecies, moment's pause, came to you in a and the advent of the Last Judgment. Co- he asserted that, ".. . reason, mathematics, most deep manner, as it did to me? lumbus evidently believed then, that his and `mappaemundr were of no use to me In this voyage to the Indies, Our discovery of a new world marked the in the execution of the enterprise of the Lord wished to perform [al very proximity of the end of the world. In fact, Indies." Instead, he seems to claim, it is his evident miracle in order to con- OAH Magazine of History 16 19 sole me and others in the matter of the court of Ferdinand and Isabel. In sum, Ferdinand (Benjamin Keen, trans.), New this other voyage to the Holy Sep- it is important not to allow the contempo- Brunswick, 1959; Bartolome de las Casas, ulchre [Jerusalem]. rary divisions between what we under- History of the Indies, New York, 1971; stand to be religion and what we term W.G.L. Randles, "The Evolution of Seen in the light of The BookofPloph- science to obscure the significant role Columbus's '' Project by Portuguese ecies, the Enterprise of the Indies begins to that"Christoferens"played in and Spanish Cosmographers in the Light of take on a connotation quite different than contextualizingthe Enterprise of the the Geographical Science of the Period," the traditional one. It is the beginning of Indies, both for Columbus and for the royal Imago Mundi 42,1990, pp. 50-64; Marjorie the end, the step which will herald the era court that he served. CI Reeves, The Influence of Prophecy in the of apocalyptic conversion and the Last Later : A Study inJoachimism, Crusade in which the will finally Bibliographical Note Oxford, 1969; Alain Milhou, Colon y su be vanquished. This essay is based upon Pauline mentalidad mesianica en el ambiente In the letter to Ferdinand prefacing his Moffitt Watts' "Prophecy and Discovery: franciscanista espariol, "Cuadernos account of the fourth voyage of discovery, On the Spiritual Origins of Christopher Colombinos," vol. 11, Valladolid, 1983; Columbus pledged himself as a guide for Columbus's 'Enterprise of the Indies'," Edmond Buron, Imago mundi de Pierre this Last Crusade. He wrote: American Historical Review, vol. 90, no.1 d' Ailly, 3 vols., Paris, 1930 [This work Jerusalem and Mount Zion are to (February, 1985), pp. 73-102.See that publishes the marginal annotations of Co- be rebuilt by the hands of Chris- piece for documentation of the texts and lumbus as well as the Latin text and a tians as God has declared by the ideas presented in the preceding essay. French translation of Imago mundi]. mouth of His prophet in the four- Other important sources for the study teenth Psalm [vv. 7-8]. The Abbe of Columbus's spirituality, his scientific Joaquim said that he who should knowledge, and their larger historical con- Pauline Moffitt Watts is professor of his- do this was to come from Spain; texts include: Ferdinand Columbus, The tory at Sarah Lawrence College in Saint Jerome showed the holy Life of Christopher Columbus by His Son Bronxville, New York. woman the way to accomplish it; and the of has, LA, Library some time since, sent for wise men to instruct him in the faith of Christ. Who will offer himself for this work? Should anyone do so, I pledge myself, in the name of God, to convey him safely thither, provided the Lord permits me to return to Spain.

The preoccupation with his messianic role, which marks Columbus's later years, continues to be regarded as eccentric, as Tzvetan Todorov's recent The Conquest of America exemplifies.But to relegate "Christoferens" to the edges of Columbus's (and his culture's) sanity is anachronistic. Such margination robs him of his under- standing of historical processes and his part in them.Moreover, the texts and contexts which Columbus employed en- joyed considerable currency in his own day. Indeed, it might be argued that he employed them precisely because they would serve his own interests by situat- Beginning with Columbus's discovery in 1492, the idea of overseas expansion captured the imagination of many ing his accomplishments within the spec- explorers anxious to colonize the far reaches of the Atlantic. Here, a group of explorers depart for the Americas trum of prevailing images and designs at (circa 1617.1634).

Spring 1991 20 17 Columbus's Spain

Jose Manuel Nieto Soria

hen Columbus arrived in Spain in sailors and the , the termed a "handbook of empire." It was this 1485. he discovered a realm un- friends and protectors, the council volume, a faithful reflection of the liliguis- dergoing a dynamic process of transfor- of the Franciscan friars, the love of tic realities of the Iberian peoples, that mation.The kingdom was seeking to aCordobesa, and the long-awaited made the Castilian dialect the language of overcome an array of difficult problems; support of the Catholic Kings discovery and conquest. some contemporary in origin while others (Espana en 1492[Madrid: The year 1492 falls precisely in the were ancient and would continue per- Hernando, 1978]). chronological middle of the reign of the plexing the Peninsula right into the twen- Columbus's Spain had a population of "Catholic Monarchs" ("los Reyes tieth century. about 5.5 million, or one-eighth of the Catolicos"), Ferdinand and Isabel.It Columbus was profoundly influenced nation's present habitation. Eighty percent marked a pivotal moment in the nation's by this Hispanic environment, and in re- were subjects of the , domestic development because 1492 en- turn, the Iberian experience influenced the which at the time constituted only seventy- compassed both the end of an epoch and subsequent colonial enterprise. As a the beginning of much else.The result, Spain's situation at the end of realm was finally pacified after the the fifteenth century is essential to a seemingly endless civil wars which proper understanding of what is now The arrival of Columbus in characterized Spanish history described as "The Discovery." throughout the fifteenth century (the Columbus sojourned in Spain Spain in 1485 is probably last one having been concluded as frequently between 1485 and 1506. late as 1480). The principal cause of His presence coincided with the his- one of the finest examples in this violence was the conflicting in- toric moment of the supreme south- terests of the monarchs and nobility. ern influence of the Kingdom of history of the 'right man in The resolution of this struggle was Castile, when it came to exercise the right place.' prerequisite to the subsequent con- ostensible authority even over the clusion of the so-called "Reconquest" cities of Cordoba and Sevilla. It is in (""), which came with the Castilian context, or more pre- Ferdinand and Isabel's capture of cisely, the Castilian-Andalusian context six percent of the kingdoms total geo- in 1492. The great southern city which would shape the essential features graphic area. The entire realm including was the last Moorish enclaveon the Iberian of the Columbian enterprise.In this re- the ancient kingdoms of Aragon and the peninsula and Columbus witnessed its sur- gard, Professor Miguel Angel Ladero has Basque provinces, was characterized by render by the from a vantage written: itslinguistic diversity; nevertheless, by point within the Castilian encampment. It is these 'decisive years' (1485- the end of the fifteenth century Castilian The political theory of this era of 1492) during which [Columbus's] was claiming to be "Spanish" since it was emerging European nations prescribed vision became a reality and even- the dialect of eighty percent of the that the disappearance of the Islamic pres- tuated into the subsequent voy- kingdom 's population. ence in Spain would also entail the banish- ages to the New World. It was in By a curious coincidence, it was in ment (now unconscionable) of the Jewish that Columbus found 1492 that the Sevilian humanist, Antonio faith from the kingdom, even though Ju- the material and technical means de Nebrija(1444-1522), published his Arte daism had thrived on the Peninsula for for his venture, as well as the de la lengua castellana,which some have centuries. The then-fashionable notion of

18 21 OAHMagazine of History Library

At nearly two-hundred thousand square miles,'s Spain in Gcograpltica (1490) depicts the region prior to the fall of Granada in 1492.

religious conformitywithin each state of the Peninsula for so many centuries and added. For more than a century before its produced "pious cruelty" (to use culminated in the very year of "the Discov- American encounters, Castilians had been Machiavelli's phrase), which by a royal ery." Spain's medieval era was, in many engaged in religious conquests in the Ca- decree of 31 1492, expelled the respects, an account of continuous reli- naries, the Kingdom of Granada, and North Jews from the realm. gious warfare and, above all, was charac- Africa. Castile's encounter with America, Ferdinand and Isabel' s domain was, in terized by the and repopulation therefore, should not be understood as some fact, an amalgam of two Iberian kingdoms, of areas abandoned by . Given this new experience, but rather an expanded Castile and Aragon. Their union in 1479 heritage, it is hardly novel to interpret the opportunity for the Franciscan missionar- created the basis of an integrated state Spanish experience in the Americas as a ies who had been active in the Hispanic which yielded extraordinary authority to continuation of this extraordinary lifestyle, environment since the end of the four- its rulers, coinciding with Western politi- which was the common heritage of all the teenth century. Columbus himself was a cal thought of the period. Mirroring this medieval kingdoms of Spain. conspicuous exponent of this crusader royal authoritarianism were the enormous The fifteenth century was for the Ibe- mentality, which had be n central to the powers which the Catholic Monarchs fi- rian world (we must include at this point Hispanic experience ,.:fice the end of the nally invested in Christopher Columbus as the attainments of the Portuguese) the pre- eleventh century. they designated him their Admiral, Vice- eminent moment of Atlantic exploration To summarize, the arrival of Colum- roy, and Governor. The prerogatives which and expansion. Castile launched the con- bus in Spain in 1485 is probably one of the Columbus would assert in the New World quest of the as early as finest examples in history of the merit of faithfully reflected his royal patrons' aspi- 1402, and subsequently both Castile and the ancient axiom about the "right man in rations to sovereign power. Portugal probed the coast of Northwest the right place." Castile's history, as well The Spanish situation at the conclu- Africa. By 1441, it was already clear that asits then-current events, neatly coin- sion of the fifteenth century demonstrates the , the quintessential vessel of cided withthe Genoesenavigator's at least three tendencies which prove to "discovery," was best suited to exploratory hopes of creating new reality, which ironi- be central to the Columbian enterprise. voyages along Africa's Atlantic coast. We cally would come to bear the name They were: Spain's experience as a con- even have good reason to believe that as "America" and not his own. The New quering and colonizing kingdom;its early as 1477, a Portuguese or Andalusian World's history needs to be understood as interests in Atlantic expansion; and its vessel crossed the central Atlantic. Since a product of that confluence. CI inclinations. the voyagers did not proclaim their achieve- It is a noteworthy coincidence that the ment, they paved the way for Columbus. Columbian enterprise drew upon the unique In addition to all of these factors, Dr. Jose Maud Nieto Soria is with the Iberian experience of conquest and coloni- Castile's intense commitment to a univer- Department of Medieval History, zation, which had characterized the history sal form of Christian evangelism must be UniversidadComplutense,inMadridSpain.

Spring 1991 22 19 The Columbian Quincentenary: A Necessary Reassessment

Kirkpatrick Sale

then "the Admiral went ashore in naked as their mothers bore them," should fishes, , foods, and pharmaceuticals Whe armed longboat" in the early rank as such a significant event. As we can elsewhere in the Americas, were the salva- morning of 12 October 1492, accompanied tell from our five-century perspective, there tion of a European economy then at its by the royal banners, royal attendants, and are several consequential reasons. nadir, fueling an and expansion- fellow captains in order to "take, as in fact 1. This event began the effective ex- ary binge that went on uninterrupted for he did take, possession of the said island pansion of the relatively small European the next two centuries. for the king and the queen, his lords," subcontinent beyond its borders, leading to 3. The success of European expansion Columbus certainly had no idea of the the most sweeping dispersion of any one and its monetary rewards meant that the magnitude of what he was accomplishing. in the history of the world. It systems and institutions that were only Rut, then, how could he?For it was enabled a single culture to encompass the fledgling in fifteenth-century Europe could arguably the most important human act entire globe as never before, E opeaniz- develop to their fullest. Hence, the con- since the development of agricul- solidation of the nation-state and ture, more resonant in earthly affairs its armies, the triumph of the capital- than even the founding of the great ist method of economic organiza- religions, more percussive in the tion, the validation of humanism lives of more (and more Columbus certainly had no and its secular view of the world, other species), and ultimately more idea of the magnitude of and the ultimate confirmation of fateful for the earth itself. Western rationalism and such of its The five- hundredth anniversary what he was accomplish- offsprings as science and technol- of Columbus's voyage allows this ogy. In other words, the wonder- age, as nor before, to undertake a ing. But, then, how could fully synergistic systems became full-scale reassessment of all that nothing less than what we call mod- came in its wake, to place the voyage he? ern civilization. in its widest historical context and, 4. The Columbian discovery, by examining the myths and contro- followed very swiftly by an occupa- versies that have surrounded it for so long, ing (or "Westernizing") the great bulk of tion that brought to the Americas such to re-evaluate its meaning for the contem- humanity until it became European in lan- species as horses, cows, brown rats, apple porary world. Let me suggest some of the guages and ideas, and institutions and dress, trees, and dandelions, took abroad such areas into which such a reassessment might and values that suffused once- items as corn, potatoes, chilies, , lead us. isolated cultures. and tomatoes.This led to an eventual 2. The 1492 voyage led inexorably to transfer of species that has done more to Europe's discovery and conquest of change the biota of the earth than any event To begin with, it is important to under- America's two vast continents and the since the extinctions at the end of the stand why this visit to an unprepossessing extraction from them riches beyond imagi- Permian period. In effect, from the point of coral island with nothing more than "very nation. The vast treasures of Mexico and view of the mixture of plant and animal trees and many ponds" and people Perusilver and gold in therefore unknown species, the continents of the globe have "very poor in everything" who "go around quantitiesand pearls, gems, woods, dyes, been rejoined for the first time since the

20 OAH Magazine of History 23 Lilly Library, Voptgos fo Amorica, 1617.34 ;r417r,l," '4* .ti;

Furs were the first of the New World's natural resources to be exploited. By the end of the sixteenthcentury, countless ships were transporting furs to Europe. break-up of Pangaea billions of years ago. quincentenary offers a unique opportunity for some time historians have known that 5. And this event, enabling humans for just that reassessment. educated Europe knew the world was round, eventually to settle the entire world and just as ancients had proved, and certainly control all forms of nature they found + + + sailors and those concerned with the sea there, exploiting, manipulating, and even knew that ships regularly go over the hori- destroying species and environments, has The next necessary step is to dispel the zon and return. Columbus obviously did led to the dominance and power of a single various myths that have grown up around not know what was out there on the globe, species, such has never been known be- the figure of Columbus over the centuries, but he knew it was round and so did all the fore.That dominance, and the habit of making him serve one selfish purpose, one councils with which he dealt. mind which sustains it, now threatens the quite unintended cause or other, but ob- 2. Isabel pawned her jewels to pay very existence of all oxygen-dependent scuring the real man and his real accom- for the first voyage. Even Columbus's species on earth, perhaps the very exist- plishments. The task is not easy, for the first biographer, his son Fernando, admits enc- of the earth as we know it. myths are many and some quite old, and in that this is not true, saying that she was That combination of consequences, I some cast the truth is not easy to come by. "ready to pledge her jewels" but did not submit (any one of which must be consid- For starters, we can at least lay to rest need to because the court officer, Luis ered momentous), establishes the Euro- these untruths. Santangel, came up with a loan. In any pean discovery of America in 1492 as a 1. Columbus sailed to prove the case, all signs point to the fact that her phenomenon that deserves our attention, world was round. I wonder at the near- jewels, and anything else of value, would our reflection, as none other does. And the universal persistence of this myth, since have been hocked long before in order to

Spring 1991 24 21 pay for the very expensive campaigns lay great continental lands and that he Americas by Europeans of the early mod- against Moorish Granada, which was con- Christopher Columbusanri none other em age was more beneficial on the whole cluded successfully only in January 1492. was their discoverer." than pernicious (or, as the "philosophes" 3. The crew on the first voyage were 6. Columbus died in obscurity and of eighteenth-century France actually mostly criminals.Although Ferdinand was forgotten until the nineteenth cen- phrased it, "Was the discovery of America and Isabel issued a decree suspending ju- tury. Columbus was out of royal favor a blessing or a curse to humankind?"). In ridical procedures against anyone signing when he died in 1506, and his passing was other words, is the quincentenary properly on for the first voyage, they did not empty not recorded anywhere. His achievement an occasion for celebration, as the official jails, nor was it necessary, inasmuch as was, nevertheless, well known in Spain and national commission wish us to believe, or enough veteran sailors of Palos were per- in particular, and from 1516 on (when a time for mourning, as certain American suaded to join in the expedition. In the the first account of Columbus's life was Indian groups are urging upon usor event, one of those sailors was released printed) he was duly credited as being the maybe something else entirely? from jail along with three of his friends first to discover the New World. There are no easy answers. On the one who had tried to rescue him. They made hand, we might count as positive such the trip, but the remainder of the ninety things as the vast development in science were sail-birds, not jail-birds. and that the discovery (and 4. The crew mutinied on the voyage I would like to sug- subsequent conquest and wealth) gave rise out and threatened to throw Columbus to: the introduction to the rest of the world overboard. Nothing like it happened, as gest, that it is nei- of vital American foodstuffs and medi- we may judge from Columbus's own jour- cines upon which the lives of millions have nal of the first voyage. It is true that on I 0 ther celebration nor depended. the attainments of high culture October, a month from the Canaries and and the arts fueled by New World treasure; longer at sea than any Europeans had prob- mourning to which the settlement and population of hereto- ably been at one stretch, "the people could fore unpopulated lands and the consequent stand it no longer and complained of the our reassessment spread of an ever-more-complex civiliza- long voyage"as well they might. Co- should lead us. tion; and the achievements of lumbus mollified them with promises of and industrialization in advancing mate- treasures to be found and said he was rial betterment, including health and sur- determined to go on, and that apparently vival, for much of the globe. was the end of thatno threats, no . As the importance of that event be- On the other hand, we might reckon 5. Columbus went to his deathbed came clearer with the subsequent discov- the prices paid for all these accomplish- thinking that he had found Asia. This ery of treasure in Mexico and , his ments: the elimination of ninety-five per- contention, retailed even by some repu- reputation and place in the history books cent of the indigenous American people table historians, depends on not reading the and lyric poems only grew greater. Within (and their culture) through disruption and Admiral's own record. On the third voy- the first century after his death, Columbus disease;the destruction of most of the age, in 1498, he determined that the large was given mention in at least 142 works in existing American countryside and count- mass of land off "was not an 385 editions. A minimum of two dozen of less thousands of its species; the inaugura- island but a continent," moreover, "a mighty these volumes were devoted essentially to tion of the centuries-long African slave continent which was hitherto unknown." his life and works and one was a full scale trade to sustain New World ; the Columbus would latercall it a"new world," biography. At no time was he ever forgot- imposition of essentially rapacious colo- clearly not Asia but the continent we now ten , but it is true that a tremendous outpour- nial regimes over three-quarters of the know as .Again, in his ing of attention followed the printing of his earth with odious residues lasting to the Book of Privileges of 1501 or 1502, he first journal in 1825 and Washington present. Flowing from these developments refers to his discoveries as " Irving's biography of Columbus in 1827. have been: the creation of a global indus- Occidentales"; in other words, , trial monoculture, which is essentially out as distinct from the , which was of control; the explosion of world popula- Asia.Columbus confirmed this notion tions and the starvation and suffering of regarding his final voyage in his letter to The last and perhaps most difficult vast billions of them; the famous alien- the Spanish sovereigns of 1503. He step in our quincentenary reassessment is ation and emptiness of modern, affluent went to his deathbed, as John Boyd Thacher also the most necessary.It is simply to cultures and their problems of addiction noted, realizing that, "between the country determine whether, when looked at from and alcoholism and violence and venality; of the Great Khan and the shores of Europe today's perspective, the conquest of the and the environmental degradation and 22 25 OAH Magazine of History destruction that has poisoned air and water and foofaraw, we find that we do not landing at the 2mall coral island some- and land around the world and threatens the entirely approve of what we see and hear, where in the New World, Admiral Colum- health and survival of mammalian species do not feel quite comfortable with the bus wrote in his journal that he regarded his and the planet itself. extremes enunciated around us, that may achievement as one that "Our Lord had let Each individual must come to their be the moment to start a process of soul- him make and in which He had chosen to own conclusion when faced with perplexi- searching that can in time lead to thoughts enlighten him." Columbus then added, "I ties of this kind.I would like to suggest, of altering, perhaps even rejecting, the hope in our Lord that it will be the greatest however, that it is neither celebration nor tenets of that culture, that civilization. And honor to Christianity that... has ever come mourning to which our reassessment should that reassessment is surely something in about." That conclusion, I would say is lead us but, rather, a more complicated which our children deserve to participate entirely problematical, but certainly it is third way. Put simply, it should occasion as fully as we. the stuff which our conce. as, our reassess- a deeply introspective reconsideration of ment, must be about in 1992. 0 what European-American culture, what Western Civilization, is really composed Kirkpatrick Sale is a historian and writer of, is really built upon, is really leading us At the end of his first voyage, almost living in New York and author ofThe to. And, if amidst thequincentenary hoopla exactly five months after his spectacular Conquest of Paradise.

Lilly Library Voyag to Modes, 1617-34

Explorers of the Americas introduced native American goods such as tobacco, corn, tomatoes, and many varieties of to the Old World. Many of thenew plants were not fully accepted by the Europeans for several centuries.

Spring 1991 26 23 The Hemispheric Roots of the Columbian Voyages

Lynda N. Shaffer

Accounts of northwestern Europe's crops such as sugar and , and the cane had spread to India from Southeast rise to a position of global power discovery and dispersion of a new math- Asia, and around 350 C.E. the Indians often begin with the revolutionary ocean ematics and new technologieswe will be discovered how to make crystallized sugar voyages that Iberian royalty sponsored drawn inevitably all the way across the from the cane juice (2). Unlike the cane, across the Atlantic, around Africa, and hemisphere through the lands that were thecrystallized grains could be easily ultimately around the world. They are once the Arab to India and China. stored and shipped, and sugar soon be- portrayed as unprecedented historical de- One of the earliest centers of the inter- came an important commodity both on partures and are closely linked with de- national trade was in southern India, the local and international markets. The velopments that ushered in the modern and by the time of the large Indians also "discovered" the gold avail- world. And because it was Europeans who quantities of pepper were being shipped able in the maritime realm of Southeast made these voyages, few historians have from there to the Mediterranean market. Asia, and introduced it onto the interna- searched for the origins of either the tional trade routes. voyages or the developments they Modern mathematics had its spawned outside the bounds of beginning in India. An important Western Europe. Our search for origins element in this Indian achievement Yet when the Portuguese began was a unique combination of fea- their down the coast of should be extended to West tures possessed by their numerals, Africa, one of their purposes was to the same ones that are now used all find a sea route to the trading net- Africa and Southeast Asia, around the globe: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, works of , whence gold the places that the voyagers 8, 9, and 0. (Because the Europeans had been crossing the and got them from the Arabs, they are reaching the Mediterranean for over sought. sometimes referred to as Arabic nu- a millennium. In 1492 when Colum- merals in the West, but the Arabs got bus crossed the Atlantic his intention them from the Indians and call them was to find a sea route from Spain to Hindu numerals.) the spice markets of the East Indies. When But many of the most important develop- The Indians used a base ten place- hereached , he thought he was ments, those that ultimately created the value system, but most importantly they in Asia, which is why he called the Ameri- context from which the European voy- invented the first real zero (3). (Although cans, Indians. It would thus seem logical ages came, had their beginnings in north- the Babylonians prior to the fourth century that our search for origins should be ex- ern India during the time of the Gupta B.C.E. had possessed a symbol which they tended to West Africa and Southeast Asia, Empire (Current Era (C. E.), 320 to 535). used as a place holder in numbers such as the places that the voyagers sought. Domesticated cotton had been growing in 206, it did not function as a true zero.) The If we look for the origins of many of the India since about 2000 B.C.E. (Before oldest servicing Indian mathematical text developments associated with the voy- Current Era), but by the time of the Gutpa is dated 499 C.E., and by the time that it agesthe growth of the , the kings,Indian manufacturers and mer- was written the uses of zero were well exploitation of new sources of bullion, the chants had transformed it into an interna- understood. As a result, Indian mathemat- cultivation and dispersion of commercial tional commodity (1).Domestic sugar ics were able to perform calculations more

24 27 OAH Magazine of History Ptolemy's 1490 map depicts the worldbeforeColumbus's discovery of the Americas. Printed in Geographica,this type of map was used by early explorers.

rapidly and accurately, and were making many technologies that would eventually the Prophet and the conquests of the sev- significant advances in the field. spread westward and take on global signifi- enth and eighth centuries C. E. that schol- The Malay sailors of maritime South- cance.An early , a lodestone ars and craftsmen in the realm of the Mus- east Asia (who then lived in what is now the carved in the shape of a ladle placed upon lim caliphates made their most significant southern part of Vietnam and around the a round bronze plate, was already in use by contributions. They became familiar with Gulf of , as well as on the Malay the third century B.C.E., and paper had many of the Indian achievements and some Peninsula, and the islands of present-day been invented by the first century B.C.E. of the Chinese, as well. They adopted the Indonesia and the ) also played But it was only after the arrival of the Indian numerals and made important ad- a strategic role in the process that led to Indian developments that a veritable scien- vances in algebra and calculus.They the European voyages (4).Some time tific and technological explosion occurred spread the cultivation of many Asian com- around 300 B.C.E., they learned to ride the in China (7). Among other things, gun- mercial crops, such as cotton and sugar, monsoons, the seasonal winds that carried powder and printing were invented during and the techniques of paper manufacturing them to China, India, the east coast of the Tang Dynasty (618 to 906 C.E.), and by to the Mediterranean. And they were also Africa, and across the southern Pacific to the time of the Song (960 to 1279) the responsible for the introduction of the com- Island (5). They used a balance-lug Chinese had discovered both remanent pass to Mediterranean waters. sail, a likely prototype of the sail, magnetism and how to calculate the differ- The Arab conquests of North Africa which the Polynesians to their east and the ence between true and magnetic north. and Spain brought them into contact with Arabs to their west both developed (6). By By the tenth century, China's mariners the Saharan , who had long traded about 350 B.C.E., the had pio- knew how to tack against the wind, had in West African gold. Between 745 and neered the first all-sea route that carried begun to use the compass for navigation, 755 C.E., Abdul at Rah man, the Arab ruler international traders back and forth be- and had set sail for the spice islands of of (not to be confused with an tween and China by way of the Southeast Asia. And, unlike Columbus, identically named ruler in Islamic Spain), Strait of . They also had devel- these sailors actually found the islands they set out to expand the trans-Saharan gold oped an international market for the fine sought. On the other hand, they did not trade by overseeing the constru:tion of a , for the , , and mace discover the Western Hemisphere, since it series of wells from Sijilmasa to the Berber that came from Moluccas. did not lie between their homeland and the settlement at Wadidara, which was located By about 600 C.E. all of the Indian source of the spices. some twenty-three days journey from achievements mentioned above, and many The Arabs' lateen sail had spread to the Kumbi-Saleh, the capital of . This more, had made their way to China. Long Mediterranean long before the birth of Arab "discovery" of West African gold before they arrived, the Chinese possessed Mohammed, but it was after the coming of would eventually double the amount of 28. Spring 1991 25 gold in international circulation (8). The possible. History (Ann Arbor:University of Arabs also developed silver mines in Cen- Endnotes Michigan Center for South and South- tral Asia, including a veritable silver moun- I. Andrew Watkins, Agricultural Innova- east Asian Studies, 1975). tain at Bajahir in present-day . tion in the Early Islamic World: The 6. George Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the The thirteenth century was marked by Diffusion of Crops and FarmingTech- in Ancient and Medi- the expansion of new powersVenice in niques, 700-1100 (Cambridge: Cam- eval Times.(Princeton:Princeton the Mediterranean, Mali in West Africa, bridge University Press, 1983). University Press, 1951). in Southeast Asia, and the 2. Joseph E. Schwartzberg, "A Chronol- 7.China Science and Technology Mu- whose domain extended from ogy of South Asia." In A Historical seum, China-7000 Years of Discov- Eastern Europe to Korea. New trade routes Atlas of South Asia (Chicago: Univer- ery:China's opened up making it possible for Venetians sity of Chicago Press, 1978). (Beijing: China Reconstructs Maga- like Marco Polo to travel to China, and for 3. Georges Ifrah, From One to Zero: A zine, 1983). Genoese merchants to purchase in Black Universal History of Numbers, trans. 8. Anthony Hopkins, An Economic His- Sea markets Lama Buddhist slaves from Lowell Bair(New York:Viking tory of West Africa (New York: Co- the Chinese frontier (9). After 1202 C.E., Press, 1985). lumbia University Press, 1973). when Leonardo Fibonacci (also known as 4. Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age 9.Lynn White, Jr., "Tibet, India, and Leonardo of Pisa) published his Liber Abaci, ofCommerce,14.50-1680,vol. I. (New Malaya as Sources of Western Medi- Europeans began to acquire the expertise Haven: Yale University Press, 1988). eval Technology," American Histori- of the Arabic-writing world in mathemat- 5. Keith Taylor, " in the An- cal Review 65 (1960): 515-526. ics. As late as 1229, the Senate of cient Malayo-Polynesian Myths." In actually tried, unsuccessfully, to ban the Kenneth Hall and John Whitmore, Ex- Lynda N. Shaffer is professor of history at use of Indian numbers in local markets. plorations in Early Southeast Asian Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts. In the fourteenth century, gunpowder and an early kind of printing could be found in Italy, and in the fifteenth century, the Portuguese discovered how to rig Atlantic hulls with a combination of lateen sails and Europeans square sails.The that resulted, the caravel, was thus of mixed ancestry.It was this ship that made the European voyages possible. There is much more that one could add, but even this abridged account makes clear that the European voyages and the developments associated with them grew out of a context created by hemisphere - wide processes. They were no less and no more than the culminating act of a much longer drama that had played upon a stage as large as the . The European grand finale was unique in that it irrevocably linked the two hemispheres for the first time and thereby created a stage of global proportions. But, otherwise, no part of the Columbian voyages were without precedent.They were momentous, but incremental expansion of a stage that was already of hemispheric dimension. Thus, anypresentation that only includes this one culminating act is partial, and artificially isolates it from all those preceding acts Ptolemy's map of the world changes substantially after the Americas are discovered. This 1508 map is from an updated edition of Geographica. without which it would not have been

26 OAH Magazine of History 29 The Early Black Diaspora in the Americas: The First Century After Columbus

Colin Palmer

The black person is no longer the scholars suggest that West African traders teenth century, Spain's nominal control of forgotten early resident of the had established commercial relationships the Caribbean Islands had been challenged Americas. During the last twenty years, with the indigenous peoples of the Ameri- by other Europeans, principally the En- much scholarly attention has been devoted cas long before the arrival of the Europe- glish, the Dutch, and the French.The to the Africans' role in the conquest, colo- ans.Others argue that the first blacks French colonized and nization, and cultural evolution of these arrived with Christopher Columbus during in 1635 and acquired St. Do- colonial societies. While the broad con- his second voyage. These were free per- minique in 1697. The Dutch took posses- tours of the African experiences in this sons who played active roles in the settle- sion of the islands of , St. Eustatius, St. hemisphere are known, however, many ment of Hispanola, the first Spanish Maarten, and Curacao between 1630 and aspects either remain unstudied or are im- in the Americas. Along with the Spaniards 1640 and the Danes settled in St. Thomas perfectly understood. Yet, the recent at- and thelndians, they would lay the founda- in 1672. The English, in their turn, occu- tention being paid to this dimension pied St. Christopher in 1624, Barba- of the early American history will dos (1627), Nevis (1628), Montserrat deepen our understanding of the and Antigua (1632), and won Ja- black societies' development, their Many historians doubted that maica from the Spaniards in 1655. ethos, the changing relationships African slaves were imported to between elites and non-elites, and the history of blacks in early meet the economic needs of the race relations. Europeans in all of the Caribbean It is worthwhile to recall that not America could be written Islands. Similar developments oc- too long ago many historians doubted given the apparent paucity of curred in the on the that the history of blacks in early mainland and in Portuguese . America could be written given the credible sources. By 1640 perhaps as many as 175,000 apparent paucity of credible sources. slaves had been imported into the This perception has, of course, Spanish American colonies. Brazil changed as new repositories of mate- received about 50,000 African slaves rials have been discovered and exploited. tions of the Iberian empire :n the Americas. by 1600 and the British West Indies re- Inaddition, new questions have been As an institution, however, African ceived about 20,000 by 1650 and 174,000 asked of the existing sources, the method- was first introduced into the Carib- by 1700. ology has been refined, and many subtle in 1502. In that year, the Catholic British North America is a special case and creative minds have been hard at monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, granted demography. The first Africans did not work.Still, the study of the early black theirapproval to the governor of Hispaiiola, arrive until 1619. By 1650, 1,600 Africans presence in the Americas is in its infancy Nicholas de Ovando to use African slaves. had been imported into North American and Ishall attempt to assess briefly our In time, the institution of slavery would colonies and by 1700, at least 28,500 had present state of knowledge and suggest spread to other Spanish colonies such as arrived. It needs to be emphasized in this areas for future research. , , Mexico, and Peru. The context that the United States received It is not entirely clear whed the first Spanish example would soon be copied by only about five percent of the slaves who Africans arrived in the hemisphere. Some other European nations. By the mid-seven- came to the Americas during the entire

Spring 1991 27 30 Library of Congress, La Galan. Agreeable principal characteristics and so on. The role of the slaves in the economies of the early colonial societies has received the attention of at least two scholars. Frederick Bowser has examined the role of blacks in early Spanish Peru and I have done a similar study of early colonial Mexico (3). The other Spanish societies have not yet received similar scholarly attention. The literature on the eighteenth and nineteenth centuriesparticularly for ra.a`'`*-7-L,A.4 rJ Cubais more abundant, however much more work is needed on the formative years of the black presence (4). One of the principal criticisms of ear-

.e" lier works on Latin American slavery is that they were much too legalistic in their approach and they did not explore ad- equately the social, cultural, and eco- nomic dynamics of the colonial societies. Studies by Stanley Elkins and Frank Tannenbaum, as suggestive as they un- doubtedly were, did not utilize fresh archi-

The Americas, Wcst Indies, and West Africa formed an economic triangle upon which the European colonies were val data (5). Their reliance on such metro- dependent. Rum, sugar, and molasses were bartered for the much needed slave labor to settle the New World. politan slave codes as the Siete Paridas to provide an accurate picture of the slaves' period of slave trade. The remaining num- whites in those two societies by about experiences was also misleading.It was bers were absorbed by the slave societies of 1570. These colonies had become quite one thing for the laws of the metropolitan Latin America and the Caribbean. It may dependent on African labor in the sixteenth country to recognize the moral and legal be speculated that overall a minimum of and seventeenth centuries because of the personalities of the slaves, but it was quite ten million Africans arrived in the Ameri- drastic decline of the Indian population another to assume that their rights existed cas although the figure could go as high as and the resulting need for an alternative in fact. Accordingly, it was clear to many twelve or fifteen million. Philip Curtin's source of exploited labor. scholars that before the Tannenbaum- earlier estimate of 9,566,000 has been Although these studies provide the Elkins conclusions could be fully em- modified, albeit not substantially, by a oroad outlines of the trade, they fail to braced, their assumptions and conclusions number of more recent studies (1). These address the issues central to our under- would have to be tested against the evi- figures, to be sure, do not include the standing of early traffic in human mer- dence on treatment uncovered by a series sizable portion of persons who were born chandise. We do not yet have a nuanced of case studies of Latin American slavery. into slavery in the various societies. understanding of the ethos of those societ- Regrettably, however, much method- Any assessment of current research ies from which the Africans were drawn, ologicalfuzziness has surrounded the must, perforce, begin with the slave trade. the processes by which individuals became question of the meaning of "treatment" as A number of recent works including those slaves in Africa, or the post-enslavement applied to slavery. In a pathbreaking essay by Philip Curtin, Enriqueta Vila Vilar, and mortality rates on the Coast. Nor do we published in 1969, Eugene Genovese myself have provided a reliable picture of fully understand the nature of the Africans' brought some clarity to the definition of the ethnic origins of the slaves, the sexual resistance to their enslavement, the profit- "treatment" as used in the context of a composition of the cargoes, the mortality ability rates of the trade, and the mortality master's conduct toward his slaves by sug- rates during the Atlantic Passage, and the rates in the early months upon their arrival gesting that there were three basic mean- distribution patterns in the Americas (2). in the Americas. It must also be noted that ings of the word (6). These studies make clear, forexample, that the domestic slave trade in the early Ameri- First, treatment might mean the day- such col, lies like Mexico and Peru re- cas remains essentially unstudied. There to-day living conditions of the slaves: diet, ceived most of their slaves by 1650. In fact, are no major studies of the mechanics of clothing, housing, duration of the working the black population exceeded that of the this aspect of the trade, its ebb and flow, its day, and the general conditions under which 28 31 OAH Magazine of History they labored.Second, according to measure of the everyday conditions of to permit those practices that were per- Genovese, treatment might also mean the slavery may well be in the extent to which ceived as not contrary to Catholic dogma overall conditions of the slaves' life; for slaves fled or committed suicide to escape or as posing a threat to the survival of example, the degree to which they were from their servitude.These problems, slavery. Available evidence suggests that allowed to marry and maintain families, however, merit further examination in the the more spiritual forms of black culture their opportunities for religious expres- Spanish societies before any firm conclu- survived not as a result of benevolent con- sion, and the extent to which they were sions can be drawn. cern and encouragement of the whites but able to function as autonomous human So far, we have examined the physical in spite of their opposition. By retaining beings. And finally, treatment could en- conditions of the slaves' life in early their own beliefs and by borrowing and compass the opportunities that existed for America, but what do we know of their reinterpreting certain European beliefs, the slaves to obtain their freedom and their possibilities for marriage and family life, Africans were ensuring, albeit uncon- chances of becoming citizens with equal for preserving their ancestral culture, and sciously, their survival as spiritually au- rights within the larger society. It is clear for pursuing an independent social life? It tonomous human beings (8). that historians can only avoid confusion by is not yet possible to give definitive an- The extent to which slaves it early delineating precisely the sense in which swers to these questions, but the state of colonial America were able to establish they are using the word "treatment." It is knowledge today is far better that it was and lead a normal family life is uncertain. equally important that historians eschew when Tannenbaum wroteSlave and Citi- Few students of Latin America and Carib- broad generalizations that cover entire re- zenin 1946. Recent research has indicated bean slavery have dealt in any significant gions and cultures; after all, the nature of that slaves in Latin America and the Carib- way with the problem and none has pro- the treatment accorded the slaves varied in bean preserved their African heritage to a duced as exhaustive a study as the one both time and place. far greater extent than their counterparts in Herbert Gutman has done for the United Recent studies of early slave holding North America. This success in retaining States (9).Scattered discussions of the societies demonstrate that one of the most aspects of their culture was not due to any subject reveal, however, that the slaves important determinants of the treatment of greater degree of benevolence or tolerance experienced considerable difficulties in slaves was not the legal and institutional of the slave masters in these areas. The enjoying stable conjugal relationships. framework within which slavery existed mortality rate of slaves in Latin America There was an imbalance in the ratio of the but, rather, the economic role the slaves and the Caribbean coupled with a low birth sexes in these societies because two-thirds performed and the degree to which the rate fostered a greater dependence on Af- of the slaves were male. Ir addition, the enterprises in which they worked were rica as a source for slaves. This depen- male slaves had to compete with white men capitalistic. The more highly capitalized dence on imported slaves helped to ensure for the affection of the available female an industry became, the greater the de- mands placed on the labor resources of the slaves and the more oppressive theircondi- tion. The high mortality rate of the slave By retaining their own beliefs and by borrow- populations was one measure of the harsh- ness of their day-to-day existence. ing and reinterpreting certain European be- Frederick Bowser has concluded that for liefs, the Africans were ensuring their survival Peru during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries "poor diet and living conditions, as spiritually autonomous human beings. combined with hard labor assured many blacks an early grave."Early colonial Mexico, according to Barrett and myself, a constant and sustained transmission of slaves. Demographers have often pointed followed a similar pattern (7). African cultures to these societies. out that a greater sexual balance tends to In spite of these preliminary findings, Recent research suggests that Catholic occur in a population that changes through however, we have very little data on the officials in Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere natural increase or decrease. But such a physical aspects of the slaves' existence in tried to suppress African religious beliefs balance never seems to have developed in the early Americas. Only scattered data which they thought violated theprecepts of early America because of the higher mor- exist on the diet of these people, their the Church. In Mexico and Peru, the Holy tality rate of the children and the conse- clothing, residential patterns, and diseases. Office of the Inquisition aided in the task of quent dependence on Africa to sustain the We know next to nothing about their persecuting blacks whom it identified as slave population. reproductive patterns as reflected in an- witches and sorcerers. Generally speak- Although family life seemed precari- nual rates of increase or decrease. One ing, the masters and the authorities tended ous at best, there were no laws that blocked

Spring 1991 29 3 2 the path to liberation. It is now generally created. Such studies are needed if we are 1976). recognized, however, that slaves in Span- to fully understand the nature and meaning 4. Franklin Knight, Slave Society in Cuba ish America and Brazil did not obtain their of the coping mechanisms that they created During the Nineteenth Century (Wis- freedom as easily as earlier scholars like throughout the Americas. consin: University of Wisconsin Press, Tannenbaum seemed to argue. There were Some recentstudies suggestthat 1970); Gwendolyn Hall, Social Con- three principal means by which a slave scholars have begun to deemphasize the trol in Slave Plantation Societies: A could be legally freed, as Bowser, Schwartz, comparative focus on the study of early Comparison of St. Dominique and and myself have discussed (10). A slave American slavery. This is commendable Cuba (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, could be manumitted by his master or the because the study of slavery in Latin 1971). state; he could purchase his own freedom America and the Caribbean is in its forma- 5. Stanley Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in or have it purchased in his behalf; and tive stage and we do not yet know enough American Institutional and Intellec- finally, some masters freed at birth their about its practice and evolution in most of tual Life (Chicago: University of Chi- children born of slave women.These these societies to make meaningful com- cagoPress,1958); Frank Tannenbaum, incidences of liberation, with the excep- parisons with North America. Such com- Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the tion of that conferred by the statede- parisons, based as they often are on inad- Americas (New York: Vintage Books, pended primarily upon the disposition of equate data, may tend to mislead rather 1946). the master since normally he could not be than produce insightful generalizations 6. Eugene D. Genovese, "The treatment of forced to manumit his property. Recent that can be sustained.One must also slaves in different countries: problems findings seem to indicate that the sick, the question the value of placing all of Latin in the application of the comparative elderly, the masters' mistresses and their American and the Caribbean within a uni- method," in Slavery in the New World: progeny were the individuals most likely to tary and sometimes static slave system. A Reader in Comparative History, eds. receive their freedom (11). In the light of Slavery, wherever it existed was never a Laura Foner and Eugene d. Genovese, such findings, the view that manumission place, and a whole complex of other factors (Englewood Cliffs, 1969), 202-210. in Spanish America and Brazil stemmed such as the personality of the masters, the 7. Bowser, The African Slave, 254-272; from humanitarian ideals needs careful social and political institutions and the Edgar F. Love, Slaves of the White reexamination. An imaginative use of the stage of economic development of the God; Ward Barrett, The Sugar Haci- data contained in wills and notarial records society in which it existed. It is to be hoped enda of the Mar queses del Valle (Min- will help provide answers to questions that future scholarship will be more slave neapolis: University of Minnesota concerning the individuals most likely to centered and concerned with the crucial Press, 1970). be freed, and the ease and frequency of question of how black men and women 8. For a discussion of this, see Palmer, such manumissions. ordered their lives and coped with the Slaves of the White God, 145-166. In spite of the we have reality of being the property of other 9. Herbert Gutman, The Black Family In noted, large gaps still remain in the histo- people. Slavery and Freedom 1750 -1925, riography of slavery in early America. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1976). There is, for example, no published study Endnotes 10. Bowser, The African Slave, 272; Edgar of urban slavery in any of those societies 1. Philip Curtin, The : F. Love, "Marriage patterns of per- where the institution existed. Studies of A Census (Madison: University of sons of African descent in a colonial urban experiences of the slaves should add Wisconsin Press, 1969) p. 87. Mexico City Parish ,"HispanicAmeri- enormously to our understanding of the 2. Enriqueta Vila Vilar, Hispano-America can Historical Review, LI: 1 (Febru- dynamics of slavery in areas, such as house- y el comericio de escalvos:Los ary 1971), 79-91. holds, where commercial specialization Asientos Portugueses (Seville: Escuela 11. Palmer, Slaves of the White God, 172- was not and could not be practiced. These de Estudios Hispano Americanos, 176; Bowser, The African Slave, 272- studies will also provide an opportunity to 1977) and Colin A. Palmer, Human 301. A useful discussion of Colonial test the prevailing assumption that urban Cargoes, The British Slave Trade to Brazil may be found in Stuart slaves in general had an easier life than Spanish America 1700-1739 (Illinois: Schwartz, "The Manumission of Slaves their rural peers. University of Illinois Press, 1981). in : Bahia 1684-1745," As was indicated earlier, we still lack 3. Frederick Bowser, The African Slave in Hispanic American Historical Review, a detailed analysis of black family patterns Colonial Peru, 1524-1650 (Stanford: LIV: 4 ( 1974), 603-635. in the early colonial societies. Nor do we Stanford University Press, 1974), have any sustained analyses of the social Colin A. Palmer, Slaves of the White Colin Palmer is professor of history and organizations and belief systems of the God: Blacks in Mexico, 1570-1650 chair of the History Department at the slaves and of the ethos of the societies they (Harvard: Harvard University Press, University of North Carolina.

30 33 OAH Magazine of History The Seeds of Change

Herman J. Viola

Little could Christopher Columbus recently have the consequences of the sphere. Their ancestors were laying the realize upon reaching America's changes wroughtby the New World's early foundations of their empires around 2800 shores in 1492 that he was about to set in visitors been fully understood. We now B.C., about the time the Old Kingdom motion processes of encounter and ex- know what occurs when the interrelation- pharaohs of were building the great change that would dramatically alter life ships among plants, animals, and the forces pyramids. Sadly, the Europeans regarded in both the New and Old Worlds. Indeed, of nature are disturbed. the peoples whom they encountered in who could have foretold that, as a conse- First to be affected by the Columbus the Americas more as natural objects quence of the tiny flotilla's voyage, Afri- voyages were the native peoples of the another form of fauna to be discovered and cans would one day become the dominant Americas. How unfortunate that almost exploitedrather than as human beings ethnic group in the Caribbean, that New five centuries had to pass before the rich with as rich and ancient as their World foods such as potatoes and corn and diverse cultures of the indigenous own. They could not imagine that these would become major crops in Asia, or that peoples of North and South America could people could offer anything of aesthetic or tomatoes would transform cuisine in cultural value. Europe?Nonetheless, Columbus Consider, for example, what began a process of change that even- occurred on the island of , tually altered the world's flora and Not untilquite recently where Columbus established Santo fauna, reordered the ethnic compo- Domingo, the first permanent Euro- sition of entire countries, and changed have the consequences of pean colony in the New World. In the diet and health of peoples every- neither nor the Dominican where. the changes wrought by the Republic, who share this island to- Thisfascinatingstory is the day, are there any descendants of subject of "Seeds of Change," the New World's early visitors theoriginalIndianinhabitants. quincentenary exhibition of the Na- been fully understood. They had disappeared by 1600. Al- tional Museum of Natural History at though nooneknows what their num- the Smithsonian Institution. Sched- bers were in 1492, current estimates uled to open in Washington 12 Octo- range from sixty thousand to as many ber 1991 (and to travel broadly thereaf- be appreciated and accepted by the Euro- as eight million. Columbus himself re- ter), the exhibition will demonstrate that pean intruders.Few Europeans ever marked that "Indians of this island ... are the New World underwent rapid and pro- realized that Columbus had not found a its riches, for it is they who dig and produce found transformations because of certain "new" world but a previously "unknown" the bread and other food for the Christians "seeds of change" that the Europeans worldone long populated by numerous and get gold from the mines... and introduced, sometimes deliberately, some- and diverse peoples with cultures as dis- perform all the services and labor of men times accidentally. tinct, vibrant, and worthy as any to be and of draft animals." Columbus and those who followed found in Europe or elsewhere on the planet. If Columbus believed the Indians were gave little thought to the impact of their Indeed, just a few miles distant from his the island's riches, he did little to protect actions as they sought to carve empires firstlandfallwere the empires of the Spain's fortune. Bartolome de las Casas, out of what seemed to be an unclaimed Mayas and , often referred to as the the Dominican friar and polemicist, whose Garden of Eden. In fact, not until quite Greeks and Romans of the Western Hemi- father and uncle had come with Columbus

Spring 1991 3 4 31 John Caner Brown library, Brown Univority

to Hispaniola in 1493, believed that three million native peoples had perished after little more than a decade of contact with the Europeansthe result of disease, warfare, forced labor, and enslavement. "Who of those in future centuries will believe this?" he asked. "I myself who am writing this and saw it and know the most about it can hardly believe that such was possible." Little wonder that some American In- dians plan to wear black arm bands in 1992 or that there is rising support for a na- tional day of mourning to honor all the Indians who died as a result of the arrival of the Europeans. Most Indians echo the sentiment of George P. Horse Capture, an advisor to the "Seeds of Change" exhibit: "For America's Indians, 1992 means that As this image by Theodore de Bry illustrates, the Americas were filled with an abundance of we will have survived as a people for natural wealth and resources before the European discovery. 500 years." With came the plantation sys- influence on the world's climate but they About the only benefit the native tem and the initial assault on the tropical shelter plant and animal species unknown Americans received from Europe was the rain forests of the New World. Sugarcane to science. This flora could, for example, horse. It is one gift from the Old World that was a labor-intensive crop that absorbed contain potential cures for AIDS and can- many tribes came to embrace and cher- huge human resources, beyond what was cer. The continued destruction of the rain ish.At first amazed by these strange needed for altering the landscape, to make forestis likened to the destruction of a creatures, the Indians of North and South large-scale production both possible and vast library whose volumes remain unread America eventually became some of the profitable. When there were no longer and unappreciated because the languages finest riders the world has known. Even sufficient numbers of Indians to maintain in which they are written have not yet today, members of many North American the New World plantations, Europeans been translated. tribes regard the horse as a vital part of turned to Africa for their labor force. The In keeping with the enormity of its their culture. exact number of Africans kidnapped and subject, the "Seeds of Change" exhibit will Another tragedy of 1492 was the fail- sold into New World slavery will never be have many components. In addition to the ure of Europeans to recognize the fragility known, but the estimates range from ten to main exhibition at the National Museum of of the American environment. They set to thirty million. 13ecause of sugar, therefore, Natural History, there will be collaborative work despoiling the resources of the New the landscape of the Caribbean was trans- versions of the exhibition in at least eight World as quickly as they began destroying formedAfricans replaced Indians as the museums across the nation for two years its peoples. What had taken nature thou- dominant ethnic group on many Caribbean (see accompanying itinerary). Comple- sands of centuries to create was largely islands, and the populations of Africa were menting the exhibition in all its formats undone in less than five years, beginning in irreversibly altered. will be: activity books and teacher's guides 1493, when the Admiral of the Thecontinuinginfluenceof for fifth and eighth grade classes, devel- Ocean Seas returned to America at the Columbus's voyages is also an important oped by the National Council for the Social head of an armada of seventeen ships. part of the "Seeds of Change" story. The Studies; reading programs for adults spon- These ships disgorged on Hispaniola some Columbian legacy is apparent in the con- sored by the American Library Associa- fifteen hundred would-be empire builders tinuing destruction of the rain forests at the tion; and, of course, the National History and a Noah's Ark of Old World animals rate of thirty-five acres a minute. Today, Day competition for 1991-92 with its theme, and plants including horses, cows, pigs, many people realize that the rain forests "Discovery, Encounter, Exchange in His- wheat, barley, and shoots of sugarcane are not inexhaustible, as the tory: The Seeds of Change." CI which next to disease, was perhaps the and later the sugar planters thought them most detrimental contribution of the Old to beif they thought of them at all. More Herman J. Viola is director of the World to the New. and more people consider the rain forests Quincentenary Programs at the National Sugarcane merits censure because it treasures, essential to all aspects of human Museum of Natural History, Washington, harmed both man and the environment. welfare. Not only are rain forests a major D.C. 32 35 OAH Magazine of History Exhibition Itinerary

Host Institution Display Period (tentative)

Academy of Natural Science, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania October, 1992 to February, 1993 American Quarter Horse Heritage Center and Museum, Amarillo, Texas May 16, 1992 to , 1993 The Brevard Museum, Cocoa, Florida , 1992 to January 17, 1993 Fembank Museum of Natural History, Atlanta, Georgia January to March, 1993 Missouri Cultural Heritage Center, Columbia, Missouri May to Autumn, 1992 Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, California June to October, 1992 Witte Museum, San Antonio, Texas , 1992 to 1993

Panel Version

Alabama, Birmingham Public Library Florida, Miami-Dade Public Libraries 11 to , 1992 to , 1992

Alaska, Anchorage Municipal Libraries Georgia, Atlantic/Fulton County Library January 4 to February 2, 1992 May 30 to , 1992

Arizona, Phoenix Public Library , Hawaii State Library System December 12, 1992 to January 10, 1993 October 24 to , 1992

Arkansas, State Capitol Building Idaho, Boise Public Library September 5 to , 1992 to June 6, 1993

California, Los Angeles Public Library Illinois, Chicago, Sulzer Regional Library September 5 to October 4, 1992 October 2 to , 1993

Califomia,Sacramento Public Library Indiana, Indianapolis/Marion County Library May 30 to June 28, 1992 to , 1993

California, San Francisco Public Library Iowa, Public Library of Des Moines July 18 to August 16, 1992 to June 6, 1993

Connecticut, Hartford, Old State House , Kansas City, West Wyandotte Library June 26 to , 1993 May 30 to June 28, 1992

Colorado, Denver Public Library Kentucky, Louisville Free Public Library OctoIrr 2 to October 31, 1993 to , 1993

Delaware, Wilmington Library . New Orkar,s Public Library to February 28, 1993 October 24 to November 22, 1992

District of Columbia, D.C. Public Library , Portland Public Library to April 18, 1993. January 4 to February 2, 1992

Florida, Broward County Main Library Maryland, Baltimore, Enoch Pratt Free Library to , 1992 May 8 to June 6, 1993

Spring 1991 36 33 Massachusetts, Boston Public Library , Salem, Oregon State Library May 30 to June 28, 1992 to May 10, 1992

Michigan, Detroit Public Library Pennsylvania, Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh May 8 to June 6, 1993 March 20 to April 18, 1993

Minnesota, Minneapolis Public Library Rhode Island, Providence Public Library June 26 to July 25, 1993 September 5 to October 4, 1992

Mississippi, Warren County/Vicksburg Library , Georgetown County Library November 20 to December 16, 1993 July 18 to August 16, 1992

Missouri, St. Louis Public Library , Rapid City Public Library July 18 to August 16, 1992 February 22 to March 22, 1992

Montana, Parmly Billings Library Tennessee, Knoxville, Knox County Public Library June 26 to July 25, 1993 October 2 to October 31, 1993

Nebraska, Omaha Public Library Texas, Dallas Public Library April 11 to May 10, 1992 January 30 to February 28, 1993

Nevada, Reno,Washoe County Library Texas,Houston Public Library March 20 to April 18, 1993 December 12 to January 10, 1993

New , Deny Public Library Utah, Salt Lake City Public Library February 22 to March 22. 1992 January 30 to February 28, 1993

New Jersey, Manalapan, Monmouth County Library Vermont, Vermont Department of Libraries June 26 to July 25, 1993 April 11 to May 10, 1992

New Mexico, Albuquerque Pubic Li hiny Virginia. Richmond, Virginia State Libraries November 20 to December 16, 1993 October 24 to November 22, 1992

New York, Buffalo and Erie County Public Library Virgin Islands, Frederiksted, Fort Frederik Museum October 24 to November 22, 1992 October 2 to October 31, 1993

New York, Borough Public Library Washington, Seattle Public Library December 12, 1992 to January 10, 1993 February 22 to March 22, 1992

North Carolina, Charlotte/Mecklenburg Public Library West Virginia, West Virginia Library Commission September 5 to October 4, 1992 December 12, 1992 to January 10, 1993

North Dakota, Bismarck, State Historical Society Wisconsin, Milwaukee Public Library January 4 to February 2, 1992 August 14 to September 12, 1993

Ohio, Columbus Metropolitan Library Wyoming, Laramie County Library System July 18 to August 16, 1992 August 14 to September 12, 1993

Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Metropolitan Library System March 20 to April 18, 1993

34 37 OAH Magazine of History The Columbian Voyages in Historical Perspective

Louis R. Harlan

In 1893, when Chicago cel- arrogance of European power, the ebratedthe four-hundredth anni- destruction of native cultures in the versary of Columbus's discovery of name of religion, and the greed that the New World, it did so through a consumed the resources and the lives world's fair and a glorification of the of native Americans. Then there is progress of Western Civilization the unforeseen transmission of dis- since that fateful voyage across the ease for which populations had not Atlantic. As late as the 450th anni- developed immunity through earlier versary, disrupted by exposure. II, the maritime historian Samuel The quincentenary offers all of Eliot Morison, himself an admiral us who are heirs of the Columbian and a Harvard professor, present- confrontation the opportunity to re- ed Columbus brilliantly as the hero assess both the good and the regret- of the greatest sea venture in his- table consequences of this cultural tory. According to Morison, Colum- and physical encounter. We can see bus was a man whose knowledge of the voyagesas a boon to scientific the sea winds and currents, grasp of knowledge, a key step in the devel- the latest navigational and shipbuild- opment of world trade, and at the ing technology, courage and tenac- same time an ecological disaster. ity, achieved what until then was The quincentenary also provides a impossible, and brought back to long overdue opportunity to acknowl- Spain and gradually to the rest of edge the role of India, of Islam, and western Europe the prize of two of the Iberian Jews who had used the continents hitherto unknown to Eu- comparative tolerance of Muslim ropeans. Though Morison gave Spain to develop the scientific know- what seemed to western scholars Lilly Library, Illustralod Guido fo No World's Few, 1893 how and geographical lore that un- due attention to the immediate ex- derlay Columbus's venture. U ploitation of the labor and lives of the New acknowledging the European triumph that World inhabitants, his central theme was the voyages of discovery represented, they Louis R. Harlan is distinguished professor the Columbian voyages as a triumph of also iind darker, sometimes unforeseen of history at the University of Maryland Europe's virtues and modernization and consequences of the confrontation. This and the only historian to serve concur- as the prelude to the expansion of Europe issue of theMagazine of History is an rently as the president of the OAII, the to global dominance. attempt of its sponsor, the OAH, to offer to American Historical Association, and the Professional historians today are more teachers andstudents a more perspectival Southern Historical Association. In these inclined than in the past to find in the view of the meaning of the Columbian positions, he encouraged greater coopera- Columbian confrontation with the New voyages. The "glory; God and gold" that tion and communication between individu- World an example of a much more com- motivated the European conquest that fol- als and organizations to produce the new plex process of cause and effect. While lowed Columbus had its seamy side in the National History Education Network.

Spring 1991 6 33 35 esson Plan Mary Ana Bullard

A Year Long Voyage of Investigation

Rationale this perspective, we need to study all the peoples involved in the The events of October 1492 united in a web of Columbian enterprise and its enduring aftermath. complex and, :n many cases, disastrous relationships. Those who have benefitted from the contact will celebrate and commemorate; 5. "Who's the Boss? Does Might make Right?" The concepts of those who have been harmed will be angry and hurt. Only by using conversion, acculturation, and assimilation can only be stiglied in the quincentenary year as an opportunity to carefully investigate conjunction with a survey of the dominant groups who have the historic record of the past five hundred years can we justify such claimed the "natural rights" of assumed superiors over perceived attention to the Columbian theme. During this year, we shall inferiors. challenge the notion of "incontrovertible" history and through this inquiry we shall discover other perspectives on events which we 6. "The Price of Progress: Is the Past our Future?" Traditional in the United States have considered the "truth" about our history. concepts of the philosophical and technical triumph of Euro- We may, for instance, come to understand the truly global aspects centric civilization must be investigated. of our past thereby learning to value the countless contributors to our multi-cultural society. Procedures A. Schoolwide Themes 1. Have every student in the school read from a selection of 1. "What's your bias?" Objective history may not exist. Even quincentenary titles during the summer. primary sources must be challenged and examined carefully for the 2. At a parents' meeting and at a separate faculty meeting, detail beliefs and values of the writer. We must also understand our own the total program so that the entire school environment will be frame of reference, our own values and beliefs, as interpreters of involved. the past. 3. In a pre-registration mailing, include the attached, anonymous "Values Survey" and "Ancestral Survey" to be turned in on the 2. "Watch your language! Words are loaded guns." Language first day of school. The surveys are to be in duplicate; one to provides a powerful tool for historians. To investigate the legacy be kept by the student for future reference in classes during the of Columbus, we must carefully evaluate the source's meanings, year, and one to be recorded statistically for a school-wide as well as our own concepts of words such as "civilization," as profile. The Ancestral Survey results will be charted on a contrasted to concepts such as "savagery," "barbarism," or "con- in the display case of the school's main corridor. quest"; also, "invasion," and "imposition." We might, further- School profiles of the Values Survey, as well as volunteered, more, consider the notion of "discovery" as opposed to the individuals surveys, will be used in the classroom units as revelation of what already exists. springboards for carrying out the program. 4. Use hall bulletin boards and display cases with information 3. "Hail the Conquering Hero!" Humans value the concept of related to the themes. "hero." We must question why and how humans create heroes, 5. Work with the school librarians and media specialists to gather whom they choose, and how they use them. Columbus and other and display all materials connected to the themes and to have conquerors, as well as others who revere them, deserve study. them on reserve for students and faculty. B. Social Studies/History Classrooms 4. "R-E-S-P-E-C-T: Find Out What It Means to Me." Respect 1. Beforebeginning the year-long study, have students employ the results from understanding and appreciating the values and beliefs "Values Survey Sheet" (see page 38) to analyze themselves, of others, as expressed through their culture, even if it differs from their parents, and their grandparents regarding those values one's own. Different does not mean inferior, and must never be and opinions which essentially shape our lives. used to justify discrimination, subjugation, or destruction. From 2. Depending on the course and the students' grade level,

36 OAH Magazine of History 39 teachers or students themselves may choose aspects of the Renaissance or works of the period that express early Euro- theme. For example, a course in World History might focus pean conceptions of "The New World" and colonization. on "Columbus: Heir of the Renaissance or Champion of the Another rich vein is the literature of those indigenous peoples Medieval World View?" The class would, therefore, inves- who suddenly found themselves in continuing contact with the tigate all the values that shaped Columbus into the person he Westerners. was. Or the class might consider the meaning of such terms 4. LanguageTeachers, especially Spanish teachers, may find the as "civilization," "conquest," "domination," "conversion," Columbian theme an especially useful means of exploring the "enslavement," "acculturation," and "assimilation," within Hispanic cultures that resulted from the early contact period. the context of the several differing cultures involved in the 5. ReligionIn religiously-affiliated schools, religion classes might contacts of 1492. productively consider some of the moral and ethical questions A United States history course, for example, could study which flow inevitably from study of the initial encounters of the early contact period with reference to the peoples pres- Western and non-Western peoples. ently living in the areas conquered and colonized by Spain. D. National History Day Projects They might explore how the contact experience shaped those 1. The National History Day theme for the 1991-92 session will societies and, in turn, shaped United States foreign policy be "Discovery, Encounter, Exchange in History: The Seeds toward them. An economics class could investigate Western of Change." Student participation in this competition, whether European economies of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries for credit or not, provides a unique opportunity for teachers to or the effect these expeditions had on the development of involve students in an exploration of the nature of history and capitalism and mercantilism. A civics or government class the social studies. The competition includes students from might compare some of the leadership structures of the grades six through twelve and challenges them to submit their indigenous peoples first encountered by the Europeans in the own research in any one of several forms, such as: historical Americas, as well as the colonial governmental patterns essays, media projects, displays, and even performances. which succeeded them. Contest guidelines may by obtained by contacting: National 3. In class lectures, presentations, and in all study of primary and History Day, 11201 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, secondary sources, teachers should encourage students to be 216-421-8803. aware of the frame of reference of the writers, encouraging 2. In many instances, a student project might cross disciplines and students to analyze and criticize materials under consider- arrangements should be made in advance with faculty col- ation. In this connection, the "Values Survey Sheet" may leagues if the student is seeking a grade for the endeavor. prove to be a very useful teaching instrument. 3. Each social studies or history class submits its best projects to 4. Because interpretation is so important to these subjects, teachers the History Day competition for schoolwide recognition. may include a unit on research skills in the course outline. Instructions for establishing the contest in your school can be C.Intra-departmental Coordination. Interested teachers in found in National History Day's competition guidelines. other disciplines should be encouraged to relate their subject 4. The schoolwide contest can be conducted simply as a National matter to the Columbian theme. Some potential allies are: History Day event or a Columbian Fair which might be open 1.MathematicsPerhaps a mathematical investigation of to parents and the community. Columbus's calculations of his whereabouts or, more gener- 5. Winners of the contest at your school should be encouraged in ally, the mathematical skills of navigators of the 1492 epoch. every way to continue in the competition at the regional level. 2. Natural SciencesThe Columbian voyages could be consid- Many systems or institutions allocate funds to insure that ered within the context of the emerging sciences of the period. participating students gain broad recognition for their work. Biology classes could be especially enlivened by studying the ecological consequences of the contact in 1492 of two previ- ously separate biotas. Mary Ann Barnard teaches at Archmere Academy in Claymont, 3. LiteratureClasses might focus on literary masterpieces of the Delaware.

Spring 1991 37 40 Values Survey Sheet General Instructions: Please complete this survey in duplicate. Keep one copy for your own reference to beused in your history or social studies class during the course of the year. The other copy is to be turned in onthe first day of classes to the Main Office. Do not put your name on this duplicate sheet since we are seeking a schoolprofile and wish to treat your contribution in confidence. Please complete as much of the survey as you are able. POLITICAL VALUES:(party affiliations, voting, support of the present electoral process)

How do you differ, if at all, on political values and beliefs from your (check one) PARENTS GRANDPARENTS _same _same _slightly different _slightly different _very different _very different Why do you think this is so?

MONEY VALUES:(source of money, purpose of money, distribution of wealth) How do your values and beliefs differ, if at all, on money issues from your (check one) PARENTS GRANDPARENTS _same _same _slightly different _slightly different _very different _very different Why do you think this is so?

SOCIAL VALUES;(social status, discrimination) How do you differ, if at all, on social values from your (check one) PARENTS GRANDPARENTS _same _same _slightly different _slightly different _very different _very different Why is this so?

INTELLECTUAL VALUES:(meaning of education, types of education) How do you differ, it at all, on intellectual values from your (check one) PARENTS GRANDPARENTS _same _same _slightly different _slightly different _very different _very different Why is this so?

CULTURAL VALUES:(ethnic background, cultural expressions of practical and fine arts) How do you differ, it at all, on cultural values from your (check one) PARENTS GRANDPARENTS _same _same _slightly different _slightly different _very different _very different Why is this so?

OAFI Magazine of History 38 41 Ancestral Survey

Please fill in the appropriate information in duplicate. One copy should be retained for use during the year by your history or social studies class, while the duplicate should be submitted to your school's Main Office on the first day of classes. The United States has been populated for over four centuries by peoples from the entire world. We ask you to list the area/country or nation from which your ancestors came to the United States and note the century in which they arrived. Each student may claim up to four ancestral homes. Please make certain, however, that students note their native American heritage, if any.

Original 'iationality Approximate Time of Arrival (Closest Century)

Spring 1991 42 39 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Note: Materials meant for teachers only, or for very advanced Granzotto, Gianni. Christopher Columbus: The Dream and the or gifted students, are noted by (*). Obsession. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1985. Atlas ofAmerican History. 2d rev. ed. New York: Charles Scribner *Jennings, Francis. The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonial- & Sons, 1984. ism, and the Cant of Conquest. Chapel Hill: University of *Banks, James A. ed. Teaching Ethnic Studies: Concepts and North Carolina Press, 1975). Strategies. 43rd. ed. Washington, D.C.: National Council for Keen, Benjamin and Mark Wasserman. "Ancient America." In A the Social Studies, 1973. Short . Boston: Houghton Mifflin, *Bigelow, William."Discovering Columbus: Rereading the 1980. Past." Language Arts (October, 1989). Klein, Herbert S. "Patterns of Settlement of the Afro-American *Bitterli, Urs. Cultures in Conflict: Encounters Between Euro- Population in the New World." In Key issues in the Afro- pean and Non-European Cultures, 1492-1800. Stanford Uni- American Experience, edited by Nathan I. Huggins, Martin versity Press, 1989. Kilson, and Daniel M. Fox. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Blaine, James G. "The Progress and Development of the Western Jovanovich, 1971. World." In Columbus and Columbia. Philadelphia: Historical Leon-Portilla, Miguel, ed. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account Publishing Company, 1892. of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon Press, 1962. *Boxer, Charles. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825. Lockert, James, and Enrique Otte, eds. Letters and People in the New York: Alfred Knopf, Inc., 1969. Spanish Indies, Sixteenth Century. New York: Cambridge Brown, James A. "America before Columbus." In Indians in University Press, 1976. American History: An Introduction, edited by Frederick E. McCarthy, Charles H. Columbus and his Predecessors: A Study Hox ie. Harlan Davidson, 1988. in the Beginnings ofAmerican History. Philadelphia: Joseph Butterworth, Benjamin. "Scope and Purpose of the World's Fair" McVey, 1912. and "Purposes and Effects of International Fairs." In Colum- *Meinig, D. W. The Shaping of America: A Geographical bus and Columbia.Philadelphia:Historical Publishing F erspective on Five Hundred Years of History, Vol. 1. New Company, 1892. Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. Campbell, Tony. Early Maps. New York: Abbeville Press, 1981. Miller, Theodore. Graphic . New York: Chiapelli, Fredi, et. al. eds. First Images of America: The Impact John Wiley & Sons, 1969. of the New World on the Old, Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of Morison, Samuel Eliot. Christopher Columbus, Mariner. New California Press, 1976. York: New American Library, 1956. A Columbus Casebook. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic *---. Admiral of the Ocean Sea, A Life of Christopher Columbus. Society, 1986. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1942. Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Natella, Arthur A., Jr. The Spanish in America,1513-1974. Dobbs Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport: Green-vood Press, Ferry, New York: Oceana Publications, 1975. 1972. Newby, ed. The Rand McNally World Atlas of Exploration. *---. The Columbian Voyages: The Columbian Exchange, and New York: Rand McNally, 1975. Their Historians. Washington, D. C.: American Historical *Pagden, Anthony. The Fall of Natural Man: The American Association, 1987. Indian and the Origins ofComparative Ethnology. New York: Curtis, William, Souvenir of La Rahida: World's Columbian Cambridge University Press, 1982. Exposition (1983). Poma, Huaman. Letter to a King: A Peruvian Chief s Account of De Vorsey, Louis. "The New Land: The Discovery and Explora- Life under the Incas and under Spanish Rule.Edited by tion of Eastern North America."In North America: The Christopher Dike. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1978. Historical Geography of a Changing Continent, edited by Quinn, David, ed. The New American World: A Documentary Robert D. Mitchell and Paul A. Groves. Towota, N.J.: Roman to 1612, Vol. 1. New York: Arno & Littlefield, 1987. Press. 1979. Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico by ---. North America from the Earliest Discovery toFirst Settle- the Spaniards in 1521. Hamden, Connecticut: Linnet Books, ments: The Norse Voyages to 1612. New York: Harper & 1988. Row, 19'77. Driver, Harold E. Indians of North America. 2d ed. rev. Chicago: Tedlock, Dennis, trans. Popol-Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the University of Chicago Press, 1969. Mayan Book of the Daw.., of Life and the Glories of Gods and Duff, Charles. The Truth About Columbus and the Discovery of Kings. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985. America. London: Jarrolds, 1957. *Tedlock, Dennis and Barbara Tedlock, eds. Teachings from the Fitzhugh, William. ed.Cultures in Contact:The Impact of American Earth: Indian Religion andPhilosophy. New York: European Contacts on Native American Cultural Institutions, Liveright, 1975. AD. 1000-1800. Washington: Sm'thsonian Institution Press, Thatcher, John Boyd. Christopher Columbus: His Life, His Work, 1985. His Remains. New York: G. P. Putman's Sons, 1904. *Gibson, Charles. Spain in America. New York: Harper & Row, Zinn, Howard. A People's History of the United States. New York: 1966. Harper & Row, 1980.

40 OAH Magazine of History 43 Lesson Plan James A. Percora

An Examination of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition

As we approach the Columbian Quincentenary, it is instruc- The responsibilities for the overall supervision and planning tive to look back with students at the significant American cultural of the 1893 Fair fell to Chicago architect Daniel Burnham. event that marked the four hundredth anniversary of Columbus's Augustus Saint-Gaudens is reported to have said that one of first voyage, the 1893 observances and the Chicago's World Fair Burnham's planning sessions for the Exposition constituted the of that year. This lesson is appropriate for American history or greatest meeting of artistic minds since the Renaissance. American studies students. The World's Columbian Exposition opened to the general public on 1 May 1893, and would close at the end of October. Its Introduction magnificent buildings and other structures were intended to be At a cost of more that $28,000,000 the city of Chicago hosted temporary and were composed of iron and timber covered with a the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. Forty-seven nations degradable material called "staff a combination of plaster, were represented with a variety of pavilions that boasted 65,000 cement, and jute fibers. exhibits. When the Chicago Fair closed, more than 21 million people had passed through its turnstiles. Its purpose had been not Lesson Procedures only to celebrate Columbus's initial voyage but to showcase the Note: This one-period lesson plan might be best presented on technology, inventiveness, and culture of the United States. the Friday before the Columbus holiday. Slides for the activity are available in the "American History Slide Collection" (see bibliog- Lesson Objectives raphy). Instructors may also wish to use an Ektagraphic photo At the conclusion of this lesson, students should demonstrate stand to duplicate some of the illustrations found in the works cited some ability to: in the bibliography where an asterisk indicates rich resources for 1. Recognize the connection between the past and the present. this topic. 2. Understand the significance of the observance of Columbus 1. Inform students that, in light of Monday's holiday, the class Day. will depart for the normal routine to examine an event relevant to 3. Use photographs as a primary source for identification the voyages of Christopher Columbus. purposes. 2. Ask students if they have heard of the 1893 Columbian 4. Note the relationship between architecture and a particular Exposition. It may safely be assumed that the vast majority have period in the nation's history. not; therefore, engage them in probing their comprehension of 5. Assess how this nation chooses to celebrate its heroes and such terms has "exposition," "pavilion," and "World's Fair." historical events. Some may have attended a recent fair and their recollections might prove invaluable to the class. Background 3. Advise students that they will view a series of slides or There were two centerpieces to the Exposition: the "Great photographs documenting the Columbian Exposition of 1893. White Way" and the "Midway." The former featured exhibit halls 4.As the images are shown, discuss the impact of the designed by the foremost United States architects of the period Exposition as a major cultural event in late nineteenth-century (Richard M. Hunt, Charles F. McKim, Standford White, Louis America. Information needs to be disseminated to the class about Sullivan) and their designs were adorned by the works of the how this monumental event might be viewed as the apex of the leading American sculptors (Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Daniel C. "Gilded Age," and how it served as a showcase for American French, Frederick MacMonnies, Edward Kemeys). The Midway's technology and culture. attractions included the belly dancer "Little Egypt," eateries. The instructor should, if possible, convey a variety of anec- rides, and George W. Ferris's "Ferris Wheel," the first one ever. dotes related to the Fair. For example, the teacher'ght discuss

Spring 1991 44 41 U.S. Department of Inenior

5. What do they think about the fact that the 1893 Fair lasted only a few months in spite of the vast investment involved? 6. Were they to have served on the Columbian Quincentenary Jubilee Commission which formulated the United States' plans for observing the five hundredth anniversary of Columbus's first voyage, what themes might they have explored and what perma- nent monuments would they have created? 7. How does the class imagine that the 1992 Quincentenary will be observed in this country? How about elsewhere across the globe? How will it differ from the celebration of 1892-93?

Bibliography * "American History Slide Collection." Annapolis: Instructional Resources Corporation, 1977. * Appelbaum, Stanely. The Chicago World's Fair of 1893: A Photographic Record. New York: Dover Publications, 1980. * Badger, R. Reid.The Great American Fair: The World's Columbian Exposition and American Culture.Chicago: Nelson Hall. 1979. * Museum. The American Renaissance, 1876-1917. New York: Pantheon Books, 1979. Augustus Saint-Gaudens designed this copper medal to commemorate the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Jones, Howard M. The Age of Energy: Varieties of the American Experience, 1865-1915. New York: Viking Press, 1971. how Chicago was selected to host the event over such rivals as New Roth. Leland M. A Concise History of American Architecture. York and Washington, D.C. The city's nickname, "the Windy New York: Harper & Row, 1979. City," is alleged to have been earned by its boasting in this Wilkinson, Burke. Uncommon Clay: The Life and Works of competition. Augustus Saint Gaudens.San Diego: Harcourt Brace The presentation should be grounded in slides or photos of Jovanovich, 1985. such Exposition highlights as "The Great White Way," Hunt's Administration Building, MacMonnies' Columbian Fountain, the Midway, and of course, the original Ferris Wheel. Students will James A. Percoco teaches at West Springfield High School in be interested to learn that it took Ferris' wheel nearly half an hour Springfield, Virginia. to complete a full circle and that it was easily the most popular attraction at the Columbian Exposition. U S. Department of Interior At the conclusion of the presentation, show how the Exposi- tion grounds appeared several months after the "staff had col- lapsed and the fairgrounds had been leveled.In addition, the instructor should repeatedly note the purposes of the exhibition 04 halls, as well as the significance of the Exposition's "Beaux-Arts" architecture (see especially R. Reid Badger's The Great American 1° Fair). j.44cA -042,f1 Follow-Up Discussion Questions 1. Does it seem that the celebration embodied in the Columbian Exposition of 1893 was in proportion to the event it was observing? 2. Would the students have attended the Fair (in 1893) had they had the chance? 3. What did the Exposition planners have in mind when they selected "Beaux-Arts" architecture? , s.I 4. How might they compare the Exposition's architectural On the main colonnade, the lagoon, the administrative building, and the figure of the style with that employed at such contemporary centers as Disneyland Republic were built for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. These temporary or Epcot Center? structures were made of degradable material that could be easily tom down.

42 OAH Magazine of History 45 Lesson Plan Carmen Chaves Tesser and Charles Hudson

Before Oglethorpe: Hispanic and Indian Cultures in the Southeast United States

Introduction The Reading Many of the materials employed in this lesson plan were Archeological and textual research has revealed profound developed by the participants in the 1990 NEH Summer Institute changes in indigenous societies in the Southeast between the time for College Teachers at the University of Georgia and refined by of the arrival of the Spaniards and the much later appearance of the a subsequent NEH-funded institute for high school teachers. The English in the region. A perennial question in the history of the lesson includes some preparatory activity on the students' part, a Southeast has been how this transformation occurred? ToAntebel- shared reading, suggested questions to be explored in classroom lum historians, it seemed obvious that the huge earthen mounds and discussion, and a session utilizing maps. ornate Indian artifacts which were discovered in the region could not have been created by the indigenous people living there in the Preparatory Activities nineteenth century. Because of the prevailing ethnocentric ideol- A. Employing the Hudson and Associates map published with ogy of the day and its romantic idiom, the most popular explanation this plan, a roadmap of the Southeastern United States, and a ruler, was that they had been raised by a different and superior race of the teacher will demonstrate how to measure distances on a modern peoplethe Moundbuilderswho had occupied the land prior to map. Students should familiarize themselves with the geography the coming of the Indians. The Moundbuilders' racial identity and of the region. place of origin varied from one theorist to another. Some main- B. Using a dictionary and/or encyclopedia, students should tained that the mounds of the Southeastern United States had been define the following words in preparation for the shared reading. constructed by ancient Israelites who somehow had found their The words appear below in the same sequence as they will appear way to the region. Others insisted that Carthaginians, or the army in the reading, although teachers may choose to arrange them in of , Welshmen orBasques had constructed the alphabetical order, divide them up among groups of students, or impressive works. In our own day, Erich von Daniken's Chariots present them in a list for individual students. of the Gods asserted that the mounds were the handiworks of creatures from outer space. No less than Thomas Jefferson became involved in the issue. archeological Basques The author of the Declaration of excavated an textual Erich von Dan iken earthen mound found near his estate at Charlottesville, Virginia indigenous Thomas Jefferson and, after examining its contents and strata, Jefferson concluded Antebellum Hernando de Soto that it could have been constructed by Indians. His opinion was ethnocentric ethnography strongly seconded in 1873 by the pioneer archeologist, Charles ideology sociology Colcok Jones, Jr., when he published his Antiquities of the South- Moundbuilders ern Indians. Jones had read a translation of a first-hand chronicle Israelites Enlightenment of the Hernando de Soto expedition (1539-1543) to the Southeast Carthaginian heresy and it was clear to the Spaniards' travels, De Soto and his men had Alexander the Great Satanism encountered large and powerful native American societies. This Welshmen scribe thesis was confirmed in 1891 with the publication of a monumental

Spring 1991 46 43 report by the Bureau of American Ethnology, which concluded began collaborating with archaeologists Marvin Smith and Chester that the Southeastern mounds were the creations of the Indians DePratter in an attempt to determine the route of the DeSoto themselves. exp-fl:tion. They quickly discovered that, if they relied solely on Who were these indigenous engineers and where were their the -inish narratives of the venture, it was possible to place the communities located when the Spanish first stumbled upon them? expedition almost anywhere in the region. Start wherever they Few, if any, of the sixteenth-century Spanish explorers were much might in most parts of the Southeast, the researchers found that interested in matters we today would label ethnography or sociol- there were streams, arable lands, and often archeological evidence ogy.Indeed, these fields were defined long after De Soto's of Indian settlement that was suggestive of the localities described celebrated march. Quite a number of the later French and English by De Soto's men. explorers do exhibit such interests. The records of the Huguenots A way out of this impasse presented itself when they began who attempted to establish a colony at the mouth of the St. John's reading an account of the Spanish explorer Juan Pardo's expedition River in Florida, for example, reveal their curiosity about the (1567-1568), written by his scribe and notary, Juan de la Bandera. indigenous people they encountered there. This interest is even As researchers poured through Bandera's history, it became clear more evident in the documents of French and English observers in to them that Pardo must have visited five of the same Indian towns the late seventeenth century and throughout the eighteenth cen- that De Soto had reached earlier. Pardo arrived at each in precisely tury.Under the influence of the Enlightenment, they became the same order as they had been encountered by De Soto's column aware that people could differ rather fundamentally from Europe- and they lay in the same kinds of terrain. The Bandera document, ans in how they thought or lived without being guilty of heresy or moreover, is far more detailed than any of the narratives of the De Satanism, as had been suspected earlier. Soto expedition for this segment of the route.Using Pardo's The only first-hand observers of the indigenous population of itinerary as described by Bandera, the research team retraced every the Southeastern interior in the sixteenth century were, neverthe- possible route leading from Santa Elena (a Spanish post lately less, the Spaniards. They left us very little in the way of written unearthed at Parris Island, South Carolina where Pardo's march observation of the customs and cultures they found. Consequently, began) northward to the Appalachian Mountains, which Bandera most of our present understanding is based upon the work of describes in detail. archaeologists over the past fifty years, especially the most recent Scholars have known for some time now that an indigenous fifteen years. people called the had been located in the vicinity of It was during the 1979-80 academic year that Charles Hudson, Tallahassee, Florida, and recent archeological finds demonstrate professor of anthropology and history at the University of Georgia, that some, if not all, of De Soto's men camped within what is now

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44 47 OAH Magazine of History ( i , ' :71/ it klilt' i

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Hernando de Soto's exploration of the southeastern United States went as far north as Tennessee and . He discovered the and was later buried there after he died of a fever. the city limits of the state's capital. In their effort to locate De varying stages of completion. One immediate benefit of this Soto's route of march, therefore, Professor Hudson and his col- reconstruction is that the researchers have been able to make sense leagues started in Tallahassee. out of the movements and activities of another Spanish explora- Assuming a pace of no more that 17.5 miles per day for the tionthat of Tristan de Luna's men, who landed at Pensacola bay Spaniards and employing geographical features mentioned in the and penetrated the interior in 1559-1561. documents, as well as known archeological indicators of early The routes of exploration followed by De Soto, Luna, and sixteenth-century habitations along the way, Hudson's group was Pardo are intrinsically interesting. Their real importance, how- able to reconstruct De Soto's path through Georgia all the way to ever, is that they provide a vital record for addressing some of the what had been the town of , now located on Zimmerman's most significant questions about the period of 1568-1670, which Island in the French Broad River near present day Dandridge, Professor Hudson described as "the Great Black Hole of Southern Tennessee (see accompanying map). History." Among those questions are: 1) What was the nature of With this segment of the De Soto's route in hand, the research- the indigenous societies of the Southeast prior to contact with the ers gained additional insight into the way the expedition behaved. Europeans? 2) Where were these communities located? 3) How They noted, for example, that De Soto and his party traveled a little were they transformed into the societies which the Europeans more slowly than Pudo and that they were continually guided by found later in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries? Indians, who almost always followed clear trails. While De Soto's The "Black Hole" exists because there was no significant men might have wished to find precious metals, they had to find European penetration into the interior of 'he Southeast from 1568 food. As a result, the Spaniards sought out the central towns of the to 1670; nevertheless, this moment encompasses momentous most populous because it was there that food was either changesa time in which a significant component of the human stored or could be easily cajoled or extorted from the inhabitants. mosaic crumbled and fell to pieces. A continuous documentary Hudson's group has published their reconstruction of several record of the region's Indian societies during this period exists segments of De Soto's march and research on the remainder is in only in connection with , the sphere of the mis-

Spring 1991 43 45 sions. No European observers were present in the Southeastern Map Utilization interior to see and record the catastrophe that obviously occurred. Activity One. Compare the Hudson map above with the By piecing together archeological information, the picture that contemporary roadmap and determine from these sources the emerges is that of a sharp population decline and societal collapse. distances marched by the Spanish explorers. It was only toward the end of the seventeenth century that the Activity Two. At their rate of 17.5 miles each day, how long survivors of this decimation began to coalesce into the familiar did it take the Spaniards to march from Point A to Point B (points groups of the old southCreeks, Catawbas, Choctaws, Chickasaws, determined by the teacher)? and Cherokees. Note: The names and addresses of the teachers who partici- pated in the 1990 and 1991 seminars at the University of Georgia are available upon request from the author. A record of some of these considerations is forthcoming: Charles M. Hudson and Questions for Discussion Carmen Tesser (eds.), The Forgotten Centuries: Spanish Explor- 1. Why is it difficult to know what happened to the native ers and Indian Chiefdoms in the Southeastern United States in the American societies before the seventeenth century? Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 2. What is the theory of the moundbuilders? 3. How does reading the documents of a scribe help us Carmen Chaves Tesser is General Sandy Beaver Teaching Profes- understand the actions of the explorer? sor of Romance Languages at the University of Georgia, and 4. What is ethnocentric about our views of early native Charles Hudson is Professor of History and Anthropology at the Americans? University of Georgia.

46 OAH Magazine of History 4.0 Educational Resources

Christopher Columbus: Bridge Between the Old and New World

Vickie J. Schlene

The more we know and El) 303 417. The Columbian Voy- the biological impact.This paper dis- understand the man ages, the Columbian Exchange, and Their cusses many biotas that Columbus im- Christopher Columbus, the more Historians. Essays on Global and Com- ported to the New World, including weeds, we can understand how this nation parative History, by Alfred W. Crosby. which at times crowded out native flora, evolved from the encounter be- (Washington, DC: American Historical domesticated animals, and old world dis- tween the Old World and the New, Association, 1987), pp. 34.EDRS eases, like small pox, measles, and ma- and the great social and economic Price:MF-50.01. PC not available from laria. A six-item bibliography is included. changes that historic encounter EDRS. set in motion. The five-hundredth anniversary of the ED 312 213. The Voyages of Colum- Columbian discovery of America is upon bus: A Turning Point in World History, by Helen Nader us, and with it the obligation to assess Alfred W. Crosby. (ERIC Clearinghouse "Christopher Columbus: existing interpretations of the significance for Social Studies/Social Science Educa- The Hero and the Historian" of the voyage and establishment of perma- tion,Bloomington,IN,1989),pp.48. EDRS nent links between the Old and New Worlds. Price:MF-$0.01/PC-$0.02, plus postage. Examples of historical interpretation from Part One of this booklet is an introduc- Few men in the course of history have many schools of thought on Columbus and tion by John J. Patrick dealing with teach- had such a long - lasting effect on the history his impact on the world arc presented. The ing about the Columbus's voyages. Part of the world as Christopher Columbus. Columbian influence on the Old and New Two, "Columbus and Ecological Imperial- Few dates are more readily recalled than Worlds is assessed; and intellectual, eco- ism," by Alfred W. Crosby, provides an 1492. In 1992, we will celebrate the five- nomic, nutritional, and demographic ef- ecological perspective on the conditions hundredth anniversary of Columbus's his- fects are discussed. Finally, the old legacy and consequences of the Columbian ex- toric voyage to the New World. of the Columbian exchange is reviewed in change. Part Three, "Christopher Colum- This ERIC/ChESS column highlights terms of its effects on and bus: The Hero and the Historian," by Helen a few of the entries in the ERIC database ethnic composition. Nader points out that the one key to under- concerning Christopher Columbus and the standing the Columbian voyages and their effects his discoveries had on the world. El) 310973. Columbus and Ecologi- consequences is accurate information about cal , by Alfred W. Crosby. Columbus and his deeds. The document E.1 397 621. "Discovering Colum- (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of concludes with a twenty-nine-item bibli. bus: Rereading the Past," by Bill Bigelow the Indiana Council for the Social Studies, ography. inLanguageArts, October 1989, volume Muncie, IN, -8, 1989),pp. 14. EDRS 66, number 6, 635-43. Price:MF-$0.01/PC-$0.01, plus postage. R1287485. "Jamaica on Early Maps," This article presents a series of lessons Christopher Columbus crossed the by Benjamin F. Richason, Jr. in Journal of for a U.S. history class on Christopher Atlantic. in 1492 and opened a period of Geography, September-October 1983, vol- Columbus's "discovery" of America.It extensive exchange between the Old and ume 82, number 5, 195-204. provides an approach to teaching students New Worlds. The greatest impact of his Columbus sighted Jamaica during his to evaluate critically the historical infor- discoveries on the New World has been the second voyage and was marooned therefor mation presented in their textbooks. one which the least attention has been paid: more than a year during his fourth voyage.

Spring1991 50 47 "The object of the Organization shall be to promote historical study and research in the field of American history and to do all things necessary and proper to accomplish this purpose." Constitution of the Organization of American Historians, Article II

Membership in the OAH is your way of actively supporting this simple, straightforward goal ... to promotehistorical study and research in American history. As a member of the OAH you'll receive either the Journal of American History, the leading publication in the field, or the Magazine of History, our publication especially for members in the primary/secondary teacher category. You'll also receive the OAH Newsletter, with articles, commentary, professional opportunity ads, fellowship annou ncements, and other valuable information about the organization and the profession, plus a copy of our Annual Meeting Program containing a complete list of the sessions planned for the OAH convention. The succession of early maps of Jamaica betrays its slow development and its Join Us. unimportance to early colonizers. Modern tourism is the elusive "gold" which Span- Please start my membership in the Organization of American Historians. ish fortune hunters did not find. Name The items preceded by an ED number are in the ERIC system and are available in Address many libraries around the country or cop- ies may be ordered from the ERIC Docu- City State Zip ment Reproduction Service (EDRS). For additional information concerning order- Check or money order enclosed (must be drawn in U.S. funds, on U.S. bank) ing copies, contact EDRS, 7420 Fullerton Charge my Visa Mastercard Road, Suite 110, Springfield, Virginia Card No. 22153 or call 800-443-3742. Entries pre- Signature ceded by "EJ" are annotated monthly in the Exp. Date Current Index to Journals in Education (CUE). They can be located in the journal Check appropriate income/dues category: sections of most libraries or ordered through Individual Membership $30, Primary/Secondary Teacher Interlibrary Loan. $30, income under $20,000 $40, Associate $40, Emeritus/Retired The ERIC/Clearinghouse for Social $45, income $20,000-29,999 %0, income $30,000-39,000 $45, Foreign Scholar, postage included Studies/Social Science Education (ERIC/ $70, income $40,000-49,999 $30+, Dual (receive one copy of JAH) ChESS) acquires, processes, and reports $80, income $50,000-59,999 Select the income category for one on the significant literature in social stud- $90, income over $60,000 member. Add $30 for second member. ies and the social sciences. Through the $100, Contributing Member $1,000, Life Membership (may be paid in ERIC database, ERIC/ChESS provides two installments) ready access to that literature. Address any Institutional Subscribers $1,500, Patron (may be paid in four comments, inquiries, or search requests $100, Institutional installments) (there is a minimal fee for a search) to $10, postage outside U.S. $15, Student* (5 year limit) ERIC/ChESS, 2805 East Tenth Street, Suite 120, Bloomington, IN 47405 or call 812- *faculty signature required 855 -3838. Return coupon (photocopy accepted) along with your credit card information or a check or money order made payable to the Organization of American Historians. Vickie J. Schlene is User Services Coordi- nator for the ERIC Clearinghouse for So- Organization of American Historians cial Studies /Social Science Education, 112 North Bryan Street, Bloomington, IN 47408-4199 1.30SP91 Bloomington, Indiana.

48 51. OAH Magazine of History National History Day

11111111111111111NP National History Day Commemorates the Columbian Quincentenary

Lois Scharf Cathy Gorn

The 1992 National History Day A global, political transformation evolved analyze the impact of a particular scientific theme, "Discovery, Encounter, as well, setting off the rise of global em- discovery in history; a media presentation Exchange in History: the Seeds of Change," pires and colonization. One result was the might be developed that examines the voy- presents an opportunity for students and largest genetic and cultural intermingling age of southern blacks to northern states teachers to investigate topics related to the of Europeans, Africans, and native Ameri- and their encounter with the inner cities; or Col um bian voyages and their legacies. The cans in history.Students may choose a paper might focus on cultural exchanges 1992 theme challenges students to explore topics related to these and other issues for or contributions from a particular immi- the multicultural aspects and interrelation- investigation and presentation in National grant group in the United States. ships of diverse populations before and History Day entries. These are only a few of the scores of after the initial encounter and subsequent Whatever the topics students choose to topics available for study. Whatever topic exchanges between two hemispheres. investigate, they must be sure to relate the is chosenChristopher Columbus orLewis National History Day, which occurs topic to the theme "Discovery, Encounter, and Clark, the Spanish among annually in June, is the culmination of a Exchange in History." Students interested the native Americans or the African series of contests at successively higher in Christopher Columbus and his impact on diaspora, the impact of on European levels. Throughout the school year, stu- history must first ask questions about the society or the effects of African religion on dents engage in extensive reading and re- term "discover" when analyzing sources the peoples of the Caribbeanstudies must search of original sources and outstanding and their relationship to the theme. Is the include evidence of primary and secondary scholarship in order to prepare papers, word "discovery" appropriate when dis- research ana must indicate the topic's sig- projects, performances, and media presen- cussing Columbus's contribution in his- nificance in history. After months of his- tations, based on an annual historical theme. tory? Students may wish to study various torical research and interpretation of the The 1992 theme is broad enough in scope aspects of the initial encounters between materials, students may develop projects to suggest topics ranging from community the Europeans and the Native Americans and use the National History Day array of to world history. or the Africans. What kind of encounter local, state, and national competitions as a The Columbian encounter had a pro- occurred?Is the term "encounter" too forum to demonstrate their scholarly ex- found affect on all of mankind; its conse- sanitized or weak when used to describe ploration of "Discovery, Encounter, Ex- quences were immediate and long term. the events that took place? Or, students change in History." We continue to feel its effects as we ap- may he interested in analyzing the impact In 1992 the educational activities as- proach the twenty-first century. The voy- of the exchanges of disease and food stuffs sociated with National History Day will ages set off an enormous set of interrelated between the two worlds. reflect the theme itself.Students will affects which offer scores of possible top- Although the National History Day discover appropriate source materials for ics for further research and study.The theme is related to the Columbian rigorous research, encounter the evidence events of 1492 created a demographic revo- Quincentenary, it is in fact much broader. upon which historical scholarship is based, lution. Disease and conquest had a disas- Students are not required to study topics and exchange their presentations and newly- trous effect on the native populations of the related to the initial encounter and ex- gained knowledge with their peers at His- Americas, while the introduction of new changes between the two worlds in the tory Day competitions. food stuffs generated a rise in the European sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but population. The events also touched off may investigate topics in other areas pro- LoisScharfis Executive Director and Cathy new divisions in the world's labor supply vided that the topics chosen are related to Gorn, Assistant Director, of National His- and the of the world economy. the theme. For example, a project might tory Day in Cleveland, Ohio.

Spring 1991 52 49 National History Day, 1992 Theme Supplement Topics Related to "Discovery, Encounter, Exchange in History"

Following is a list of potential topics. The list is not meant, of course, to be inclusive. It is a merely a start to helpstudents begin thinking about the 1992 theme. Whatever category chosen, the student should be sure to place the topic into historical perspective and focus in on the topic's significance and impact in history. National History Day judges will examine not only the student's research skills and creative presentation, but his or her understanding of the topic's historical significance as well.

Navigation Technology Explorers and Explorations, continued the compass developed by the Chinese Spanish Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion the French sailors of Dieppe Vasco Nunez de Balboa ship building technologyDutch Carabelle Juan Ponce de Leon Products, Economy, Trade, Commerce Samuel de Champlain horse Vasco de Gama cattle Lewis and Clark sheep St. Brendan the Navigator Indian, Spanish, French or Dutch place names Space explorers and explorations economic system of the Incas of South America Admiral Byrd food items maize, potatoes, wheat, , bananas, sugar Marco Polo products , moccasins, toboggans Commodore Perry the "Black Fleet" to language words Sven Hedin log cabin Robert E. Peary European architecture in the New World Zebulon Pike African slave trade American trade for Spanish gold, silver, furs Conquerors New rum bartered for slaves Alexander the Great French trade Yermak conquest of , creation of North American/Latin American fruit trade Justinian transformed Eastern Roman Empire British East India Company Mehmet II () England's exchange of for silver in China Mohammed Francisco de Coronado Explorers and Explorations Hernan Cortez Christopher Columbus Prince Henry, the Navigator Native Populations Aztec pyramid Sir development of the Incan Empire Wallis irrigation system of the Anasazi at Mesa Verde,Colorado Abel Janszoon Tasman Peruvian Indian and weaving styles Fredrick Albert Cook Columbus and the Arawak Indians impact of the Spanish horse on the American Plains Indians Amerigo Vespucci Spanish enforcement of religion on the Aztecs

50 OAH Magazine of History Religion Cultural Exchanges role of Roman Catholicism in Spain in the African influence on speech, folkore, music, literature invasions of England Anglo-Saxon, Kelts, Normans Spanish mission established by Junipero Serra in 18th century Dutch Boers in Africa California Peter the Great brining of west to Russia religious conversion of the native Americans according to exchange and encounter of black and white women in America the Spanish and English textile making and exchanges of patterns native American, Norse and Hindu creation stories food ways and eating habits Christian Doctrine for the instruction of Indians folklore: songs, stories, artifacts Bartolome De Las Casas' missions Franciscans, Dominicans Christian influence on American slave religion Crusades Jesuit missionaries in the Far East exchange of African religion with the New World Immigration Discoveries the immigrant in America housing, education, jobs, gold in California communication penicillin Jewish immigration into Palestine atomic energy Ellis Island electricity Asian immigrants in America after 1965 job market, Rosetta Stone tradition clashes, break-up of extended family Dead Sea Scrolls experience of Irish immigrants in America gun powder 15th century China Irish influence on American music or American influence on coal Irish music King Tutankhamen's tomb Halloween (Celtic tradition) polio vaccine Chinese immigrants and western railroad building

B ibliography

The following bibliography prepared by National History Day is not all inclusive. It is meant toserve as a place for students to begin their research. Students will need to conduct extensive research and investigate primary as wellas secondary resources. They should be encouraged to consult not only their own library, but public libraries, archives andmuseums as well. Students who choose local history topics should investigate community sources and conduct oral history interviews when possible. Students should bemade aware that resources for investigating historical topics include songs, works of art and architecture in addition to books, documents and manuscripts. (Note: an asterisk and "ref..' denote primary and reference sources respectively.)

GENERAL McNeill, William H. Plagues and Peoples. Garden City: Anchor Carter, Ron. The Spread of Civilization. Morristown: Silver Press/Doubleday, 1976. Burdett Co., 1980. Crosby, Alfred W., Jr. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and COLUMBUS Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport: Greenwood Press, Bigelow, William. "Discovering Columbus: Rereading the Past." 1972. Language Arts (October 1989). Dodge, Ernest Stanley. Islands and Empires: Western Impact on Bowen, Clarence Winthrop. "ChristopherColumbus, 1492-1892." the Pacific and East Asia. Minneapolis: University of Minne- The Independent 31 (May 1883). sota Press, 1976. Casas, Bartolome de las. The Diario of Christopher Columbus's Fagan, Brian M. Clash of Cultures. New York: W.H. Freeman, First Voyage to America. Norman: University of Oklahoma 1984. Press, 1989.* Goodnough, Simon. The Renaissance: The Living Past. New Colon, Fernando. The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus York: Arco Publishing, 1984. by His Son, Ferdinand. Translated and annotated by Benjamin

Spring 1991 54 51 Keen. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1959. Vol. 1, Travels from 1832 to 1844. Edited by Donald Jackson Columbus, Christopher. Book of Privileges. London: 1893.* and Mary Lee Spence. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,

.The Journal of Christopher Columbus. New York: Bo- 1970.* nanza Books, 1989.* Garst, Doris Shannon. Three Conquistadors: Cones, Coronado,

.The Log of Christopher Columbus. Translated by Robert Pizarro. New York: Julian Messner, 1947. H. F"con. Camden: International Marine Pub. Co., 1987.* Gilman, Michael. Matthew Henson. n.p.: Chelsea House, 1988. Dolan, Sean. Christopher Columbus: The Intrepid Mariner. New Goodman, Edward J. The Explorers of South America. New York: York: Fawcett Columbine, 1989. Macmillan, 1972. Gottheil, Richard James Horatio. "Columbus in Jewish Litera- Goodnough, David. Francis Drake. Mahwah: Troll Associates, ture." American Jewish Historical Quarter!) (1894): 129- 1979. 137. Great Explorers. Filmstrips. Washington, D.C.: National Geo- Granzotto, Gianni. Christopher Columbus.Garden City: graphic Society, 1978. Doubleday, 1985. The Infinite Voyage. ITV videos (8, 60-minute shows). National Griffith, Brian. "500th : What Not to Celebrate". Academy or Science. National Catholic Reporter 26 (May 1990): 17. Grant, Matthew. Champlain: Explorer of . Mankato: Jane, Cecil, ed. The Voyages ofChristopher Columbus. New York: Creative Education, 1974. Da Capo Press, 1970. .Coronado: Explorer of the Southwest. Mankato: Creative Leon - Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears, the Aztec Account of Education, 1974. the Conquest of Mexico. London: Constable, 1962.* Grant, Neil. Conquerors. Morristown: Silver Burdett Co., 1982. McCarthy, Charles H. Columbus and His Predecessors. Philadel- Goetzmann, William H. : The Explorer phia: John J. McVey, 1912. and Scientist in the Winning of the American West. New York: Morison, Samuel Eliot. Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Knopf, 1966. Cristopher Columbus. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1942. Harley, Ruth. Ferdinand Magellan. Mahwah: Troll Assoc.,1979. Nowell, Charles E. "The Columbus Question." American History Henson, Matthew Alexander. A Black Explorer at the North Pole. Review 44 (1939): 802-22. New York: Walker, 1969.* Nunn, George Emra. The Geographical Conceptions of Colum- Jensen, Malcolm C. Leif Erickson the Lucky. New York: Franklin bus: A Critical Consideration of Four Problems. New York: Watts, 1979. Octagon Books, 1977. Joseph, Joan. Henry Hudson. New York: Watts, 1974. Sable, Martin H. "Christopher Columbus and Jewish Assistance in Knight, David. . Mahwah: TrollAssociates, Discovery of the New World." In Latin American Jewry: A 1979. Research Guide. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, Knoop, Faith Y. A World Explorer: Francisco Coronado. 1978. Champaign: Garrard Publishing Co., 1967. Vignaud, Henry. "Columbus a Spaniard and a Jew." American Krensky, Stephen. Who Really Discovered America? New York: Historical Review 18 (April 1913): 505-12. Hastings House, 1987. Miguel, Pier...?.. The Age of Discovery. Morristown: Silver Burdett EXPLORERS AND EXPLORATION Co., 1978. Arrington, Carolyn. Estevanico, Black Explorer in Spanish Texas. Newby, Eric. Rand McNally World Atlas of Exploration. New N.p.: Eakin Press, 1986. York: Rand McNally Co., 1975. Bakeless, John Edwin. Lewis & Clark, Partners in Discovery. New Pascall, Jeremy. Pirates andPrivateers.Morristown: Silver Burdett, York: W. Morrow, 1947. 1981. Bates, Peter. "Profile: Ron McNair." Equal Opportunity (Spring Paul, Rodman W. California Gold: The Beginning of in the 1983): 56-7. Far West. N.p.: n.p., 1974. Cairns, Trevor. Europe and the World. Minneapolis: Lerner Paullin, Charles 0. American Voyages to the Orient, 1690 -1865: Publications Co., 1975. An Account of and Naval Activities in China, Japan Clarke, Helen. Vikings. New York: Gloucester Press, 1979. and Various Pacific Islands. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, Dc Voto, Bernard, ed. The Journals of Lewis and Clark. Boston: 1971. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1953.* Peary, Robert Edwin. The North Pole ,ItsDiscovery in 1909 Under Equiano, Olaudah. Equiano' s Travels: The Interesting Narrative the Auspices of the Peary Artic. Club. New York: Frederick A. of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the Stokes Co., 1910.* African. Abridged and edited by Paul Edwards. London: Roberts, Gail. Atlas of Discovery. London: Aldus Books, 1973. Heinemann, 1967.* Ryan, Peter. Explorers and Map Makers. New York: Lodestar Fremont, John Charles. The Expeditions ofJohn Charles Fremont. Books, 1989.

52 55 OAH Magazine of History Sandak, Cass R.Explorers and Discovery.New York: Franklin de Soto in the Conquest of Florida.New York: Allerton Book Watts, 1983. Co., 1922.* Severin, Timothy.The Oriental Adventure: Explorers of the East. Casas, Bartolome de las. InDefense of the Indians,Translated, Boston: Little and Brown, 1976. edited, and annotated by Stafford Poole. DeKalb: Northern Shepherd, Elizabeth.The Discoveries of Esteban the Black.n.p.: Illinois University Press, 1974.* Dodd Mead, 1970. . The Devastation of the Indies: A Brief Account.Trans- Unruh, John D.The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and lated by Herma Briffault. New York: Seabury Press, 1974.* the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-1860.Urbana: University . History of the Indies.Translated by Anree M. Collard. of Illinois Press, 1979. New York: Harper and Row, 1971.* Vespucci, Amerigo.The First Four Voyages ofAmerigo Vespucci. .A Selection of His Writings,Translated and edited by London: B. Quartich, 1893.* George Sanderlin. New York: Albert A. Knopf, 1971.* Withey, Lynne.Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Diaz del Castillo, Bernal.Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico by Exploration of the Pacific.New York: Morrow, 1987. the Spaniard in1521. Edited by B.G. Herzon. Hamden: Wilks, John.Hernando Cortez: in Mexico.New Linnet!. Books, 1988.* York: Lerner, 1974. Bandelier, Fanny, trans.The Journey of Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Wright, Richard R. "Negro Companions of the Spanish Explor- Vaca, and His Companions from Florida to the Paciflc,1528- ers."American Anthropologist(June 1902): 217-28. 1536.New York: A.S. Barnes and Co., 1905.* Bannon, John Francis.The Spanish Borderlands Frontier, 1513- SPANISH HISTORY 1821.New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970. Alarcon, Norma and Sylvia Kossar.Bibliography of Hispanic Beers, Henry Putney.Spanish and Mexican Records of the Ameri- Women Writers.Bloomington, Indiana: Chicano-Riqueno can Southwest.Tucson: University of , 1979. Studies, 1980. ref. Blackmar, Frank Wilson.Spanish Institutions of the Southwest. D'Ailly, Pierre.Imago Mundi.Seville: N.p., 1490. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press, 1890. Elliott, J.H.Imperial Spain, 1469-1716.New York: St. Martin's Gibson, Charles.Spain in America.New York: Harper and Row, Press, 1963. 1966. Fernandez-Arrnesto, Felipe.Ferdinand and Isabella.New York: Jones, Oakah L., Jr.Nueva Vizcaya: Heartland of the Spanish Taplinger Publishing Co., 1975. Frontier.Albuquerque: University of Press, Frazier, Antonia. The WarriorQueens.New York: Vintage Books, 1988. 1990. . Los Paisanos: Spanish Settlers on the North-ern Frontier Hare, Christopher. AQueen of Queens and the Making of Spain. of .Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979. London: Harper and Brothers, 1906. Natella, Arthur A., Jr.The Spanish in America.Dobbs Ferry: Howard, John.Spain: The Land and Its People.Morristown: Silver Oceana Publications, 1975. Burdett, 1988. Phelan, John Leddy.The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans Hume, Martin Andrew Sharp.Philip II ofSpain.Westport: Green- in the NewWorld. 2d ed. rev. Berkeley: University of Califor- wood Press, 1970. nia Press, 1970. Mariejol, Jean-Hippolyte.The Spain of Ferdinand and Isabella. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1961. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA Plunket, Ierne L. Isabelof Castile and the Making of the Spanish Acosta, Jose de. The Natural and MoralHistory of the Indies. Nation1451 -1504. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1915. Reprinted from the English translated edition of Edward Starr, Eliza Allen.Isabella of Castile.Chicago: C.Y. Waite Co., Grimston and edited with notesand an introduction by Clements 1889. R. Markham. New York: B. Franklin, 1973.* Stevens, Paul.Ferdinand and I sabella.New York: Chelsea House, Cook, Sherburne F. and Woodrow Borah.Essays in Population 1989. History: Mexico and the Caribbean.Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. SPANISH IN AMERICA Lavine, Harold. . New York: Time Incorporated, Arrillaga, Jose Joaquin. Diaryofl I is Surveys of the Frontier.Baja, 1968. California Travels Series 17 (1969).* Lockhart, James and Enrique Otte.Letters and People of the Bandelier, Adolph F.The Discovery of New Mexico by the Spanish Indies, Sixteenth Century.London: Cambridge Uni- Franciscan Monk Friar Marcos de Niza in 1539.Translated versity Press. 1976.* and edited by Madeleine Turret! Rodack. Tucson: University Lehner, Ernst and Johanna.How They Saw the New World.Edited of Arizona Press, 1981.* by Gerard L. Alexander. New York: Tudor Publishing Co., Bourne, Edward Gaylord.Narratives of the Career of Hernando 1966.*

Spring 1991 56 53 McManis, Douglas R. European Impressions of the New England Sahagun, Bernardino de. General History of the Things of New Coast, 1497-1620. Chicago: University of Chicago, Dept. of Spain: . Edited and translated by A.J.O. Geography, 1972.* Anderson and C.E. Dibble. Salt Lake City: University of Utah, Meinig, D.W. The Shaping ofAmerica Volume I. New Haven: Yale 1950-1982.* University Press, 1986. Tedlock, Dennis, trans. Popol-Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Southern Voyages AD. 1492-1616. New York: Oxford Uni- Kings. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985.* versity Press, 1974. Zorita, Alonso de. Life and Labor in Ancient Mexico (The Briefand Steck, Francis Borgia. A Tentative Guide to Historical Materials Summary Relation of the Lords of New Spain). Translated by on the Spanish Borderlands. New York: B. Franklin, 1971. Benjamin Keen. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, ref. 1963.* Stoddard, Ellwyn, ct al. Borderlands Sourcebook: A Guide to South America Literature on Northern Mexico and the American Southwest. Bethel', Leslie, ed. The Cambridge History of Latin America. 5 Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1983. ref. vols. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 1984. Swanson, Earl H., Warwick M. Bray, and Ian S. Farrington. The Cieza de Leon, Pedrde. The Incas. Edited by Victor Wolfgang Ancient Americas. New York: Peter Bcdrick Books, 1989. von Hagan. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959.* North America Cobo, Bernabe. History of the . Translated by Roland Adamson, David Grant. The Ruins of Time: Four and a Half Hamilton. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.* Centuries of Conquest and Discovery Among the Maya. New Diffie, Bailey W. A History of Colonial Brazil, 1500-1792. York: Praeger, 1975. Malabar: R.E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1987. Benzoni, Girolamo. History of The New World, by Girolamo Dobyns, Henry F. Peru: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford Benzoni, Showing His Travels in America, from A.D. 1541 to University Press, 1976. 1556, with some Particulars of the Island of Canary. Trans- Hahner, June E., ed. Women in Latin American History: Their lated and edited by W.H. Smyth. New York: B. Franklin, Lives and Views. Los Angeles: UCLA, 1976. 1970.* Huaman Poma de Ayala, Felipe. Letter to a King: A Picture- Boscana, Geronimo. Chinigchinich: Historical Account of the History of the Inca Civilization . Edited and translated by Origins, Customs,and Traditions of the Indians at the Mis- Christopher Dilke. Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1978.* sionary Establishment of San Juan Capistrano. Translated by Marrin. Albert. Inca and Spaniard, Pizarro and the Conquest of Alfred Robinson. Oakland: Brobooks, 1947.* Peru. New York: Atheneum, 1989. Cortes, Hernan. Letters from Mexico. Edited and translated by Parry, John H. and Robert G. Keith, eds. New Iberian World: A A.R. Pagdcn. New York: Grossman Publishers, 1971.* Documentary History oftheDiscovery and Settlement ofLatin Crouch, Dora P., Daniel J. Garr and Axel I. Mundigo. Spanish City America to the Early 17th Century. New York: Times Books, Planning in North America. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1982. 1984.* Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico Tannenbaum, Frank. Slave and Citizen: The Negro in the Ameri- 1517-1521. Translated by Alfred P. Maudsley. New York: cas. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947. Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1956.* Vega, Garcilaso de la. Royal Commentaries of the Incas and Dunne, Peter Masten. Pioneer Jesuits in Northern Mexico. Berkley: General History ofP eru. Translated by Harold V. Livermore. University of California Press, 1944. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1966.* Duran, Diego. Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Wachtel, Nathan. The Vision of the Vanquished, the Spanish Calendar. Edited and translated by Doris Hcyden and Fernando Conquest of Peru ON ough Indian Eyes, 1530-1570. Trans- Horcasitas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971.* lated by Ben and Sian Reynolds. New York: Barnes and Lopez de Gomara, Francisco. Cortes: The Life of the Conquerer by Nable, 1977.* his Secretary. Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1964 .* Zarate, Agustin de. The Discovery and Conquest of Peru. Edited Motolinia, Toribio. History of the Indians of New Spain. Edited and translated by J.M. Cohen. Harmondsworth: Penguin, and translated by Elizabeth A. Foster. Berkeley: Cortes 1968.* Society, 1950.* Quinn, David B., ed. New American World: A Documentary NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORY History of North America to 1612, Vol. I. New York: Arno Brandon, William. Indians. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989. Press, 1979.* Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History Sauer, Carl Ortwin. Sixteenth Century North America: The Land of the American West. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, and the People as Seen by the Europeans. Berkeley: Univer- 1970. sity of California Press, 1971.* Byler, Mary G., Michael A. Dorris and Arlene B. Hirshfelder.Guide

54 OATI Magazine of History to Research on North American Indians. Chicago: American Critical Bibliography. Bloomington: The Indiana University Library Association, 1983. ref. Press, 1979. ref. Calloway, Colin G., ed. New Directions in American Indian Prucha, Francis Paul. A Bibliographical Guide to the History of History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. Indian-White Relations in the U.S. Chicago: University of Danziger,Edmund Jefferson, Jr.I tidiansandB ureaticrats: Admin- Chicago Press, 1977. ref. istrating the Reservation Policy during the Civil War. Urbana: Reid, Hugo. The Indians of Los Angeles County: Hugo Reid' s The University of Illinois Press, 1974. Letter of 1852. Edited and annotated by Rober F. Heizer. Deloria, Vine, Jr. Custer Died For Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. Southwest Museum Papers no. 21. Los Angeles: Southwest New York: MacMillian, 1969. Museum, 1968.* Dorn, Edward. The Shoshoneans: The People of the Basin-Pla- Rogin, Michael Paul. Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and teau. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1966. the Subjugation of the American Indian. New York: Knopf, Fitzhugh, William, ed. Cultures in Contact: The Impact of Euro- 1975. pean Contacts on NativeAmerican Cultural Institutions, A.D. Sheehan, Bernard W. Seeds of Extinction: Jefferson Philanthropy 1000-1800. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, and the American Indian. Chapel Hill: The University of 1985. North Carolina Press, 1973. Haglund, Crawford, Berthiaume, Sherman, Romance. The Washoe, Terrell, John Upton and Donna M. Terrell. Indian Women of the Paiute, and Shoshone Indians of Nevada. Carson City: State Western Morning: Their Life in Early America. New York: of Nevada Department of Education. 1964. Dial Press, 1974. Hermann, Ruth. The Paiutes of Pyramid Late: A Narrative Con- Thornton, Russell. American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A cerning A Western Nevada Indian Tribe. California: Harlan- Population History Since 1942. Norman: University of Okla- Young Press, 1972. homa Press, 1987. Hopkins, Sarah Winnemucca. Life Among the Paiuies: Their Tyler, S. Lyman. Two Worlds: The Indian Encounter with the Wrongs and Claims. California: Chalfant Press, 1983. European, 1492-1509. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Huntington, Ellsworth. The Red Man's Continent, A Chronicle of Press, 1988. Aboriginal America. New Haven: Yale University Press, Underhill, Ruth M. Red Man' s America: A History ofIndians in the 1919. United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971. Inter-Tribal Council of Nevada. Newe: A Western Shoshone Wilkinson, Charles. American Indians, Time and the Law: Native History. Utah: University of Utah Printing Service, n.d. Societies in a Modern Constitutional Democracy.New . Numa: A Northern Paiute History. Utah: University of Haven: Yale University Press, 1987. Utah Printing Service, ;;.d. James, Alton. English Institutions and the American Indian. 1884. AFRICAN AND AFRO-AMERICAN HISTORY Reprint. New York and London: Johnson Reprint Corpora- Alderman, Clifford Lindsey. Colonists for Sale. New York: tion, 1973. Macmillan Publishing, 1975. Jennings, Francis. The Invasion ofAmerica: Indians, . Rum,Slaves, and Molasses. New York: Macmillan Pub- and the Cant of Conquest. North Carolina: University of North lishing, 1975. Carolina Press, 1975. Bastside, Roger. African Civilizations in the New World. New Levy, Jerrold E. and Stephen J. Kunitz. Indian Drinking, Navajo York: Harper and Row, 1972. Practices and Anglo-American Theories. New York: Wiley, Boles, John B. BlackSoutherners, 1619-1869. Lexington: Univer- 1974. sity Press of Kentucky, 1983. Little, Elizabeth. The Indian Sickness at Nantucket, 1763-1764. Botkin, B. A., ed. A Treasury of Southern Folklore. New York: Nuntucket: Nantucket Historical Association, 1988. Crown Publishers, 1949. Martin, Calvin, ed. The American Indian and the Problem of Brown, Larissa V. Atlantic in the New World 1493-1834. Provi- History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. dence: N.p., 1988. Nabokov, Peter, ed. Native American Testimony: An Anthology of Curtin, Philip D. The African Slave Trade, a Census. Madison: Indian and White Relations; First Encounter to Disposses- University of Wisconsin Press, 1969. sion. New York: Crowell, 1978. Davies, Oliver. West Africa Before the Europeans: Nash, Gary B. Red, White, and Black, The Peoples of Early and Prehistory. London: Methuen, 1967. America. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1974. Degler, Carl N. : Slavery and Race Ogden, Peter Skene. Peter Skene Ogden' sSnake Country Journals Relations in Brazil and the United States. New York: 1827-28 and 1828-29. Edited by G. Williams. London: Macmillan, 1971. Hudson's Bay Record Society, 1971.* Elkins, Stanley M. Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional Porter, Frank W. III. Indians in Maryland and Delaware: A and Intellectual Life. Chicago: The University of Chicago

Spring 1991 55 53 Press, 1968. .The Sun and the Drum: African Roots in Jamaican Folk Fox, Paula. The Slave Dancer: A Novel. Scarsdale: Bradbury Tradition. Kingston, Jamaica: Sangster's Book Stores, 1976. Press, 1973. .The Rastafarians: Sounds of Cultural Dissonance. Bos- Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth. Within the Plantation household: Black ton: Beacon Press, 1977. and White Women of the Old South. Chapel Hill: The Univer- Bascom, William R. Shango in the New World. Austin: University sity of North Carolina Press, 1988. of Texas Press, 1972. Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Bastide, Roger. The African Religions ofBrazil :Toward a Sociol- Negro Americans. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1980. ogy of the Interpretation of Civilization. Baltimore: Johns Fauset, Arthur Huff. Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Reli- Hopkins University Press, 1978. gious Cults of the Urban North. Philadelphia: University of Bibly, Kenneth and Fu-kiau Bunseki. Kumina: A Kongo-based Pennsylvania Press. 1971. Tradition in the New World. Brussels: Centre d'Etude de Genovese, Eugene D. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Documentation Africaines, 1983. Made. New York: Pantheon Books, 1974. Bramly, Serge. Macumba. New York: St. Martins, 1977. Georgia Writers' Project. Drums and Shadows. Athens: University Courlander, Harold. The Drum and the hoe: Life and Lore of of Georgia Press, 1940. the Haitian People. Berkeley: University of California Gutman, Herbert G. The Black Family in. Slavery and Freedom, Press, 1960. 1750-1925. New York: Pantheon Books, 1976. Frazier, E. Franklin. The Negro Church in America. New York: Hurston, Zora Neale. Mules and Men. Bloomington: Indiana Schocken Books, 1964. University Press, 1978. Gonzalez- Wippler, Migene. The Santeria Experience. Englewood Johnson, Charles R. Middle Passage. New York: Atheneum Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1982. Publishing, 1990. Leacock, Ruth and Seth Leacock. Spirits of the Deep: A Study of Joyner, Charles. Down By the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave an Afro-Brazilian Cult. New York: Doubleday, 1972. Community. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984. Lincoln, C. Eric, ed. The Black Experience in Religion. Garden Katz, William Loren. Eyewitness:The Negro in American History. City: Doubleday/Anchor, 1974. New York: Pitman Publishing, 1968. Metraux, Alfred. Voodoo in Haiti. New York: Oxford University Kwamena-Poh, Michael, et al. African history in Maps. Burnt Press, 1959. Mill, Harlow, Essex: Longman Group Ltd., 1988 Morrish, Ivor. Obeah, Christ and Rastaman: Jamaica and its Lapp, Rudolph M. Blacks in Gold Rush California. New Haven: Religion. Cambridge: James Clarke and Co., 1982. Yale University Press, 1977. Murphy, Joseph M. Santeria: An African Religion in America. Owsley, Frank L. Plain Folk of the Old South. Baton Rouge: Boston: Beacon Press, 1988. Louisiana State University Press, 1982. Owens, Joseph. Dread: The Rastafarians of Jamaica. Kingston, Rutherford, Peggy, ed. African Voices. New York: The Vanguard Jamaica: Sangster's Book Stores, 1976. Press, 1958. Raboteau, Albert J. Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in Sammons, Vivian Ovelton. Blacks in Science and Medicine. New the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press, York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1989. 1978. Snow, Philip. The Star Raft: China's Encounter with Africa. Semett, Milton G., ed. Afro-American Religious History: A Docu- London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988. mentary Witness. Durham: Duke University Press, 1985. Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Simpson, George E. Religious Cults in the Caribbean. Rio Pedras, Antebellum South. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956. : n.p., 1980. Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. African Presence in Early Europe. USA: .Black Religions in the New World. New York: Columbia Transaction Publishers, 1985. University Press, 1978. Wilmore, Gayraud S. Black Religion and Black Radicalism: An Sobel, Mechal. Trabelin' On: The Slave Journey to an Afro-Baptist Interpretation of the Religious 11 istory of Afro-American Faith. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1979. People. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1983. Sturm, Fred Gillette. "Afro-Brazilian Cults." African Religions. Wilson. Derek A. A Student's Atlas of African Ilistory. London: Edited by Newell Booth. New York: NOK Publishers, 1977. University of London Press, 1971. Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South, 1877-1913. Baton GEOGRAPHY Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971. Bricker, Charles. A History of : 2500 Years of Maps and Map Makers. London: Thames and Hudson, 1969. AFRICAN AND AFRO-AMERICAN RELIGIONS Capone, Donald L. and Arnold B. Cheyney. The Map Corner. Barrett, Leonard E. Soul Force: African heritage in Afro-Ameri- Glenview: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1983. can Religion. New York: Doubleday/Anchor, 1974. Campbell, Tony. Early Maps. New York: Abbeville Press, 1981.

56 59 OAH Magazine of History Du Jourdin, Michel Mollat, et al. Sea Charts of the Early Explor- 1982.* ers. Translated by L.R. Dethan. London: Thames and Hudson, Robinson, Alfred. Life in California before the Conquest. Reprint 1984. 1846. San Francisco: Thomas C. Russell, 1925. Hirsch, S. Carl. Mapmakers of America:Front the Age of Sources in American History, A Book of Readings. Orlando: Discovery to the Space Era. New York: Viking Press, 1970. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1986. ref. Outline Maps of the World. McDonald Publishing Co., 1986. Thichens, Virginia E. Putting a Lid on California, an Unpublished Teaching Geography: A Model for Action. Washington, DC: Diary of the Portola Expedition by Jose de Canizares. n.p.: National Geographic Society, 1988. California Historical Society Quarterly 31 1952.* White, Carl I. Mapping the Trans-Mississippi West: The Spanish Wagoner, Jay J. Early Arizona: Prehistory to Civil War. Tucson: Entrada to the Louisiana Purchase (1540-1804). San Fran- University of Arizona Press, 1975. cisco: The Institute for Historical Geography, 1957. Wood, William. New England's Prospect. Edited by Alden T. Vaughan. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977.* UNITED STATES -General Wright, Irene A. trans. Further English Voyages to Spanish Bradbury, John. Travels in the Interior of America in the Years America, 1583-1594: Documents from the Archives of the 1809, 1810, and 1811. Lincoln: University of Press, Indies at Serville illustrating English Voyage to the Carribean, 1986. the , Florida and Virginia. N.p.: Hakluyt Soci- Bryant, Edwin. What I Saw in California: Being the Journal of a ety, 1967.* Tour, By the Emigrant Route and South Pass of the Rocky Zinn, Howard. A People's History of the United States. Harper and Mountains, Across the Continent ofNorth America, the Great Row, 1980. Basin, and Through California, In the Years 1846-1847. Minneapolis: Ross and Hanes, 1967.* IMMIGRATION Cronon, William. Changes in the Land:Indians,Colonists, and the Bean, Frank and Marta Ticnda. The Hispanic Population of the Ecology of New England. New York: Hill and Wang, 1983. United States. New York: Russel Sage Foundation, 1987. Dunne, Peter Masten, S.J. Black Robes in Lower California. Caplan, Nathan. et al. The People and Achievement in Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968. America: A Study of Family Life, Hard Work, and Cultural . Pioneer Black Robes on the West Coast. Berkeley: Values. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989. Univeristy of California Press, 1940. Cockcroft, James D. Outlaws in the Promised Land: Mexican Hackett, Charles Wilson, ed. Historical Documents Relating to Immigrant Workers and America's Future. N.p.: n.p., 1986. New Mexico, Nueva Vizcaya, and Approaches Thereto, to Conroy, Hilary. East Across the Pacific: Historical and Sociologi- 1773. Collected by Adolph F.A. Bandelier and Fanny R. cal Studies of Japanese Immigration and Assimilation. Santa Bandelier. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute, 1937.* Barbara: American Bibliographical Center-Clio Press, 1972. Hafen, LeRoy R. Mountain Men and Fur Traders of the Far West. Crewdson, John. The Tarnished Door: The New Immigrants and Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982. the Transformation of America. New York: Times Books, Higginson, Francis. New-Englands Plantation: 1630. New York: 1983. Da Capo Press, 1970.* Dinnerstein, Leonard. America and the Survivors of the Holocaust. Jameson, John Franklin, ed. Narratives ofEarly American History. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982. multi-volume set. New York: Scribner, 1906-1917.* Dinnerstein, Leonard, Roger Nichols and David M. Reimers. Kino, Eusebio Francisco. Kino' s Historical Memoir of Pimeria Natives and Strangers: Blacks, Indians and Immigrants in Alta: A Contemporary Account of the Beginnings of Califor- America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. nia, Sonora, and Arizona. Edited by Herbert Eugene Bolton. Ehud, Avriel. Open the Gates: A Personal Story of "Illegal" New York: AMS Press, 1976.* Immigration to North America. New York: Atheneum, 1975. Limerick, Patricia. The Legacy of the Conquest: The Unbroken Fleming, Thomas J. The Golden Door: the Story of American Past of the American West. New York: Norton, 1987. Immigration. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1970. Leonard, Eugenie A. et al. The American Woman in Colonial and Garcia, Mario. Desert Immigrants: The Mexicans of El Paso, Revolutionary Times, 1565-1800; A Syllabus with Bibliogra- 1880-1920. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981. phy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962. Greeley, Andrew M. Why Can't They Be Like Us? Facts and Morton, Thomas. New English Canaan. : 1637.re- Fallacies About Ethnic Differences and Group Conflicts in printed by Arno Press, 1972.* America. New York: Institute of Human Relations Press, Quinn, Alison M. and David B. Quinn, eds. The First Colonists: 1969. Documents on the Planting of the First English Settlements in Hertzberg, Arthur. The Jews in America: Four Centuries ofan North America, 1584-1590. Raleigh: North Carolina Depart- Uneasy Encounter: A History. New York: Simon and Schuster, ment of Cultural Resources, Division of Archives and History, 1989.

Spring 1991 60 57 Higham, John.Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Judy/Instructo, 1971. Multi-media kit. Nativism. New Brunswick: Rutgers, 1955. .Ancient Civilizations: Greece.Minneapolis: Judy/ Hoff, Rhoda. America's Immigrants: Adventures in Eyewitness Instructo, 1971. Multi-media kit. History. New York: H.Z. Walck, 1967.* .Ancient Civilizations:Rome. Minneapolis: Judy/Instructo, Ichioka, Yusi.The Issei: The World of the First Japanese 1971. Multi-media kit. Immigrants, 1885-1924. New York: Free Press, 1988. Millard, Anne. Ancient Civilizations. New York: Warwick Press, Kraut, Alan M. The Huddled Masses: The Immigrant in American 1983. Society, 1880-1921. Arlington Heights: Harlan Davidson, China 1982. Gregory, K.J. The Yellow River. Morristown: Silver Burdett Co., Maier, Matt S. and Feliciano Rivera. The Chicanos: A History of 1980. Mexican Americans. New York: Hill and Wang, 1972. Kan, Lai Po. The Ancient Chinese. Morristown: Silver Burdett Co., Melendy, Howard Brett. Asians in America: Filipinos, , 1981. and East Indians. Boston: Twayne Publishishers, 1977. Merton, Anna and Shio-yun Kan. China: The Land and Its People. Miller, Stuart C. The Unwelcome Immigrant :7'he American Image Morristown: Silver Burdett Press, 1987. of the Chinese, 1785-1882. Berkeley: University of Califor- Egypt nia Press, 1969. Caselli, Giovanni. An Egyptian Craftsman. London: Macdonald Morrison, Joan and Charlotte Fox Zabusky. American Mosaic: the and Co., 1986. Immigrant Experience in the Words of Those Who Lived It. Miguel, Pierre. Ancient Egyptains. Morristown: Silver Burdett New York: Dutton, 1980.* Co., 1982. Nam ias, June. First Generation: in the Words of Twentieth- Stead, Miriam. . New York: Gloucester Press, 1985. Century American Immigrants. Boston: Beacon Press, 1978. Greece Rollins, Joan H. Hidden Minorities: the Persistence ofEthnicity in Connolly, Peter. The Greek Armies. Morristown: Silver Burdett, American Life. Washington, DC: University Press of America, Co., 1985. 1981. Cottrell, Leonard. Crete: The Island ofMystery. EnglewoodCliffs: Weatherford, Doris. Foreign and Female: Immigrant Women in Prentice-Hall, 1965. America, 1840-1930. New York: Schocken Books, 1986. Horton, Casey. Ancient Greeks. New York: Gloucester Press, 1984. Irish and Irish American History Edited by Purdy, Susan and Cass R. Sandak. Ancient Greece. New Curtis, L. Perry, Jr. Apes and Angels, The Irishman in Victorian York: Franklin Watts, 1982. Caricature. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, Rome 1971. Corhishley, Mike. The Roman World. New York: Warwick Press, Diner, Hasia R. Erin's Daughter's in America, Irish Immigrant 1986. Women in the Nineteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Goor, Nancy and Ron Goor. Pompeii: Exploring a Roman Ghost Press, 1983. Town. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1986. Gallagher, Thomas. Paddy's Lament, 1846 -1847, Prelude Robinson, Charles Alexander. AncientRome. New York: Franklin to Hatred. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982. Watts, 1984. Greeley, Andrew M. That Most Distressful Nation, 7'he Taming of the American Irish. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1972. ARAB HISTORY Knobel, Dale T. Paddy and the Republic, Ethnicity and National- Allen, James Paul. We the People: An Atlas of America's Ethnic ity in Antebellum America. Middleton: Wesleyan University Diversity. New York: Macmillan, 1988. Press, 1986. Imamuddin, S.M. Political History of Muslim Spain. Dacca: Wall, Richard, ed. Medieval and Modern Ireland. Gerrards Cross: Najmah, 1961. C. Smythe, 1988. Lewis, Bernard. The Muslim Discovery of Europe. New York: Waters, Maureen. The Comic Irishman. Albany: The State Univer- W.W. Norton, 1982. sity of New York Press, 1984. Nasr, Seyyed. Science and Civilization in Islam. Cambridge: Wilson, Des. An End to Silence. Cork: The Mercier Press Limited, Harvard Press, 1968. 1985. SCIENCE AND INVENTION THE ANCIENT WORLD Air and Space History: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Ancient Civilizations. Filmstrips. Washington D.C.: National Garland Publishers, 1988. ref. Geographic Society, 1978. Augarten, Stan. Bit by Bit: An Illustrated History of Computers. McCormack, Jon J. Ancient Civilizations: Egypt, Minneapolis: New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1984.

58 OAH Magazine of History 61 Boorstin, Daniel. The Discoveries: A History of Man's Search to Wishart, David J. The Fur Trade of the American West, 1807- Know His World and Himself. New York: Random House, 1840. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979. 1983. Bruce, Robert W. Bell: Alexander Graham Bell and the Conquest SOCIAL MOVEMENTS of Solitude. Boston: Little and Brown, 1973. Banner, Lois. Women in Modern America: A Brief History. San Daniels, George. Science in American Society: A Social History. Diego: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1984. New York: Knopf, 1971 Bernstein, Irving. Turbulent Years: A History of the American Holl, Jack M. and Richard G. Hewlett. A tomsfor Peace and War, Worker, 1933-1941. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1969. 1953-1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. Borden, Ruth. Women and Temperance. N.p.: n.p., 1980. Hooykaas, R. Religion and the Rise ofModern Science. Edinburgh: Bremner, Robert. The Discovery of Poverty. N.p.: n.p., 1956. Scottish Academic Press, 1972. Davis, Allen F. American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Mankiewicz, Frank and Joel Swerdlow. Remote Control: Televi- Addams. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973 sion and the Manipulation of American Life. New York: Dubofsky, Melvyn. We Shall Be All: A History of Industrial Times Books, 1977. Workers of the World. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1969. McCullough, David. The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of DuBois, Ellen C. Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an the Canal .1870-1914.New York: Simon & Schuster, Independent Women's Movement in America, 1848-1869. 1977. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978. Rossiter, Margaret. Science: Its History and Development Among Fink, Leon. Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights ofLabor and World Cultures. New York: Facts on File, 1983. American Democracy. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, Santillana, Giorgio de. The Crime of Galileo. Chicago: University 1983. of Chicago Press, 1955. Fraser, Ronald, et al. 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt. Volti, Rudi. Society and Technological Change. New York: St. London: Chatto and Windus, 1988. Martins, 1988. Goodwyn, Lawrence. Democratic Promise: The Populist Move- ment in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. ENTREPRENEURALISM Jensen, Joan. Loosening the Bonds: Mid-Atlantic Farm Women, Bernstein, Michael A. The : Delayed Recover)' 1750-1850. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. and Economic Change in America, 1929-1939. New York: Kessler-Harris, Alice. Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Cambridge Press, 1987. Women in the United States. New York: Oxford University Bruchey, Stuart. The Roots ofAmerican Economic Growth, 1607- Press, 1982. 1861. New York: Harper and Row, 1965. Livesay, Harold. Samuel Gompersand OrganizedLabor in America. Chandler, Alfred D. : Managerial Revolution in Boston: Little and Brown, 1978. American Business. Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1977. McQuaid, Kim. The AnxiousY ears: America in Vietnam -Watergate Davies, Robert B. Peacefully Working to Conquer the World: Era. New York: Basic Books, 1989. Singer Sewing Machines in Foreign Markets. New York: Montgomery, David. The Fall of the House of Labor: The Work- Arno Press, 1976. place, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925. Healy, David. Drive to Hegemony: The United Statesin the New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Caribbean, 1898-1917. Madison: University of Wisconsin Patterson, James T. America's Struggle Against Poverty, 1900- Press, 1989. 1985. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986. Heyrman, Christine. Commerce and Culture: The Maritime Com- Rupp, Leila and Verta Taylor. Survival in the Doldrums: The munities of Colonial Massachusetts, 1690-1750. New York: AmericanWomen' s Rights Movement,1945-1960s. New York: Norton, 1984. Oxford University Press, 1987. Hounshell, David. From the American System to Mass Production, Saloutos, Theodore. The American Farmer and the New Deal. 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1982. in the United States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Trattner, Walter. Crusade for the Children. Chicago: Quadrangle Press, 1984. Books, 1970. Nelson, Daniel. Managers and Workers: Origins of the New Walters, Ronald G. American Reformers: 1815-1860. New York: System in the United States, 1800-1920. Madison: Hill and Wang, 1978. University of Wisconsin Press, 1975. . The Antislavery Appeal: American Abolitionism After Norris, James D. Advertising and the Transformation of American 1830. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1976. Society, 1865-1920. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. Zaroulis, Nancy and Sullivan, Gerald. Who Spoke Up? American Taylor, George R. The Transportation Revolution, 1815-1860. Protest Against the War in Vietnam, 1963 -1975. Garden City: New York: Rinehart, 1951. Doubleday, 1984.

Spring 1991 59 SPECIAL PRE-PUBLICATION OFFER SAVE $25! The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia

Editor: Silvio A. Bedini Emeritus, The Smithsonian Institution Editorial Board: Editorial Advisors: David Buisseret, The Newberry Library Kathleen Deagan, University of Florida Helen Nader, Indiana University William E. Lemos, Admiral, Retired, Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Smithsonian United States Institution Paolo Emilio Taviani, Senate of the Republic of Italy Pauline Moffitt Watts, William Sturtevant, The Smithsonian Institution Sarah Lawrence College David W. Waters, Honorary Member, Royal Institute of Navigation

fV011are considering any book tbr the 1992 Columbus Quincentenary, you'll want The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia. In two volumes, The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia contains more than 1350 signed, original articles ranging from 250 to more than 10,000 words, written by nearly 150 contributors from around the world. The work includes cross-references, bibliographies for each article, blind entries, and a comprehensive index. And, The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia is fully illustrated, with hundreds of maps, drawings, and photographs. Much more than an account of the man and his voyages, this is a complete A-to-Z look at the world during this era. The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia is written in a clear, concise style that is accessible to high school students and general readers. Arranged alphabetically, the articles appear in two volumes and generally fall into six categories: Columbus's life: from the four voyages to his writings, the Book of Privileges, his coat of arms and more. Additional biographies cover family, friends, crew members. Columbus's world: the social, economic, political, and cultural institutions of Europe; the expulsion of Muslims and Jews from Spain; the reconquest of Granada; and biographies of Isabel and Fernando, iIem- VII and Henry VIII, Alexander VI, Pope Innocent VIII and dozens more. Pre-Columbian exploration and discovery: the Vinland Map; the Icelandic Sagas; imaginary geography; medieval travel literature; the ; plus biographies of Marco Polo, Henry the Navigator, Leif Ericsson, and others. The science and technology of exploration and discovery: navigation; and astrology; cartography; wind and weather; and biographies of Ptolemy, , Paolo del Pozz Toscanelli, and others, including Martin Waldseemuller, the man who misnamed America. The New World: The people (Aztecs, Mayas, Incas, Caribs, Tainos); archaeology; natural history; :settlements; exploitation of Indians; and places such as Cuzco, , Cuba, etc. Post-Columbian exploration and discovery: four major articles cover the colonization of America by Spain, Portugal, France and England; the naming of America; and dozens of biographies from Balboa, the Cabots, Cortes, Magellan to Verazzano and Vespucci.

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NEH Summer Stipends and tion ofHistory,a catalog of selected doc- and persons. Single copies are $15 (plus $2 Travel Grants toral dissertations. The catalog contains shipping and handling) and may beordered The NEH is now accepting applica- citations of 1,780 selected doctoral disser- directly from ERIC, 2805 East Tenth Street, tions for 1992 summer stipends through its tations and master theses published be- Bloomington, Indiana, 47408-2698, tele- Division of Fellowships and Seminars. The tween 1982 and 1990. It is available free to phone (812) 855 - 3838.0 NEH sum mer stipends support two months scholars and libraries.Specific interest of full-time study and research for indi- areas include:anthropology, black his- Geography in U.S. History viduals completing projectsduring the ten- tory, economics, , litera- The Agency for Instructional Tech- ure of an award or as a part of a long-range ture, modern history, political science, re- nology has releasedGeography in U.S. academic endeavor. Application deadline ligion, sociology, and women's studies. History,a new video and print series that is , 1991 for the $4,000 award Historyalso has listings by geographic takes a unique approach to strengthening given in 1992. location including Africa, Canada, Eu- social studies skills for secondary school Grants for travel to research collec- rope, Latin America, and the U.S. studentsby integrating geographical themes tions of libraries, archives, museums, or UMI's Dissertation Services allow into the study of United States history. other repositories, are available from the access to over one million dissertations and Ten major events in U.S. history serve NEH to help defray such research expenses masters theses with printed, on-line, and as the central focus of each program. Geo- as transportation, subsistence, lodging, CD-ROM indexes. UMI Dissertation cata- graphic themes surrounding the event are photoduplication and other costs.The logs in many subject areas are available then developed to help students understand deadline for the $750 stipend for travel free from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann the fundamental relationships between time after , 1992 is , 1992. Arbor, MI 48106. For further information and space. Cognitive skills are reinforced Under the general eligibility rubric, call toll-free 1-800-521-0600, ext. 736.0 throughout each program, encouraging stu- applicants need not have advanced de- dents to use information, ask questions, grees, but neither candidates for degrees Tenement Museum Opens and formulate generalizations. nor persons seeking support for work to- New Exhibition For more information contact AIT, ward a degree arc eligible to apply to the "Meddling With Peddling: The Push- Box A, Bloom ington,Indiana,47402-0120, programs of Travel to Collections, Sum- cart Wars" is the Lower East Side Tene- (800) 457-4509, or (812) 339-2203. 0 mer Stipends, and NEH Fellowships. ment Museum's new exhibition, running For more information on these and through January 5, 1992. Looking at both American History Review Bank other opportunities, contact the National the historical and contemporary aspects of Technical Educational Consultants Endowment for the Humanities, Division street peddling and merchantson the Lower have releasedAmerican History Review of Fellowships and Seminars, Room 316. East Side of New York, the exhibition Bank,a computer software study tool that 1100 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W., Washing- features photographs, illustrations, car- contains two titles:Exploration to Recon- ton, DC 20506. 0 toons, letters, and artifacts. structionandPost-Civil War America to The museum is the nation's first living the Present.This Apple II and IBM soft- Encyclopedia for the Quincentennial history museum devoted to the urban im- ware study tool for high school students As you arc gathering resources on the migrant experience.Located at 97 Or- contains more than 750 multiple choice Columbus Quincentenary, do not forget to chard Street in New York City, the hours questions organized by topic and level of includeThe Christopher Columbus Ency- arc Tuesday through Friday, 11:00 a.m. to difficulty. Menu selections allow the stu- clopedia.This encyclopedia is written in 4:00 p.m.: Sundays, 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 dent to bring up lessons, glossaries of his- a clear, concise style and contains more p.m. Admission is free. For more informa- torical terms, questions and review ses- than 350 signed, original articles.Fully tion call 212-431-0233. 0 sions. For more information, contactTech- illustrated with hundreds of maps, draw- nical Educational Consultants, 76 North ings and photographs,TheChristopher Co- Resources on the Bill of Rights Broadway, Suite 4009, Hicksville, New lumbusEncyclopediais a monumental work The ERIC Clearinghouse for Social York, 11810 (516) 681 - 1773.0 well worth exploring. For further informa- Studies/Social Science Education has re- tion contact Simon & Schuster, P.O. Box cently publishedResources for Teachers Correction 1230, Westwood, NJ 17675-1230. or call on the Bill of Rights(ISBN 0- 941339 -12- David E. Vocke, author of "An Arti- (212) 373 - 7350.0 2), coauthored by John J. Patrick and Rob- fact from the 19th Century Schoolhouse: ert S. Leming. The 214-page reference The McG uffey Reader"[Magazine of His- sertation Catalog Free From UMI includes background papers, original docu- tory5 (Winter 1991): 5], is Assistant Pro- University Microfilms International, ments, lesson plans, annotated bibliogra- fessor in the Department of Education at (UMI), recently announced the publica- phies, and directories of key organizations Towson State University. 0

62 65 OAHMagazine of History BICENTENNIAL OF THE BILL OF RIGHTS SPEAKERS BUREAU

The OAH Ad Hoc Committee on the Bicentennial of the Bill of Rights announces the formation ofa Bicentennial Speakers Bureau. Through the Bureau, twenty-five experts on the history of American rights and liberties arc available to address high school teachers and community groups on a variety of topics relatedto the adoption and development of the Bill of Rights. As a group, these historians offermore than seventy lectures on a broad range of subjects. The names of speakers and their topics are given below.

The list of topics is meant to be suggestive rather than exhaustive. Within generalareas of expertise, speakers will be pleased to tailor lectures to the needs of audiences or blend lecture materials withgroup discussion. The OAH Speakers Bureau will work closely with interested individualsor groups to secure the best scholar for the job, most especially when favored topics do not appear on the list.

The Speakers Bureau has been designed specifically to address the needs of non-academic audiences. While members of the Bureau will respond gladly to requests for speakers from universities and colleges,they look forward most especially to conversations with high school students, K-12 teachers, televisionaudiences, or community groups of any description. Over the past few years, each of the Bureau's "circuit riders" has been involved continually in public commemorations of various bicentennials, ranging from theevents of 1776 through the framing and ratification of the Northwest Ordinance, state constitutions, and the federalconstitution. As a result, these historians--perhaps more than most--understand the needs and dynamics of non-university audiences; they take special delight in working with civic or religiousgroups, librarians, the media, students not enrolled in traditional degree programs, and teachers in secondary and elementary schools.

The OAH is seeking outside funding in order to make these presentations availableat a very modest cost. Speakers will expect to be reimbursed for travel expenses; stipends will be both reasonableand negotiable. Groups or individuals with limited resources should not assume that the Speakers Bureau is beyondtheir means. Those interested in obtaining the services of the Bicentennial Speakers Bureau should call SharonCaughill at the OAH office: (812) 855-7345. * * *

Gordon Morris Bakken, California State University- Richard 0. Curry, University of Connecticut Fullerton Abolitionism and the First Amendment The Federal Bill of Rights Civil War and Reconstruction Constitutional Development in the West Civil Liberties and the The Reagan Administration's Assault on the Bill of Kenneth Bowling, First Federal Congress Project, Rights George Washington University The First Congress, James Madison, and the Paul Finkelman, Brooklyn Law School Adoption of the Bill of Rights The Origin of the Bill of Rights Amendments to the Constitution Proposed by the James Madison and the Writing of the Bill of States Rights: A Reluctant Paternity The Importance of the Ninth Amendment in Separation of Church and State 1788-1789 Flag Burning, Flag Salutes, and the Bill of Rights Neither Separate nor Equal: Legislative Supremacy The Right to Privacy and the Rejection of Separation of Powers by the The Intentions of the Framers and the Bill of Rights Founding Fathers To Keep and Bear ArmsIts Meaning in 1791 and Overshadowed by a New Politics: Ratification of Today the Bill of Rights by the States The Bill of Rights and the War on Religion and the Constitution Steven Boyd, University of Texas-San Antonio The Bill of Rights: The Intentions of the Framers Robert Glennon, University of Arizona The Second Bill of Rights Constitutional Law and History Barron v. Baltimore Civil Rights and Liberties Modern American Legal History Lawrence D. Cress, University of Tulsa Second Amendment: The Right to Bear Arms Adolph Grutgdman, Metropolitan State College The Military and the Bill of Rights The Philosophy of Freedom of Speech D-

Spring 1991 63 6G Free Speech in Times of Crisis Bill of Rights: The Bad and Good Guys in the The Theory and Origin of the Bill of Rights World Today Edward Douglass White: Louisiana's Contribution Kermit Hall, University of Florida to the U. S. Supreme Court The Judiciary and the Bill of Rights American Presidents Who Abused Civil Liberties: The Bill of Rights Five Case Studies Libel, Defamation and the First Amendment Patterns in Why Some People Support Civil Liberties More than Others James A. Henretta, University of Maryland-College Park Political Rights: the State Constitutional Tradition Jack Rakove, Stanford University Property as a Constitutional Right: State Law and James Madison and the Bill of Rights Courts, 1800-1920 What Did the Constitution Originally Mean? The Nineteenth-Century Revolution in Civil Liberties Daniel T. Rodgers, Princeton University Harold M. Hyman, Rice University Rights Consciousness in Americar First Amendment and Pre-Civil War Slavery Appomattox: The First Amendment Made Robert A. Rutland, University of Tulsa Meaningful Who Wrote the Bill of Rights? The 5th Amendment and the Practices of a Free George Mason, James Madison, and the Society 1857-1872 Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights and the Civil War and Was James Madison the Father of the Constitution? Reconstruction The 14th Amendment and the Bill of Rights: or, Harry Scheiber, University of California-Berkeley Federalism Improved Property, Liberty, and the Constitution Liberals, Conservatives, and the bill of Rights Takings, Regulation and Economic Rights Imprudent Jurisprudents and the Bill of Rights Patterns of Repression and Liberty: Civil Liberties America's Wars and the Bill of Rights in the American Experience The Bill of Rights as a Bill of Wrongs When the Military Governs: Martial Law and the Constitution John W. Johnson, University of Northern Iowa Structures that Support Rights: Federalism and The Incorporation/Absorption Issue Separation of Powers The Extension of the Bill of Rights by the 14th Amendment Jeffery A. Smith, University of Iowa 1st Amendment Issues, especially Political/Sym- Interpreting the Press Clause bolic/Artistic Speech on College Campuses and The Origins of the Press Clause Separation of Church and State The Bill of Rights and Nuclear Power Melvin Urofsky, Virginia Commonwealth University The Framers' Establishment Clause: The Myth of Stanley N. Katz, Princeton University Original Intent Constitutional Equality, Bills of Rights in the State The Serpentine Wall: Church and State in America and Nation The Religion Clauses Equal Protection: Gender and Affirmative Action Paul L. Murphy, University of Minnesota Development of Free Speech as a Social Instrument Sandra F. VanBurkleo, Wayne State University The First Amendment in the 1960s The Antifederalists and the Bill of Rights Minority Rights and the Carolene Footnote The Concept of Liberty in the 18th and The Bill of Rights and the States 19th Centuries Federalists vs. Antifederalists on Republican Rights John M. Murrin, Princeton University and Liberties Fundamental Values, The Founding Fathers, and the Female Rights Consciousness in American History Constitution Samuel Walker, University of Nebraska at Omaha Phillip S. Paludan, University of Kansas The ACLU and the Bill of Rights: In Search of and the Bill of Rights "Mainstream" American Values The Police and the Biil of Rights: The Impact of the William D. Pederson, Louisiana State University Supreme Court on American Policing in Shreveport * *

64 67 OAH Magazine of History A Quarterly Review of Essays by Students of History

"The Concord Reviewassumes and encourages the THE view that writing is a way of communicating what stu- dents have learned and gotten excited about as they've CONCORD REVIEW studied history... Part of what makesThe Concord Review impressive is that it honorsand encouragesthis kind (!elh (hat dm dawn, to a he, h tt arc ownkr neutn 1).t\),11 horvati. 1,1.1(1c11 of achievement in precollege students...The achieve- ment ofThe ConcordReview's authors offers us a different Araln.t tt,h$110.,1int.11.a.n..1.41....i,1%.1110(.1 1) model of learning. Maybe it's time for us to take it 31.ti lotion A. Szkcimmili seriously" R. hat at siani:nnum lt.gh 41..a,l. RIM Imp, 'simian,' h sh in 1843-1855 Sh.flia I.1/r.11.,.. G11,11,1-.11110 XI atico, ( oittlettu Albert Shanker Bohan of Kan K.trman Klieilani 111otiAlA 4 O/Ill1.11N 4110.1 It... otaIA. IS:sush ( President, American Federation of Teachers \Luluue P01111(1 Scat) 6. 1)c.illml rti Is i so: lid', 1911; - '.);.", Rat lid 3151,,iii The Concord Review provides a splendid forum for the I 1.1.p."...... 1,11.111, Lill.% (% Eel 11, wheel ISttita C. 3ValIct best student work in history. It provides the opportunity to I 1....d.sit 1101`".5,1.1 1.en. ( \ I ( AlIct OW I.-'Id IVar Stantli)e (lirien recognize student achievement in history and to reward 15.c.., 11.011140n 11.1,,I(1111%(.11, those who have taken the time to reflect on the meaning of 110drt. V1)1,111i 1.1}1.11-.1 S, iIRas.m 11...110.41-410,111f.1 .111H11111t, Ilan 1(".I. 111,. the past. It deserves the support of everyone in the country Amtralla !El Vietnam F(1,at(115.,It 1.."..111"nal 4 li"1 tmt who cares about improving the study of history in the V11111.1111( tO,C1111111'111 I letcli Jane 5:11..1as NA t4111,1V.1;1t.11it 1...1 schools."

A Quatierl) Hrrtni 1::,sa, In Students of I li1071 Diane Ravitch Teachers College. Columbia University

Volume Huey. Nutillx., S7.7,(1 tipt 19qi Chairman. Educational Excellence Network CoAuthor, what Do Our 7YeatOlds Knott ?

FINE WORK INSPIRESother students to work harder. We publish eleven Historyessays by students every quarter. Our authors are now at Berkeley, Brown, Cal Tech, Columbia, Dartmouth, Duke, Harvard, McGill,Melbourne, Oxford, Princeton, Stanford, Wesleyan, Williams, and Yale. Teachers in 44states and , , Belgium, Canada, England, France, Greece, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, ,, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland and are using theseessays as examples of good historical writing.

ESSAYSof around 4,000 words plus endnotes, on any historical topic, should be mailed, with information on the author, teacher, course, and school,to: Will Fitzhugh, Editor, The Concord Review, Post Office Box 661, Concord, Mass. 01742. U.S.A. (508)443-0022.

SUBSCRIPTIONSare $25 a year, $30 foreign, $45 foreign air mail (orders for 26 or more receive a 20% discount), and should be sent prepaid to: The Concord Review Business Office,Post Office Box 476, Canton, Mass. 02021. U.S.A. (617) 828-8450. We are listed with the major subscriptionservices.

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Number of Subscriptions Amount Enclosed: $ ($25 per subscription) 68 Films & Video from DirectCinema Limited Academy Award Nomination Silver Apple Award 1989 Adam Clayton 1989 Best Documentary Feature The Congress National Educational Film Best of Festival 1990 Festival Powell Nat'l Educational Film Festival Using historical photographs and This is a dramatic portrait of the newsreels, evocative live footage charismatic Harlem minister and and interviews, this elegant, thought- Congressman who became one of ful and often touching portrait chron- the most powerful, controversial poli- icles the personalities, events and ticians of his time. The film provides issues that have animated the first a fascinating glimpse of America as 200 years of Congress. Available in it moved into the Civil Rights era, three 30-minute segments repre- and of a key leader in the struggle. senting three chronological subject areas. Directed by Richard Kilberg Produced by Richard Kilberg Florentine Films & Yvonne Smith A film by Ken Burns 53 minutes Color 1989 90 minutes Color 1988 16mm Sale $895/Rental $100 16mm Sale $1495/Rental $150 1/2" Video Sale $250 jscag 1/2" Video Sale $295 jscag 30-minute classroom version $150 (Available on 1 or 3 cassettes)

Emmy Award Emmy Award Nomination Empire of Legacy of the ALA Selected Films Featuring Walter Cronkite, Robert for Young Adults 1988 MacNeil and Phil Donahue, among Reason others, this ambitious educationalHollywood This moving and informative film film recreates the U.S. Constitutional examines the long-term effects of The Ratification of ratification debates as if they wereBlacklist one of America's most infamous the U.S. Constitution being covered by today's TV news. eventsthe investigation of alleged 111. Communist activities in Hollywood Empire of Reason uses the unmis- .41114.4 iiZ400Dis Qy1 takable power of television tr, make A"kr Reit 4 '9 6 by the House Un-American Activi- IV Mr rfoj sw2 a critical moment in American his- /4.140 ties Committee. The film focuses on tory accessible, understandable and five women, wives of successful film entertaining. figures who were blacklisteo in the 1940s and 1950s. Narrated by Burt Produced and Directed by Lancaster. Ellen Hovde and Muffie Meyer Writtc 1 by Ronald Blumer Produced and Directed by Produced for the N.Y.Bar Foundation Judy Chaikin 56 minutes Color Video Only 1988 60 minutes Color 1987 1/2" Video Sale $250 jscag 16mm Sale $895/Rental $100 (Available in two 30-minute parts) 1/2" Video Sale $250 jscag

Academy Award Nomination Academy Award Nomination The Statue 1985 Best Documentary Feature Super Chief 1989 Best Documentary Feature This lyrical and provocative film ex-The Life and Legacy Super Chief is a portrait of the Su- of Liberty plores the history and meaning of preme Court Chief Justice whose the Statue of Liberty on the occasionof Earl Warren activist policies unleashed a torrent of its renovation. The story of the of change on sleepy 1950s America. statue's creation in France, and its The film also tells the stories of the subsequent installation in America, people whose lives were profoundly is illustrated with an extensive col- affected by the Warren Court's deci- lection of rare archival materials, sions, exploring the dynamic rela- punctuated by readings from dia- tionship between our most basic ries, letters and newspaperaccounts. principles and our system of law. Florentine Films A film by Ken Burns A film by Bill Jersey 58 minutes Color 1985 and Judith Leonard 16mm Sale $895/Rental $85 88 minutes Color 1990 1/2" Video Sale $250 ijscag 16mm Sale $1495/Rental $150 37-minute classroom version 1/2" Video Sale $295 jscag 16mm $595/$551/2" Video $175 30-minute classroom version $175

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