SCIENTIFIC ERIC

ANTIOCHUS I, KING OF KOMMAGENE F/FTYCENTS �/956

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC A pound of fuel to light Chicago

THAT'S ALL THE URANIUM needed to produce atomic production processes, to test product quality, and for power equal to the energy in 3 million pounds of coal. research. It could light Chicago for a full day! THE CHALLENGING FIELD of atomic energy is not ATOMIC RESEARCH is focused on developing an eco­ new to the people of Union Carbide. They have been nomical way to produce electricity from atomic energy. pioneering in every phase of this exciting business­ Scientists at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which from the mining of uranium ore to harnessing the atom Union Carbide Nuclear Company operates for the for ·our future comfort and well-being.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC New materials ideas from United States Plywood

Warp-free woad panel-Novoply-is a 3-ply laminate with faces of New tough-faced plywood-Ouraply-is exterior grade fir plywood specially prepared wood flakes and a core of wood chips-all resin­ with a smooth overlay face of phenolic resins and cellulose fibers. Twice as impregnated and molded under heat and pressure to form a dense, hard, wear-resistant as ordinary plywood; smooth surface takes paint better, flat panel. Novoply is extremely rigid, dimensionally stable. In thicknesses holds it longer; needs no primer coat. Used in boats, signs, outdoor furniture, from ¥au to lu; sizes up to 4' x 16'. Used as core stock for furniture, as building siding. In five thicknesses: 7I6u to 'l4 u; all plywood sizes. OURAPLY®. sliding doors, and wardrobes. NOVOPLY®_

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC You c an't make Titanium ""ithout Titanium TET!

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SCIENTIFIC Established 1845 .AMERIC.AN" July, 1956 Volume 195 Number 1

ARTICLES

25 A STUDY OF VALUES, by Evon Z. Vogt and John M. Roberts

An inquiry into the role of values at a confluence of cultures in the Southwest.

32 THE RADIO SKY, by John D. Kl'aus

Radio waves from outer space give us a remarkable new panorama of the heavens.

38 THE TOMB OF ANTlOCHUS I, by Theresa Goell and F. K. Doerner

Ancient East and West meet at a grandiose mountaintop monument in Turkey.

55 THE ATOlVlIC NUCLEUS, by Robert Hofstadter

Beams of high-speed electrons give us an indirect way of peering into the nucleus.

71 SP ACE PERCEPTION IN THE CHICK, by Eckhard H. Hess Bespectacled birds demonstrate differences between learned and innate behavior.

83 P ALEOBIOCHEMISTRY, by Philip H. Abelson Organic remains in fossils are a clue to the chemistry of animals long extinct.

97 PROGRESS IN SOLAR POWER, by Harry Tabor The search for ways to tap the sun's energy has taken some promising new turns.

109 SEXUALiTY IN BACTERIA, by Elie L. Wollman and Franllois Jacob

When bacteria reproduce sexually (a rare event), they clarify the genetic process.

DEPARTMENTS

6 LETTERS

12 50 AND 100 YEARS AGO

18 THE AUTHORS

46 SCIENCE AND THE CITIZEN

120 BOOKS

135 THE AMATEUR SCIENTIST

148 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOA ROO FE D ITO R S Gerard Piel (Publisher), Dennis Flanagan (Editor), Leon Svirsky (Managing Editor), George A. W. Boehm, Jean Le Corbeiller, James R. Newman, E. P. Rosenbaum

ART 0 IRE C TOR James Grun baum

GENE R A L MANAGE R Donald H. Miller, Jr.

A 0 V E R TIS I N G MANAGE R Martin M. Davidson

COPYRIGHT 1956 IN THE U. S. AND BERNE CONVENTION COUNTRIES BY SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, ENTERED AT THE NEW YORK,. N. '1'., POST OffiCE AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER JUNE 28, 1879, UNDER THE ACT OF MARCH 3, 1879. ADOITIONAl ENTRY AT GREENWICH, CONN. SUBSCRIPTION RATE IN THE U. S. $5 PER YEAR.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Random Vibration Testing: CALI DVN E"S NEW COMPLETE, MATCHED SYSTEMS THE COVER Antiochus I, whose stone portrait appears on the cover, ruled over the tiny Near Eastern kingdom of Kom­ magene from about 69 to 34 B.C. During his lifetime he built a re­ markable monument to himself on the summit of Nemrud Dagh, a 7,500-foot mountain in what is now southeastern Turkey (see page 38). The monument consists of a huge mound of loose stones surrounded by three terraces decorated with re­ liefs, altars and colossal statues of Antiochus and his curious hybrid gods. In the photograph on the cover the slope of the mound may be seen at the upper left. The head of Amplifier Antiochus stands amid the rubble combinations in 1500, 5,000 and of fallen statuary on the West Ter­ 15,000 pound force ratings race of the monument. Made of limestone, it stands about eight feet When Calidyne first investigated the high. It was originally part of a problem of building random vibration test 24 systems, it recognized the necessity of over-all statue between and 30 feet high. system engineering, if desired performance levels were to be achieved. That goal has now been met in what is probably the firstcomplete, integrated system comprised of matched components. THE ILLUSTRATIONS "Wide-Band" electrodynamic Shakers oper­ ate at higher frequencies on lower input power, Cover photograph by Heinrich for a given armature weight and matched load Buerger, Nemrud Dagh Excavations rating. In random testing the load approximates the armature weight, and inherent armature Page Source rigidity maintains a high first resonance. The new Random Noise Amplifiers are matched power 25 Evon Z. Vogt sources for the "wide band" Shakers. Made by 26-31 David De Harport Westinghouse to Calidyne specifications, they 32 Eric Mose provide ample power for continuous duty oper- ation at full performance. At the same time they 33 Ohio State University are capable of supplying instantaneous power 34-35 Ohio State University peaks for random noise tests. (top) , Eric Mose (bot­ The Model 188 Console is a typical control tom) unit for any of several systems. It contains basic 36 Eric Mose Shaker-Amplifier operating controls, input shap­ ing and compensation circuits, plus monitoring and 37 Ohio State University other control equipment. With these components, 38-39 Friedrich Karl Doerner Field Power Supplies complete the over-all system. 40 John Langley Howard 41-44 Friedrich Karl Doerner 55 Stanford University 56-68 James Egleson 71-76 Eckhard H. Hess 83 Hoy Stevens 84 Carnegie Institution of Washington SALES REPRESENTATIVES: MINNEAPOLIS,MINN_ ALBUaUERQUE, NEW MEXICO WALTHAM MASS. NORTHERN NEW YORK WASHINGTON , D. C. ' G.B.Miller Co. 86-88 Roy Stevens Roberl A, Wolers, Inc. Technicol lnSlrumenh, Inc, F. R. Jodon, Inc. Hugh Manland & Co. Albuquerque Wolrham 5.6900 Waltham, Moss. Hobor12·4300 Colfax 7949 5·8606 DALLAS, TEXAS 90-92 Amy Kasai l NE N 5 5 Jalln A. Green Co. b CLE � �r��� W�I�::.��C. �:l :��. 0���1 SEATTLE, WASH. Rivenide 3266 99-100 Burt Glinn from Magnum Fulton 7·6760 ' CANADA e 6 1 G.B. Miller Co. ��:p �:�� �7 HOLLYWOOD, CALIFORNIA Mealuremenl Engineering ltd. NEW YORK (lTY AREA londer 3320 107 T. F. Anderson DAYTON OHIO G. 8. Miller Co. Arnprior, Onl., PhOr'le 400 G. C. Engel & Associates M. P. dell Co. O Hollywood 2-1195 Toronlo, Onl., Mayfoir lIector 2·0091 Oregon 444\ 8860 108-112 Eric Mose CHICAGO, ILLINOIS SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. RIDGEWOOD, NEW JERSEY DETROIT MICHIGAN Hugh Monlond & Co. G • .6. Miller Co. G. C. Engel & Associotes M. P. Odell Co. Ambol1odor 2-1555 lylell 3-3438 135 Roger Hayward Gilbert 4-0878 Superior 8-5114 SOUTHEAST EXPORT 136 Harry Simons PHILADelPHIA, PA, DENVER, COLORADO INDIANAPOliS, INDIANA Specialized Equipment Corp. Rocke InlernaliOr'lal Corp. G. C. Engel Gerald B. Miller Co. Hugh Manlond & Co. P. O. Box 323 Cocoa Seoch, Flo. 13 EOlI40Ih SI.,N. Murray Hill 9-0200Y.16 .N.Y. 140-142 Roger Hayward Chellnul Hill 8-0892 Acomo 2-9276 Glendale 3803 Cocoo Beoch 3328

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Number 5 In A Series

Kanigen is a uniform, hard, cor­ rosion-resistant nickel-phosphorus coating. It can be applied to iron, copper, nickel or aluminum and their alloys as well as ceramics, glass and thermo-setting plastics. This iii achieved through a chem­ ical bath without the use of electricity. The coating (pro­ bably a solution of nickel phos' phide in nickel) exhibits many desirable properties not normally as sociated with metals or metal plating.

BASIS MATERIALS THAT and bismuth cannot receive Kanigen ally roughened prior to coating, and CAN BE KANIGEN COATED coatings directly, and if immersed in while Kanigen deposits on these non­ the coating solution, will retard the metals are adherent and continuous, METALS coating reaction. This precludes the they will reproduce the roughened Virtually all of the alloys of iron, cop­ use of tin-lead solders on parts in­ surface, displaying a modified "orange per and aluminum, wrought and cast, tended for Kanigen coating; silver peel" appearance. can be satisfactorily Kanigen coated_ solders are acceptable if they can Should a polished surface be re­ In certain instances, particularly with be used. quired, electrolytic copper plating may regard to aluminum alloys, special Kanigen alloy coatings are utilized be deposited on the Kanigen coating, pre-coating preparation techniques on small and large metal parts. For buffed to the desired finish and fol­ are required which may cause some example, Kanigen coatings have been lowed with additional Kanigen or alteration of the basis material. Alu­ applied to components measuring to electro-plated metals. minum alloys are slightly etched in inch maximum dimension, and to the Kanigen nickel alloy coatings are pre-coating treatment, and Kanigen interior surfaces of vessels 50 feet applied directly to the non-metals to coatings on these surfaces usually will in length. provide the f@llowing: display a satin finish appearance. In solderable surface NON-METALS most cases, however, Kanigen coat­ conductive surface ings will reproduce accurately the sur­ Glass, ceramics and thermosetting wear resistant surface face finish as it is supplied. plastics can be Kanigen coated. These moisture barrier Tin, lead, zinc, cadmium, antimony materials are chemically or mechanic- base for electrodeposition

Kanigen-coated aluminum parts

Kanigen-coated lO-inch valve body (cast steel)

Kanigen-coated brass fitting Kanigen-coated stainless steel cylinder

If you have a problem that a Kanigen application may solve or if you'd like further information, write: Kanigen-coated cast-iron rolls KANIGEN DIVISION, GENERAL AMERICAN TRANSPORTATION CORPORATION 135 South La Salle Street, Chicago 90, Illinois.

5

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC LETTERS

Sirs: In the marvelous article "Ancient Masters of the Desert" [SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, April] the Nabataeans are called an Arab people. This agrees with A Kennametal ball pressed ta a depth of .203" A steel ball cracked when pressed to a depth the usual assumption, but it is incorrect. into a 1095 steel plate of 35 Rockwell C hard­ of only .095" into a 1095 steel plate (35 ness, under pressure of 306,000 psi Rockwell C), under pressure of 198,000 psi The Nabataeans were an Aramaic na­ tion. The inscriptions of the eighth cen­ tury B.C. found in Arabia Petraea are Aramaic. Theodor Mommsen (History 69) Where design of Rome, Book V, Chapter 4, Section wrote: "The Nabataeans, this remark­ calls for able nation, has often been confounded with its eastern neighbors, the wander­ high compressive ing Arabs, but it is more closely related to the Aramaean branch than to the strength proper children of Ishmael." � WILLIAM SIEGEL New York, N. Y. KENNAMETAL*

Sirs: Kennametal ball is imbedded to a depth of A Although a long-time reader and ad­ .252" in meehonite plate under pressure of 204,000 psi mirer of SCientific American,I have never before felt compelled to write to the editors. However, Robert P. Knight's review of Ruth Munroe's Schools of Psy­ Among the many unusual character­ with its high Young's Modulus of choanalytic Thought [SCIENTIFIC AMEH­ istics of Kennametal is its high com­ Elasticity and its hardness, makes ICAN, April] moves me to some com­ pressive strength, which is higher Kennametal the ideal material for ments which I feel are worth printing, than that for virtually all melted and such applications as compressor cyl­ not so much to challenge directly Dr. cast or forged metals and alloys. In inder liners, rolls for cold rolling of Knight as to indicate to the rest of your series of tests, Kenriametal balls a steels, rams, dies, grippers, valve seats scientifically oriented readers that there and steel balls were impressed into and other applications where deflec­ are other more logically defensible posi- various types of steel plates. In one tion or deformation must be control­ test, 1095 steel heat-treated to 35 led within close limits_ Kennametal Rockwell C hardness was used. Steel balls, for example, are used for ac­ balls cracked when impressed to a curacy in hole sizing and to impart a Scientific American, depth of .095" under pressure of mirror-like finishto the bore. July, 1956; Vol. 195, No. 1. Published monthly by ScientificAmerican, 198,000 psi, while Kennametal balls Here is a material that may be the Inc., 415 Madison Avenue. New York 17. N. Y.; Gerard Picl, president; Dennis Flanagan, vice were pressed, with no permanent answer to your problem, and help president; Donald H. Miller, Jr., vice president and treasurer. deformation, to a depth of .203" you get your idea off the drawing under306,000 psi (the limit of the board into production. Why not dis­ Editorial Corresllondenee should be addressed to The Editors. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, 415 Madison testing equipment).Another Kenna­ cuss it with our engineers or write Avenue, New York 17. N. Y. i\bnuscriptsare submitted at the author's risk and will not be metal ball was imbedded in a meeha­ KENNAMETAL INC., Dept. SA, La­ returned unless accompanied by postage. nite plate to depth of .252" under a trobe, Pa. Ask for copy of a new Advertising correspondence should be addressed pressure of 204,000 psi. booklet B-222, "Designing With to Martin M. Davidson, Advertising :Manager, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, 415 Madison Avenue, New This exceptional compressive Kennametal. " York 17. N. Y. � strength of Kennametal, combined *Re tered trademark of a series of tungsten Subscription corrcsJlondence should be ad· carbIdes and titanium-tungsten carbides. dressed to Circulation l\lanager, SCIENTIFIC Al\IERI' CAN, 415 Madison Avenue, New York 1 7, N. Y.

Change of address: Please notify us four w�eks in advance of change. If available, kindly furnish an address imprint from a recent issue. Be sure to give both old and new addresses, including postal zone numbers, if any.

Subscri)ltion rates for U.S.A. and possessions: ., KfNtiiwETAL 1 �... year, years, years, Canada and $5; 2 $9; 3 S12.50. Latin America: I year, $6; 2 years, Sl1; 3 years, All other countries: year, years, � ••• � ,u,,(jJN>fNM4 $15. I $8; 2 S14; 3 years, $18.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC WARM WELCOME

Stewart-Warner Electronics today detects the presence of high.· performance aircraft, identifies it as friend or foe and can provide

a warm missile welcome in an instant. � ELC OOIC Research and development at Stewart-Warner Electronics have produced these advanced systems. The program is still expanding, as are the opportunities for the exceptionally well-qualified engineer. a Division 01 Stewart-Warner Corporation Today as yesterday, Stewart-Warner Electronics safeguards our 1300 No. Kostner Ave., Chicago 51, III. skies with tomorrow's planning and production.

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC tions than the one embraced by the re­ viewer. Dr. Knight starts with the quite de­ fensible premise that Freud devised and developed the psychoanalytic theory and technique, and he properly con­ cludes that the mainstream of psycho­ analysis is "Freudian." However, he then proceeds to use "Freudian" and "libido theory" interchangeably and exclusively in spite of his previous assertion that the term "psychoanalysis" has a threefold connotation: a research technique, a growing body of empirical data and col­ lection of specific hypotheses, and a spe­ cial technique of therapy. All the other therapies discussed in Dr. Munroe's book would more or less fuIflll these re­ quirements, except for the "specific hy­ pothesis" of the libido theory. Dr. Knight is left very much in the position of a churchman who would restrict the use of the term "Christian" to Roman Catholics. The question of labels is not, however, as disturbing as his later inferences about the personal neuroses of the "dissenters." Dr. Knight cavalierly dismisses Karen Horney's schism from the New York Psy­ choanalytic Institute, completely dis­ missing the theoretical issues involved, and ignoring the fact that she did not leave "with a few faithful students" alone, but with a group of mature col­ leagues who have since made a consid­ Our fate as a nation depends on our continued ability to erable imprint on the psychoanalytic produce the most reliable as well as the most advanced mili­ scene. Most important is his assumption tary equipment of any nation in the world. that rebellion against the established In order to produce Weapon Systems that will out-maneuver, theoretical formulations is, per se, neu­ out-shoot, out·speed, out-think and out-perform any other, each rotic. This is based on two major mis­ sub-system, component and element comprising the total Weapons System must meet the demand for excellence of conceptions: first,that there is any valid­ performance and maximum reliability. ity in discarding a man's theory on the Servomechanisms' "MECHATRONICS" philosophy of reduc­ grounds of his personal neurosis, and, ing complex all-in-one electronic equipment into individual second, that dissent is necessarily neu­ packaged functions meets the most stringent requirements for rotic and undesirable. The firstpoint is, optimum reliability and performance. I think, self-evident: a theory stands or Leading aircraft and missile manufacturers depend on Servo­ falls on clearer and more dispassionate mechanisms' ability to design and produce electronic flight control and instrumentation sub-systems to meet the ever evidence than the peculiarities of its present challenge of increased performance and maximum founder. Second, the concept that dis­ reliability. sent is unhealthy is a position more ap­ THE MASTER DATA propriate to the Victorian authoritarian­ COMPUTER ism of Freud's day than to the more A go od exa mple of thOe MECHATRONICS concept, the hopeful permissiveness of our own. Most Master Data Computer can significant change results from the dis­ be tailored to' meet the spe· cific requirements of an air. sent against the established system of craft through careful system analysis and sel ection of beliefs; this is the history of the Western components. world. If dissent is treated with respect, then new ideas may result which will be of benefit to the community at large. If it is squelched, the dissenter has no choice but to submit and substitute var­ iations on the old theme for original thought, or to take his ideas elsewhere, to a more receptive climate. Both the dissenter and his opponent then lose the

opportunity of interchanging ideas, a

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC After processing in 600·foot electroforming tanks, band of 25 wires is delivered Split-race ball bearings utilized in tensioning sheaves as friction rather via battery of tensioning sheaves (upper) to reels on lower floor of plant. than anti-friction elements helped to solve the problem of wire tensioning.

Solved: Automatic Production of Telephone Wire

There's an example of automation in a predictable variations in wire speeds and, torque transmitted from driving drum to Western Electric factory in Baltimore simultanoously, of maintaining any pre­ sheave varies in proportion to the thrust which is a monument to an idea for mak· determined pull on the wires between the applied by the compression spring. Thus, ing better telephone wire -in this case, limits of 1 and 15 pounds. contrary to previous conceptions, ball conductor for the wire which runs from bearings are put to work under controlled the telephone pole to your house. Paradoxical Use of conditions to increase rather than decrease rolling resistance - a seeming paradox. The idea, conceived and made a reality Ball Bearings by engineers of Western Electric boiled In operation, the driving drum rotates at a rate which would cause the wires to down to this: Develop a process in which The solution lay in the application of a be overdriven if the sheaves were keyed successive coats of copper, lead and brass basic physical principle: Elastic deforma­ rigidly to it. The bearings roll just enough will be deposited on steel wire in one con· tion of matter requires the expenditure of to compensate for the difference -and tinuous operation from supply spools to work. Thus, heavy loads increase the transmit just enough torque to maintain take·up reels. rolling resistance of ball bearings by dis­ torting the balls and raceways-in much the desired tension. In carrying out the idea, quite a few the same way that soft tires and roadbeds When all the problems were solved a problems were encountered. For example: increase rolling resistance of an auto­ plant was built to accommodate two giant the copper·clad wire must have uniform mobile. electroforming machines, engineered to conductivity and the coatings must be de­ operate around the clock with a minimum Western Electric engineers applied the posited upon the steel core wire succes­ of labor. The result: better, stronger wire principle in a design that took this form: sively in one uninterrupted operation; the at lower cost. plating solutions must not drag along the Twenty-five tensioning sheaves, each Since the Bell System uses over 300,000 wires and so contaminate anyone solution equipped with a ball bearing that features miles of this kind of wire annually, the with a previous one in the process; con­ a split inner-race assembled side-by-side new process adds up as an important con­ trols must be established to provide in­ on a common driving drum, as shown in tribution to the economy and efficiency of crease or decrease of copper deposition the drawing above. Adjustable thrust, ap­ Bell telephone service. rate in order to maintain a standard re­ plied to the inner races of the stack of sistance value. bearings, with compression springs acting For over 73 years Western Electric has against the thrust, brings the complement­ been coming up with improvements like Solutions to the electrical, chemical and ary halves of the races together and forces this which, because we are a part of the metallurgical problems are interesting­ the balls against the one-piec(} outer race. Bell System, is reflected in the good, de­ and have been written-up elsewhere. But The load so applied distorts the balls and pendable service enjoyed by Bell telephone the ingenious answer to one of the me· raceways. Consequently the amount of users at low cost. chanical problems has, thus far, not been described. That problem: how to advance and uniformly tension 25 strands of steel Problems of significance such as this are being solved right along at Western's wire as they are (1) paid out by a constant 22 plants. Sure, we're on the lookout for qualifiedengineers to help us! speed capstan at one end of a series of plating tanks 600-feet long and (2) drawn through by a tensioning capstan at the other end. Minute irregularities in the wires and in capstans of conventional design cause some wires to run tighter than others.

The challenge to Western Electric en­ gineers: Find the most effectivedesign for a battery of 25 tensioning sheaves - each capable of adjusting automatically to un-

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC necessary catalyst for scientific growth. UTHE Any good father knows he can establish a better relationship with his son by per­ mitting and respecting his dissent than by attempting to repress it. It is no won­ ElEC1HOH AfICHOSCOPE der that some libido theorists are so con­ cerned with the "castrating father"­ they have created him in their own AT WORK ••• " image. I feel that it is vital that any scientific forum reaffirm the right to dissent and even the precious right to be wrong. It is only fair that your other readers, in

fields where this scientific axiom is more respected, be apprised of the "dissentist" case.

EDGAR A. LEVENSON, M. D.

New York, N. Y.

Sirs: With reference to your April issue, in which you show a set of stereo views of the moon on page 164 and label one method of viewing them as the "cross­ eyed" method, I believe that the follow­ ing is a more relaxing method. Holding the page at about a foot or so from the eyes and then relaxing them, or focusing on the wall or Roor behind the page, also yields four images, and the two "inner" ones will converge to THE AT give the stereo effect. LECTRON WORK Since the most natural position for the E eyes is with their focus at infinity, or 'MICROSCOPE IN both eyes straight ahead (or parallel), this method imposes less strain on lhe eye muscles.

ENSIGN ROBERT F ABRlS -New Booklet Available Fleet Post Office How science and industry use the RCA Electron Microscope to San Francisco, Calif. solve problems of quality control, product improvement and new product development including fundamental research, is told in this new booklet, "The Electron Microscope at Work in Science Sirs: and Industry." Actual case histories are cited, and a variety of Regarding your discussion of Mur­ micrographs of industrial and medical subjects provide revealing phy's Laws in the April Scientific Ameri­ examples of the electron microscope at work. We believe you can, our engineering department has will findthis booklet interesting and helpful. Write for your free found that all of these laws can be de­ copy, or use coupon below. duced by the most rigorous logic from a single elegant principle which we call

r------simply "The First Principle." It is: All I inanimate objects follow the line of maxi­ Radio Corporation of America , Dept. G·ll1, Building 15·1, Camden, N. J. mum perversity. I Please send me a copy of your new booklet, We feel that this statement of the law I "The Electron Microscope at Work in S cience would be still more elegant if it could and Industry." RADIO I be generalized by dropping the word I ______"inanimate," and present studies indicate eORPORATION NAME TITL ....E _ I that this can probably be done. ____ 01 AMERleA I COMPANY ______I PHILIP R. GEFFE ______CAMDEN, N.J. ADDRESS __ In Canada: RCA VICTOR Company I ______I CITY' _ ZONE __ STATE_ __ Limited, Montreal Chatsworth, Calif.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ,

Scientific achievement in the field of aircraft and missile development is literally attaining new horizons ... Keeping pace with those milestones of progress, Giannini, too, is advancing-both in theory and in practice.

Reducing the art of high speed high altitude instru­ FOREIGN SALES OFFICES: ment design to a science, Giannini engineers and MILANO. ITALY, Via Alberto Oa Giussano scientists apply knowledge acquired through years of LONDON E. C. 2, ENGLAND, extensive experience with commercial and military Giannini Limited, 31/45 Gresham Street aircraft instrumentation. When flight becomes higher and faster, the intensive research policy a nd progres­ REGIONAL SALES OFFICES: sive design practice at Giannini will continue to NEW YORK 1, N.Y., Empire State Bldg ., CHickering 4·4700 CHICAGO, 111.,8 So. Michigan Ave., ANdover 3·5272 provide solutions to the ever increasing problems of PASADENA, Calif., 918 E. Green St., RYan 1·7152 the aircraft industry. MONROVIA, CALIF., 1307 So. Myrtle Ave., Elliott 9·5381

Engineering positions are open at several Giannini locations for career· ·G. M. GIANNINI & CO., tNC., PASADENA, CALIFORNIA minded young men-write for details.

II

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC 50 AND tOO YEARS AGO

JULY, 1906: "At a recent congress of the French Academy of Sciences, the Prince of Monaco exhibited a newly de­ signed instrument intended for deep­ sea research, which instrument he is utilizing in connection with his marine biological investigations. The device consists of an ingeniously contrived glass vessel, which can be safely let down to the lowest known depths, the sounding wire with which it is connected at pres­ ent being 18,000 feet in length. When the requisite depth has been attained, the water present at that level is admit­ ted into the receptacle, and remains a pure, uncontaminated specimen, since no further water can enter while the vessel is being hauled through the upper levels to the surface."

"In the P·roceedingsof the Berlin Academy W. Kaufmann has repeated his HOT TIP measurements of the mass of the electron at various speeds with greatly increased accuracy, in order to decide, if possible, between the rival theories of Abraham, (For Electronicists) Lorentz and Biicherer with regard to the The big count-down has begun! In a matter of structure of the electron. As a source of months, the tip of a Martin rocket will travel electrons he used radium, and instead of an electro-magnet he used two highly through space at a speed of 5 miles per second­ aged permanent magnets. He photo­ and moments later the first man-made satellite graphed the magnetic and electric de­ will reach its orbit. flection curves on films cast on plate glass, and compared them with the This event, the first of a series of 12 in the curves demanded by the three theories. Martin-Navy VANGUARD program, will com­ The final result is stated as follows: The mence a new chapter in the short but exciting value of elm for infinite slowness, as de­ rived from cathode-ray experiments, is story of electronics. 1.885 X 107• The curves of deflection Today, no other engineering organization in of the f3-raysof radium, interpreted ac­ the world is more concerned with the outer-space cording to the theories of Abraham, electronics problems of tomorrow. Lorentz and Bticherer, respectively, give 1.823, 1.660 and 1.808 X 107 for the If you are interested, contact J. M. Hollyday, same ratio. The theory of Lorentz, ac­ Dept. SA-07, The Martin Company, Baltimore, cording to which the electron in motion Maryland. is reduced in the direction of motion, but not laterally, is, therefore, least prob­ able. The experiments do not, however, decide between the theory of M. Abra­ ham, who assumes an absolutely rigid electron, and that of Biicherer, who as­ sumes that the electron in motion be­ IW��.IIV comes a Heaviside ellipsoid with un-

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Transistorized telephone J summons you with a mu� ical tone

Bell scientists have developed a new musical tone device which may some day replace the telephone bell, if it meets technical standards and customers' approvals.

Because the musical tone equipment uses transistors, the tones will be transmitted with the same amount of power required to transmit a telephone conversation­ considerably less than is needed to make a telephone bell ring. The experimental telephone sets resemble the cur­ rent "500" sets; the only external difference is a lou­ ver at the side of the base through which the tone is Above: Bell ringer has been displaced radiated by a small loudspeaker mounted inside the by a small loudspeaker in transistorized telephone's base. telephone. Left: L. A. Meacham heads Tests have shown that the musical tone can be heard the team of engineers that developed the musical tone ringer. Mr. Meacham at great distances. It stands out above general room holds a B.S. in Electrical Engineering noise and can be distinguished from such sounds as from the University of Washington, ringing of doorbells, alarm clocks, and home fire alarms. Class of '29. He became affiliated with Bell Labs a year after his graduation. This new low-power signaling technique is expected In 1939 Mr. Meacham won the "Out· to play an important part in the electronic switching standing Young Electrical Engineer" system now under development at Bell Laboratories. award of Eta Kappa Nu.

BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORIES World center 0/ communications research and development

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC changed volume, and thus incompress­ ible. But so fa the figures support Abra­ , I;, ham s theory.

"During the earthquake and the sub­ sequent days of fire marking the awful calamity which all but swept the city of San Francisco from the map, and when every single telegraph, telephone, and cable wire was interrupted, the only di­ rect means of communication with the burning city was by wireless telegraphy. The wireless station on the top floor of the Merchants' Exchange Building in San Francisco was rendered inoperative for lack of current, originally derived from the lighting mains, and on the sec­ ond day it was consumed by the flames. Within a very few minutes after the earthquake the line of government wire­ less stations extending from Mare Island Navy Yard to San Diego had received

-Dredge Mining in South Carolina wireless tidings of the city's distress. The flagship Chicago, accompanied by the cruisers Boston and Marblehead, were at speaking of heavy minerals .... sea when these same dispatches were received by the ships' operators. Imme­ ITRO'S across-the-board position in atomic energy and diately forced draft was put on, and the Vrelated· technologies gives it unusual insight into un­ fleet headed with all possible speed to tapped industrial potentials. From this vantage point, it has the relief of the stricken city. Upon the arrival of the naval vessels, the flagship diversified into rare earths and heavy minerals through anchored off Fort Mason at the foot of association with Crane Co. in the operation of Heavy Van Ness Avenue and within a stone's Minerals Co. throw of the shore. For the next two Heavy Minerals owns large deposits of source materials weeks the cozy little wireless office on for thorium, titanium, zirconium, and rare earth ores near the Chicago presented a very business­ like appearance. Without hitch or delav Aiken, S. C., and Panama City, Fla. A processing plant an enormous lot of telegrams were had­ under construction at Chattanooga, Tenn., will produce dIed. Learning that it was possible to thorium and thorium compounds, misch metal, rare earth reach the outside world by the Chicago's chemicals, zirconium compounds and related products. wireless, many of the refugees made Pechiney of France, holder of many patents in rare earths and their way to the water front and filed heavy minerals, retains a minority interest in the company. messages of their safety. From the Chi­ cago Heavy Minerals' deposits contain a number of heavier rare came in telegrams to every point of the Union and cables to foreign parts. earths including europium, gadolinium and yttrium, many A private wireless station in Alameda, of which are considered important in nuclear development. tapping the aerial bulletin service, sup­ There are many projected uses for these products in the plied the anxious people there with news field of nuclear applications for control and shielding, x-ray of the disaster." sources, capacitors, vacuum tubes, television color tubes and catalytic reactions. New and unique production processes by "The recent summer meeting of the American Association for the Advance­ Heavy Minerals Co. make these products available in ment of Science at Cornell University separated forms at high purities and greater quantities. was rendered memorable by the dedica­ tion of the largest and best-equipped For detailed information wriJeHEAVY MINERALS CO., an associated company of physical laboratory in America. Prof. E. L. Nichols gave an account of the new Rockefeller Hall of Physics, which has 478 rooms and will accommodate 2,000 students. Among the large number of CORPORATION of AMERICA papers read at the meeting was one by 261 Madison Ave., New York 16 Prof. Wallace C. Sabine, who spoke of neglected factors in determination of � Research, development, weapons systems � Uranium mining, milling, processing, refining musical quality. When a complex tone is $ Nuclear and process engineering, .design � Rare metals, rare earths, heavy minerals sounded, the fundamental tones do not A Refinery engineering, design, construction G Ceramic colors, pigments, fine chemicals die away so soon as the overtones, and

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC NelN trends and developments in designing electrical products ••.

How General Electric Permanent Magnets help designers miniaturize products by supplying constant magnetic field energy in a fraction of the space required by electromagnets

HERE constant magnetic field curve (Figure 3), the true capabil­ Wenergy is necessary, powerful ities of each type of magnet become G-E Alnico permanent magnets offer immediately apparent. the designer many advantages no The area under the Alnico curve electromagnet can match. 5 is about three times the area under The most important of these ad­ the electromagnet curve. Thus, to vantages -from the designer's view­ () produce a given field requirement, PERMANENT point -is the permanent magnet's the permanent magnet will occupy MAGNET superior volumetric efficiency.An a volume one-third that of an equiv­ ELECTRO-MAGNET Alnico permanent magnet can supply alent electromagnet. a given magnetic field in a fraction FIGURE 4 of the space required by even the best designed electromagnet. First, no power source is required 20 Since miniaturization has become with permanent magnets, because so vital in the electrical and elec­ no energy is consumed. Once mag­ ElECTROMAGNET tronics industries, it is important to netized' the field is permanently see just why and how a permanent retained. magnet utilizes space so much more Second, permanent magnets oper­ effectively. ate continuously. There can be no Figure 1 shows a typical magneti­ interruptions of the field due to zation curve of an electromagnet _--,r"" _ inches. At right, is the G-E Alnico _ 10 �3 for which only electromagnets had / 5 permanent magnet which replaced been previously considered. I � I it. The new magnet weighs just 15 I If you have a problem where con­ I ounces, and occupies only 1.30 cubic I stant magnetic fieldenergy is re­ inches - a space saving of 87 % ! 200 200 quired, one of the G-E Alnico OERSTEDS OERSTEDS These savings in size and weight compositions may well be your solu­ result from permanent magnets' in­ tion. For more design data or herent volumetric superiority. In technical assistance from our magnet FIGURE FIGURE 2 addition, permanent magnets provide engineers, write: Carboloy Depart­ equally impressive savings in both ment of General Electric Company, Therefore, to make the comparison initial and service costs because of 11199 E. 8 Mile Road, Detroit 32, valid, the residual induction of the four other inherent advantages. Michigan. electromagnet must be reduced to 10,000 gausses (Figure 2). The area under the curve now 'Progress /s Ovr Mos! Imporf411f Prot/ve represents the approximate external l field energy available on a volume basis. When the equivalent demag­ netization curve of Alnico 5 is plotted GENERAL ELECTRIC against the corrected electromagnet fI

15

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC it is found that the material of which the walls of an auditorium is constructed has a material effect in deadening the over­ tones, and thus changing the quality of the music or of the voice. Hence it seems that more attention should be paid to the material with which the walls are covered."

JULY, 1856: "Last year, in an attempt to connect our continent telegraphically with the island of Newfoundland, the cable was lost in a storm; but another has arrived from London, and with the pre­ <� cautions taken it will soon be laid down � successfully. But after this is accom­ plished, the great cable nearly 1,800 miles long has to be laid down. To en­ MEAT & POTATO RELAYS sure its success, positive information re­ specting the bottom of the ocean on If you don't really need super-this, which it is to be laid is required. To lay high-that or ultra-something else in down a telegraph wire on the bottgm of a relay .you are to be envied, not the ocean would be impracticable, ac­ scorned. Then you should be assured There was a time when four just such cording to the present calculations made that Sigma makes just plain relays too. relays ( Types 4, 5, 6 and 41) were by the Ocean Telegraph Companies. But They're not really "plain", but well­ the basic Sigma lines. Now, of course, it has been asserted that there is an ocean designed for certain jobs that they there are sixteen of these basics and plateau of almost uniform level extend­ perform commendably. They don't some of them are super-sensitive, ing from Newfoundland to Ireland, and have wrap-around windshields and high speed or ultra ultratissimo. It is that on this marine elevation it would be back -up lights. but they get you there perhaps significant that the old stand­ easy to lay down the cable. This plateau and they bring you back. bys are still best sellers. was stated to have been discovered by Lieut. Berryman in the U. S. sloop Dol­ phin three years ago, when taking deep Here they are, and they're for sale: sea soundings; but that partial sUl'vey is not thought to have been sufficient, and, Sigma Series 4 at the solicitation of Lieut. Maury and GENERAL PURPOSE MEDIUM SENSITIVITY Prof. Bache of the Coast Survey, Secre­ Balanced ormature de. tary Dobbin has ordered the exploring sign. SPOT. High reliability, Sigma Series 5 steamer Arctic to make a thorough sur­ Medium priced. 20-50 mw sen· VERY SENSITIVE up o emps. sitivity. Switcnes t 2 HIGH STABILITY vey of the entire route projected for the resistive for (28 YDC, 115 VAC) Withstands aircraft operations. ocean telegraph. The Arctic is provided 100,000 vibration on inputs as loW' os 5 mw; undamaged by with a reel of 10,000 fathoms." 500 9 shocks. Sensitivity ronge Sigma Series 6 1·40 mw, 35 basic standard POLARIZED adjustments. "A scientific and mechanic journal has NULL SEEKING, been started in London within the past BIASED 0' LATCHING year under the name The Engineer. Its Contacts up to 4PDT, 5 amps. Sigma Series 41

nominol roting. Sensitivity SENSITIVE general plan of publication is similar to 8·44 mw (Latching, 22·450 mw). LOW COST AC that of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. The SPOT shaded pole Engineer is a most able and valuable construction. Unusually quiet. Sensitivity 0.2-1.0 "-a. paper. It has entirely outstripped its Eu­ Contoct rotings up to 5 amps. All four relays are available in a wide Voltoge operated, current operated; ropean contemporaries in point of vigor variety of mounting enclosures. Catalog 16-400 cycle versions; also DC and enterprise, and appears to be on the and high speed keying types. on request. high road to success. We are glad of it. We cordially welcome it as a zealous co­ laborer in the noble work of diffusing useful knowledge. The Engineer is pub­ lished weekly. It is elegantly illustrated IGMA with engravings of new English inven­ tions, and contains, in addition, a large SIGMA INSTRUMENTS, INC., amount of general scientific informa­ 40 Pearl Street, So. Braintree, Boston 85, Massachusetts tion,"

16

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ®

can so lve YOtli< If/e3r-�tKan&e problem

e WHAT JOBS HAVE YOU for CARMET CARBIDES to do?

For maximum wear, save with Carmet-preformed to practically any shape or size! Examples: entire blanking die parts; inserts for drawing, heading, extruding and blanking dies; gauge and wear parts, pins, bushings, etc. They can be supplied preformed-with minimum grind Write for Your Copy of the stock allowed-or precision ground and ready for use. Let us work with you •..send us your drawings and specificationsfor quotations . CARMET CATALOG • Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, Carmet Division, Wanda and Jarvis Avenues, Detroit20, Mich. Just out ••• 32 well· illustrated pages, containing data on all Carmet grades, and on Carmet blanks, tools, die sections, punches, draw die inserts, For ALL your CARBI DE needs, call etc.; also special preforming to order. • Write forYOM copy. ADDRESS DEPT. SC·79 Allegheny Ludly.m

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, in which his THE AUTHORS article "Radio Telescopes" appeared. THERESA GOELL and FRIED­ RICH KARL DOERNER ("The Tomb EVON Z. VOGT and JOHN M. ROB­ of Antiochus I") are, respectively, an ERTS ("A Study of Values") are anthro­ archaeologist and a classicist who have pologists who have worked together on collaborated on the excavations which the study described in their article. Vogt they describe. Miss Goell was born in grew up on a ranch in western New New York City and was graduated from Mexico, where he early came to know Radcliffe College. She took up architec­ the Navahos, Zunis, Spanish-Americans, ture and archaeology at the School of Mormons and Texans who were his Architecture of the University of Cam­ neighbors. In 1931 he set out to become bridge. For several years she was an in­ a mining engineer and spent a year terior architect with the Hearn Depart­ working in the gold-mining camps of ment Stores in New York City; later she Nevada. He soon discovered that he was took up further studies in the Graduate more interested in his Shoshone Indian Institute of Fine Arts at New York Uni­ companions on the mining crews than in versity. In 1953 she conducted a pre­ the technical problems of mining gold. liminary survey of the tomb of An­ With money saved in the mining camps tiochus I, and in 1954 returned there for he entered the University of Chicago in a full-scale excavation. Doerner joined 1937, graduated in geography and her in 1953 to decipher inscriptions and stayed on for graduate work in anthro­ to collaborate in field work. He has since Posting 200 nSentries" pology. After serving in the Navy in invited her to collaborate with him at his World War II he re-entered the Uni­ excavations at the sanctuary of Mithra­ to Control a Process versity of Chicago, and in 1947 returned dates, which he had discovered in 1951 to his native countryside to study Na­ at Arsameia-on-the-Nymphaios. He is Automated industry's, "officer of the day" vaho veterans for his Ph.D., which he associate professor of Greek and Latin is the Panalog 605 Information System. It took in 1948. He has since been with epigraphy and of ancient history at the scans, quantizes and records conditions at any process control-point you select. It gives the Department of Social Relations of University of Munster in western Ger­ your management and operating personnel Harvard University, where he is now many. usable, organized digital information, associate professor and assistant curator instantly and continuously. of American ethnology, as well as direc­ ROBERT HOFSTADTER ("The Each control point is logged, automatical­ ly, at pre-determined time intervals and also tor of the values study project which Atomic Nucleus") is professor of physics on demand. Between logs, an electronic Harvard started in New Mexico in 1949. at Stanford University. He grew up in measuring system scans continuously, at the Roberts also came to anthropology while New York City, and while in high school rate of 5 points per second, to detect and seeking another career. After graduating was interested in literature and philoso­ record off-normalprocess conditions. Adjust­ able, high and low off-normal limits are pro­ from the University of Nebraska in 1937, phy. "On entering the College of the vided for each input variable. The 200-point he enrolled for the fall term at the law City of New York," he writes, "I found basic system can be expanded or modified school of the University of Chicago, but that although physics was less alive than in the field. found himself so much interested in an­ literature, the physics instructor was Information output from the Panalog 605 may be presented in a variety of forms. The thropology and so little interested in law much more stimulating. At his sugges­ electric typewriter with patented log-chart that he shifted to graduate work in tion I took some advanced mathematics is standard; other methods available include anthropology. In 1939 he took an as­ and physics. I liked to be at the source punched or magnetic tape, punched cards, sistantship in the Institute of Human of things, and felt that physics was fun­ and direct computer input. Relations at Yale University. He later damental to everything else, except pos­ Totalized and averaged values as well as plant efficiencies can be computed and served in the Army, did field work among sibly mathematics. I was also stimulated recorded by the system. the Ramah Navaho and, in 1947, took a by the lives of some of the great physi­ Literature describing the Panalog 605 Ph.D. in anthropology at Yale. From cists and mathematicians. At this time I Information System is available on request. 1948 to 1953 he was with the Harvard felt that the laws of physics could be If you wish, a Panellit representative will 1953 be happy to discuss possible applications Department of Social Relations. In tested and those of philosophy could not. for your company. he went back to the University of Ne­ Halfway through college my mind was braska, where he is now professor of made up that I wanted to teach and do Engineered Information Systems for Industry anthropology and curator of anthro­ research in physics." Hofstadter gradu ­ pology in the University museum. He ated from City College in 1935 summa and Vogt worked together on the values cum laude. A Coffin fellowship, awarded study from 1949 to 1953, while Roberts by the General Electric Company, en­ was coordinator of the study; Vogt has abled him to do graduate work at Prince­ Graphic Panels Panalarm Instrument had the responsibility since then. ton University. "I was pushed into ex­ Annunciators Services Division perimental work," he recalls, "by the JOHN D. KRAUS ("The Radio Sky") Coffin requirement that a man must do is professor of elech'ical engineering at research even in his firstyear. In my Ohio State University. His progress from second year there seemed to be an open PANEL LIT. INC. antenna designer to radio astronomer place in the infrared laboratory and I 7497 N. Hamlin Ave., Skokie, III. 1955, Panellit of Canada Ltd., Toronto 14 was sketched in the March, issue moved into that branch of physics, again

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC LOOKING FOR THE BEST LOW-COST OLEFIN?

No other olefin is potentially more useful, or lower in cost, than Sunoco Propylene Trimer

Recent spectrographic tests of Sunoco® Propylene Sunoco Propylene Trimer is butylene-free and low Trimer show that this C. propylene polymer in sulfur. It has a narrow distillation range ... "cut" is composed almost entirely of mono-olefins eliminates color problems in end products. Pro­ ...with about 16% of the double bond in the ter­ ducers are obtaining high yields using Sunoco minal position. Distribution of the olefin types Propylene Trimer in the synthesis of various is indicated as follows: chemical intermediates such as nonyl phenol and in alkylation reaction with aryl groups in the Terminal Olefins: production of synthetic detergents. R-CH=CH2 4X �;>C=CH2 12 To get your copy of the spectrographic analysis and complete information about Sunoco Propyl­ Non-terminal Olefins: ene Trimer, write to SUN OIL COMPANY, Phila­ �'>C=C<�, (trans) 15 delphia 3, Pa., Dept. SA-7. �'>C=C<�2 (cis) 3 �;>C=C<�3 41

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC not exactly because I wanted to." Study­ ing simple organic molecules by means of infrared spectroscopy, he helped to elucidate the nature of the hydrogen bond; he took his Ph.D. in 1938. During the first years of World War II he Systems worked on the proximity fuze at the National Bureau of Standards; he later helped develop servomechanisms at the Engineering Norden Laboratories Corporation. In 1946 he became assistant professor of physics at Princeton, where in 1948 he at The Ramo-Wooldrid e discovered that sodium iodide activated g by thallium made an excellent scintilla­ tion counter. "I was extremely lucky. Corporation Throughout the eight years since that time people have searched intensively for a better material but so far none has been found." In 1950 he went to Stan­ ford, where he built the first magnetic ICBM and IRBM are prime examples. The Intercontinental Ballistic spectrometer for the Stanford linear ac­ Missile and the Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile, Air Force celerator. programs for which we have over-all systems engineering and technical direction responsibility, are prime examples of pro­ ECKHARD H. HESS ("Space Per­ grams that require the systems engineering approach. Most ception in the Chick") is associate pro­ Ramo-Wooldridge work is of such a systems character, requiring fessor of psychology at the University of the concurrent solution of a wide variety of interrelated technical Chicago. This year he is a fellow at the and operational problems. Additional examples at R-W are com­ Center for Advanced Study in the Be­ munications, fire-control, and computer programs for the mil­ havioral Sciences at Stanford, Calif. He itary, and automation and operations research projects for bus­ received his Ph.D. for work in physio­ iness and industry. logical psychology from the Johns Hop­ 1948. Pertinent technical fields. Successful execution of systems engineering kins University in Most of his re­ programs requires that the technical staffinclude experts in a search deals with the basic problems of considerable number of scientific and engineering specialties. At vision and the effects of early experience Ramo-Wooldridge some of the pertinent fields are aerodynamics, on perception and behavior. propulsion, digital computers, information theory, radio propagation, radar, infrared, servomechanisms, gyroscopy, and PHILIP H. ABELSON ("Paleobio­ nuclear physics. chemistry") is Director of the Geophysi­ cal Laboratory of the Carnegie Institu­ The kind of team required. A qualified systems engineering staff must tion of Washington. He was born in include unusually capable theoreticians and analysts who can Tacoma, Wash., and graduated from the predict the behavior of complex systems, as well as ingenious State College of Washington in 1933. experimental physicists who can devise suitable new techniques He started out as a nuclear physicist, for measuring actual physical parameters. In addition, the team doing graduate work with Ernest O. must include experienced apparatus and equipment development Lawrence at the University of Califor­ engineers, to insure a high level of practicability in the resulting nia. He took his Ph.D. there in 1939; in end products. 1940 he and several other workers dis­ covered the synthetic element neptu­ Scientists and engineers who are experienced in systems engineering work, nium. At the Naval Research Laboratory or who have specialized in certain technical fields hut have a broad interest during World War II he developed a in the inter-actions between their own specialties and other /ields, are invited to explore the wide range 0/ openings at The Ramo- Wooldridge Corporation in: liquid thermal diffusion process for sepa­ rating uranium isotopes on a large scale;

Guided Missile Research and Development • Automation and Data Processing the process was later used at Oak Ridge. Aerodynamics and Propulsion Systems • Digital Computers and Control Systems In 1946 he began a new career in bio­ Communications Systems • Airborne Electronic and Control Systems chemistry and microbiology at the De­ partment of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution and acquired an in­ terest in comparative biochemistry, evo­ The Ramo· Wooldridge Corporation lution and the origin of life .

.5730 ARBOR VITAE STREET • LOS ANGELES 4!5, CALIFORNIA HARRY TABOR ("Progress in Solar Power") is the director of Israel's N a­ tional Physical Laboratory in Jerusalem. He was born and educated in England and graduated from the University of London in 1937, taking honors in phys-

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Model illustrating crystalline structure of copper. against a background view of Oak Ridge. COI=»I=»ER essential to the Atomic , ... Age •

When the Atomic Age dawned ...copper in some way been dependent on copper. was at hand to implement it. The steamboat, with its copper boilers, ushered It was copper that facilitated the building of in a new Age of Water Transportation. Telegraph nuclear accelerators or "atom smashers"... the and telephone lines needed copper to make possi­ backbone of basic atomic research.The magnet of ble a new Age of Communications. Marconi's a modern cyclotron and its control circuits require "wireless", with its coils and cables of copper, some 300 tons of copper.And in the maze of ana­ started the Age of Electronics. lytical instrumentation, copper is indispensable. As your Company moves ahead into the Atomic The whole history of America is one of progress Age, move ahead with copper ... in every age, the through inventions ... and most inventions have metal of progress! CO·PPER & BRAS -S RESEARCH ASSOCIATION

420 Lexington Avenue, New York 17, N. Y .

. . AN INOUSTRY SOURCE OF TECHNOLOGICAL AID, INCLUDING A LIBRARY OF TECHNICAL LITERATURE AND A COUNCIL OF SPECIALISTS COPPER OR ITS ALLOYS PROVIDE THESE ADVANTAGES. � Be.t conductor of I: - � :\ D08s not rus •.•• � Be., heal t,an.fer �� Ea.y to machine. ® We'd. ,eadily ••• � electricity commercially 1I"'a'lRJJr high corrosion agent of all J U II form, draw, stamp, excellent for available � resistance commercial metal. polish, plate, etc. soldering and brazing -...... ,,;

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ics. He was particularly interested in automatic control; for 10 years he worked in England on the design and development of industrial instruments. In 1949 he settled in Israel. There he portrait joined the Research Council of Israel, which assigned him the task of setting up a National Physical Laboratory and of a encouraging applied physics research and development. Israel is without coal, and Tabor's compatriots never tired of magnetic sending the Laboratory rather visionary suggestions for tapping solar energy. Tabor, however, tired of reading them, family and about two years ago decided to in­ vestigate the problem himself. These members of the Varian Electromagnetfam­ ily are enabling scientists ELIE L. WOLLMAN and FRAN­ and researchers through­ COIS JACOB ("Sexuality in Bacteria") out the world to altain another valuable laboratory environment ... the truly are both chefs de laboratoim at the Pas­ precise magnetic field. These magnets cover a broad spectrum of laboratory teur Institute in Paris. Wollman's parents needs, put emphasis on exceptional field uniformity and stability. They are avail­ were themselves microbiologists at the able in three models, together with matching power supplies and accessories. Pasteur Institute, and Wollman studied medicine and biology at the University HIGH PRECISION N·M·R TECHNIQUES are used for magnetic field contour plotting during critical alignment of the v-4012A and v-4007 magnets, one of of Paris until he was drafted during the many important steps in the painstaking task of realizing the optimum in field war of 1939-1940. He finally took his

uniformity. • M.D. at Lyon. France was at the time INSTRUMENT DIVISION GET THE: (formerly Special Products Division) occupied by the Germans, who killed FULL STORY: both his parents. Wollman became a Tne VARIAN associates ••• mark of write today l L T 7, physician in the resistance forces, and leadership PAL 0 A 0 CAL I f 0 • N I A for complete : Representatives in all principal cities later in the French Army. These events, technical data. MICROWAVE TUBES' INSTRUMENTS � he points out, retarded his start in re­ search. In 1945 he entered the Pasteur Institute, where he worked in the de­ partment headed by Andre Lwoff,au­ CATIONS AND thor of the article "The Life Cycle of a Virus" in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN for OF INDUSTRIAL March, 1954. From 1948 to 1950 he was a Rockefeller Foundation fellow with FELT* Max Delbriick at the California Institute of Technology. Since then he has been 'made to S.A.E. mainly interested in the genetic aspects and Federal Govt. of the relationship between bacterial ;::.!!!!!!��=L, Specifications viruses and their bacterial hosts. Jacob, who was born at Nancy in Lorraine, had entered the medical school of the Uni­ Burdened down with versity of Paris with the idea of becom­ SEND FOR a problem in design diminution, ing a surgeon when the events of 1940 YOUR FREE weight reduction, power capsulation? caught up with him. He escaped from COPY France and joined the Free French lighten the load on your mind; send for TODAYl forces in England. He fought against the amazing story of how MPB's >j::. Germans and Italians in Africa and France and was severely wounded. After CONTINENTAL the war he returned to Paris and ac­ quired his M.D., but then decided not to FELT such as these 8All 8EAtiNGS ACTUAL SIZE go into surgery. In 1950 he entered the fills hundreds make designing a breeze. Pasteur Institute as an assistant to Lwoff, of jobs and in 1954 he took a D.Sc. at the daily. :X-;�;I��-U-;;��-E��;��;-;;;;I�-;;'-�;�.--· Sorbonne. 19 Precision Park, Keene, N. H. HARRY L. SHAPIRO, who reviews PI ease send M PB's new Catalog to Ask for booklet two new sociological studies of secrecy Name ...... TItle •••••....•••••••• S-7 and loyalty, is chairman of the depart­ Company ••••••.••••••••••••••• 0> •••••••••••••••••••••• ment of anthropology at the American Street ...... Museum of Natural History in New CONTINENTAL F�T COMPANY.'NC.,to, City ...... ,.Zone ...•. Slate •.•...•.•.•.•.• 22·26 WEST 15,n STREET \J>' NEW YORK 11. N. Y. . . . York City.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SCIENTIFIC Established 1845 .AM.E RI CAN July, 1956 Volume 195 Number 1

A Study of Values In the same semi-arid region of western New Mexico the people of .five entirely different cultures lead different lives. A long-ternl study seeks the connections between their values and their ways of l�fe

by Evon Z. Vogt and John M. Roberts

tenet of intellectual folklore the fitting and the good vary widely by the ideals and goals of their cultures. "N0 has been so damaging to our among the world's 3,000 or so cultures. As we advance the frontiers of the so­ life and times as the cliche They strongly influence the selection of cial sciences it becomes increasingly that 'science has nothing to do with val­ the modes, the means and the ends of clear that values must be studied as a ues.' If the consideration of values is to human behavior. The social scientist can­ part of our actual subject matter and be the exclusive property of religion and not view "man in culture" as conditioned not left entirely to the humanists and the humanities, a scientific understand­ only by economic forces and biological philosophers. Values are, in fact, the sub­ ing of human experience is impossible." impulses. People see the world through ject of an increasing number of investiga­ In these words the anthropologist cultural lenses compounded of particu­ tions today. But how can values be Clyde Kluckhohn recently defined a ma­ lar combinations of values; they respond brought under the same kind of objective jor challenge and frontier of social re­ in different ways in accordance with study as linguistic systems and the tech­ search. The forming and choosing of their differing values. We must recognize niques of salmon fishing? values is a central concern of all men and that people are not just "driven" by situ­ The apparent difficultyis reduced if societies. Conceptions of the desirable, ational pressures; they are also "pulled" we recall that the object of such study

PUEBLO OF ZUNI expresses in its density of construction the garden (foreground) conserves water carried from the Zuni River strong community feeling of the Zuni people. "Waffle"paltern in just beyond. Chile beans, onions and other vegetables are the crop.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC MORMON CHURCH at Ramah was huilt hy labor of its members. The substantial structure COOPERATIVE PROJECT at Ramab in and the landscaping around it, in this arid country, bespeak the Mormon community spirit. 1952 added a high school and gymnasium to

is not to make an ethical judgment of philosophy, history, government and cultures see the same plateau and mesa goodness or badness. We want to know, law. They have approached their com­ country, sparsely covered with grama­ rather, how values function in organizing mon concern with values through a wide grass, sagebrush, pinyon and juniper, behavior. Since it is virtually impossible variety of topical interests, such as re­ and with stands of ponderosa pines at the to experiment with human cultures, the ligion, cultural change, politics, land use, higher elevations. All of the people must social scientist must find his laboratory child rearing, adult personality, mythol­ contend with the same fluctuation in situation ready-made. Preferably he ogy, music and graphic arts. The full bat­ rainfall, averaging only 12 to 15 inches should be able to observe and compare tery of research techniques-direct ob­ per year, and with the short, changeable the role of values in one or two cultures servation, participant observation, per­ growing season typical of the American other than his own. Ideally he will find sonal interviews, group discussions, in­ Southwest at this 7,000-foot altitude. a situation where he can observe varia­ teraction analysis, psychological tests There are permanent springs in the re­ tions in values against a background in and questionnaires-is represented in the gion, but the small Zuni River, a tribu­ which other variables are relatively immense documentation now assembled. tary of the Little Colorado, is the only constant. Since the populations of the five commu­ year-round stream. Soils, however, are This article is concerned with a long­ nities are small (3,000 Zunis, 650 fertile and productive when watered. term project of the Harvard University Navahos, 700 Spanish-Americans, 250 To meet the problems of making a liv­ Laboratory of Social Relations known as Mormons, 250 Texans) it has been possi­ ing in this landscape, each of the five "The Comparative Study of Values in ble to emphasize intensive methods and communities has essentially the same Five Cultures." The study is centered in reduce the problems of sampling and technology available to it. In face-to­ the region south of Gallup, N. M., where statistical analysis which attend so much face contact with one another for a gen­ communities of five different cultural social research. The extensive existing eration or more, all have been subject traditions-Zuni and Navaho Indians, literatures on some of the cultures have to markedly similar historical pressures. Mormons, Catholic Spanish-Americans helped to give the study historical depth. These pressures have mounted during and Protestant-American homesteaders In all its undertakings the values study the last 10 years, as hard-surface roads, from Texas-all contend with the same has been faced with the delicate prob­ telephone lines and public power have high-altitude semi-arid environment. lem of rapport and public relations in the spread through their country. The five Since our research has not yet reached five communities. No research could be communities remain distinct, however, the phase of synthesis and final theory conducted that might endanger future and present significant contrasts. construction, it is still too early to sum­ investigations. Among the Zuni, for ex­ Each of the cultures, for example, has marize the project's over-all results. At ample, it has so far not been politic to worked out its own solution for the prob­ this stage, however, we are able to report study prayers, ceremonials and other re­ lem of physical survival. The Zunis, old­ that the Gallup region has given us a ligious matters at close range. Because est of the peoples in the region, conduct practically ideal laboratory for investiga­ we have had to be careful to protect in­ a long -established irrigation agriculture, tion of the manifold questions presented dividuals and groups in every way, this supplemented by stock-raising and by by the role of values in human life. is the first over-all account of the project crafts, notably the making of silver jewel­ to be published outside a few specialized ry. The Navahos were originally roving The values study project was initiated professional journals and monographs. hunters and gatherers and came into the in 19 49 with a grant from the The geography of the Gallup region region only a century ago; they have be­ Rockefeller Foundation. To date its field establishes some much-needed constants come dry farmers and sheepherders, program has engaged the collaboration for a study that is otherwise bedeviled with wage work providing an increasing of 30 investigators from the disciplines of by a multiplicity of uncontrolled vari­ percentage of their income as contact anthropology, sociology, psychology, ables. Each of the peoples of the five with our American culture becomes

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC the assets of the Mormon community. Vol· VOLUNTEER LABOR on new high school at Ramah is charted on blackboard. The com· unteers here mix concrete for foundations. munity spirit of Mormons' culture is closer to that of the Zunis than any other in study.

more extensive. Livestock ranching and identity is loosely maintained by com­ pected to be self-reliant and to be "his wage ,york provide the principal income peting Protestant churches and cliques. own boss." The social order of the com­ for the three Spanish-American villages, The values study seeks answers to a munity is composed of relatively isolated which were settled about 75 years ago. number of questions that are suggested families, each living on its own farm and The Mormons, also established in this by the differences among these five cul­ competing with other families for posi­ region since the 1880s, have been con­ tures. It has set out to define, first of all, tion and prestige. Instead of the single, spicuously successful at irrigation farm­ the value system of each of them and to hierarchically arranged church, the ing; they also engage in livestock ranch­ establish the role that values play in homesteaders subscribe to no less than ing and wage work. The Texans staked making these cultures different from one 10 competing Christian denominations, out the last Homestead Act lands in the another. The changes in values that are each distinguished by a slightly different region during the 1930s, as refugees occurring in each culture represent an­ doctrine and type of service. from the dust bowl to the east; they raise other important line of inquiry. Of equal The Texan homesteaders fail to under­ cattle and carry on a commercial and challenge is the question of why their stand why "anybody wants to live all largely mechanized dry-land farming, different value systems persist, despite bunched up in a little village and take with pinto beans as their principal crop. their contact with each other and their orders from the big landholders and the The five cultures present correspond­ exposure to the same environmental priests." The Spanish-Americans say of ing contrasts in their community organi­ pressure�. the Texans that "everybody tries to be " zation and family life. The sedentary his own patron. Zunis spend their winters in the stone ne of the most promising areas of in- The Mormons present still another houses of their large central pueblo, O vestigation is the connection be­ picture. The formal structure of the moving in the agricultural season to tween the values and the social struc­ Mormon church has hierarchical aspects three farming villages. Their social tures of the various communities. For ex­ with lines of authority running upward structure is based on the matrilocal ample, the Spanish-Americans lay strong from the local ward bishops through the household (with the husband living with emphasis upon "lineality" -the view that state presidents to the 12 apostles and his wife's kinfolk) , matrilineal clans, and social relations are desirable when they church president in Salt Lake City, various priesthoods and other religious are consistent with the hierarchy of their Utah. But within this framework the groupings. The Navahos also have ma­ society. In their communities younger local community enjoys much autonomy trilocal extended families and matrilineal relatives are subordinate to older kins­ to work out its own affairs, and great clans. They are less tightly organized, men, females to males, and the peon to value is placed upon collateral, coopera­ however, and families dwell in widely his patron. The secular structure gears tive economic and social relationships. scattered hogans: hexagonal log houses into the hierarchically arranged Catholic Around the village and the large cohe­ with dirt roofs. As compared to the other church with its offices extending from sive family system there is a proliferation two non-Indian cultures, the Mormons the parish priest through the bishops, of cooperatives in economic affairs. The resemble the Zunis in having a strong archbishops, cardinals and on up to the little village of Ramah boasts a mutual sense of identity with their community. Pope. Much the same type of hierarchy irrigation company, a cooperative land Their life centers around the single vil­ is found in the sacred world of the Span­ and cattle company and a cooperative lage of Ramah, where the values study ish-Americans, from the local images of dairy. The spirit of individualistic com­ maintains its field headquarters. For the the saints up to the Deity. petition which pervades the Texan Spanish-Americans the family and the The Texan homesteaders, in marked community is consciously suppressed in Catholic church are paramount institu­ contrast, place a strong American­ favor of the values of cooperation in the tions. The Texan homesteads are scat­ frontier stress upon individualistic so­ Mormon village. tered over several townships; their cial relations in which each man is ex- These values have deep roots in Mor-

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC mon history. Joseph Smith, the founder The Spanish-Americans, Texans and organized church which embraces the of the church, proposed the "law of Mormons, different as they are, belong entire community. The ZUlli spirit of co­ consecration" which required that all to a single major historical tradition operation is expressed and institutional­ who had surplus wealth must impart it which contrasts with that of the ZuiUs ized in the activities of a whole series of through the church to the poor. Al­ and Navahos. In former times Zuiii was priesthoods, dancing groups and curing though this "law" was abandoned as ruled by a theocracy. Today personal societies, in which the individual Zuiii early as 1838, the values it expressed relationships among the Zuiiis are organ­ may hold two or more memberships. Co­ lent a strong cooperative bias to much of ized in a complicated series of inter­ operation is stressed also as a matter of later Mormon activity. The compact vil­ locking religious, kinship and secular Zuiii kinship obligation. Kinship is im­ lage settlement was a social invention of units, in which the individual strikes a portant to the Mormons, but sustained the Mormons, motivated by a sense of delicate balance with external authority. kinship-based activity seldom goes be­ urgent need to prepare a dwelling place No true Zuiii wishes to live away from yond the closest relatives. In Zuiii there for the "Savior" at "His second com­ Zuiii, particularly in the wintertime. The are large groups of near and distant ing." Through the years cooperation be­ Zuiiis have been characterized as having relatives to whom one owes duties and came a strong defense against "persecu­ a kind of "middle of the road," "avoid­ from whom one derives benefitsand tion" by the "gentiles," first in the Middle ance of excess" approach to life, in the position. West and later in the Far West, when the manner of the ancient Greeks. Although The Navahos, with their scattered political and legal movements to stamp this characterization must be qualified, hogans are more like the Texans in their out Mormon polygamy came to a head. it still symbolizes the Zuiii ideal. settlement pattern. Except near agencies The cooperative spirit was also strongly While both Mormons and Zufiis can and railroad towns, they have no vil­ reinforced in the arid West by the re­ be characterized as "cooperative" and lages. From the core of the extended quirements of irrigation agriculture-the both societies manifest important link­ matrilineal family the Navaho views his construction of storage reservoirs, the ages between their cooperative value relationships as reaching outward to in­ building and maintaining of networks of systems and the requirements of irriga­ clude an ever-widening circle of kins­ ditches, and the necessity of organized tion agriculture, there are some interest­ men, some of whom he may rarely, if arrangements for the distribution of ing differences between them. In the ever, see during the course of a year or scarce water supplies among the various Mormon community the values of co­ more. Until recent times the Navahos farms within a village. operation are propounded by a single have had no organized political leader-

SPANISH·AMERICANS leave their church at San Rafael after values study. The people of the other two, however, have been Mass. San Rafael is one of three such villages in the area of the scattering in search of wage work in larger towns of the Southwest.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ship, the "tribe" consisting merel�' of a series of local bands which shared the same language and customs. Although the Texans and Navahos can be characterized as being less com­ munally inclined and more "individual­ istic" than the Mormons and Zunis, there are, again, interesting differences in pat­ tern and emphasis. The Texan focus is upon the individual farmer and his im­ mediate family engaged in a competitive struggle with others for economic wealth and social prestige within the communi­ ty. The Navaho sense of kinship involves no idea of striving and competing. Navahos cooperate easily with kinsmen and neighbors when the occasion arises, such as the work of putting on the larger ceremonials. But there are no organized and regular cooperative activities on a community-wide basis, unless these are actively promoted by Indian Service officials or other whites.

Differences in culture can thus be re­ lated to differencesin values. The relationship comes into sharper focus when we consider the varying cultures in the context of their adjustment to their relatively unvarying natural environ­ NAVAHO FAMILY walks across sun-baked cornfieldon a hot, late-summer day. In contrast ment, the constant in our laboratory situ­ to the cooperative Zuni, Navaho families work their separate farms, have little irrigation. ation. First we shall describe the general orientations of the five groups toward nature and time. Then we shall see how the values thus expressed relate to the way each of the groups reacts to the en­ vironmental problem of drought. The Spanish-Americans have what might be called a "normal curve" view of the workings of nature. Out of so many children born, so many die before maturity; from every row of seeds, only so many plants come up; and out of every 10 or so summers, two or three are bound to be without rain. One can do little but accept what comes. Cor­ responding to this view of nature is an orientation in time that lays stress upon the present, as opposed to the past, which slowly recedes into obscurity, or to the even more elusive future. Life flows secure in the traditional familial mold; the important thing is the present, with its immediate drama, color and spontaneity. It is foolish to work too hard, and to worry about the future is even more ridiculous. About the mys­ teries of the world neither curiosity nor knowledge extend much beyond a shrug of the shoulders and a "Quil?11sabe?" These Spanish-American values find concrete expression in the traditional fiesta, a combined religious and recrea­ tional affair which is conducted each CORN IS HUSKED by Navaho mother and cllild. In the background is their hogan, typical year in honor of the patron saint of the of the dirt-roofed structures in which Navaho families live in sparsely settled communities_

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC village. Catholic Masses and processions, a difficult environment. The Zuni equiv­ their view, to attempt to alter the course combined with drinking, dancing, sing­ alent of the Spanish-American fiesta has of natural events by ceremonial is as use­ ing and visiting, express at once the an important place in his life, but he is less as trying to alter it by rainmaking. solemn traditionalism and the love of less taken with its recreational aspects. Against the ceremonial responses of present excitement and drama in the life He lives in the present, but in many the Zunis and Navahos and the fatalistic of'the small Spanish-American village. things, much more than any of his response of the Spanish-Americans, the By contrast the Texan frontier home­ neighbors, he looks back to the past. It behavior of the Mormons and Texans steaders manifest a drive for mastery is a glorious past, an ancient mythologi­ draws a dramatic contrast. They actively over the workings of nature. Nature is cal time when Zunis came up from the support the artificial rainmaking proj­ defined as something to be controlled "wombs" of the earth, wandered around, ects; they reduce their livestock herds and exploited by man for his own ends and finallysettled at "the middle place," and crop acreages, and they organize to and material comfort. The homesteader where their descendants to this day still enlist government aid in meeting the therefore equips himself with the most maintain a shrine to mark the center of drought conditions. The Navahos and modern type of tractor, practices modern the universe. Zunis, in contrast, have to be forced by farming methods and attempts to extend The Navahos resemble the Spanish­ the government to practice acreage re­ even further his control over nature in Americans and the Zunis in their orienta­ striction in bad years. the face of great odds in this semiarid tion to nature and time. Like the Zunis, Ceremonial and ritual responses are environment. The past can be forgotten, the Navahos view man as having an in­ not entirely lacking, however, in the even rejected, and the present is merely tegral part to play in a general cosmic Mormon and Texan communities. Mor­ a step along the road to the future. If scheme. But they see the universe as mons occasionally say prayers in church the crops fail, there is always the hope more powerful than man and profoundly for rain. The Texans have held special that "next year we'll make it." There is threatening. In dealing with nature cir­ prayer meetings during droughts; in­ strong perennial optimism that "prog­ cumspection is the best guide to action, deed, the governor of Texas set aside a ress" will continue and that their cross­ and fear is the dominant emotional special day for such meetings during the roads will eventually grow into a mod­ theme. Yet the Navaho is not completely recent severe Southwestern drought. A ern city. While the homesteaders feel fatalistic. There are small things one minority within each community also that their Spanish-American neighbors can do to maintain and restore harmony feels that seeding the clouds is "interfer­ are lazy and "not getting any place," in the scheme. Thus individual curing ing with the work of the Lord." But the the latter feel just as' strongly that the ceremonials, performed with care, can majority responds in the vein expressed homesteaders are senselessly working keep matters from becoming worse. The by one of the more articulate farmers in themselves to death in a life in which one present is the important time-dimension, the Texan community, who declared: should live fully in the present. but the Navahos also recall a "holy peo­ "The Lord will look down and say, 'Look The Mormon villagers share with the ple" who came up from the underworld, at those poor ignorant people. I gave Texan homesteaders the view that mas­ created four sacred mountains and the them the clouds, the airplanes and the tery over nature is desirable. Indeed, "earth surface people" and then departed silver iodide, and they didn't have the in some respects they carry this idea for their permanent homes in the six di­ sense to put them together.' '' much further, for they hold the theo­ rections: east, south, west, north, zenith logical view that the Mormon people and nadir. Thus systems of values may promote have "put on the uniform of the flesh" For all five cultures the annual and justify radically different modes and live out this earthly life in order to drought is a serious common concern. of behavior among people confronted learn about and attain mastery over Each group responds differently to this with the same objective problem. Why gross matter. "The Latter-Day Saints," problem in terms of its distinctive value­ do such different values persist in the as the Mormons call themselves, have orientation. The Zunis increase the in­ same tiny region among peoples living developed a work-health-education-rec­ tensity and tempo of their ceremonial so close to one another? There appear to reation value complex to guide their ac­ activity; they give more attention to the be at least two basic aspects to this ques­ tivities: work to gain mastery over the planting of prayer feathers and to the tion. First, we know that the values are world; health to keep man effective in fasting and prayers of the rain priests. intricately related to the total structure the struggle for continuing progress; This is in line with their view of the ulti­ of each culture. Accordingly, unless the education to accelerate his progress; mate harmony of nature; man need only structure breaks down completely, val­ and recreation to strengthen both man's do his part and the gods will do the rest. ues will tend to persist as functional body and the community he lives in. With centuries of summer rains to testi­ parts of the whole. Second, we have also Like the Texans, they emphaSize the fy to the soundness of this view, Zuni is discovered that face-to-face contacts be­ future, but not so much for the purpose deeply opposed to rainmaking with air­ tween the five cultural groups have not of economic development as for partici­ planes and silver iodide. always encouraged the easy communica­ pation in the eternal progress of the uni­ The Navahos also tend to respond to tion and interaction which might even­ verse in which man himself progresses drought by increasing ceremonial activ­ tually level the differencesbetween toward godhood. ity. But they are not so certain of the them. In fact, some of the intercultural To the Zuni the universe looks very efficacy of their rainmaking ceremonies. contacts appear to have reinforced, different. He neither feels that he is a They direct less ritual to that purpose rather than changed, the original value master of nature nor that he is its vic­ and are more humble in the face of a systems. There is, for example, good evi­ tim. In his colorful and beautiful religion more threatening universe. dence that Navahos and Zunis cling he has developed techniques of co­ The Spanish-Americans, on the other tenaciously to certain of their aboriginal operating with nature. This attitude is of hand, seem to do little or nothing about values precisely because missionaries course sustained by a body of realistic drought beyond collecting in small and other agents of white culture bring information on ways to make a living in groups on the plaza to talk about it. In sb'ong pressure upon them to change.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC TEXAN HOMESTEADER CHURCH is one of 10 to which 250 than the Mormon temple shown on page 26. Texan homes are not homesteaders in the Gallup region belong, and is a cruder structure concentrated in village settlements, and their churches are scattered.

DRY·LAND FARMING of the Texan homesteaders contl'3sts with Zuni communities. Here tractor-driven four-row cultivator works the diversified irrigation agriculture practiced by the Mormon and field of pinto beans, typical of one-crop economy of Texan farms_

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC The Radio S1gr

If our eyes were sensitive to radio waves rather than to light waves, we would have an entirely different view of the heavens. Presenting the panorama of the sky "seen" by a radio telescope

by John D. Kraus

he brief history of radio astronomy as more and better radio telescopes were radio telescopes. The new instruments Tis one of rapidly accumulating ob­ built, signals were found in other parts have higher power (their radio receivers servations. It is just 25 years since of the sky. Some of them came from are more sensitive) and higher resolution the first faint radio waves from outer separate, well-defined directions, so they ( their antennas receive radio waves in a space were detected. They seemed to be were said to represent radio stars. sharper and narrower beam). As they coming from a broad region in the gen­ In the past five years or so there has scan the heavens a radio "picture" is eral direction of the Milky Way. Then, been a rapid advance in the quality of emerging that rivals the visual one in richness and variety. On the whole the two pictures are quite different. We cannot detect radio waves from the visible stars, with the exception of the sun. Conversely many radio sources emit too little light or are too far away to be detected with a Iight­ gathering telescope; others are hidden from visual observation by great clouds of interstellar dust and gas. Radio waves are a million times longer than light waves and easily penetrate clouds that are completely opaque to light. There is a slight resemblance between the two views in that the Milky Way is a feature of both. However, the Milky Way is much more prominent in the ra­ dio picture, where it stretches like a brilliant band across the entire sky and blazes with exceptional intensity in the region of the galactic center. The other objects in the radio sky form completely unfamiliar patterns or constellations which bear no resemblance to the fa­ miliar groupings of visual stars. In fact, no radio object has as yet been found to correspond with any visual star, al­ though a few have been identified with very faint visual objects of an unusual character.

A panoramic view of the radio sky is presented on pages 34 and 35. Prepared from observations with the Ohio State University radio telescope, REGION OF SKY covered by the panorama is shown in color on the celestial sphere. this picture suggests how the sky would Coordinates give right ascension in hours around equator and declination in degrees along appear if our eyes were sensitive to ra­ meridian. Inner sphere represents the earth. Dot shows location of ohservatory in Ohio. dio waves instead of to light. The bright

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC RADIO TELESCOPE at Ohio State University was used to make consists of an array of 96 helical coils. This arrangement receives the panoramic view of the sky on the next two pages. Its antenna a fan·shaped beam that is one degree thick and eight degrees wide.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC areas represent regions from which turn your head, just as an observer on celestial pole (above the top of the strong radio emission is received; the the earth must wait for the earth to ro­ panorama) because of difficulties of ob­ dark areas indicate regions of weak emis­ tate in order to see a!l the way around servation. Another 18 per cent is omit­ sion. The white dots represent the the celestial sphere. ted (below the bottom of the panorama) strongest radio stars. The map below The panoramic view covers nearly 80 because it lies close to or below the the panorama identifies its important per cent of the entire sky. About 3 per horizon at Columbus, Ohio, where the features. cent of the sky is omitted near the north observations were made. The panorama is a Mercator projec­ tion of a portion of the celestial sphere­ the imaginary spherical surface on which celestial objects appear to be located even though they may all actually be at different distances from us. The diagram on page 32 shows the relationship of this sphere to the earth and the portion of the sky covered by the panoramic view. To understand how the Mercator pro­ jection is obtained, imagine that the colored area on the sphere in the dia­ gram is cut along a vertical line, peeled off, flattened out, and its top and bottom edges stretched to the same length as the widest portion, which is the perime­ ter of the sphere at its equator. This op­ eration shows that the left and right edges of the panorama are the same line (the line of the cut on the sphere). You can obtain a more realistic impression of the radio sky by imagining that the left and right edges of the panorama are joined behind your head so that the panorama extends completely around you in a circular wall. Now you cannot see the entire panorama at once but must

+60

PANORAMA across the middle of these two pages shows how the sky would appear to us if our eyes were sensitive to radio waves 120 centimeters long. The map at the hottom +40 identifies the main features of the panorama. l/) w / W I A "view" of the sky ohtained at any single 0< GALACTIC ANTI-CENTER + wavelength corresponds to a visual view o W / through a color filter. The range of radio o I TAURUS II wavelengths coming from the heavens is +20 much hroader than the range of visihle z light, so that the radio pictures at various o i= wavelengths may differ considerahly more

34

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC The map is incomplete in that the sun cause of their rapid motion they have its central plane is actually Bat; it cuts and moon are missing. The sun is a been omitted. The objects shown, al­ the celestial sphere in a great circle strong radio source and the moon is though not fixed, are so far away that around the sky. The lower portion of the readily detectable. However, their posi­ their motion from year to year is almost circle is cut off in the panorama because tions change from day to day, the sun imperceptible. it lies below the horizon at Columbus. moving completely across the sky once Although the Milky Way appears like As almost everyone knows, the Milky a year and the moon once a month. Be- a great arch in the Mercator projection, Way is an island universe composed of

-- -- Lf:.� O r -. ------'I-"-=-" ------+----=-� p A f------...... :-- --f------+------1f------+ 6 0 .... eVI// 1( CASSIOPEIA A .....Y t.v ..... , -1y "- l + 4 0 -- SPIRAL

+ 20 VIRGO A 0

0

WIDEST PART OF MILKY WAY -I - 20

2 0 22 20 18 16 14 12 RIGHT ASCENSION (HOURS)

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC millions of stars grouped in the shape of a flat disk that turns like a great wheel in space. An observer far outside could see that gigantic spiral arms trail out from the central disk. The sun and all its planets would be an infinitesimal speck situated in one of the arms at a distance of about 30,000 light-years from the center of the galaxy [see draw­ ing at the left]. The entire galaxy is some 100,000 light-years in diameter. The galaxy is thickest at its center and grows steadily thinner toward its edges. As we view it from our spiral arm we see it edge on. Hence the radio view of the galaxy is brightest and widest in the di­ rection of its center and faintest and nar­ rowest in the opposite direction, away from the center. Radio telescopes show the structure OUR GALAXY is shown as it would appear from above its central plane. The dot at left of our galaxy much as an X-ray photo­ locates our sun. Arrow at left points away from galactic center; arrow at top, toward Cygnus. graph reveals the skeleton of an animal. The hydrogen gas associated with the structure emits a single-frequency radia­ +60r------+------��------�--� tion at a wavelength of 21 centimeters. From studies of this hydrogen line the 5 paths of the spiral arms can be traced out. This tracing can only be made in a rudimentary way with optical telescopes.

The general galactic radiation in the panoramic view is probably a com­ posite of radiation from interstellar gas and from large numbers of localized radio sources too close together to be resolved by existing radio telescopes. Many of the resolved radio stars lie close to the plane of the Milky Way, which suggests that they are objects within our galaxy. One of the most striking features of the radio sky is the intense radiation from the region near the galactic center. Right at the center there is a sharp peak of radiation that may indicate a dense nucleus. Extending out to the right somewhat above the center is a promi­ nent feature of the radio map which corresponds to no known optical struc­ ture of the galaxy. In the Cygnus region we are looking inward along our spiral arm, and the extended patch of bright radiation out­ lines the arm in cross section. Right next to the patch is the bright radio source called Cygnus A. This is th� object that has been identified with two colliding galaxies which are 200 million light­ years distant. Although a very strong radio source, Cygnus A is so faint pho­ tographically as to be near the limits of detection of the 200-inch Hale telescope 20 18 on Palomar Mountain. If these colliding RIGHT ASCENSION IHOURS} galaxies were about 10 times farther RADIO CONTOUR MAP of part of the sky is obtained by combining many profiles of the away, they would lie beyond the range kind shown on the opposite page. Numbers indicate relative intensity of received radiation. of the 200-inch but would still be read-

36

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ily detectable with a radio telescope. ited periods of time, when the iono­ plane of the Milky Way. By taking such Thus it may be seen that radio telescopes sphere develops a hole. Ordinarily this traces for 24-hour periods and at various may open to exploration regions of space layer of ionized gases cuts off wave­ angles of elevation, a contour map was that lie beyond the range of any photo­ lengths as long as 600 meters. The limit constructed where each observed trace graphic instrument. Indeed, some of the to the radio spectrum at the short end is represents a cross section through the radio stars in the panorama may lie in set by the molecules of the atmosphere, map. A portion of the sky mapped in this these outer regions. which strongly absorb wavelengths be­ way is presented at the bottom of the At left center in the panorama is the low one centimeter. opposite page. The contours are lines of strong source Taurus A, which has been A word now about how the panoramic equal radio brightness. This map is simi­ identified with the Crab Nebula-the view was made. As the antenna beam lar in appearance to a topographic map, billowing gaseous remnant of an ex­ of the radio telescope scans the sky, the the contours with large values corre­ ploded star or supernova. Although the radiation it receives is recorded by a sponding to hills or mountains and the Crab Nebula is a strong radio source, it pen on a moving paper chart. A sample contours with low values corresponding is now a faint photographic object. When trace through the Cygnus region is to the plains or lowlands. To make a Chinese astronomers saw it explode in shown on this page. The trace passes di­ panoramic view from such a contour 1054 A.D., however, it flared up so rectly through the strong radio sources map one merely replaces contour lines brightly that it could be seen in broad Cygnus A and Cygnus X and crosses the by shades of light and dark. daylight. Near the upper center is the strongest radio source in the sky, called Cassiopeia 20 A. It has been identified with some wisps 21 HOURS of nebulous material several thousands of light-years distant. They may be the remnants of another supernova. In the lower right-hand corner can be seen part of a faint belt which coin­ cides with the plane of a supergalaxy (a galaxy of galaxies) of which our own galaxy is one member.

The dark regions on the panorama, where the radio radiation is at a minimum, center around the poles of our galaxy. Even here the intensity of the radiation is far from zero. It probably comes from vast numbers of distant galaxies. The observations from which the panorama was assembled were made at a wavelength of 120 centimeters. Al­ though radio radiation from the sky has a broad continuous spectrum, the sky picture changes significantly with wave­ length differences of a few octaves. At shorter wavelengths fewer radio stars are detectable. The radiation from the galactic plane or Milky Way becomes much weaker except where there are clouds of ionized hydrogen gas, and these show up more prominently than at long wavelengths. The range of radio wavelengths reach­ ing the earth's surface from outer space is very broad. It extends from about one centimeter to several hundred meters. The ratio of the longest to the shortest wavelengths is some 20,000 to one, which represents an enormous window looking out on the sky. By comparison the visual window extends from about 4,000 to 8,000 Angstrom units-a ratio [ I EASTERN STANDARD TIME 4 P.M. of only two to one. Recently the pioneer 5 P.M. radio astronomer Grote Reber has meas­ ured galactic radiation at wavelengths as long as 600 meters. These waves pene­ PROFILE through Cygnus was taken by letting the radio telescope sweep across an arc trate to the earth's surface only for lim- through this region. The trace shows the variations in the strength of the received signal.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC CENTRAL MOUND of'the monument is seen from the southeast Taurus Mountains of southeastern Turkey_ Barely visible at the on the summit of Nemrud Dagh, a 7,SOO-foot peak in the Anti- foot of the mound are the 8tatues of the monument's East Terrace_

COLOSSAL STATUES of Antiochus and his gods are viewed from Hermes, the fertility goddess Or Tyche of Kommagene, Zeus 01'0- the floor of the East Terrace_ The mound is in the background_ masdes, Antiochus and Herakles Artagnes Ares_ The statues stood From left to right the statues represented Apollo Mithra Helios 24 to 30 feet high_ At the bottom are three of their fallen heads_

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC The Tomb o f Antiochus I

On a mountaintop In Turkey stands one of the most remarkable monuments of ancient times. Built during the first century B. C. by the king of Komnlagene, it is a link between the East and West

by Theresa Goell and Friedrich Karl Doerner

· ne of the most impressive and lived during the first centuries B.C. and both for its wealth and its position as a o least known works of the ancient A.D., it was a land rich in natural re­ buffer against the formidable Parthians world is located in the Anti­ sources. Although its borders shifted across the Euphrates. In 62 B.C. Anti­ Taurus Mountains of southeastern Tur­ with political events, and are not known ochus signed a treaty with the Roman key. At the summit of the 7,500-foot for any specific time, we may state in general Pompey, who was reorganizing peak called Nemrud Dagh stands the general that it was bounded on the the East after successful Roman mili­ tomb and outdoor temple of Antiochus I, north and west by the mountains of what tary campaigns. The treaty allowed Anti­ who ruled over the kingdom of Kom­ is now the south-central part of Turkey, ochus to keep his throne as an ally of magene from about 69 to 34 B.C. This and on the east by the Euphrates River. Rome, and spared him the humiliation fantastic monument consists of an im­ On the south it lay open to Syria. Kom ­ of marching with other conquered kings posing mound of loose stones, flankedby magene was the hub of many roads in Pompey's triumph. three spacious terraces hewn out of from the West to Mesopotamia, Persia solid rock. Today the terraces bear the and India. Any power intent on gaining l!!ng across the land routes between desolate gray remains of altars, colossal a foothold in the East had to possess or East and West, Kommagene had statues, limestone reliefs and long in­ control this small kingdom. been deeply influenced by the ebb and scriptions in Greek. The Romans coveted Kommagene flow of foreign cultures. Antiochus clear- According to these inscriptions, Anti­ ochus considered himself a god during his lifetime. He sought to establish a sacred precinct where, after his death, his corporeal remains would rest "in close proximity with the heavenly thrones." He was admirably accommo­ dated by the design of his monument: the mound to protect his body; the ter­ races to hold multitudes of worshiping pilgrims; the altars for the ritual of his priests; the statues of his gods to be crowned with golden wreaths; the re­ liefs to record his ancestral, spiritual and astronomical preoccupations. He also provided for slave musicians with hered­ itary privileges, and for sanctuaries to be placed throughout his kingdom for those who could not come to Nemrud Dagh. We know from the inscriptions that Antiochus was born on January 16 and ascended the throne on July 10. He pre­ scribed that these events should be cele­ brated on the 16th and 10th of each month. Unfortunately we do not know the exact years in which he was born, ascended the throne and died. Kommagene was a small but strategic EAGLE'S HEAD lies on the floorof the West Terrace. A lion and an eagle stood at each region in the first century B.C. Accord­ end of the row of statnes on this court. Similar lions and eagles guarded the statues of the ing to the Greek geographer Strabo, who East Terrace. The feet of one lion are visible at the right end of the row on the opposite page.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Iy felt s piritual and ancestral ties with both worlds. He asserted that through S E A his mother, Thea Philadelphia, he was descended from Alexander the Great; through his father, Mithradates Kallini­ kos, from the Achaemenid rulers of Per­ sia who were overthrown by Alexander. Antiochus refers to himself as a Philhel­ lene and Philromaios: a lover of Greece and of Rome. The gods of his pantheon on Nemrud Dagh are neither Greco­ Roman, Persian nor local, but hybrids of all three. Antiochus indicated his devotion to these gods by enthroning himself among them after his death. He was succeeded by a brief line of Kommagenian kings. In 72 A.D. Antiochus IV was dethroned by the Roman Emperor Vespasian, al­ MEDITERRANEAN SEA legedly for plotting with the Parthians, ...' and Kommagene was formally incorpo­ .:: rated into the Roman Empire. From then on the West had scant interest in RELIEF MAP locates Nemrud Dagh. Kommagene lay roughly to the south and west of the the Kommagenian dynasty, and it faded peak. For the Romans Kommagene was a buffer against the Parthians across the Euphrates. into obscurity until 1881. In that year Carl Sester, a German engineer survey­ ing roads for the local Turkish govern­ ment, happened upon the sacred pre­ cinct of Antiochus. His discovery aroused the interest of German scholars, and in 1882 and 1883 the site was explored by Karl Humann and Otto Puchstein. In May of 1883 the monument was also examined by the Turkish scholar Osman Hamdy Bey, although at that time the mountaintop was covered with as much as 12 feet of snow. These pioneering effortscontributed richly to our knowledge of the ancient world in the first century B.C., but they were not followed up. Classical perfec­ tion was an ideal of the 19th century; the monument of Antiochus was consid­ ered too Oriental, barbaric and imper­ fect for classical scholars, and too classi­ cal for Orientalists. Such appraisals overlooked the significance of Nemrud Dagh as a link, shaped by indigenous influences, between the cultures of East and West. It was this aspect of the monu­ ment which attracted us to the moun­ tain. We made a preliminary survey in 1953 under the auspices of the Ameri­ can Schools of Oriental Research, with funds proVided by the Bollingen Foun­ dation and the American Philosophical Society. The excavations in each suc­ ceeding summer have been supported by the Bollingen Foundation.

emrud Dagh is approached by jeep, N by animal and on foot through parched sandy plains, silted river beds, PLAN VIEW of the peak shows the mound, its three terraces and limestone outcroppings. rocky gorges and rugged limestone The main structures of the terraces are outlined in color. The contour intervals are 15 feet. slopes. When one firstarrives at the

40

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC WEST TERRACE is viewed from the top of the mound. On the right. At the right is a head of Herakles Artagnes Ares. The bases floor of the terrace are two colossal heads. The one at the left is of the original statues may be seen against the slope of the mound. the same eagle thiltappears on page 39, which was later set up· At left center are fallen reliefs aud the sockets which held them. peak, one succumbs to a powerful urge mid which was surmounted by at least outcroppings, indicating that the peak to climb to the top of Antiochus's mound. two lions and two eagles, probably flank­ of Nemrud Dagh forms the core of the Partly composed of loose stones about ing a relief portrait of Antiochus. We mound. Thus the remains of Antiochus the size of a fist, this artificial cone is conjecture that a fire altar also stood on may be in a chamber hewn out of solid about 500 feet in diameter and 150 feet top of the pyramid, following the Per­ rock. high. From this height one can easily sian custom. The North Terrace lacks the monu­ see the plan of the monument. At the The West Terrace follows roughly the mental plan of the East and the West base of the mound are three terraces­ same plan but omits the stepped pyra­ Terraces. Its most prominent feature is a to the east, west and north. The terrace mid. Here the statues and reliefs have long wall of sandstone slabs about 10 to the east is some 300 feet higher than all been toppled from their bases. On feet high, now fallen. This wall separates the one to the west. this terrace Humann and Puchstein the North Terrace from the valley be­ The East Terrace is the most unified found a remarkable relief bearing the low. The sandstone slabs bear no reliefs and monumental of the three. It is dis­ horoscope of Antiochus. According to or inscriptions, which suggested to Hu­ tinguished by a row of five colossal Otto Neugebauer of Brown University mann and Puchstein that the North Ter­ statues of Antiochus and his hybrid and the Institute for Advanced Study, race had been left unfinished. We be­ gods: Zeus Oromasdes, Apollo Mithra the relief is not astrological but the astro­ lieve the slabs were not adorned for an­ Helios Hermes, the fertility goddess or nomical representation of a date in July. other reason. Outside the wall, and on Tyche of Kommagene, and Herakles Neugebauer has shown that the symbols the slope of the mountain below the ter­ Artagnes Ares. Originally these majestic of 19 stars, a crescent moon and a lion race, we found the remains of other walls figures, facing east away from the on the relief depict the conjunction of suggesting a complex of rooms. They mound, were from 24 to 30 feet high. Jupiter, Mercury and Mars on July 7 in may be the remains of the living quarters Now the crowned heads of all except 62 B.C. Thus the relief might represent and storage rooms of the priests, musi­ Tyche, wearing her symbolic turban of the year in which Antiochus was con­ cians and slaves who maintained the cult fruit, have been thrown down to the firmed in his throne by Pompey. To us of Antiochus and served the participants terrace by earthquakes or by vandals it seems unlikely, though not impossible, in his celebrations and feasts. Our sup­ looking for treasure. At each end of the that Antiochus commemorated his sub­ position can only be confirmed by fur­ row of statues is a pedestal which sup­ jugation by the Romans or his status as ther examination of these crumbling ported a massive guardian lion and an ally. He may have celebrated the date ruins. eagle. The north and south sides of the for another reason. East Terrace were flanked by 10-foot The southern side of the West Terrace he plan of all three terraces is ob- walls resting on a stepped foundation represents an impressive feat of engi­ Tscured by the rubble of their decay. which bore reliefs of Antiochus's Mace­ neering. Because an outcropping of The monument has been subjected to donian, Persian and Kommagenian an­ limestone blocked a passage to the south, 2,000 years of earthquake, heat and cestors. In front of each relief was a the builders hewed a broad cleft through cold, rain and wind, snow and ice. Even small incense altar. At the eastern side the rock. At several places on the south­ during the summer the temperature of the terrace was a large stepped pyra- ern side of the mound there are other sometimes drops to freezing at night,

41

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC PASSAGE IS CLEARED behind tbe bases of the statues on the bases. At left center, wearing a kercbief, is Theresa Goell. The in· East Terrace. This laid bare the long Greek inscriptions on the scriptions to her left have been covered so that they may be copied.

REVETMENT IS EXPOSED by the removal of the loose stone of tempt to find a passageway to the tomb of Antiochus, which is pre· the mound. At left Miss Goell stands before a trench dug in an at· sumably cut into the mountain. The passageway has not been found.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC and often rises to more than 150 degrees Fahrenheit during the day. Vie have seen snow fall in September, and the wind blows so furiously that our local workers consider us bir tahtasi eksik-"a board missing"-to go to the mountain at all. Fortunately the monument has large­ ly been spared the even more destructive effects of man. Throughout the ancient world, monuments in such famous cities as Ephesus, Pergamum, Philadelphia and Tarsus were quarried to build their cut stone into new structures, and to burn their limestone in kilns. The re­ moteness of Nemrud Dagh prevented such depredations. The principal dam­ age inflicted by man evidently results from the fact that shepherds grazing their flocks have whiled away their time by flinging stones at the statues, reliefs and inscriptions. The noses of the figures have been their favorite targets. The loose stones of the great mound have slipped down against the bases of the colossi on the East and West Ter­ races. From the awakening of our inter­ STEPPED PYRAMID on the East Terrace opposite the statues is cleared by local workmen est in the monument we surmised that at the upper left. In the middle is a wall which was surmounted by a long row of reliefs. beneath this rubble the mound was en­ circled by a retaining wall and proces­ sional pathways leading from terrace to terrace. One of our main objectives has been to discover these features. During our preliminary survey of 1953 we dug a narrow trench behind the statues of the East Terrace, primarily to disclose the inscriptions on their bases and to deter­ mine what excavating equipment we would need in later seasons to locate the burial of Antiochus. Kermit Goell of our party made latex "squeezes" of the in­ scriptions, which comprise the sacred edict prescribing the ritual of Antiochus and providing for the perpetuation of his cult. In 1954, with the assistance of a tunnel expert (Heinrich Buerger of the Victoria Mine in the German province of Westphalia) , we widened and length­ ened the trench, and found that the rock of the mountain had been chiseled away to form a low wall with a platform above it. This formeq a passage behind the in­ scriptions. We also found traces of a passage into the core of the mountain, which suggested that we were approach­ ing the tomb chamber. In 1955 we con­ tinued to enlarge the trench, and we laid bare the foundation of the mound about a third of the way to its summit. The suspected passage to the tomb did not materialize. It proved to be the remains of a cavity dug by earlier explorers who had tried to find the burial chamber. We doubt very much that our predecessors ever reached the chamber, if it is on this "SQUEEZE" COpy of a Greek inscription is held up by Kermit Goel!. Such copies are side of the mound at all, because the made by covering a piece of burlap with liquid latex and pressing it agaiust the inscription.

43

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC rubble cascades violently when it is dis­ turbed by shoveling. In 1954 and 1955 we also located the processional ways leading to the East and West Terraces from the valleys be­ low. They were marked by inscribed slabs set in rock-cut sockets. We brought to light many significant fragments of statues and reliefs, including a second horoscope relief on the East Terrace. Earlier investigators thought that a broad stairway ascended to the platform of the colossi enthroned on the western side of the East Terrace. After clearing the rubble covering we found not a stair­ way but a two-tiered monumental plat­ form, partly cut from the living rock. On the lower tier are five sockets which held a wall of reliefs depicting Antiochus be­ ing greeted by his deities.

he disclosure of the double platform Tis of first importance because it pro­ vides evidence that the plan of Anti­ ochus's precinct was not the caprice of an eccentric monarch, but that it was deeply rooted in tradition. Only a few miles away, at the tomb of Antiochus's father Mithradates, we find similar stepped platforms. Sunk into the plat­ forms were sockets which held colossal reliefs of Mithradates and his gods. We consider these stepped platforms to be prototypes which were extended and monumentalized by Antiochus. The deeper significance of the monu­ ment is that it reflects not only the in­ fluences of ancient local cultures but also RELIEF found on the West Terrace shows Antiochus shaking hands with Herakles (left) those of the Greco-Roman and Eastern Artagnes Ares (right). At the bottom is the tongue which held the relief in its stone socket. worlds. As an example, the lion of the horoscope reliefs found on the East and West Terraces is generally conceived in the realistic Greek tradition. But the head of the lion, with its o.pen mouth and schematic mane, has affinities with lions found at the celebrated Hittite sites of Boghaz Kay and Carcemish. The as­ tronomical objects in the relief suggest the earlier Babylonian astronomy. Viewed in this light, the tomb of An­ tiochus bears on one of the main ques­ tions of Middle Eastern history: What became of the Hittite culture after the eighth century B.C., when the Assyrians had conquered the last Hittite City-states in what is now southeastern Turkey? Ob­ viously the people of the region did not vanish from the face of the earth, yet we have no record of them until seven cen­ turies later. The art and architeCture of Nemrud Dagh provide a clue to this mystery. They represent Hittite tradi­ tions shaped by Greco-Roman, Mesopo­ tamian and Persian influences. Thus HOROSCOPE of Antiochus was also found on the West Terrace. It has been interpreted as remnants of the local culture survived representing a date in 62 B.C., the year Antiochus was confirmedin his throne by Rome. at least until the time of Antiochus.

44

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ____ Kodak reports to laboratories on: how to make alignment decisions that don't take so much out of a man ... acrylic fiber and spectroscopic plates ... a long haul from wheat germ oil

No knots to locate the knots exactly. With an exposure to the feeble trickle of billion-year-old photons. Take the Great Pyramid of Cheops axicon there is no focusing. Any­ where along a length of 40 feet-IOO Remember also one reason why at Gizeh. Take the Eiffel Tower. feet or more, if you like-the line of gifted men can be allowed to draw Take the Nautilus. Take one of light is equally thin, forms an good pay for time spent increasing those gigantic atom smashers. Take equally hard little point of light the speed of Dr. Humason's plates. even a little thing like a million where intercepted. It is that many people who don't dollar turbine in a power generating know a galaxy from a galvanometer station or a 70·foot planer bed. Al­ A procedure for aligning lower turbine shells with a Kodak Axicon Aligner has (and couldn't care less) demand, ways there comes a moment when been worked out in full detail and even when a fabric comes along that the engineer-in-charge has to say, timed. The friends with whom we feels a little nicer because of proper "OK, boys. She'll never be lined up worked out this procedure certainly moisture retention, wears a little any better than she is right now. know the turbine trade as well as any­ body alil'e. That they, with all their ex­ better, holds shape and color a little Let's get on with the job." And the perience, like the axicon method en­ better, that they have it on their irrevocable next step is taken. Mak­ courages us to believe that the booklet ing a decision like that can take a prepared for their operating personnel backs pronto. lot out of a man. might make interesting reading for oth­ Pilot plant quantities of Verel staple ers faced with awesome alignment prob­ fiber are available for evaluation from Any gadget that puts such a de­ lems. For a copy, write Eastman Kodak Eastman Chemical Products, Inc.,Kings­ cision on firmer ground ought to be Company, Military and Special Prod­ port, Tenll. (Subsidiary of Eastman worth quite a bit in peace of mind ucts Sales, Rochester 4, N. Y. Kodak Company). Plates that respond alone, to say nothing of the time to light too dim for any eye are available from Kodak dealers after correspond­ cards of all those men standing Soft hand and dim light ence with Eastman Kodak Company, around waiting, waiting for the We announce: Professional Sensitized Goods DiI'ision, word. )) Verel, an acrylic fiber of soft, Rochester 4, N. Y. Right here we could make a big kind hand, excellent stretch, con­ mistake by overplaying our hand. trollable shrinkage, high abrasion Dry E Let's better make plain where the resistance, good fire resistance, new Kodak Axicon stands in rela­ chemical resistance not only to tion to the art of aligning long axes. bleaches and all dry cleaning sol­ The word "axicon" was coined vents but even to aqua regia and by one of our chaps to designate sodium hydroxide. 2) Delivery to Dr. Milton L. Hu­ mason of three dozen supremely sensitive Kodak Spectroscopic Plates, Type 103a-F, to use on the world's greatest telescope on Pal­ From something in wheat germ oil omar Mountain in the climax to that could rectify a certain experi­ a lifetime's work of extending mentally induced reproductive dys­ man's observable universe. function in rats to this crystalline We expect to sell quite a few mil­ d-alpha-tocopheryl acid succinate, lion pounds of Verel staple at $1.) 0 it has been a long haul for vitamin No, it', not a lens. It's not curved in a pound (the delivered price east of E. The purpose of this newest vi­ a plane containing the axis of symmetry. the Mississippi River). On Dr. Hu­ tamin E product of ours is to meet this simple new class of axially sym­ mason's order we should gross per­ the pharmaceutical industry's need metric optical element, which, with haps as much as $27. It is hard to for the pure vitamin in a form con­ the study of optics a couple of say which is more important, and venient for tablets and dry-fill cap­ millenia old, he was lucky and smart that is no joke. sules. The burgeoning pharmaceuti­ enough to invent. An axicon images Remember that there is today no cal demand for vitamin E is gener­ a point source of light along the basic shortage of any type of fiber, ated almost entirely at the physi­ axis as a straight line in space. No natural or man-made, but a consid­ cian's prescription pad. wire, however tight, can be so per­ erable shortage of objective infor­ It is unwise in a journal such as this to fectly free of kink and sag. What of mation from which to spin theories indulge in discussion of medical ration­ a telescope, you say? about where the world came from ale. However, there is all entirely differ­ A telescope objective forms its and where it is going. Before Dr. ent case to be made for vitamin E in image at a different little knot in Humason retires a few months from feeding chickens and turkeys. If you have any of them to feed, there is no space for each successive target now, he expects to photograph spec­ reason why we can't send yo/( a recent along the line of sight. In following tra of the farthest galaxies within review article from our laboratories that these images with the cross hairs, the grasp of the largest optical tele­ appeared in Poultry Science. A copy of there is a chance for error of paral­ scope that may ever be built. That "Role of Vitamin E in Poultry Nutrition and Disease" may be obtained from lelism between the focusing motion "103a" emulsion is not as fast for Distillation Products Industries, Roch­ and the axis. There is also doubt ordinary or for high speed photog­ ester 3, N. Y. (Division of Eastman about how much of the observed raphy as the far better known Kodak Kodak Company). displacement is real and how much Tri-X Film; its forte is the ability to Price Quoted is subject to of it is parallax because of inability respond in as little as 50 hours of challge without lIotice.

This is one of a series of reports on the many products and services with which the Eastman Kodak Company and its divisions are •••serving laboratories everywhere

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SCIENCE AND

the same whether a great many people are exposed to tiny doses or a few people receive considerably larger amounts. In either case the total number of mutations will be the same. A child's genetic make-up can be af­ fected by any mutations in its parents' genes from the time they are born until it is conceived. For this reason the re­ port recommends that, as an average for the population as a whole, the amount of radiation to which an individual's re­ productive glands are exposed from con­ ception to the age of SO be limited to 10 roentgen units. (To give the reader an idea of the size of this unit, the aver­ age dental X-ray delivers five roentgens to the patient's jaw, but only five thou­ II the peacetime development of sandths of a roentgen of stray radiation atomic energy, man has been lucky. to such remote parts of the body as the I Except for some tragic accidents to reproductive glands.) The lO-roentgen a relatively few people, he has suffered figure is over and above the unavoidable little biological· damage from the im­ "background" radiation that comes from mense radiation he has already released. naturally radioactive elements in the As the atomic age advances at an ac­ earth's crust and from cosmic rays. The celerating pace, man must learn how average SO-year exposure from back­ best to cope with the inherently danger­ ground in the U. S. is 4.S roentgens. ous radioactivity he is releasing in ever­ As a maximum for the exposure of in­ increasing quantities. This is the princi­ dividuals, the report sets a gonad dose of pal message of a report on the biological 50 roentgens before the age of SO and SEE WHAT effects of atomic radiation that was re­ not more than 100 before the age of 40. leased by the National Academy of It also recommends that a record be kept ZIRCONIUM Seiences last month. for every individual showing how much The report is the first publication in radiation he has accumulated in his life­ CHEMICALS what is to be a continuing study spon­ time. The geneticists advise physicians to sored by the Academy and financed by use X-rays as sparingly as possible. Can do for xou / the Rockefeller Foundation. For the past The pathologists of the National Acad­ year six scientificcommittees have been emy study call attention to the fact that From deodorants to water repellents, investigating radiation problems in the radiation shortens the span of life. Aside Zirconium Chemicals have opened fields of genetics, pathology, meteorol­ from the specificdiseases, such as cancer the way to many profitable projects. ogy, oceanography, agriculture and the and leukemia, that can be triggered by The facts of the matter can lead to disposal of radioactive waste products. radiation, there are more diffuse effects. improvements in your present Each committee has issued a report sum­ Radiation appears to lower immunity, products or even the creation of new. marizing present knowledge in its field damage connective tissue and generally TAM can supply these facts plus and outlining the areas in which further to accelerate aging. There is no evidence experimental samples for tests in research is most urgently needed. that doses up to about 100 roentgens your own laboratories. The Academy has also issued a popu­ spread over years can shorten human • Why not write our N. Y.c. office today. lar summary of the reports. The purpose life. Nevertheless, the pathologists warn is to provide the layman with technical that ifvery large numbers of people were background against which he can con­ exposed to a gradually accumulated dose sider the "ethical, political, economic or of 100 roentgens or even less, statistics military questions" which he will be might show that their life expectancy caIled upon to decide in connection with had been reduced. TITANIUM ALLOY MFG. DIVISION atomic energy. A picture of how radiation may reach NATIONAL LEAD COMPANY The genetics committee emphasizes the human population, and of the steps Executive and Sales Offices: the importance of the total amount of necessary to minimize the amount that 111 Broadway, New York City radiation absorbed by the human popu­ does, is provided by the committees on General Offices, meteorology, oceanography, agriculture \17 orks and Research Laboratories: lation. The cumulative effect of radia­ Niagara Falls, New York tion on future generations is likely to be and waste disposal. So far as atmospheric

46

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC THE CITIZEN

contamination is concerned, the chief problem comes from atomic explosions. The immediate fallout of radioactive particles covers an area that is compara­ tively small and, for controlled tests , closely predictable. However, the lighter material remains in the air for long periods and spreads over most of the earth. Some of it is washed out of the air by rain or snow, and so may be un­ @venly distributed, depending on varia­ tions in local precipitation. Following a single bomb explosion in Nevada, rain showered the cities of Albany and Troy, N. Y., with one tenth of a roentgen of fallout. It is unlikely that a single region would be so unlucky more than once, but it is possible. The lightest particles are blown up in­ to the stratosphere, where they remain for years. Meteorologists know little as yet about how, when or where this ma­ terial gets back to the lower atmosphere and to the ground. The report states that weapons tests have not produced dangerous world­ wide levels of radioactivity, nor should they do so jn the future if continued at the same rate as in the past. Neverthe­ less, the geneticists point out, any in­ crease in radiation levels is genetically undesirable and should be held to an absolute minimum. Fallout from weapons tests has meas­ urably raised the "natural" level of radio­ activity in plants. The amount is bio­ AO SPENCER logically negligible thus far. But no one yet knows what levels of radiation can AGAIN SETS TH E be tolerated in plants that serve as ani­ PACE WITH A NEW � mal or human food. Research in this field is urgently needed, the agricultural ex­ STA NDARD OF perts say. EXCELLENCE... They also sound a reminder that the biological effects of radiation are not all bad. In their science, as in many other branches of biology and medicine, con­ trolled use of radiation is leading to re­ markable advances, both in fundamental knowledge and in applied work. As the atomic power industry devel­ ops, some of its accumulating radio­ Dept. G178 active wastes will almost certainly be �iim ��!h�;e t�� I dumped into the oceans. Before this hap­ MICROSTAR I Microscopes. pens, the oceanographers warn, we need t to know much more than we do about I

circulation patterns and the rates of mix­ Name...... ••...... •. , I

ing between different parts of the seas...... �����:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::���� ...... It may be that some sectioI;ls of the ocean �;�;� ...... : deeps mix so slowly with the· sUlface ------_ � __ J

47

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC waters that radioactive material dumped Moscow were impressed by the con­ the Federation of Nigeria, and Sierra there would have a chance to "cool" be­ geniality of their hosts and the absence Leone, bringing WHO's total member­ fore it entered the general circulation. of secrecy. For the first time since the ship to 88 nations. The problem of ocean contamination war Soviet scientists entertained vVest­ is complicated by the fact that marine ern visitors in their homes and di8cussed Nuclear Power Warm-up life concentrates many of the elements a wide range of technical subjects. in sea water. Radioactive substances are A highlight of the conference was a he first atomic reactor designed to taken up by the smallest plants and ani­ trip to the new Institute of Nuclear Tproduce electricity on a large scale is mals, which in turn serve as food for Problems at Ivankovo, 80 miles nOlth of now operating at the Calder Hall sta­ larger creatures and so on up to the fish Moscow. There the visitors saw a 680- tion in Cumberland, England. One of the eaten by man. Each stage may result in million-electron-volt proton synchrotron. two piles being assembled there has been an increase in concentration. Thus a They also got a glimpse of a new 10-bil­ loaded with enough uranium to sustain comparatively low level of contamina­ lion-volt proton synchrotron which, a chain reaction. By October both re­ tion of the oceans' surface waters could when it goes into operation soon, will be actors will be supplying a total of 50,000 cause comparatively high contamination almost twice as powerful as the largest to 70,000 kilowatts to Britain's national of food taken from the sea. comparable U. S. accelerator. Jack Stein­ electric network. Radioactive tracers will be valuable in berger of Columbia University judged The Calder Hall station is a project of charting ocean currents and in studying that the facilities he saw will insure the the British Atomic Energy Authority. marine life. But this research must be Soviets world leadership in high-energy The nationalized Electricity Authority undertaken at once. "Because of the in­ physics for the next decade. According plans to build an additional 12 atomic creasing radioactive contamination of to H. W. B. Skinner of the University of power stations. By 1965 they are ex­ the sea and the atmosphere," the ocea­ Liverpool, the scientificresources for pected to have a capacity of 1.5 to 2 mil­ nography committee points out, "many nuclear physics in the Moscow area lion kilowatts. of the necessary experiments will only alone are "comparable with those in the be possible within 10 or 20 years." whole of Britain." Salk Serum for the Soviets The report makes several recommen­ The visitors were asked what they dations for controlling waste disposal. wanted to see in addition to the Ivankovo t has been noted that the incidence of Techniques for monitoring world-wide laboratories. Their requests were grant­ I poliomyelitis in a nation generally fallout should be further improved. ed; their questions were answered; they corresponds to indexes of its standard of Measurements of the storage of radia­ were allowed to take pictures. living. In the U. S., Denmark and tion in the stratosphere should be con­ The relaxed atmosphere seemed at Sweden, for example, polio is a major tinued and extended. A national agency least partly due to political changes health problem, while in India and should control and record the dumping within the Soviet Union. Victor F. China the disease is rare. of radioactive material in the ocean. An Weisskopf of the Massachusetts Institute If this thesis is true, citizens of the international body should set up safe of Technology reported that Soviet re­ U.S.S.R. are apparently enjoying an in­ standards for the disposal of radioactive search was already benefitingfrom the creasingly higher standard of living-and materials. As long as reactors remain po­ return to universities and institutes of paying for it. Writing in a recent issue tentially hazardous, those that are built many scientists who had been held in of the illustrated weekly Ogonyok, the near populated areas should be sealed so labor camps. The release of prisoners, director of the Soviet Union's Institute that in the event of an accident no radio­ he said, has gone far to eliminate the for the Study of l'oliomyelitis described active materials can escape. atmosphere of fear in the Soviet Union. a "crash" program to produce a Salk­ "The development of atomic energy is type vaccine. He observed that during a matter for careful, integrated plan­ WHO Reunited the past 10 years the frequency of polio ning," the report concludes. "A large part outbreaks in the U.S.S.R. has increased. of the information that is needed to make ince 1949 there has been doubt con- He called upon the Ministry of Health intelligent plans is not yet at hand. There S cerning how many nations were to help make adequate supplies of vac­ I is not much time left to acquire it." members of the World Health Organiza­ cine promptly available. The chairmen of the study committees tion. At that time the U.S.S.R., the are: Warren Weaver of the Rockefeller Ukraine, Byelorussia and Bulgaria an­ AD-X2 Again Foundation (genetics), Shields Warren nounced their withdrawal from the or­ of the New England Deaconess Hospital ganization. The next year Rumania, Al­ ,k0ther chapter in the story of the con- in Boston (pathology), A. Geoffrey Nor­ bania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and troversial storage-battery additive man of the University of Michigan (agri­ Poland also withdrew. But since the AD-X2 closed last month when the culture and food supplies), Roger Re­ constitution of WHO does not provide Federal Trade Commission agreed velle of the Scripps Institution of Ocea­ for secession, all nine countries were unanimously that the chemical had not nography (oceanography and fisheries), kept on the membership list as "inactive" been advertised unfairly. Harry Wexler of the U. S. Weather members. As early as 1948 and again in 1952 Bureau (meteorology), Abel Wolman This year the defectors applied for re­ tests made by the National Bureau of of the Johns Hopkins University (dis­ instatement. At the Ninth World Health Standards had condemned AD-X2 as posal and waste). Assembly at Geneva in May they were worthless. Then its maker, Jess M. restored to active membership by a vote Ritchie of Oakland, Calif., had enlisted Moscow Open House of 51 to 0, with five abstentions. Three the sympathies of 28 Senators and the other countries-Morocco, Tunisia and Senate Small Business Committee. As a he 14 U. S. and seven British physi­ the Sudan-were advanced from associ­ result of hearings before the Committee, Tcists who attended last month's high­ ate to full membership. Associate mem­ Secretary of Commerce Sinclair Weeks energy nuclear physics conference· in bership was granted to the Gold Coast, had forced the resignation of Allen V.

48

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Dr. Earl W. Flosdorf, director of research at F. J. Stokes Corp orati on, watches the processing of new Rinderpest vaccine in a Stokes freeze dryer, at Fort Lamy, French Equatorial Africa. T

New vaccine for African cattle virus preserved by Stokes Freeze Drying

A significant forward step has been made in the Freeze drying is typical of the new techniques fight to conttol Rinderpest, an infectious virus in which Stokes' 30 years of experience in high disease of cattle. A new live virus type vaccine vacuum engineering is being applied today.Long has been developed at the Chad Livestock and a leader in developing and building vacuum Veterinary Service, at Fort Lamy in French equipment, Stokes offers a diversified line, includ­ Equatorial Africa. ing vacuum furnaces for melting and casting metals ...vacuum dryers ... vacuum impregnat­ The vaccine, prepared ftom goat spleen, is ing systems ... TV tube aluminizers and vac­ non·infectious to cattle but still capable of giving uum metallizers. immunity. Previously, goats were transported to the range, the spleen removed on the spot and Write or call Stokes for a consultation on your the vaccine prepared for immediate use. Today, specific laboratory or ptoduction application. however, the vaccine is preserved by ptocessing Vacuum Equipment Division in a Stokes freeze dryer. Now it can be kept for many weeks unrefrigerated ...even in climates F. J. STOKES CORPORATION where daytime temperatures average 1200 F. in 5513 Tabor Road, Philadelphia 20, Pa. the shade. When refrigerated, it can be stored indefinitely.

The installation and initial operation of the Stokes equipment at Fort Lamy was personally supervised by Dr. Earl W. Flosdorf, Stokes director of research.

49

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Astin, director of the National Bureau of active zinc one day and radioactive cop­ The synthesis was reported in The Standards. This move caused wide­ per the next and then analyze the radia­ Journal of the American Chemical So­ spread protest among scientists, and tion that emanates from his abdomen. ciety by Woodward and his associates: Astin was reinstated. Then a committee Because zinc concentrates in both the F. E. Bader, H. Bickel and A. J. Frey of of the National Academy of Sciences ap· liver and the pancreas, the result of the Switzerland and R. W. Kierstead of proved the Bureau's tests and its find­ first day's analysis is a composite map Canada. Almost simultaneously two ings, and the FTC leveled a complaint of of the two organs. But only the liver other groups of chemists at Ciba Phar­ false advertising against Ritchie. takes up the radioactive copper; on the maceutical Products, Inc., and the In dismissing this complaint the FTC second day they get a picture of the Squibb Institute of Medical Research, rejected Ritchie's assertion that the NBS liver alone. By subtracting the radiation succeeded in synthesizing reserpine by had acted on bias. Despite the fact that counts of the liver from those of the similar methods. the bulk of scientific evidence failed to liver plus the pancreas, they get a map Woodward's synthesis starts with the support claims made for AD-X2, the of the pancreas alone. Since cancers of simple coal-tar derivative quinone, pro­ commissioners felt compelled to condone the pancreas do not absorb zinc, they ceeds directly and yields an abundance Ritchie's claims because so many users show up as non-radioactive spots in the of reserpine. It is doubtful whether the of the product testified that it restored final map. drug can be produced more cheaply by the life of spent batteries and prolonged synthesis than by extraction from Rau­ the usefulness of others. Age of Life wolfia root. From another viewpoint the synthesis is more promising: it enables It's a Smaller World he calendar of life on earth has been chemists to make a series of compounds Textended back two billion years by related to reserpine. These may have he U. S. Army Map Service has just the discovery that some rocks containing medical value, and they should prove Tfinished computing the length of the fossils are as much as three billion years useful in showing how reserpine works. longest line ever surveyed: a 5,777.5- old. Arthur Holmes, the distinguished nautical-mile stretch from Finland to the University of Edinburgh geologist, says Mock Tuberculosis southern tip of Africa. As a result of this that life must have existed even earlier, measurement the map makers have re­ for in the ancient rocks are embedded Kl unfamiliar microorganism is respon- vised their estimate of the size of the fossils of algae, protozoa and fungus sible for a rapidly growing number earth. They calculate that its radius at spores, presumably the descendants of of cases of a lung disease that resembles the Equator is 6,378,260 meters-128 still simpler forms. According to most tuberculosis. The infection, first recog­ meters shorter than the previously ac­ previous estimates, life originated not nized two years ago, is apparently wide­ cepted figure. more than 800 million years ago. spread in the U. S. Fragmentary reports The European section of the arc was Holmes bases his conclusion on recent on the nature of the new disease and finished by 1951. Then, with high-pre­ radiochemical dating of rocks found in ways of treating it were made last month cision shoran, a radio-echo technique South Africa, Canada and Southern Rho­ at the 52nd annual meeting of the Na­ akin to radar, the Map Service men ex­ desia. The fossil-bearing sedimentary tional Tuberculosis Association in New tended the line across the Mediterrane­ rocks are sandwiched between younger York City. . an. In Egypt they roughly followed a layers of pegmatite. The age of the peg­ Horace E. Crow of the Battey State 435-mile arc surveyed by the Greek matite, which is radioactive, has been Hospital in Rome, Ga., observed that the mathematician Eratosthenes in about accurately measured by its proportion of disease does not appear to infect young 200 B.C. South of Egypt they were lead isotopes into which heavy radio­ people so frequently as tuberculosis hindered by grass fires and aroused buf­ active elements have decayed. does, nor is it as contagious as tubercu­ faloes. The last gap, from Khartoum to The most ancient fossil-bearing rock losis. His study of 69 cases showed that Uganda, was filled by 1954. Since then Holmes and his colleagues have yet patients generally responded poorly to the data has been reduced to summary studied is a granite pebble from South­ tuberculosis drugs and lung surgery. form with the aid of a large computer. ern Rhodesia. Chemists at the British Marie L. Koch reported that the num­ Being twice as long as any arc pre­ Government Chemical Research Labora­ ber of fresh cases at the Veterans Ad­ viously surveyed, the arc theoretically tory and the University of Minnesota at­ ministration Hospital in Wood, Wis., had should increase the accuracy of maps test that this pebble is 3.3 billion years jumped from 185 in the last three months fourfold. The new measurement will be old. Another sample found on the north­ of 1954 to about 1,000 in the last quarter applied to plotting the course of the ern shore of Lake Superior is 1.3 billion of 1955. earth satellites to be launched during the years old, according to measurements Emanuel Wolinsky of Saranac Lake, International Geophysical Year. made at the Massachusetts Institute of N. Y., announced that the American The survey was reported at a recent Technology. Trudeau Society has formed a commit­ Washington meeting of the American tee to investigate the new disease, its Geophysical Union by Bernard Chovitz Reserpine Synthesized association with tuberculOSis, how it is and Irene Fischer of the Map Service. transmitted and how it can be treated. obert B. Woodward of Harvard Uni- Mapping the Pancreas R versity, who first synthesized qui­ Hybrid Tombs nine, strychnine, cortisone and lysergic new way to examine the pancreas acid, has now synthesized another drug: he great pyramids of Egypt are ar- A from outside the body has been de­ the tranquilizing agent reserpine. His Tchitectural hybrids derived from vised by William V. McDermott, Jr., and work on this compound was spectacu­ tomb designs developed before Upper George L. Nardi of the Harvard Medi­ larly fast; only a year earlier chemists and Lower Egypt were united about cal School and the Massachusetts Gen­ had still not determined the structure of 5,000 years ago. This is the conclusion of eral Hospital. They feed a patient radio- the complex reserpine molecule. Walter B. Emery of the University

50

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Enjay Butyl-today's fabulous rubber gives new life to backyard wading pools

Enjay Butyl brings long life and performance strength to the sensa­ tional new Bil-O-Matic®, rubberized fabric wading pool manufactured by the Bilnor Corporation. With its resistance to aging, sunlight, tear and impact damage, the pool manufactured with Enjay Butyl gives outstanding performance. Unlike other pools that cracked and leaked after exposure to sunlight, these new pools retain their durability under even the toughest conditions of wear, stress, and weather. The Enjay Butyl label on the carton assures the customer of exceptional quality. Extremely versatile, Enjay Butyl has led to improved product per­ formance in a wide variety of fields. This amazing, low-cost rubber is immediately available in non-staining grades for white and light-colored applications. To find out where Enjay Butyl can cut costs and improve BUTYL your product, contact the Enjay Company. Complete laboratory facili­ ties, fully staffed by trained technicians, are at your service. Enjay Butyl is the super-durable rubber Pioneer in Petrochemicals with outstanding resistance to aging • abrasion • tear • chipping • cracking • e(NJAY ENJAY COMPANY, INC., 15 West 51st Street, New York 19, N. Y. ozone and corona • chemicals • gases Other offices: Akron. Boston · Chicago. Los Angeles· Tulsa • heat • c old • sunlight • moisture.

51

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC of London, director of the Egyptian Ex­ Scientists ... Engineers ploration Society. Emery bases his notion on a study of the recently discovered tomb of Queen Her-Neit, who died not many years after the first Egyptian dynasty was estab­ lished. The Queen's tomb is surmounted by a brick-covered rectangular mound for a future with a typical of Upper Egyptian burials. Around the mound is a brick wall, which steep growth curve is characteristic of Lower Egyptian tombs. Emery believes that in the course of architectural evolution tomb builders elevated the mounds and filledin the gaps between mounds and walls, thus prodUCing the step like motif of the later pyramids.

Down Water, Up Oil

any oil wells must be abandoned M when the pumps start bringing up a great deal of water and very little oil. Frequently this failure can be traced to "water coning": underlying water rising in the oil-bearing sand and gathering at the base of the wall. To counteract water coning Alan S. Michaels of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Soil Stabilization Labora­ tory has been experimenting with a de­ tergent mixture that makes sand attract . look to Westinghouse oil and repel water. By forcing this mix­ ture down an oil well, he hopes to de­ stroy the capillary forces that help the Commercial water rise. As yet he has not tested his technique in an actual well, but in bar­ Atomic Power rels of sand containing water and kero­ sene it has greatly increased the amount CAPA-Commercial Atomic Power Activity-is the of oil that can be pumped up through a nucleus of the most dynamic new division at Westing­ pipe sunk in the sand. house, the leader in Atomic Power.Our growth is bound to be steep-as electric power demand and atomic power Dielectric Pumps production pyramid sharply. quid insulating materials react strange- We're "fluid"-not fixed. New supervisory jobs open E ly to a strong electric potential. up fast! We're entirely commercial-not dependent on When two solid electrodes are partially government contracts.Opportunities for advanced study immersed in such a liquid, the liquid rises between them. And when the elec­ at company expense. Get in on the "industry of to­ trodes are screens and are completely morrow" today ... at Westinghouse CAPA. submerged, the liquid flows from one toward the other. Immediate Openings for professionally established men and A research group at the University of those j ust starting their careers: Physicists· Physical Chem­

ists • Chemical Engineers • Mechanical Engineers • Electrical Cincinnati is taking advantage of this Engineers· Designers· Metallurgists. peculiar behavior to develop a new kind of pump. Like the magnetic pumps used in the atomic energy program to circu­

Please mail resume of your professional and late molten metals, the so-called dielec­ Send your business background to: C. S. Southard, West­ tric pumps are compact, leakproof and " resume" inghouse Commercial Atomic Power, Box 355, have no moving parts. As reported in Dept. 106, Pittsburgh 30, Pennsylvania. Chemical and Engineering News, the same techniques may also prove to be useful in separating mixtures of non­ conductive liquids. Glenn H. Brown, WATCH WESTINGHOUSE! J. F. Dreyer, H. R. Lubowitz and W. H. FIRST IN ATOMIC POWER H. Middendorf are the investigators.

52

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ilDlea at ·worl{. ...

Thinner and stronger Mylar* insulating tapes by Dobeckmun conserve valuable space for

Stron1berg Carlson. A thirty percent reduction in the size of telephone switchboard wire is one typical example of the space-saving possible with Dobeckmun insulating tapes. These

Dobeckmun Mylar tapes used by Stromberg Carlson provide high dielectric strength with a minimum of material by a faster, more accurate winding operation. Whether your needs are for tapes, layer or slot-cell insulation-Dobeckmun is the place to go to find precisely the right material for saving valuable space. Mylar, acetate, paper, tri-acetate, and butyrate are a few of the materials Dobeckmun engineers are working with, to help you achieve superior insulation. *1vIyiar is aregistered du Pont trademark

ckmun Company, Cleveland 1, Ohio Berkeley 10, California ' Albuquerque • Atlanta • Ba!timofl.� • Boston · Charlotte • Chicago • Cincinnati • Dallas . Denver · Detroit • Illdianapolis • Kansas City

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53

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ALCOA ATOMIZED

ALUMINUM POWDER

novv readily available

Reduced military d emand frees large quantities

for growing list of indus trial and chemical uses

PLASTIC DIES-Mixed with synthetic GRINDING WHEELS-Improves uni­ resins (like the new epoxies) to pro­ formity of dimensions and disperses duce stamping or forming dies, ALCOA heat evenly throughout wheel. Atomized Aluminum Powder pro­ vides better heat transfer, appearance, REFRACTORY SAGGERS -Permits dimensional stability and malleability, higher temperatures, and extends and reduces shrinkage as well. service life.

EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS -Used LUTING COMPOUNDS-Improves where high heat and a reduced metal heat transfer in solutions. are desired. CATALYST CARRIERS

EXPANDED (AERATED) CONCRETE REDUCING AGENT-Used success­ Photomicrograph af ALCOA Atamized Aluminum -Mixed with cement, sand and water. fully as a substitute for zinc. 'Powder Na. 120 at 100x. Nan-Ieaflng. Average mesh size-l00% thraugh 40 mesh, 40% through PYROTECHNICS EXPLOSIVES POLYETHYLENE PRODUCTS-Mini­ 325 mesh. Average particle diameter, 26 and microns. Speciflc gravity approximately 2.72. mizes shrinkage. Bulking value .0441 gal/lb. CHEMICAL USES -Aluminum's strong reducing power and ease in ALCOA®Atomized Aluminum Powder replacing metals from other com­ is a finely divided, granular aluminum pounds and solutions are utilized to WRITE FOR SAMPLES powder produced by blowing molten recover gold and silver from cyanide Perhaps versatile ALCOA Atomized aluminum through fine atomizing solutions and help in the production Aluminum Powder can be applied nozzles and collecting the product in of alum by reducing ferric iron to profitably to your own products or a dust collector. Particles are more or the ferrous form. processes. We will gladly send you less spherical or tear shaped, with a complete data on the various grades relatively low surface area. CERAMIC MIXTURES-Gives added available and supply your technical Because ALCOA Atomized Alumi­ strength to ceramic forms. staff with experimental samples. Write num Powder has high fuel value and today to is chemically reactive, it has found COLD SOLDERS-Mixes with vinyl ALUMINUM COMPANY OF widespread use in explosives both resins to form a plastic compound, AMERICA, PIGMENTS DIVISION, 1714-G Alcoa Building, Pittsburgh Pa. during and since World War II. 19, Reduced military requirements now HOT SOLDERS -Used in filling have released large quantities of solders which then require less heat atomized aluminum powder to meet than regular tin alloy solders. the rapidly increasing civilian de­ mands for this versatile product. POWDER METALLURGY-Placed in a die and compressed to a solid APPLICA TIONS shape. M. The potential uses for ALCOA Atom­ ized Aluminum Powder have not THE ALCOA HOUR been fully exploited. New markets � ...TELEVISION'S FINEST LIVE DRAMA are opening every day. Some of the �' " ALTERNATE SUNDAY EVENINGS more interesting current uses follow:

54

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS

Its structure, when examined with beams of high-energy electrons,

is characterized by a fuzzy "skin," the density of \vhich decreases from the inside out. Even individual protons have this construction

by Robert Hofstadter

ot much more than 50 years ago round nucleus surrounded by a cloud of past 20 years or so they have been try­ it was still possible for leading electrons is practically the trademark of ing to draw mental pictures of the inside N physicists and chemists to argue our time. of the nucleus. over whether atoms really exist. Today It is not just a popular emblem. Physi­ That physicists can even dream of the most backward schoolboy knows that cists also have a mental image of the perceiving details in so minute an object atoms are real. He even knows what atom which is much like this one. In is a tribute both to their imagination and they look like. The picture of a little fact, they have gone farther. For the to the delicacy of their experimental

MAGNETIC SPECTROMETER measures the scattering of high· material is suspended in the ladder·like holder in front of the pipe. speed electrons from targe t nuclei . Electrons from the Stanford The huge, D'shaped magnet which focuses the scattered electrons University linear accelerator enter through the thin pipe which ex· can be seen at the far right. It is carried on a naval gun mount tends from the left background to the center foreground. The target which moves it to variou s angular positions around the targe t.

55

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC A B

>- � V)t:: � Z 0 '" � � � � I I U u

DISTANCE FROM CENTER DISTANCE FROM CENTER

E F

i: i: v; v; � Z '" 0 • � � � � I I U U

DISTANCE FROM CENTER DISTANCE FROM CENTER

MODELS OF THE NUCLEUS, showing variou s conceivable dis­ nucleus outward for each model. To the left of each graph is :m tributions of electric charge within it, are illustrated here. The imaginary rendering of what the model would "look like" in cross graphs show how the density of charge varies from the center of the section. Model A is the liquid drop, with its constant density and

technique. The smallness of the nucleus teriors of the "ultimate" particles-the terior, and a sharply defined surface. has been pointed out many times, but it protons and neutrons of which nuclei Furthermore, all nuclei, large or small, is always worth emphasizing when one are made! have the same density. Just as large is trying to appreciate what nuclear drops of water contain more molecules physics is about. The diameter of the Models of the Nucleus than small drops but have the same den­ nucleus is a few ten-trillionths of a centi­ sity, so large nuclei have more nucleons, meter. If the nuclei of all the atoms in The significance of our work is best but these are no more nor less tightly the earth could be stripped of electrons understood against a background of pac.ked than they are in small nuclei. and packed together, they would make ideas about the nucleus that have been If this view is correct, there must be a a ball only 200 feet in radius. We usually developing since the early 1930s. In the rather simple rule governing the relative think of an atom as a very small object first place, it should be said that terms sizes of various nuclei. Their volumes ob­ indeed. Yet if an atom could be expand­ like "looking" into the nucleus or forming viously must be proportional to the num­ . ed so that its outer electrons enclosed "pictures" of it are pure metaphor. The ber of nucleons they contain. And since an area the size of New York City, the nucleus is utterly and hopelessly invis­ the volume of a sphere depends on the nucleus at its center would be about as ible. In fact, the physicist does not speak cube of its radius, the radii of different big as a baseball. of "pictures" but of "models." This word nuclei must vary as the cube root of their

That it is possible to peer within this is better because it reflects the indirect numbers of nucleons. For example, if a speck of matter is one of the most im­ approach he is obliged to take. His ex­ large nucleus contains eight times as pressive feats of modern physics. It un­ periments, as we shall see, do not yield many protons and neutrons as a small derlines the genius of Lord Rutherford a direct representation of the nucleus. one, it will have twice the radius. and other early investigators, who ac­ The physicist must consider separate It is possible to go further and get a complished the feat with the relatively sets of experimental results and then try figure for actual as well as relative sizes. crude methods which were available to to imagine a model of the nucleus that On the assumption of the spherical-drop them. Recently the author and his col­ would account for all of them. model, various experiments indicate that leagues at Stanford University, using the Probably the oldest model-and for the radius of a nucleus, measured in advanced technology of present-day ex­ some purposes still a very useful one-is "fermis" (units of 10-13 centimeters) , is ' perimental physics, have developed a the "spherical drop" or "liquid drop." 1.45 times the cube root of its number new and very powerful instrument for Here the protons and neutrons (collec­ of nucleons. Thus the radius of the gold examining nuclei. With it we are getting tively called nucleons) which make up nucleus, which contains 197 nucleons, a look at details that have never been the nucleus are considered to be packed is 1.45 X '10/197X 10 13, or 8.45 fermis. seen before, and which show that older together like the molecules in a drop of In addition to size and mass the nu­ pictures of the nucleus must be revised. water. On this model the nucleus has a cleus has electric charge. This charge is vVe have even begun to penetrate the in- uniform density everywhere in its in- positive, and is due only to the protons

56

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC c D

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DISTANCE FROM CENTER DISTANCE fROM CENTER

G H

DISTANCE FROM CENTER DISTANCE fROM CENTER

sharp boundary. Other possible structures with sharply bounded however, that the nuclear boundary is not sharp. Their results sug· surfaces are the point nucleus (F) and the shell (G). The electron· gest a skin, the density of which falls off gradually. Models such scattering experiments of the author and his colleagues indicate, as E or H give the best agre ement with the experimental findings.

which the nucleus contains. The un­ "skin." This has been realized for several to study the structure of molecules and charged neutrons contribute to size and years, but there seemed no way to find atoms. In 1951 E. M. Lyman and his col­ weight but not to electric charge. Now out how thick the skin was. laborators at the University of Illinois on the spherical-drop model the charge As a matter of fact, when one moves tried electron scattering on nuclei. With is also thought to be uniformly distrib­ away from the simplified picture of the the moderate energies at their disposal, uted throughout each nucleus. But the spherical drop, it is possible, in the pres­ they were not able to make out any de­ "charge density," that is, the amount of ent uncertain state of nuclear theory, to tail, but they did get an indication that charge concentrated in a given volume, imagine a variety of models. Some cal­ heavy nuclei are somewhat smaller than must vary from one nucleus to another, culations show that the nucleus may be had been thought. depending on the ratio of protons to total a "soft sphere," whose density decreases To understand why high energy is nucleons. The nucleus of ordinary hydro­ steadily from the center outward. Ac­ necessary to reveal nuclear detail it is gen, which consists of just one proton cording to other theories the mass and easier if we think of electrons as waves and no neutrons, obviously has the high­ charge may be concentrated in concen­ . rather than as particles. Like all other est possible charge density. In a nucleus tric shells. Some of these possibilities are subatomic bits of matter, electrons have where half the nucleons are protons illustrated in the drawings on these two wavelike as well as particle-like proper­ (which is approximately the case for pages. No one knew how seriously they ties. (The rules of quantum physics tell most light nuclei) the charge density should be taken. us that the length of the waves depends will be half as great. In heavier nuclei on the energy of the particles; the higher the ratio of protons to total particles goes Electron Probes the energy, the shorter the wavelength.) down to .39, so that the charge density In many cases the behavior of electrons is somewhat smaller. These questions were in the air in can be as well described from one point There is no doubt that a number of 1951 when the author began to think of view as from the other. For example, important nuclear properties are reflect­ about a new way of examining nuclei. we can as well say that electron waves ed by the liquid-drop model. But there is The idea was to shoot very high-speed are diffracted by nuclei as that electron also no doubt that an actual nucleus can­ electrons at them and see how the elec­ particles are scattered. not be exactly like a liquid drop. It is trons were deflected, or, as the physicist The electrons used by Thomson in his extremely unlikely that the nuclear sur­ says, scattered. Now scattering experi­ work on atoms had energies of a few tens face can really be sharp, with its density ments are a classical technique of atomic of thousands of electron volts, which dropping from the constant interior physics. It was by observing the scatter­ means that their wavelengths were on value abruptly to zero. Modern quantum ing of alpha particles that Lord Ruther­ the order of 10-8 centimeters, which is theory predicts that the density should ford first discovered the existence of the 100,000 fermis. These waves cannot fall off to zero smoothly, from the high nucleus. Later another British physicist, "see" the nucleus at all. Since they are interior value through an outer layer or C. P. Thomson, used electron scattering about the same size as the atom's entire

57

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC electron cloud, the nucleus in the cloud's each other out. For elements above an interior will be entirely shielded from atomic weight of 10 the nuclear charge them. In Lyman's electron beam, at 15 is so much greater than the magnetic million electron volts, the waves were strength, if any, that the latter is negli­ hundreds of times shorter and could gible. In this case the interaction be­ penetrate the cloud. But they were still tween electrons and the nucleus is pure­ considerably longer than the diameter ly electrostatic. Lighter elements with of the nucleus, and hence could not magnetized nuclei exert both electric show it in any detail. and magnetic forces on a bombarding But at Stanford in 1951 a great linear electron, and to separate their effects is accelerator was being built that would rather difficult. Marshall Rosenbluth, produce an intense beam of electrons at now at the Livermore Laboratory of the energies approaching a billion electron Atomic Energy Commission, has made volts. The corresponding wavelength the separation possible by calculating would be measured in a few fermis. This the pure magnetic scattering pattern. is short enough to reveal nuclear struc­ In any case, an electron that passes ture in considerable detail. Thus it ap­ through the force fieldof a nucleus is de­ peared that electrons could soon be used Rected. If it merely passes nearby, the to examine the innermost part of the situation can be pictured in terms of atom. two attracting particles, as in the deRec­ This was an exciting prospect. Until tion of a comet by the sun. If the elec­ that time the chief nuclear probes had tron actually enters the nucleus, it is been protons, neutrons and alpha patti­ more convenient to think in terms of c1es (which are made up of two protons waves and diffraction rather than deRec­ SCATTERING, or deflection, occurs when­ tion [see diagrams at upper left]. ever an electron passes through the force and two neutrons) . That is to say, the field of a nucleus_ If it passes near the particles used to examine the nucleus The scattering pattern will depend on nucleus, its deflection results chiefly from were the same as those which compose the nature of the target nucleus. If it is a the electric attracti on between its negative it. This raised a difficult problem. One of point, or a small, densely packed sphere, charge and the positive'nucleus (top). If it the deepest mysteries that confronts then the closer a bombarding electron enters the nucleus, tbe situation is better physics today is the nature of the force passes to its center the larger its angle pict ured in terms of waves. The electron that acts between nucleons. In a sense of deRection. An electron passing very wave is refracted by the nuclear material all of nuclear research is directed close to the target could be so strongly (bottom), much as a train of light waves is toward clearing up this fundamental attracted that it would loop around and refracted when it passes through a raindrop. question. Thus if we shoot protons or return in the direction from which it neutrons into a nucleus, we can interpret came. That is, its scattering angle would what happens only in terms of their in­ be 180 degrees [see diagram at bottom teraction with the other nucleons. Yet left]. this is the very problem we are trying A diffuse or smeared-out nucleus to solve. would give a differentresult. An electron Electrons, on the other hand, are not directed at the center of such a structure nucleons; they are not subject to the would see as much positive charge on mysterious nuclear force. When they one side of its path as on the other. pass near protons or neutrons, they are Hence it would not "know which way to affected only by electric and magnetic turn," and would pass straight through. forces, and these are as well known as Here we have come to the heart of the any in physics. Calculations of electro­ electron-scattering method. With a . :;. magnetic interaction can be made with dense, tightly packed nucleus we expect great confidence. a considerable amount of scattering at large angles, up to 180 degrees. With a Scattering diffuse, "soft" nucleus the large-angle or backward deRection will be very much Let us consider in some detail what reduced in favor of forward scattering. . '" The two curves in the diagram on page .) happens to electrons that are fired at nuclei, and what can be learned from 61 show what is expected theoretically their behavior. The electron may be when electrons are scattered from a SCATTERING PATTERN depends on the thought of as a negatively charged speck point charge and from a uniform soft structure of the target nucleus. An extended, which, like the earth, is spinning on an cloud. It is also possible, although in diffuse nucleus tends to (top and center) axis through its center. The motion of some cases very difficult, to compute the give small deflections when the electron the charge gives rise to a magnetic effect. scattering pattern for more complicated passes near its center. In fact, a particle models, as we shall soon see. passing exactly through the center is not de­ Hence the electron is at the same time flected at alL A point nucleus, on the other a tiny charge and a tiny magnet. A A reduction in the deRections at large nucleus is a positively charged ball. It angles is )Jot the only effectof a soft hand, gives large deflections (up to 180 de­ grees) when an electron passes near the may or may not be magnetized depend­ nucleus. Its scattering pattern is also center (bottom) _ Thus relative degrees of ing on how the protons revolve within it. marked by a series of ups and downs or scattering at small and large angles reflects In some cases the motions give a net diffraction "wiggles." To appreciate some of the details of nuclear structure_ magnetic effect, in others they cancel their significance we may compare the

58

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC @ Engineered Rubber Products Mass- produced to exacting specifications

this U. S. Rubber Molded Diaphragm is a constant "watchman" on leading motor valves.

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Mechanical Goods Division United States Rubber

59

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC diffraction of electrons by the nucleus in many cases be impossible. However, deflected at various angles. It would be with the diffraction of a beam of light it has now been done for a large number nice if this were so. It would make our when it passes through a small circular of nuclei, and a striking new picture has apparatus some $200,000 cheaper and hole in an opaque barrier. A screen on emerged. 45 tons lighter. The weight and the which the light is allowed to fall after money represent an enormous D-shaped passing through the barrier shows a The Apparatus magnet which sorts out the scattered bright spot directly opposite the hole, electrons by energies. surrounded by alternating dark and light Before turning to the results, let us Why is this necessary? Why not, in rings, the light rings growing fainter as see how the diffraction experimentsare fact, simply count the total electrons they get bigger [see diagram at the bot­ made. The Stanford linear accelerator scattered at each angle? The reason is tom of this page]. If this pattern were shoots electrons at a rate of 60 bursts per that all the particles deflected at a par­ translated into a graph showing bright­ second; each burst lasts a millionth of a ticular angle have not undergone the ness at various angles from the forward second and contains about 10 billion same type of interaction with a target direction, the result would be a curve particles. The machine will accelerate nucleus; hence they do not convey the with diffraction wiggles resembling electrons to an energy of 700 million same information. In some collisions the those in the electron-scattering curve, electron volts, but our analyzing appara­ electron and nucleus behave like a pair although more pronounced. tus cannot handle particle energies over of billiard balls bouncing offone an­ From the spacing of the rings or wig­ 550 Mev. For reasons that will soon be other, or, rather, like a ping-pong ball gles in the light-diffraction pattern it is apparent, the conditions of the experi­ bouncing offa cannon ball. That is to possible by the methods of theoretical ment require that the particles striking say, the total energy of motion (kinetic optics to figure out the diameter of the the target nuclei have a very sharply de­ energy) of the particles after the colli­ hole. Similarly, the spacing in the elec­ fined energy. The electrons emerging sion is the same as before. These are tron patterns gives information about the from the accelerator are already at near­ known as elastic collisions. A large nu­ size of the diffracting nucleus. ly the same energy-the spread is only cleus, being so much heavier than the The analogy is not quite exact. To five to 10 Mev. This is further reduced electron, does not recoil appreciably, so make it better we should have to imagine by letting them pass first through a mag­ that in an elastic collision the electron that the hole in the light experiment con­ netic field and then a narrow slit [see bounces offwith just about the same en­ tains a lens made of nonuniform glass, so diagram on pages 62 and 63]. The mag­ ergy it had on its approach. that the refractive index is not the same net bends electrons of different energies In other cases, the electron gives up throughout the lens. The effect of such a in different directions and the slit picks some energy which is not accounted for lens would be to distort the normal pat­ out those that are traveling in one direc­ by recoil motion of the struck nucleus. tern. The analogous problem would then tion. That is, the energy exchanged does not be to figure out from the irregular dif­ The narrow beam of uniform-energy remain kinetic. Instead the nucleus be­ fraction rings both the size of the hole electrons is then directed against the comes "excited" from its normal or and the exact make-up of the lens. In target material-for example, a gold foil "ground" state to a state of higher in­ the actual case we must calculate the about two thousandths of an inch thick. ternal energy. (We may crudely picture size of the nucleus and its internal dis­ To determine the scattering patterns, what happens by saying that the in­ tribution of charge. As may be imagined, one might suppose that it would only be dividual nucleons go into more energetic this can be extremely difficult.Without necessary to move a detector around the motion.) When this happens, the colli­ the aid of high-speed computers it would foil and count the number of electrons sion is said to be inelastic.

LIGHT ::>

DIFFRACTION PATTERN obtained when light is passed through outward across the pattern in a straight line. This is analogous to a small hole resembles the patterns of the electron-scattering ex­ measuring the numbers of electrons scattered at various angles from periments. The curve at the right shows how the intensity of light the target. The dips in the scattering curves, although shallower varies, starting at the center of the inner bright spot and moving than those in the light pattern, convey the same sort of information.

60

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC � '" � 1\ � � \ � 27 Z 10- � Q � >- u w if) if) U) 00< \ 28 U 10- \ This Niagara Aero After Cooler also cools compressor jacket and intercooler water.

COMPRESSED AIR � B • Lower in Cost

• Drier and Cooler

'\ THE AFTER NIAGARA A.ERO COOLER offers a completely self­ 1\ contained method replacing both shell-and-tube cooler and cooling tower. It is independent of a large supply of cooling water and consist­ ently reduces compressed air tem­ \l --. peratures toO below ambient. Drier air gives you better operation 50 70 90 110 130 150 and lower costs in using all air­ operated automatic instruments, tools

SCATTERING ANGLE (DEGREESI and machines, paint spraying, sand blasting and moisture-free air cleaning. Direct saving in the cost of cool­ THEORETICAL CURVES show the scattering patterns expected from a point charge (top) ing water saves the price of the and a nniform soft cloud The vertical scale is a measure of the percen tage of the (bottom). Niagara Aero After Cooler in less incoming electrons which would be detected at the various angles on the horizontal scale. than two years. Niagara Aero After Cooler as­ sures all these benefi ts because it If we are interested in examining the to deflect. The first apparatus we built cools compressed air or gas below the nucleus in its normal condition then the had a magnet weighing two and a half temperature of surrounding at­ electrons scattered inelastically are no tons and could handle electrons only up mosphere; there can be no further help. They have "seen" the nucleus in to 190 Mev. The new device, in use condensation in your air lines. It an excited state. Hence we wish to pick for about a year, can force 550 Mev condenses the moisture by passing out the elastically scattered electrons­ electrons around its semicircular track. the air through a coil on the surface the electrons emerging from the collision It is also sensitive enough to select an of which water is evaporated, trans­ ferring the heat to the atmosphere. It with the same energy they had going in. energy band only .8 Mev wide at 400 is installed outdoors, protected from This is what the magnet does. Scattered Mev. In other words, it can separate freezing in winter, proven in service electrons enter the semicircle on one side electrons whose energies differ by one on the largest plant utility systems. of the center and are bent 180 degrees part in 500. by the magnetic field so that they emerge Our detector is a small piece of lucite Write for Bulletin No. 130 at the other side. Particles of different that glows momentarily when a fast elec­ NIAGARA BLOWER COMPANY energies follow different paths, so that tron passes through it. A photomultiplier Dept. S.A. 405 Lexington Ave. it is possible to focus those of a particu­ tube picks up the light flashes and pro­ NEW YORK 17, N. Y. lar energy at the detector. The reason duces a corresponding series of electric District Engineers in the magnet must be so big and powerful pulses which are fed into a counter. Principal Cities of U. S. and Canada is that high-energy electrons are hard The actual number of scattered elec-

61

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC . . : .. . ?:. : Q .. . /<�. .: . .0: . . . .• • . 0 ".ii.· '.

MAGNETIC PROBE

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EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT for electron·scattering and focused onto the detector (not shown) by the magnet, which measurements is shown diagrammatically. The magnetic probe and can be moved to different angular positions. The monitor records energy·defining slit pick out a narrow energy band from the in· the total number of electrons that pass through the target material. coming electron beam. Electrons striking the target are picked up A lO·ton shield around the detector cuts out background radiation.

62

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Stainless steel vs. plastics

As one of the country's oldest producers of stainless steel we weren't surprised to see the eyebrows lift when our entry into the field of plastic pipe, fittings and valves was an. nounced. Friends told us we were competing with ourselves VACUUM PIPE and that our salesmen would be talking out of both sides of their mouths.

We didn't believe it ... and time has shown us to be right. Our history as a company is tied to solving corrosion prob­ lems . . . providing the best material for handling a given gas or liquid under specificcon­ ditions.With this background it trons counted at any angle is, of course, focusing the electrons just as a spectro­ is only natural that we should of no significance unless the total num­ scope collects light waves, separates extend our thinking to new ber of incoming particles is known. What their various colors with a prism or dif­ materials. It is our belief that matters is the fraction of the total that is fraction grating, and refocuses them. where plastics can do the job scattered in a given direction. Each in­ more economically, without coming electron knocks a burst of sec­ New Nuclear Models sacrificing safety or production, ondary electrons out of the plates of a they should be used. monitor material, and a count of these Let us now look at some of the results bursts indicates the number of particles that have been obtained with this appa­ Our Van ton Pump & Equip­ in the incident beam. ratus. The experimental procedure is, as ment Division, which supplies The magnet, the detector and a lO-ton has been pointed out, quite simple in plastic pumps, valves, fittings lead and concrete shield which sur­ principle. We simply set the accelerator and pipe for the processing rounds it are all mounted on an obsolete for a given energy, and count the per­ industry, is well equipped in five-inch naval gun base provided by the centage of elastically scattered electrons the selection of the right plastic U. S. Navy. On this movable platform at various angles around the target. The ...just as our stainless division the apparatus can be swung to various dots in the chart at the top of the next is trained in the selection of the angles around the target. A remote-con­ page show the result of a number of such right alloy. trol arrangement can position the gun runs on gold nuclei at energies ranging base to an accuracy better than a tenth from 84 to 183 Mev. The statement: "If corrosion of a degree. While the experimental group was is the problem, think first of Our apparatus operates in many ways making these measurements, a team of Cooper Alloy" was never more like an optical system, and has even been theoretical physicists including D. R. true than it is today. called a nuclear microscope. Just as a Yennie, C. D. Ravenhall and R. N. Wil­ lens collects ligqt scattered by an object, son was busy calculating the expected the magnet collects electrons bouncing diffraction pattern for various nuclear off a target. The lens focuses the col­ models such as those illush'ated on pages � H. A. Cooper lected light to a spot; so does the magnet 56 and 57. One specific model of the in the electron analogy. However, the gold nucleus has a dense core extending PRESIDENT magnet does more, since it sorts electrons about four fermis from the center, and Xr�x �'#�ffi into separate energy ranges. The optical then a rapidly thinning "skin" which N 8 �i COOPER ALLOY analogy would be a spectroscope or spec­ drops away to nothing at around nine 'i I!Vf CORP 0 r.,> A T ION trometer, sorting colors or wavelengths fermis [see chart at bottom of next -, of light. The magnet performs the op­ page]. The theoretical diffraction pat­ HILLSIDE NEW JERSEY erations of collecting, bending and re- tern at various energies from 84 to 183 Corrosion ResistantValves. Fittings. Castings. Pumps

63

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC 10-24r------,------r------,------,------r------Mev for this model are also shown on the chart at the top of this page, as solid curves. The agreement between the experimental and theoretical curves is nothing short of astonishing. Evidently the distribution of charge in the gold nucleus must be very much like the one in this model. Since protons and neu­ trons are presumably distributed in the same way, this distribution should also apply to the total mass of the nucleus. If we define the skin thickness of the gold nucleus as the distance between the point where the charge density is 90 per cent of the maximum and the point where it has fallen to 10 per cent, we find that the thickness is close to 2.4 Z 10-27 �--�\_���----+_��--_+------�------_4------­ o fermis. Taking as a measure of nuclear f= U size the distance from the center to the w if) point where the density is 50 per cent if) if) of the maximum, this turns out to be ap­ o proximately 6.3 fermis. "" - 8 u 10 2 �------+--\_�\_+_��--_+------��------_4------4Now, when we turn to investigate other nuclei, a surprising regularity ap­ pears. Together with Ravenhall and Beat Hahn, the author has made a systematic investigation of selected nuclei from 10-29 �------+------�_+--��--��------+_------��----_+mass number 40 to 238. Throughout this entire range the skin thickness is 2.4 fermis! The size of the dense inner core varies, but the fuzzy outer layer is the same thickness for all these nuclei. As a measure of nuclear size it is more 10-30�------+------+_------�----��4_----��------4convenient for many purposes to use an­ other average value for the radius rather than the distance from the center to the 50 per cent density point. This average is known as the "root mean square."

10-31 L-______-L ______L- ______-L __ __ �r_�--�--�------� When it is used, the value for the radius 30 50 70 90 130 of a heavy nucleus obeys a simple law: SCA TTERI NG ANGLE (DEGREES) its value in fermis equals 1.18 times the cube root of the mass number. This rule GOLD NUCLEI give scattering results shown by points on the graph. Solid curves are calcu· is reminiscent of the cube-root law for lated patterns for a particular model. Different \'urves represent different electron energies. the liquid-drop model, but it implies a smaller nucleus than that suggested by 1.25 r-----.----�--�----_,_--,..---___,�--_,_--�-_._--,the older view. In nuclei below mass number we ------..:.-:..--== ------\ 40 \ find that the inner core practically disap­ 1.00 f-----+------+--+---+--....---""';,,;. '"\-\--+----+--+---+-----1 pears, and that the density decreases I-1 from the center out. These lighter nuclei >- obey a slightly different size rule: the l- v; root mean square radius is 1.35 times Z .75 UJ the cube root of the mass number. 0 UJ At just about the time when we first <..') "" obtained these results Val Fitch and L.

MODEL OF GOLD NUCLEUS which gives close agreement with experiments is shown as a Having proved that our electron beam solid curve. Dotted lines represent alternative models that might give nearly the same results. could indeed see into nuclei, we began

64

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC DeWalt Inc.'s new model "Power Shop" offersa 50% more powerful motor-with only 2 oz. more weight-using ANACONDA Magnet Wire.

How Anaconda helped p ut more muscle in p ower tools

would cause undue wear on motor withstands heavier loads and higher bearings and traveling tracks. temperatures. Thus, motors for power THE SOLUTION: Key to the problem tools, aircraft, automobiles, and a lay in the motor windings. Anaconda dozen other uses become lighter and engineers, working with DeWalt engi­ more powerful. neers, suggested the use of a heavier Anaconda's other fabricating com­

DeWalt "Power Shop" motor gage magnet wire, and assisted in pany-The American Brass Company­ wound with AnacondA Magnet Wire. working out an improved winding tech­ also serves industry through new cop­ nique to conserve space. per and copper alloy products ... pipe THE PROBLEM: Radial arm saws like Result: DeWalt was able to add and water tube for the building in­ this DeWalt "Power Shop" make work more "working copper" and get the ad­ dustry, a new phosphor bronze for a lot easier for the carpenter-amateur ditional power they wanted, without longer life springs ...a new copper or professional. But they make life decreasing the "bite" of the saw, and anode for more efficientelectroplating. tough for the motor manufacturer. with the addition of only 2 ounces in Whatever your problem, whatever In designing this model, DeWalt en­ weight. your industry-the Man from Anaconda gineers set their sights high-to put a THE FUTURE: As the need for smaller, is ready to serve you. Call him today. % -horsepower motor where a 1f2-horse­ lighter, more powerful motors places The Anaconda Company, 25 Broad­

power motor had been before ...a boost heavier demands on magnet wire, the way, New York 4, N. Y. 56245 of 50%. Any increase in motor diameter Anaconda Wire & Cable Company is would reduce the cutting depth of the prepared, through constant research saw. Any substantial increase in weight and development, to provide wire that ANACONDA

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Sylvania & Univac

"Blueprint for Tomorrow", "Office of the Future"-these are phrases used to describe Sylvania's new Univac Data-Processing Center. For Sylvania is creating, with the Remington Rand Univac, a nerve center for its entire decentralized operations. It is utilizing Univac's electronic speed and unrivalled accuracy to establish a priceless storehouse of up-to-the-minute management information. This will be available for rapid and tfuly enlightened management decisions at all levels, and at all locations.

Every alert executive should know the significanceof this new ·step towards automation in busi­ ness. To get the complete story of Sylvania and Univac, write for EL278, "Is This a Blueprint for Tomorrow's Offices?" Room 1702, Fourth Avenue, York 315 New 10, N. Y.

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC to wonder about still smaller particles. side it. The charge falls to zero only at a What about the proton itself? Is it a di­ distance of 1.4 fermis from the center. mensionless point? Or does it too have a The root mean square radius is approxi­ finite size and an internal structure? mately .75 fermis. To find out, we placed a target of The proton experiments are quite re­ gaseous hydrogen in the electron beam cent, and we cannot say that the charge and again proceeded to measure elastic distribution shown is absolutely the only scattering. As the chart on this page one that would give a close agreement shows, the results were quite clear. The with the experimental results thus far. amount of backward scattering is much But we feel that further experiments will less than would he obtained from a point specify a true model not basically differ­ proton. Again, one particular theoretical ent. It is likely that the central features curve fits the actual results very closely. will change more than the outlying ones. The charge distribution which gives this The extended charge distribution of curve is bell-shaped or "Gaussian" [see the proton may explain the apparent dis­ diagram at top of next page J. It can also crepancy between radii as measured by be proved that the proton's magnetic electron-scattering experiments and by field is similarly distributed. the older measurements based on the in­ Thus the proton must be considered teraction of neutrons and protons with How an extended body, and our electrons nuclei. If a gold nucleus and a proton have for the first time actually seen in- are placed with their centers separated Temperature . ] affects magnets I'

The remanence of permanent magnets is related to tempera­ ture. Normally permanent magnet remanence decreases as temperature increases .. be­ coming zero at the Curie point, I� where all ferromagnetic prop­ erties vanish. There are two different ef­ \\ fects on remanence: (I) nonreversible varia­ tions \\1,\ (2) reversible variations The measurement of rema­ \ nence at differenttempera­ I\� tures will usually give indica­ z tions of both nonreversible and o reversible variations. The se >= two effects, however, can be u w separated by proper measur­

INDIANA 3 PERMANENT 50 70 90 110 130 150 MAGNETS SCATTERING ANGLE (DEGREESI

World's Largest Manufacturer PROTON·SCATTERING PATTERN would be as in the upper curve if the proton were a of Permanent Magnets dimensionless point. If its charge were spread over a finite region, then one particular dis· tribution would give pallern of lower curve. Points show actual scattering measurements. I

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC by 8.45 fermis (the old value for the 1.0 ,------, gold radius) there will be a considerable overlap of charges. The outer portions of the skins are already in contact. Thus .9 the proton finds itself, at this distance, in a situation not radically different from that of an outer proton in the gold nu­ cleus. There is no apparent reason why .8 - it should not interact strongly with the other nucleons of gold. Hence we may

expect that a radius measured by nuclear methods that involve the strong nucleon .7 - interaction will appear to give a larger value than the electromagnetic radius measured with electrons. According to present theory, the .6 >- model of the proton obtained from the t- v; scattering experiments may not really Z w represent a single, smeared-out particle. 0 .5 Instead, the proton may actually consist w

0'" of a pointlike "bare nucleon" intermit­ « tently surrounded by a clond of mesons I U [drawing at lower lef t]. It is probably .4 the meson cloud that we are probing. The theory says that the proton erupts from time to time, emitting a meson which whirls about for an unimaginably .3 - short period and then is sucked back into the proton again. The process of emis­ sion and reabsorption is considered to be an ever-present, essential activity of the .2 proton (and the neutron as well) . One problem has been to decide what frac­ tion of the total time the meson spends outside the proton. Our measurements .1 can be interpreted as indicating that the fraction is a few tenths or more. This is a higher value than had been previously o estimated. o 1.4 It is thought that the mysterious nu­ clear force arises from an exchange of mesons between nucleons. If electrons DISTANCE FROM CENTER IFERMISI can be used to "see" the mesons, they MODEL OF PROTON shown above gives a theoretical scattering pattern very close to the may help clear up the mystery. one observed. The density of charge falls off from the center outward in a "Gaussian" curve. As this is written our group is busy with new scattering experiments. We are refining our observations on the proton. Preliminary investigations of the alpha particle show that it has a charge dis­ tribution like the proton's and is unex­ pectedly compact. It is only a little larger than its two protons together, despite the fact that it also contains two neutrons. Experiments with the deuteron (the heavy hydrogen nucleus, containing one proton and one neutron) show that it is bigger than the alpha particle. The deu­ teron observatIOns may also give some information about the distribution of thfil neutron's magnetic field. It may soon be possible to tell whether the neutron and the proton are, as current theory says, alike except for their charge. This is only a partial list of the excit­ MESON THEORY suggests that the proton may actually consist of a spinning "bare nu­ ing problems that are waiting to be in­ cleon" which is essentially a point, surrounded part of the time-by a rotating meson cloud. vestigated with high-energy electrons.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC HERE'S HOW GENERAl ElECTRIC'S New PM-20 Oscillograph Helps Reduce Costs

NEW EASY·ACCESS DESIGN, MANY CONVENIENCE FEATURES MAKE OPERATION AND MAINTENAN CE EASIER, SAVE TIME AND MONE Y

EASY.ACCESS DESIGN permits reaching all SEPARATE VIEWING LAMP permits viewing parts easily through hinged doors. For without disturbing the recording lamp complete access, simply turn 3 fasteners adjustment. Both lamp holders swing out and entire cover may be quickly removed. for easy lamp removal and replacement.

NEW G-E FEA TURES SAVE TIME ONLY TWO IDLER GEARS TO CHAN GE AUTOMATIC RECORD NUMBERING, tim­ General Electric's new general-purpose for entire speed range, and both are always ing lines, the trace interruption for identifi­ in use, eliminating storage and the chance oscillograph, the PM -20, is uniquely de­ cation, and automatic record-length control signed for easier, time-saving operation and of loss. No tools are needed for changing are additional features which give you convenient maintenance. idler gears to get new ranges. easy, reliable operation. UNIQUE 71-GALVANOMETER CAPACITY MAGNETIC SPOOLS in the record holder reduce loading time. No fumbling-the in two banks gives you new versatility FOR MORE INFORMATION, contact your spools automatically position themselves in measuring and recording many variables nearest G-E Apparatus Sales Office or simultaneously. A wide range of freq uen­ correctly in the record holder. write for Bulletin GEA-6348 to Section cies-from d.c. to 6000 cps-can be AUTOMATIC SHUTTER on record holder recorded at speeds from 0.8 to 100 inches closes as the record holder is removed, pre­ 585-36, General Electric Company, per second with the new oscillograph. venting fogging of records. Schenectady 5, New York. PhJgress Is Ollr Most Impol'/ tlnf Prot/lief GEN ERA L • E LEe T RIC

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Today' s telephon e depend s on mo re d e­ pendable , "miniatur_ ized" assemblies. Bette r per for mance, reduc ed c osts-_ these ar e th e k ey­ notes o f "Practical Minia turization" .

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SPACE PERCEPTION IN THE CHICK

In which the sight of newborn chicks is manipulated ,vith tiny hoods to determine ,vhether the ability of the birds to locate objects is learned, innate or due to the process of maturation

by Eckhard H. Hess

uppose we observe that members of If the species selected is the nightingale, Why does a duckling or a gosling tag a particular species of birds always we shall discover that the young birds along after its mother? Until recent years S sing the same song. Is the song of do not sing in the same way that the it was believed that the young of a spe­ this species innate or is it learned adults normally do, showing that the cies possessed an inborn capacity for fol­ through the young bird's imitation of its song is ordinarily learned through imi­ lowing only their own parents. It has parents? Let us isolate some young of tation. If, on the other hand, we isolate now been shown for many species that this species from the adults so that no young robins, we shall find that they the young animal will become attached opportunity for learning is allowed. Will still sing the song of their kind, indicat­ to other objects in place of the parent if the young sing the song of their species? ing the existence of an innate abilitJ. those objects are present during a critical

HOOD holds experimental goggles over the chick's eyes and leaves was fitted with prisms that caused the chick to see everything as its beak free for pecking and eating. In one experiment the hood though it were seven degrees to one side of its actual position.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC CONTROL CHICKS, wearing hoods .fitted with pieces of flat plastic, A chick one day old made the pattern at left; a chick four days were allowed to peck at a brass nail embedded in modeling clay. old, the pattern at right. The patterns are centered on the nail.

EXPERIMENTAL CHICKS wore hoods fitted with prisms that dis· made the pattern at left; a chick four days old, the pattern at right. placed objects seven de·grl!es to the right. A chick one day old The pecks are more tightly clustered, but still displaced to right.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ENGINEERS, period shortly following its birth. A duckling may learn to follow a wooden Electronic & Mechanical decoy, a goose or even a human being if exposed to one of these objects instead PHYSICISTS: of to its parent during this critical early period. Later it will follow that object in preference to its own mother. Why is it important to know whether a certain behavior pattern is learned or innate? One reason is that once we have this information, we are well on our way to knowing under what circumstances the behavior can be changed. If it is learned, then we may alter the physical or psy­ chological environment so that another behavior is learned in its place. If it is innate, we may not be able to modify Top Grade Openings the behavior unless we use the innate behavior pattern as a foundation upon which to build additional responses, so At Melpar Leader in that the resulting composite behavior appears to be different. Electronic Research & Development

any psychologists believe that the Due to our continuing expansion program, a number of top grade open­ M ultimate aim of animal studies is to ings exist in our new laboratories suburban to Washington, D. C. We urge provide us with a better understanding you to consider the following: of human behavior. Such an objective is not attained by generalizing from ani­ l. At Melpar the engineer is not tied to a pre-arranged schedule of ad­ vancement. Instead, promotion and advancement are based on individual mal to human behavior-a practice of recognition, where skill and ability are the paramount factors of de­ which comparative psychologists are termination. commonly accused-although it is true that some hypotheses about man are oc­ 2. Melpar has doubled in size every 18 months for the past 10 years. New casionally suggested by the extension of openings occur constantly. This enables the engineer to advance to posi­ behavioral trends observed in the pro­ tions of increased responsibility as soon as he is ready. gression from the lower to the higher 3. Our unique "project team" basis of organization gives the engineer an animals. More likely, however, the un­ opportunity to participate in entire problems from conception to comple­ derstanding of human behavior is served tion of prototype, and thus experience the "over-all" approach to engineer­ through animal research in quite another ing problems, necessary to eventual directorship responsibility. fashion. That is to say, the animal labora­ 4. Our new air-conditioned laboratories encompass over 285,000 square tory is a testing ground for the evolution feet and offercomplete facilities for creative research and design. In ad­ of techniques and the development of dition to our central Model Shop, supplementary facilities, personnel and criteria which may ultimately be applied test equipment are available for immediate use within each project group. with ease and safety to humans. If we can discover which of man's be­ 5. The Northern Virginia Area, suburban to Washington, D. C., in which haviors are learned and which are in­ Melpar is located, offers excellent living conditions, enjoys the Nation's nate, we will know which ones may be highest per capita income, finehomes and schools. Recreational, cultural readily changed and which can be modi­ and educational facilities abound. Fully-accredited graduate courses are offered at the Melpar laboratories and at 5 universities in the Area. fied, if at all, only within narrow limits. Such findings might explain why some Top Grade Openinqs Exist in These Fields: experiences in an individual's early life Network Theory. Systems Evaluation. Microwave Technique. UHF, VHf, or SHF Re. ceivers • Analog Computers . Magnetic Tape Handling. Digital Computers. Radar affect his subsequent behavior whereas and Countermeasures. Packaging Electronic Equipment. Pulse Circuitry. Microwave other early experiences apparently do Filters· Flight Simulators. Servomechanisms • Subminiaturization • Electro-Mechanical not. We may learn how to create an en­ Design . Small Mechanisms. Quality Control and Test Engineering vironment in which desirable behaviors Write for complete information. Qualified engineers and physicists will be will be promoted and undesirable be­ invited to visit Melpar at Company expense. haviors will be modified. A further word should be said regard­ ing innate and learned behavior. The Write: Technical Personnel Representative simple fact that a behavior appears later than infancy does not necessarily mean MELPAR Incorporated that it is learned. It may represent the A Subsidiary of Westinghouse Air Brake Company natural unfolding of innate processes oc­ curring along with the individual's phys­ 3123 Arlington Boulevard, Falls Church, Virginia iological development. We call this Positions also available at our laboratories in: process maturation, and we may classify Cambridge. Mass., 99 First St .• Watertown. Mass .• II Galen St.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC CONVERGING LENSES were also placed in the hoods, causing accurately at objects on the ground, presumably benefiting from the chicks to peck short of objects. These chicks learned to peck muscular cues, but continued to peck short at objects in the air. it as a special kind of innate behavior. described here, experimenters who un­ eaten. Gradually, as sensory-motor as­ Behavior which develops through matu­ dertook this problem prevented young sociations are built up, the chick's ac­ ration possesses, in all probability, the chicks from practicing the sensory-motor curacy should improve. same resistance to modificationthat coordination involved in pecking by If, on the other hand, the chick is characterizes ordinary innate responses. means of keeping them in dark enclo­ born with an innate ability to locate One problem which has for some dec­ sures or covering their heads with little objects visually, the first pecks which ades been of interest to the comparative hoods which masked their eyes but left such a chick directs toward objects seen psychologist is the accurate localization their beaks free for eating. The results through the displacement lenses should of objects in space. When an organism of these experiments were later laid open be about seven degrees to the right. first perceives the environment, can it to question when it was suggested that Since the young chick starts its peck accurately see where things are? A large in the absence of stimulation by light the with its eyes about 25 to 30 millimeters number of experiments have been car­ eyes may fail to develop normally. Any away from the object, the actual dis­ ried out on the development of pecking inaccuracy in pecking might well have placement should be about 3 or 4 mm. accuracy in chicks. The results, how­ been the result of degeneration inthe With time and practice the chick might ever, have been far from clear. Some in­ retina or the nerves. learn to correct for the displacement so vestigators concluded that their experi­ To overcome this difficulty the author that it would strike at objects seven de­ ments indicated a maturational process, sought a method that would prevent nor­ grees to the left of where they appeared others assumed that practice through mal visual experience and yet would not to be. This, in fact, was the author's ex­ trial and error led to this accuracy, and interfere with the normal physiological pectation. still others thought the entire process to development of the eye. A solution to be innately determined. this problem was found in the technique n the actual experiment 28 Leghorn of fitting the chicks' eyes with prismatic I chicks were hatched in complete he experiments to be described were lenses which would displace the visual darkness and were immediately fitted T undertaken to ascertain whether a image to the right or to the left. with thin rubber hoods into which trans­ chick's visual perception of space-as Suppose that a chick first sees the parent plastic goggles had been inserted. measured through its accuracy in peck­ light of day wearing prisms which cause The hoods were placed over their heads ing at grain-depends upon learning or a displacement of the visual image seven quickly in such a subdued light that the upon the maturation of an innate ability. degrees to the right. If the exact visual animals had essentially no normal light One possible method for deciding this localization of objects in space is a totally experience. The goggles in the hoods of question would be to raise chicks to learned ability, the chick's performance 10 of the chicks were flatpieces of plas­ adulthood without permitting them the should be unaffected by the fact that it tic which produced no image displace­ opportunity for normal visual experience is wearing displacement prisms. When ment. These 10 were the control animals. and then expose them to a situation in the chick sees a food object, it should Twelve of the chicks had hoods which which they might demonstrate their start pecking but in a random fashion were fitted with plastic prisms which pecking ability. Prior to the experiment until, after trial and error, the object is displaced the whole visual field seven

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SILICONE NEWS N'ew Mat:erials St:ret:chProfit:s

Silicone rubber cuts aircraft warm-up time; opens minimizes down-time and replace­ • ment costs. Comparable savings re­ new markets. ported for heat-stable silicone lubri­ cants in hard-working motors, textile machines, oven conveyors. No. 26 • Rolling mill production increased 30% with silicone • Lasting Beauty-A few years ago, silicone-based cosmetics were total insulated induction heaters. strangers to drug store shelves and beauty salons. Now, they're big busi­ • Beauty industry uncorks wide variety of silicone­ ness and growing like Jack's bean stalk. Latest count based cosmetics. found over 60 cosmetic manu­ • Faster Take-offs-Need for mini­ • No Siestas for Iuductiou Heaters facturers making mum warm-up time in aircraft led to Vancouver Rolling Mills of Canada new or improved development of heating elements that cut steel ingot heating time 75%; products through can quickly reach and safely hold reduced fuel costs $200 per day; use of silicone temperatures of 400 to 500 F. Safe­ stepped up production 30% with fluids. List in­ way Heat Elements, Inc., of Middle­ induction heating coils insulated with cludes protective town, Conn. answers that need with Dow Corning silicones. Cold ingots hand creams, sun-tan oils, nail pol­ woven resistance wire sandwiched are heated to 2300 F and converted ishes, after-shave lotions. Anatomy­ between layers of Dow Corning's to bar stock in 10 minutes. Rated wise, applications range from baby Silastic* R Tape. Also used to give production is 20 tons an hour. With bottoms to hair dressings. maximum life and reliability to diesel heating coils cheek by jowl with How come? With properties unlike electric traction motors, this silicone white-hot ingots, only silicone insula­ those found in conventional ingre­ rubber tape is the only resilient insul­ tion can prevent coil failure. Same's dients, silicone fluids developed by lating material that can withstand Dow Corning give cosmetic industry such temperatures. new selling features. Durably water Void-free, moistureproof insulat­ repellent, nonvolatile and harmless ing jacket has maximum flexibility, physiologically, silicones help cos­ minimum thickness, high thermal metic chemists create new and better conductivity, excellent dielectric pro­ products. Also important is rapidly perties. Safeway heaters may be growing sales appeal born of major immersed in fluids that must be contributions made to every day liv­ heated or maintained at optimum ing and to the industrial economy by temperatures. Other aircraft appli­ silicones. No. 27 cations for the heaters include gyros, • Competitive Advantage -often bearmgs, cameras, valves, hose, pitot hinges on materials engineering. tubes. Large industrial market is That's why design, production and indicated. No. 22 maintenance men need handy new Reference Guide to Dow Corning Silicone Products. No. 28 true in any hard working or space and weight saving electrical or electronic Dow Corning Silicones Mean Business! equipment. No. 24 FOR MORE INFORMATION • Self-bailiug Boats -"Bail-a­ on silicones used in these matic" pumps in Scott-Atwater's new applications, circle refer­ ence numbers in coupon. outboard motors start bailing the first time out after winter hibernation, Dow Corning Corporation, thanks to a few drops of Dow Corn­ Dept. 9807, Midland, Michigan ing 200 Fluid as nongumming lubri­ cant for rubber impellers. No. 25 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC degrees to the right. Six of the animals racy in pecking was therefore not re­ wore lenses which caused a similar dis­ quired. In the latter situation a chick about the people placement of the visual field to the left. which missed the grain at which it aimed All of the animals were returned to would nevertheless hit other grains in who research the 1 darkness for a period of about six hours the bowl almost every time it pecked. so that they could become accustomed This was not true, of course, of those to the hoods. Then, when they were chicks which were pecking at individual IIDEAS I at IBM about one day old, all of the animals grains scattered on the floor. were tested for pecking accuracy. They When the chicks were between three were allowed to strike at small objects and four days old, they were tested embedded in modeling clay. The targets again. The results showed a great in­ were small brass nails, embedded so that crease in accuracy on the part of the they could not be dislodged by pecking. control chicks: now their pecks clustered The modeling clay provided a simple quite closely about the target. There was means of recording the accuracy with no detectable difference between the which the chicks pecked at the nails. By two subgroups of the control animals­ photographing the dented clay after those fed on scattered food and those fed such a pecking session and then tracing on mash in bowls. the actual dispersion of pecks from a Among the animals wearing displace­ projected image of the negative, it was ment prisms, improvement of a kind had possible to get a clear picture of the also occurred. The pecks were clustered accuracy or inaccuracy of the chicks as just as tightly as those of the controls, they were tested. showing that increased accuracy had The pecks made by all of the chicks certainly been achieved. The centers of were scattered. There was, however, one these clusters, however, were approxi­ Robert Henle fundamental difference in the perform­ 4 mately mm. to the right or to the left Recently appointed to the post of De­ ance of the control and experimental of the target, depending on which dis­ velopment Engineer, Bob Henle has been animals. In the control group the pecks placement glasses were worn by the ex­ with the co mpany since he received his were scattered about the target so that perimental animal. Again there was very Masters degree in Electrical Engineering the target itself formed the center of the little difference in accuracy among the from the Universit y of Minnesota in distribution. For those chicks wearing subgroups of experimental animals. But 1951. On his own time. if he's not read­ lenses which displaced the visual field another difference was evident in the ing or on the IBM Country Club golf­ to the right, the pecks were similarly physical condition of the subgroups. links, Bob likes to rebuild and refinish scattered, but they were centered about Where the animals which had access to Early American furniture. "And when I a point seven degrees to the right of the bowls of mash were as healthy as the complete a piece," he says, "I keep it!" target. Similarly, the group whose lenses control animals, the animals in the scat­ displaced their visual images to the left tered grain situation were in poor physi­ showed a scattering of pecks to the left cal condition and apparently would have of the target. Some pecks of chicks in all died if they had been kept in the same groups actually hit the target. situation. Two animals maintained in this Half of the control group and half of situation died the following day. each of the two experimental groups We must conclude that the chick's were now placed in an enclosure in visual apparatus for locating objects in which grain had been loosely scattered space is innate and not learned. This on the floor. The other half of the three conclusion is based on the fact that the groups were placed in a box in which chick wearing displacement prisms clus­ they had access to bowls of mash; accu- tered its pecks about the spot where the

Offthe job, Bob Koehler's the operator of amateur radio station W2HZZ-and he makes his radio skill available to Dutchess County as Coordinator of its Amateur Radio Emergency Corps. He's active, too, in the county's Civil Defense communications setup. A graduate of Purdue University with a B.S.E.E. de­ gree, Bob joined IB M engineering in 1941.

• If you are a Creative Engineer who would like to put ideas to work at IBM, write, describing your background and V ARIOUS HOODS used by the author in his experiments in the department of psychology interests, to William Hoyt, Room 1107, at the University of Chicagodfim'oitnteltin the laboratory. The hoods are made of rubber. IBM,590 Madison Ave., New York 22, N. Y.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC putting I IDE A S I to work-research at I IBM I

• Multi-Stable Work Horse: By employing a non-linear load, new circuit permits two transistors to do the work of ten. IBM Bulletin No. 200.

• Self-Complementary: New Gas Tube Counter sub­ tracts by adding. IBM Bulletin No. 201.

• The Soft Touch: Ultrasonic cutting at IBM permits devices to be cut from hard, brittle materials within 0.0002".

TOP OF TUI£ GasT uloa Counter Multi-Stable Work Horse Sc...... atlc The SoftTouch

As the size and complexity ofIBM prod­ In some of our studies of new compo­ ucts increase, we are faced with growing nents, at the IBM Research Laboratories numbers of components-which means at Poughkeepsie, it is necessary to make increased cost. As part of our continuous many different, small and intricately search for improvement and ways to shaped parts from brittle materials. Fol­ reduce the number of components, Rob­ lowing the conventional approach, each

ert Henle, one of our Transistor Circuit , of these parts would require laborious : Research people, undertook to get more , and costly machining and fabrication. , work out of a given number of tran­ , . We turned to ultrasonic cutting; with COWUMENT. ..t ::-:. 1 __ • sistors. The result is a two-transistor, c this tool we can make any shape or size !, multi-stable circuit employing feedback , component in approximately a minute­ controlled by a non-linear load. Junction PCTDUIIlDtATl- _ a... _ ...... _ I with an accuracy five times greater than transistors are naturally suited to this previously possible! The ultrasonic cut­ new kind of circuit. Self-Complementary ter has helped us progress faster in our development of new devices. RESEARCH Accounting machines these days must at IBM means IDEAS at work. + _a . ..nc .... be able to do everything-even make 11ft decisions. In order to get a machine to ...., "., 111\ do more in a day's time with little or no increase in operating cost, IBM Com­ 111\ l ponent Research people studied the idea .0' ,01\ of using a multi-cathode gas tube. It's "" good news that they came up with an attractive approach, which Robert Koeh­ I1n ler, of our Device Development Group, 111\ then reduced to practice; it operates faster than its electromechanical prede­ 11... cessor and, furthermore, with simple cir­ ,lOA cuitry, can subtract by adding. It can

,A read out in true number form both posi­ tive and negative balances. This is pos­ an sible because a number stored in the tube

-- may be transposed to its 9's complement 10 StoW. Stota Circuit (i.e., value subtracted from nine) by a single electrical pulse. Scltataollc 0'Ultroto.dc CvItIr A full report on this new idea from If you'd like more informationon the IBM contains eight full-page circuit dia­ basic principle, physical arrangement of grams in addition to mathematical anal­ parts, and typical problems solved, write • For bulletins mentioned above, write yses of the operation of the circuit. for IBM Bulletin No. 201. If you are Dept. SA-7, International Business Ma­ Write for your copy of IBM Bulletin fascinated by the theory of numbers, we chines Corp., 590 Madison Ave., New No. 200. recommend this Bulletin. York 22, N. Y.

DATA DATA PROCESSING . ELECTRIC TYPEWRITERS, TIME EQUIPMENT. MILITARY PRODUCTS II:'�IPROCESSING

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC object was seen. It did not simply peck at random until it struck the target. Furthermore, the chick whose visual field was displaced appeared unable to learn through experience to correct its aim. Its only improvement was to in­ BASIC crease the consistency of the distance by which it missed the target. Apparently RESEARCH the innate picture which the chick has of the location of objects in its visual al world cannot be modified through learn­ ing if what is required is that the chick los alamos learn to perform a response which is an­ tagonistic to its instinctive one.

he technique developed for the fore- Tgoing experiment seemed to offer an admirable opportunity for studying an­ other aspect of bird vision-stereopsis, or binocular depth perception. The ques­ tion to be answered was whether the bird possesses this capacity. In man there is considerable overlap of the areas viewed by the two eyes. Since the pupils of the eyes are about two and a half inohes apart, however, each eye gets a slightly different picture of the commonly shared view. In some way these two p ictures are integrated in the brain so that objects viewed appear three-dimensional rather than flat. In the chick, on the other hand, the eyes are at the sides of the head rather than at the front. Consequently, except for a relatively small area directly in front of the bird, the two eyes receive visual stimulation from different parts of the surroundings. In man, optic fibers from each eye The cyclotron shown above is one of the many types travel to both sides of the brain. In the bird this is not the case. The optic fibers of advanced research equipment in use at Los Alamos. from the chick's left eye presumably This variable energy machine is designed to accelerate cross over completely to the right side high intensity beams of all the hydrogen and helium of the brain and those from the right eye isotopes. to the left side of the brain. Essentially on the basis of these facts The Laboratory offers a wide range of opportunities alone it was believed by some that the to do research and development work in the fields of bird lacks binocular depth perception. In Physics, Chemistry, Metallurgy, Mathematics, Comput­ other words, it was thought that the bird's ing and Engineering. brain could not combine the two small overlapping images to produce an im­ If you are interested in learning more about career pression of depth or three-dimensional­ opportunities at Los Alamos, write- ity. The bird's perception of depth and distance was believed to be entirely de­ DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC PERSONNEL pendent upon monocular cues, i.e., cues Division 1 01 2 which can be utilized by one eye alone. One important monocular cue is re­ ceived through the successive impres­ sions of an object obtained by moving the head and viewing the object from ;alamos various angles. Other monocular cues �oratory are the diminution of size with increased Of THE ����E;HH�IF!: distance, the overlapping by nearer ob­ LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO jects of more distant ones, and accom­ modation, or focus. The author undertook the following

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Supervoltage development and test area of General Electric X-Ray Department's irradiation laboratory in Milwaukee - a completely equipped building devoted to electron-beam technology.

Electron-beam generators developed here may give your product new properties

ITH supervoltage electron General Electric is definitely Wbeam generators operating committed to provide you with at high kilowatt output, General the ultimate in electron-beam re­ Electric invites you to participate search and proved p roduction in exploring the challenging po­ equipment. With your coopera­ tentials for your products. tion, your products or materials What have others done with can be test-irradiated in the G-E high-energy irradiation? Beams Milwaukee laboratory. Should are lethal to microorganisms­ these tests show promise, equip­ HERE ARE FACTS on applications and sterilize drugs ... preserve foods. ment for use in your own plant equipment for electron·beam irradiation. Your local G-E x-ray representative has And they provide a powerful new can be purchased, or leased under a copy for you. Or write X-Ray Depan­ ment, General Electric Company. Milwau­ cross-linking agent in chemistry. the G-E Maxiservice® rental plan_ kee 1, Wisconsin, for Pub. TT·74.

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79

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC experiment to determine whether the normal adult chicken uses binocular cues NEWS from to localize objects in space. Rubber NOISE hoods were slipped over the heads of chickens six to eight weeks old. These MASS HEARING hoods were fitted with prismatic lenses TESTED AT FAIR having their broad bases outward. If a man were to look through a similar, but Milwaukee, Wise ..•. Photo at left shows scene at the last Wisconsin State Fair larger, set of lenses, using binocular vi­ where thousands volunteered for hearing sion, objects would appear closer to him tests conducted by the American Academy of Ophthalmology & Otolaryngology. Eight than they actually were. It he used his pre·fabricated lAC Audiometric Testing right eye alone, the object would appear Rooms were used. to the left of its actual position. Similar results should be expected of chickens. STOCK EXCHANGE HITS NEW PR HIGH Of the six animals used, all pecked WITH SILENCED COOLING TOWER short at grains of mash placed before

New York •..• The N. Y. Stock Exchange them. None struck the surface on which reached a new high in Public Relations by the grains rested. When the experi­ having lAC silence their new cooling tower before placing it in operation! This eliminated menter covered the right or the left eye any antagonism or complaints from adjoining of the chicken with masking tape, the buildings that would certainly have arisen be· bird struck the surface on which the cause of cooling tower noise. grain rested but missed to the side away from the exposed eye. The conclusion to QUIETER PLANT OPERATION be drawn is that the normal adult chick­ WITH MACHINERY ENCLOSURE en uses binocular cues to localize objects in space. Hopewell, Va. . • • A noisy shredding machine was effectively silenced to pro· Later nine newly hatched chicks were vide better working conditions at a south· outfitted with the same kind of prismatic ern manufacturing company. This sound· proof enclosure was constructed with lAC lenses and were similarly tested. As with Standard Acoustic Panels. the adult chickens, the chicks struck in NOISE NEWS is published to keep science and industry informed on progress made the direction of the grains but always in the continlling war on noise. Full data on sllbjects covered and other lAC noise short of them, thereby demonstrating control products may be obtained by writing Industrial Acoustics Company, Inc;, that in the absence of any visual expe­ Dept. 10, 341 Jackson Avenue, New York J4, N. Y. Tel: CYpress 2·0180. rience, binocular depth cues are still employed. ENGINEERS In the last of the three experiments on announces ARAIA stereoscopic vision, nine chickens were raised to an age of two to three months with the opportunity of using only mo­ INERTIAL NAVIGATION nocular vision. From the day of hatch­ ing they wore hoods, changed each day, develO.Jlmenlpr(Jffram.foran advanced Air fOrce mIssile which had openings for only one eye. In Inertial Navigation offers the most advanced concept in guidance. other words, on the first day they would requiring no terrestrial source of energy or information. no earth· Immediate openings bound direction once the ultimate destination is selected. It offers lor Supervisory and wear a hood which would allow the use the most promising solution of the guidance problem for the long­ Staff positions as range missile. well as lor of only the right eye, on the second day Senior Engineers, a hood which exposed only the left eye, While the principles are simple. the realization involves advanced Engineers, and creative engineering. ARMA's many successes in the creation of Associate Engineers. and so on. These hoods contained no precision instruments and systems for navigation and -fire control, experienced in: especially precision gyroscopic reference systems for all applica­ lenses or prisms. The purpose of this pro­ Systems Evaluation tions, fit it uniquely for a major role in this advanced area. cedure was simply to prevent experience Gyroscopics The height of imaginative resourcefulness and engineering skill with binocular vision, but at the same Digital Computers are required to create the degree of precision-hitherto unattained time to allow extensive use of both eyes. _ in the components essential to the guidance of advanced missile Accelerometers systems-the gyros, accelerometers, and computer elements. Minia­ Telemetry When these chickens were tested at the turization must be coupled with extraordinaryability to provide Guidance Systems utmost accuracy under conditions of' extreme velocities, tempera­ end of two or three months with binoc­ Reliability tures, and accelerations. ular prisms having their broad bases out­ Stabilizing Devices There's significant scientific progress to be achieved at this leader­ Servomechanisms ward, all nine animals pecked short of ship company and individual renown to be won, by engineers assoCiated with ARMA's Inertial Navigation Program. Many sup­ Automatic Controls the grain. Apparently the lack of binoc ­ plementary benefits make a career here doubly attractive. ARMA Thermodynamics ular experience did not prevent the ap­ engineers are currently working a 48 hour week at premium rates Environmental pearance of binocular vision. to meet a critical demand in the Defense Dept's missile program. Research Moving allowances arranged. Weight Control Salary -up to $15.000 (Colnmen8urate with experience) Transformers umming up our results, we conclude Send resume in confidence to: Production S that the naive chick as well as the Manager of Technical Personnel, Dept. 674 Test Equipment experienced one possesses binocular Standards ARAIA depth perception. This innate organiza­ Division of American Bosch Arma Corporation tion for the perception of depth requires Roosevelt Field. Garden City. Long Island. N. Y. neither learning nor continued use for its presence in the adult animal.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC CHEMISTS The portraits of tomorrow's propulsion systems are rapidly becoming realities at Aerojet-General. America's foremost manufacturer of rocket powerplants, Aerojet is a major contributor to this nation's most critical rocket and missile programs. PHYSICISTS But creation takes talent. Operations at Aerojet's California plants, near Los Angeles and Sacramento, are expanding rapidly. Un­ MATHEMATICIANS paralleled career opportunities exist for scientific and engineering personnel at all levels of experience. Please write the Director of Personnel, Aerojet­ General Corp., Box 296PP, Azusa, Calif. or Box METALLURGISTS 1947PP, Sacramento, Calif. Your resume will receive immediate, confidential attention. DRAFTSMEN �->-�--�I"fl/���/atCORPORATION

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81

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC The mystery of cyanoethylation is a chal­ lenge to forward-looking scientists every­ where. Because acrylonitrile reacts with virtually any material containing a labile hydrogen atom, it seems likely that it will sire scores of improved products for daily living. It is known that when cotton is reacted with acrylonitrile to replace part or all of the original hydroxyl hydrogen with the group­ CH2CH2CN -a cyanoethylated cotton is pro­ duced that is resistant to rot, mildew and heat de gradation, and that has improved dyeability. What effects will cyanoethylation produce on other forms of cellulose? On sawdust? On sisal? On paper? On jute? On hemp? The answers are being sought in labora­ tories all over the world.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC PALEOBIOCHEMISTRY

Until recently it was believed that anCient bones and shells

contained none of their original organic substance. Now amIno acids have been found In fossils as old as 300 million years

by Philip H. Abelson

an has speculated on the origin that the hard parts of many ancient crea­ of amino acids in fossils from many geo­ of life at least since the Book of tures contain appreciable amounts of logical formations [see table on page M Genesis was firstwritten. Today their original organic substance! 90]. We have also examined fossils we can clearly trace the evolution of life In the Geophysical Laboratory of the which turned out to contain no amino back to the beginning of the Cambrian Carnegie Institution of Washington we acids at all. Some of these were collected Period some 500 million years ago. In have recently discovered organic mate­ from formations which at some point in the Cambrian Period animals began to rial in fossils as old as 300 million years. their history had been buried at great make hard inorganic substances such as Consider, for example, a vertebra of depth and subjected to high tempera­ shell and bone. From these hard parts Stegosaurus stenops, a dinosaur which tures, which would cause amino acids to we can reconstruct the outlines of soft lived 150 million years ago. Suppose we break down. The crystal structure of parts-the fleshof the animals. take a bit of this bony material and dis­ others had been replaced by new struc­ Until recently it was thought that the solve it in hydrochloric acid. In the re­ tures. For example, shells which had hard parts could tell us little or nothing sulting solution we will find small originally contained the fine-grained about the chemistry of extinct organisms. amounts of various amino acids-the mineral aragonite were found to consist The biochemical approach was largely ''building blocks" of living protein. The of coarse-grained calcite. Thus we con­ limited to the study of living organisms, principal amino acids present are ala­ centrated on those specimens which had especially those which appear to differ nine, glutamic acid and glycine. We will probably never been subjected to high little from their fossil ancestors. (One also find lesser amounts of aspartic acid, temperatures, and whose hard substance such organism is Limulus, the horseshoe isoleucine, proline and valine. had not been replaced or altered. crab.) Now, however, it has been shown We have found a similar assortment There is not much to be gained from a

FOSSIL CLAM SHELL at the right is 25 million years old. At the mercenaria. The detection and analysis of amino acids in hoth of left is the shell of a modern clam of the same species: Mercenaria the shells is depicted in the photographs on the following pages.

83

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC comparison of the amount of amino acids found in various fossils; the conditions under which they were preserved vary too widely. It is of considerable interest, however, that a plate from the armor of the Devonian fishDinichthys temlli is particularly rich in amino acids. This specimen was found in the Black Shale of Ohio, which contains very little oxy­ gen. Thus its amino acids were shielded against oxidation.

n order to understand the origin of the I fossil amino acids, we reviewed the protein content of shells and bones from living animals. It is well known that bone contains considerable protein; in some cases protein accounts for half the weight of bone. It is less widely known that protein is also found in shells. We have investigated a wide variety of shells, and have found that they always contain protein. The shells of mollusks­ clams, oysters and snails-have a protein content of .1 per cent to .5 per cent or more. In our experience only one of the hard substances made by living things does not contain protein. This is the sili­ ca skeleton of diatoms. Although living shells contain much less protein than living bones do, fossil shells and fossil bones yield about the same amount of amino acid. This is be­ cause the protein of shells often occurs in laminated sheets, so that the inner PRO laminations are protected from attack by bacteria. Bones are not so well protected against bacterial attack. Under special conditions, however, a substantial frac­ tion of the original organic substance in bone may be preserved. Bones taken from the famous La Brea tar pit in Los

PAPER CHROMATOGRAMS demonstrate ALA the difference between the amino acid con­ tent of a modern clam shell (top) and that of a fossil clam shell (bottom). The method by which the chromatograms were made is depicted on page 88. The modern shell was about .2 per cent protein. When the protein was broken down, the resulting solution contained 13 amino acids: alanine (ALA), aspartic acid (ASP), glutamic acid (GLU), glycine (GLY), isoleucine (lLEU) , leucine (LEU), lysine (LYS), phenylalanine GLU (PHE), proline (PRO), serine (SER), threonine (THR), tyrosine (TYR) and valine (VAL). The fossil shell contained seven amino acids comprising .01 per cent of it. The amino acids are colorless but are made visihle by spraying them with re­ agents. All of them except proline leave purple spots. Proline makes a yellow spot.

84

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Navy uses new gas turbine for small boat propulsion

THE SOLAR METEOR skims across San ice. They offer many advantages over WRITE FOR BOOKLET ...new brochure describes Diego Bay, signaling a new era of small ordinary power plants, and their applica­ Solar gas turbines -how they work, advan­ tages they offer to forward-looking industries. boat propulsion. This 40-foot Navy per­ tions are limited only by the imagination. Send for a copy today. sonnel, boat is powered by the 500 hp Designing and building gas turbines Solar Jupiter gas turbine. Her speed- is a logical activity for Solar. Since 1927, 26 knots -and acceleration are astonish­ the company has specialized in doing ing. The Solar Meteor vividly demon­ difficult jobs with tough metals -from strates why gas turbines are the power the research and development stage SOLAR plants of the future. through to precision fabrication. Can AIRCRAFT COMPANY Solar builds both the 50 hp Mars and this experience help you solve a complex the 500 hp Jupiter gas turbines. Both engineering or manufacturing problem? engines have proven their reliability Dept. C-36, Solar Aircraft Company. with thousands of hours of rugged serv- San Diego 12, California.

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85

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SHELLS ARE DISSOLVED with hydrochloric acid for their anal­ Washington. The beaker at the left contains a sample of the mod­ ysis in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of ern shell; the beaker at the right, a sample of the fossil shell.

DISSOLVED SHELL IS POURED into a glass column containing AMMONIA SOLUTION IS ADDED to the column. This removes an ion-exchange resin (opaque material at bottom 0/ column). The the amino acids from the resin and deposits them in the beaker at calcium and amino acids of the shell are adsorbed on the resin_ the bottom. The amino acids are now concentrated for separation.

86

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Angeles are more than 10 per cent amino acid. What is more, the amino acids are still linked in long peptide chains. Here the bones were encased in asphalt, and ENGINEERS AWk probably not exposed to bacteria, oxygen or water. We were able to make a more detailed THERE'S A-BRIGHT�FUTURE study of how amino acids are preserved in the edible clam, or quahog, of the . Atlantic coast. This species (Mercenaria 7 mercenaria) has been common for more //1\\\'\< than 25 million years, and its fossil shells appear identical with their modern coun­ FOR YOU AT CONTINENTAL terparts. It was possible to study the content of protein and amino acids in the Continental Aviation & Engineering Corp. is constantly increas­ shells of clams now living and clams 1,000, 500,000 and 25 million years old. ing its staff of competent specialized personnel to meet the The laminated sheets of protein in growing demands in the development of specialized power modern clam shells are colorless and packages. The small and medium gas turbine engine program "have some mechanical strength. The at CAE is progressing rapidly and offers engineers and tech­ amino acids found in the protein are nicians a challenging career coupled with many extra job typical of amino acids found in other benefits. If you hold a degree in the AERODYNAMICS, METAL­ animals; some 15 were actually identi­ fied. The shell 1,000 years old, the age LURGY, MECHANICAL or DESIGN ENGINEERING fields, con- of which was determined by the carbon tact CAE and investigate the 14 method, had been buried in moist opportunities that can be yours. soil. There it had been exposed to such agents of destruction as bacteria. Its pro­ ADDRESS: "Engineering Personnel" tein content was undiminished, and its amino acids were identical with those of CONTINENTAL AVIATION & ENGINEERING CORPORATION the modern specimen. However, the 12700 KERCHEVAL AVENUE. DETROIT 1 S. MICHIGAN sheets of protein had turned brown and SUBSIDIARY OF CONTINENTAL MOTORS CORPORATION , had lost all mechanical strength. The shell estimated to be 500,000 years old, Can you think faster which because of the uncertainty of the dating method may actually be as young than this Machine? as 100,000 years or as old as a million, contained no protein at all. In place of the protein was a black, tarlike substance. The amino-acid content of the shell had diminished to about a tenth of that in the modern shell. About half of the amino acid was in the form of peptide chains consisting of two or more amino acids. Only individual amino acids remained in the shell 25 million years old. The

amino acids found in this shell and in the Be careful before you answer. GENIAC the first electrical brain construction kit is equipped to play tic-tac-toe, cipher modern one are compared in the color and encipher codes, convert from binary to decimal, reason (in syllogisms) as well as add, subtract, multiply and di­ vide. Specific problems in a variety of fields-actuarial, policy photographs on page 84. Where the claim settlement, physics, etc.-can be set up and solved with the components, Connections are solderless and are com­ pletely explained with templates in the manual. This covers modern shell contains the usual protein 33 circuits and shows how new ones can be designed. You will find building and using GENIACS a wonderful building blocks, the ancient specimen experience: one kit user wrote us: "this kit has opened UP a new world of thinking to me." You actuallv see how u · 0 e g d P c -t consists predominantly of alanine, glu­ ft��� :i�.� c�� �� �n:r�:� wi�� B3���n l��e£n -;�� ��e algebraic solutions transformed directly into circuit dia­ grams. You create from over 400 specially designed and tamic acid, glycine, isoleucine, proline manufactured components a machine that solves problems faster than you can express them. Exakta is the world's most outstanding

and valine. n s' t a camera for SCientifiC, industrial, and engl�he��V:1g� �hil������ or ��;����o�: �mel��d ��es� !�: cellent demonstrators of cir,cuitry. solutions in symbolic technical photography! With the Eukta logic, theory of numbers, cybernetics, and automation. you can photograph an infinitesimal Note: Teachers take advantage of our 100/0discount to Microbe under a microscope or an Eagle he sequence of steps in the decay of educational institutions and for group purchases. atop a mountain-with the one and same o O G T the protein seems clear. First water �o�r:�u� Jrid ��m��!�g :�� ���s. 9�Iry f l�;:sfr�t�di�a���� camera. You will have the perfect assur­ and wiring diagrams. We guarantee that if you do not want ance of absolute accuracy with an Auto· to keep GENIAC after two weeks you can return it for full penetrates the shell and reacts with the refund plus shipping costs. matic Exakta VX-because the same lens -----'MAIL THIS COUPON-----­ that Is used for viewing also takes the protein so that it breaks down into pep­ picture. This very same viewing system SCIENCE KITS, Department SA-76. serves" for all types of photography with Oliver Garfietd Company tide chains and individual amino acids. an Eukta. from microscope to telescope, 126 Lexington Avenue and everything which Is between includ. Because these smaller molecules are New York 16. N. Y. ing close·ups. Of course, you can also more soluble in water, some of them may Please send me: use the Exakta "for personal photography. 1 GENIA.C Electric Brain Construction Kit and Manual. sports, portraits, copywork. etc. FREE!­ drain out of the shell. Of the amino acids Write Dept. 600 for Free Descriptive $19.95 (East or MiSSissippi) Booklet "F" on Camera & Accessories that remain in the shell, some (such as $20.95 (Elsewhere in United States) and Brochure on Close·up Technique with $21.95 (Outside the United States) Automatic Exakta VX, serine, threonine and tyrosine) are un­ Returnable in seven days ror full refund if not satisfied I enclose $... in full payment. EXAKTA CAMERA COMPANY stable and tend to break down more 705 8, N. Y. My name and address are attached. Bronx River Rd., Bronxville

87

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC rapidly than the others. After a few mil· lion years they will vanish altogether. This explains why various older fossils contain the same unusual assortment of amino acids. Originally they all con­ tained proteins composed of the same amino acids we .pnd in proteins today, but only the stable amino acids have sur­ vived.

hat about the possibility that the Wamino acids we extract from fossils do not originate with the original protein of the material, but with modern sources? Are our specimens, in short, merely contaminated? It would be diffi­ cult to eliminate this possibility if we considered only one fossil. The fact that we find similar amino acids in fossils of the same species collected from many different formations strongly supports the assumption that the amino acids in DROP OF SOLUTION containing amino acids is placed on the corner of a sheet of absorb· ent paper. Two sheets are shown, one for the amino acids found in each of the two samples. the fossils were there during the life of the animal. Another indication that we are deal­ ing with the original material has to do with the way in which certain amino acids are adsorbed on calcium carbonate precipitating in the laboratory. Aspartic acid and glutamic acid tend to be ad­ sorbed on such a precipitate; other ami· no acids are not. The fossil material is largely composed of calcium carbonate; thus if the amino acids in it had been adsorbed from water in the ground, we would expect to findan abundance of aspartic acid and glutamic acid. Such is not the case. We must also consider another pOint. Are amino acids sufficientlystable to last for long periods of geologic time? Faced with such a question, the average chem­ ist would probably say no. Fortunately the question may be answered by resort­ ing to an approach used in industry to test products. In this approach tests are designed to subject the product to the equivalent of many years of service within a few hours or days. In the case of amino acids the test con­ sists of heating these compounds to high temperatures and observing their rate of breakdown. In this way we were able to study the breakdown of alanine in some detail. The kind of reaction in which alanine breaks down proceeds at a rate which is described by a well-known law of physical chemistry: the Arrhenius equation, named for the famous Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius. By observing the behavior of alanine at various high SHEET IS SUSPENDED in a vessel so that the spot containing the amino acids is at the temperatures, it is possible to draw a lower right. At the bottom of the vessel is a solvent which travels np the paper by capillary attraction. As it does so, it carries the amino acids with it. Becanse each amino acid travels curve which can be extended to predict at a characteristic rate, this process separates the constituents of the mixture. The sheet is its behavior at relatively low tempera­ then turned so that the spot is at the lower left. This further separates the amino acids in tures. We found that at 450 degrees cen­ the pattern shown on page 84. The spots are now treated with reagent to make them visible. tigrade it took about a second for a given

88

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC One badly played pawn can lose a chess game .... one incorrectly designed part affects an entire plane. Thus, aircraft designers take no chances; they exhaustively check every component, every structure. On a test wing, for example, stresses are measured over and over at up to 500 differenl points under constantly increasing loads. Reducing the moun­ tains of data from such a test to usable form, ready for engineering study, normally takes weeks of calculation. A Consolidated Data Processing Sys­ tem, however, reduces those weeks to minutes .... converts raw measure­ ments to finished data quickly, precisely, automatically. (One aircraft company completed in just six weeks tests expected to take six months!)

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89

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC concentration of alanine in water to de­ acids, it may be possible to infer the ex­ shape of a single chain. Now all modern crease by 63 per cent. At 188 degrees C. istence of unstable amino acids that have organisms contain fatty acids. When it took a month for the concentration to broken down. fatty acids are broken down by bacteria decrease by the same amount. If we ex­ or heat, they yield single-chain hydro­ tend the curve based on such figures, we kino acids are of course only one of carbons. Laboratory experiments indi­ find that at room temperature alanine many families of chemical com­ cate that only moderate heat is required could last for billions of years. Many pounds synthesized by living things. to encourage this reaction. The very ex­ other organic compounds are even more There is much evidence to indicate that istence of petroleum in formations where stable. compounds in other groups can also sur­ it has been exposed to temperatures We have similarly accelerated the vive for millions of years. One such above 200 degrees C. is a testimonial to aging of other amino acids, though not group is the porphyrins. An iron por­ the durability of some organic matter. in so much detail. These studies have phyrin is present in the blood pigment It has long been known that coal is shown that the most stable amino acids hemoglobin; indeed, all organisms that rich in organic compounds. By means of are alanine, glutamic acid, glycine, iso­ require free oxygen contain some kind mild chemical treatment that does not leucine, proline and valine. The less of porphyrin. Large quantities of va­ alter the original molecules, a host of stable amino acids are arginine, aspartic nadium porphyrins have been found in such compounds has been isolated. acid, lysine, phenylalanine, serine, threo­ petroleum. In one case it was apparent Among them-are porphyrins, carote­ nine and tyrosine. Thus our laboratory that the oil had been exposed to a tem­ noids, alcohols and fatty acids. The kind . studies correlate perfectly with our find­ perature of 150 degrees C. for tens of and amount of organic substance found ings in fossils. millions of years. This survival indicates in coal depends on its thermal history. When we investigated the breakdown that porphyrins are far more stable than Lignite and brown coal are richer in of phenylalanine, we uncovered an in­ amino acids. If porphyrins were manu­ these compounds than bituminous coal teresting possibility. Phenylalanine de­ factured by the earliest forms of life, or anthracite. composes into carbon dioxide and some of these substances should still be Perhaps the most exciting prospect for phenylethyl amine, which is much more in existence. the study of fossil organic compounds stable than the compound from which it Other constituents of petroleum pro­ lies in the vast stretch of time before the is derived. Phenylethyl amine does not vide evidence on the life of the past. Cambrian Period. Although estimates of normally occur in living organisms. If we Frederick D. Rossini at the Carnegie In­ the age of the earth vary and are subject were able to isolate it from a fossil, we stitute of Technology has identified some to change, the earth is at least 3.5 billion would have good ground for the assump­ 140 organic compounds in crude oil from years old. A wide variety of living or­ tion that the fossil had once contained the mid-continental deposits of the U. S. ganisms existed at the beginning of the phenylalanine. When we learn more This oil, like many others, is rich in hy­ Cambrian Period some 500 million years about the decomposition of other amino drocarbon molecules which have the ago. What forms of life existed during

PLESIPPUS PLESIPPUS LYROPECTEN ECPHORA MESOHIPPUS MOSASAURUS ANATOSAURUS DINICHTHYS NAME (HORSE) (HORSE) (SCALLOP) (SNAIl) (HORSE) (DINOSAUR) (DINOSAUR) (FISH)

GEOLOGICAL LATE LATE MIOCENE MIOCENE OLIGOCENE CRETACEOUS CRETACEOUS DEVONIAN PERIOD PLIOCENE PLIOCENE

APPROXIMATE AGEIYEARS) 5 X 106 5 X 106 25 X 106 25 X 106 40 X 106 100 X 106 100 X 106 300 X 106

HAGERMAN HAGERMAN CALVERT CALVERT PIERRE SHALE, LANCE, WHITE RIVER, OHIO FORMATION LAKE BEDS, LAKE BEDS, FORMATION, FORMATION, SOUTH LANCE CREEK, NEBRASKA BLACK SHALE IDAHO IDAHO MARYLAND MARYLAND DAKOTA WYOMING

AMINO ACID CONTENT .06 .15 .11 .12 .031 .18 .28 .30 (PER CENT)

ALANINE GLYCINE ALANINE ALANINE ALANINE ALANINE ALANINE GLYCINE

GLYCINE ALANINE GLUTAMIC GLUTAMIC GLYCINE GLYCINE GLYCINE ALANINE ACID ACID LEUCINE GLUTAMIC GLUTAMIC GLUTAMIC GLYCINE GLYCINE ACID ACID ACID PRINCIPAL VALINE CONSTITUENTS PROLINE VALINE PROLINE PROLINE GLUTAMIC LEUCINE ACID VALINE ISOLEUCINE VALINE ISOLEUCINE ISOLEUCINE

ISOLEUCINE PROLINE VALINE VALINE ASPARTIC ASPARTIC ASPARTIC ASPARTIC ACID ACID ACID ACID LYSINE LYSINE

AMINO·ACID CONTENT of various fossils examined in the Geo· the second specimen of Plesippus were teeth. The amino acids are physical Laboratory is tabulated. The samples for Mesohippus and listed at the bottom in the order of their apparent abundance.

90

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC • aq� SOLVES ANOTHER POSITIONING PROBLEM!

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4 It assures dependable, precise positioning within thousandths of an inch E����R�����A_��K � r Saginaw Steering Gear Division -'V' I Ball Bearing Screw & Spline Operation ��- , I Can be built in a wide range of diame- General Motors Corporation � I ters and extended and retracted lengths I Dop •. SA, 50g;now, M;ch;gon I Please send our y b 'b Screw and bib Spline Engi· , I neerrng Dota Book to: I • �� C ! �::O-T;tlo ! uuuu7 �ri�)creuT ..aq I Addro.. I --- C;t y 5.__0.0 -___ SAGINAW STEERING GEAR DIVISION OF GENERAL MOTORS. Saginaw, Michigan '1 _ _ zo -no I' ______91

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC 1010 YEARS � 108 YEARS '\ 106 YEARS '\ "\ Engineers 104 YEARS

102 YEARS � '\ '\ 1 YEAR � 10 DAYS � 104 SECONDS � \. 102 SECONDS "'\ 1 SECOND " 10-2 SECONDS [\. ..� 20 40 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 700

TEMPERATURE (DEGREES C.)

OOicial United States Navy Photo ALANINE WAS HEATED to various temperatures to determine whether it could persist for long periods. The horizontal coordiuate of the small circles indicates the temperature to which each sample of alanine was heated. The vertical coordinate indicates the length of time it look for 63 per cent of the alanine in each sample to break down. If a straight Cotgptdt- line is drawn through the circles, it is apparent that at a temperature of 20 degrees centi· grade neady half of a given amount of alanine would remain after three billion years. your career the preceding period? What was the of Pre-Cambrian organisms have been Equipment to catapult or arrest air­ chemistry of these organisms? When, in­ preserved. One possible mechanism of craft ... energy absorption devices ... tow-target reels and air-sea rescu e deed, did life originate? preservation may be observed today near winches ...These are all part of a day's These questions are difficult to an­ hot springs. As the water flows away work at All American -just a few of the challenging, stimulating develop­ swer because of vast changes that have from the orificeof the spring, it cools ments that can launch your career into occurred in the earth's crust since Pre­ and makes an excellent culture medium an outstanding future. Cambrian time. The sediments that set­ for algae. These waters are saturated A young organization with young tled in Pre-Cambrian seas have been with silica, which precipitates and traps ideas, All American offers you, A era and Mechanical Engineers, a chance to deeply buried and often folded. The the algae. Thus the organisms are seaJed perform in a wide variety of projects, high temperatures associated with these in rock, an ideal medium for the preser­ with generous recognition of your abil­ processes militate against the survival vation of organic matter. Barghoorn and ity and plenty of assistance in develop­ ing your own ideas. of organic substances. The absence of Stanley A. Tyler of the University of Write now to Ray Janney, Chief fossil hard parts further narrows the Wisconsin have reported the discovery Engineer, for more facts about All range of material that may be studied. of algal structures embedded in almost American. Your correspondence, of course, is confidential. There are nonetheless good opportu­ pure Pre-Cambrian silica. nities in the Pre-Cambrian black shale, which contains a certain amount of hy­ n seeking traces of the earliest forms drocarbon. Small quantities of a petro­ I of life we suffer the handicap of not leum-like substance have been observed being certain of what it is we are trying oozing from such shales in Michigan. to find. It is simple enough to look for Pre-Cambrian shales in Sweden and Fin­ the same organic substances that occur land are relatively rich in organic matter. in living creatures. Of course it would Elso S. Barghoorn of Harvard University be interesting to find the same sub­ has recently extracted an organic pig­ stances in rocks two billion years old. ment from a black shale with an esti­ But it is entirely possible that the chem­ mated age of 1.4 billion years. Similar istry of the earliest living things differed studies will doubtless reveal a large substantially from that of modern or­ number of organic compounds in Pre­ ganisms. Finding evidence to support DUPONT AIRPORT· WilMINGTON, DelAWARE Cambrian rocks. such a conjecture would be exciting in­ It is not impossible that the soft parts deed.

92

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC P&B relay "controls" signal-seeking radio

One of the latest and finest car But the practice required a or the engineering of a special radios actually tunes itself, auto­ relay that would outlast the electro-mechanical device, you matically. The user simply presses busiest station-changer. It had to can be sure P&B will findthe a special button and the radio withstand the vibration of the answer.

"finds" the first signal in the area car, yet work on extremely low P&B series KF relay with common mov­ strong enough for good reception. and critical drop-out current. It able arm. available in Forms 5A. B or C. Unique combination contact and ter­ Another push, the next "listen­ had to be highly compact and minal mounted in relay front. Contacts able" station, wherever the car low in cost. The P&B engineered rated 2 amperes. Coil resistance maxi· mum 16.500 ohms. Voltage 6·115 VAC may be. relay -one of more than 20,000 or 6-110 VDC. The principle of operation is P&B design variations-was all of simple. A P&B relay automatically . these. interrupts the current to a tuning Whether your product or motor the moment the incoming problem requires the intelligent signal reaches a usable level.. application of a standard relay,

93

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Life

on the Chemical Newsfront DISCOVERY OF TRANQUILIZING EFFECTS of thiazine derivatives has stimulated great interest in new starting materials for their synthesis. A possible source now undergoing research is 2-aminobenzenethiol, a new Cyanamid chemical. A highly reactive, bifunc­ tional compound, it undergoes reactions typical of amino and mercapto groups and where possible, reaction occurs at both groups forming benzothiazole and benzothia­ zine derivatives. Other reactions are of interest in pharmaceutical, rubber, dye, petro­ leum· and insecticide research. Its amphoteric character leads to salt formation by reaction with bases and acids. Oxidation leads to bis(2-aminophenyl)-disulfide (also available from Cyanamid), long known as a pharmaceutical. 2-Aminobenzenethiol is now offered in pilot-plant quantities. (New Product Development Department)

PROLONGED IMMERSION IN BOILING WATER causes no dis­ opaque colors and other desirabl e properties of polystyrene. tortion of two new heat-resistant thermoplastic molding com­ CYMAC 201 Methylstyrene-acrylonitrile c opolymer offers greater pounds demonstrated by Cyanamid at the 7th National Plastics toughness, chemical and craze resistance than CYMAC 400, with Exposition in June. CYMAC* 400 Polymethylstyrene offers this high heat resistance, clarity and color range. Both new molding unusual heat resistance together with the mechanical and electrical compounds offer the added value of heat resistance at costs no properties, clarity, luster, unlimited range of transparent and greater than competitive materials. (Plastics and Resins Division)

94

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Jack Knight HOT, BUT NOT SCORCHED! Higher rubber processing tempera ­ tures than ever before are encountered in the use of new, small particle size reinforcing furnace blacks. To prevent scorching in operations such as the extruding process above, a chemical was needed that would delay action beyond anything heretofore devel­ UTILITY CAN BE EYE-APPEALING, TOO. Now tough, unbleached oped. Now the maximum in delayed action is offered in Cyanamid's kraft corrugated cartons are coated with pigmented overlay new DIES· Accelerator (N,N-diisopropyl benzothiazole-2-sulfen­ coatings. In such applications, PAREZ@ Resin 613 is used to help amide), available in semi-commercial quantities. With a melting insolubilize the coating to give improved wet-rub resistance. point in the range of 55-590 C, DIES is easily blended into furnace With this protection, bright, even, solid color printing is possible black stocks. It has good storage stability under normal tempera­ which weathers scuffing in shipment, rough handling, even soak­ tures. A special report on the behavior of DIES in furnace black ing rain, and still comes out bright with the manufacturer's label stocks is available on request. (Organic Chemicals Division) or message intact. (Industrial Chemicals Division, Dept. A)

*Trademark

Additional information may be obtained by writing on your letterhead to the Division of American Cyanamid Company

PRELIMINARY STUDIES OF FUNGICIDES made up of s-triazine indicated in the captions. derivatives of cyanuric chloride indicate the great versatility and potential of this chemical. 2,4-Dichloro-6-( o-chloroanilino )-s­ triazinet has been shown to be extremely effective against tomato blight fungus and other leaf and turf diseases. Many other de­ Building for the Future rivatives made possible by the high selective reactivity of the chlorine substituents of cyanuric chloride and the extreme stability Through Chemistry of the triazine ring are leading to new developments in insecticides, plastics and resins, pharmaceuticals, dyestuffs, surfactants, rubber chemicals and other fields. For a comprehensive roundup of recent work, send for "Cyanuric Chloride Derivatives." (Industrial Chemi­ cals Division, Dept. A) tv. s. Pat. No. 2.'(20.480

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Official U. S. Navy Photograph .

The U. S. S. Boston (CAG·l), the Navy's first guided missile cruiser, with Terrier Missiles and their launchers at the stern.

NAVY BUREAU OF ORDNANCE DEVELOPS WEAPON SYSTEMS FOR USE AGAINST ATTACK BY SEA OR AIR

The recent unveiling of the Navy's first ready-for­ The Research and Development Division of the combat anti-aircraft guided missile weapon system Bureau of Ordnance has the responsibility of initiat­ -TERRIER-is but one result of the research and ing and coordinating the research and development development work being done by the U. S. Navy's of the many projects which result in such end prod­ Bureau of Ordnance and a coordinated team of ucts as guided missiles, homing torpedoes, aircraft industrial and educational institutions. laid mines, and the launching and control systems From its establishment in 1842, the Bureau of for these weapons. Ordnance has provided the weapons with which the The job of guiding a key element of a modern Navy has fought victoriously in six wars. With the day weapon system from the idea stage to the ready­ evolution of armament, from the first muzzle loading for-combat stage involves a wealth of technology­ cannons to today's complex weapons systems, it has drawing upon the skill, farsightedness, and courage directed the design, development, and production of responsible scientific and technical personnel in of the computers, fire control, and other types of the Bureau of Ordnance and its laboratories, and equipment comprising the Navy's air, surface, and their counterparts in universities and industrial underwater ordnance. organizations.

This is one of a series of ads on the technical 103 adivities of the Department of Defense.

FORD INSTRUMENT COMPANY DIVISION OF SPERRY RAND CORPORATION 31-10 Thomson Avenue, Long Island City 1, New York Beverly Hills, Cal. Dayton, Ohio

Ford Instrument Company engineer placing equipment designed for Navy ENGINEERS instrument in one of the environ­ of unusual abilities can find a future at FORD INSTRUMENT COMPANY. Write for information. mental test chambers.

96

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Progress in Solar Power

Although there are many ways to convert the enerBY of the sun

into useful forms, most of them are uneconomlC. The emphasis

lS now on devices simple and cheap enough to repay their cost

by Harry Tabor

ur period of history is sometimes Although the amount of sunshine that of storing the energy has not yet been called the atomic age, but scien­ falls on the earth is very large, it is solved. O tists and engineers continue to spread very thin. Thus any attempt to But the example given above shows investigate other novel sources of ener­ produce solar power means collecting that the situation is not hopeless, for a gy. During the past few years, as several the energy falling on a large area. This change in conversion efficiency or in fuel articles in this magazine have indicated, is the main reason for the high cost of costs or in collector costs of a factor of there has been much interest in the pos­ solar energy. As an example, let us con­ two or three may be sufficient to make sibility of converting the energy of the sider a few figures. the solar power plant economically sun into useful power. This article will sound. This has given scientists and en­ concern recent developments in the har­ n a sunny area such as EI Paso, Tex., gineers two points of attack and econo­ nessing of sunshine. I the solar energy falling on one acre mists a third. We cannot continue to consume fossil amounts to about 9.4 million kilowatt To take the economic aspect first, it is fuels-coal, oil and natural gas-at the hours per year. If all this energy were clear that in those areas of the world present rate without seriously depleting collected and converted to power at an where fuel is expensive because it must their readily available sources and rais­ efficiency of 5 per cent (we will shortly be brought great distances solar power ing the cost of winning them from the explain why the efficiency is so low) , the units may be economic. An enterprising earth. This is without doubt the largest annual yield would be 470,000 kilowatt Italian company is actually marketing a incentive for the drive to harness atomic hours per acre of collectors. This would small solar engine for such locations. energy on a large scale. But even atomic be 54 kilowatt hours of continuous pow­ Thus in central Australia, where sun­ energy does not constitute a real solu­ er. To generate the same amount of pow­ shine is plentiful and fuel must be tion, for our supplies of uranium and er with a modern steam turbine would brought by truck some 1,000 miles from thorium are also limited. require about 120 tons of fuel oil, worth the coast, the use of solar engines for It is true that if the nuclear fusion about $1,600. This, then, is the annual pumping water and for similar purposes process of the hydrogen bomb can be value of the sunshine collected by one is close to being economically sound. tamed, the situation would be radically acre of collectors. There are 43,560 Furthermore, to pump water it is not altered. The supply of fuel for th i s square feet to an acre, so every square necessary to store energy; the pumping process-hydrogen-is virtually limitless. foot of collector would save 3.7 cents occurs when the sun shines. But although the fusion process occurs in worth of fuel per year. This assumes, The two aspects which have fas­ the sun, no scientist is prepared to state however, that we can store solar energy cinated scientists and engineers are (1) that such controllable man-made suns so that we can use it whenever we raising the efficiency of conversion and are feasible. choose. (2) making collectors with cheap "un­ Actually the fusion process of the sun Now it is hard to imagine a collecting fabricated" materials such as water or is the source of all our conventional device of glass and metal that would cost living organisms. forms of energy: coal, oil, natural gas, less than a dollar per square foot. No wind, water-not to mention food. The bank in the world would provide funds hen most materials absorb a photon sun showers on the earth 30,000 times as for building a plant that would yield Wof light, they are unchanged except much energy as we presently use for all only 3.7 per cent interest per year. And for being heated by an amount equal to purposes. Why, we may ask, is it so dif­ we have not taken into account the fact the energy of the photon prior to ab­ ficult to utilize this boundless source of that the plant would not last forever. sorption. This is known as thermal con­ energy more directly? The answer is that This is the principal reason why no version; it is what happens when sun­ in most cases it is not difficult but simply one has yet built a large solar power sta­ light falls on any dark surface. "Dark" uneconomic. The patent offices of the tion in the desert, where land is cheap simply means that the surface reflect s nations are full of descriptions of devices and sunshine plentiful. There are, of very little of the incoming light; the best to harness sunshine. Many of these could course, other reasons. The demand for solar absorbers are therefore dull black produce useful power, but their output power in desert regions may be small; surfaces. Such surfaces may absorb over would be so small that it would not there may not be adequate water to cool 95 per cent of the sunlight that falls on amortize the cost of the devices. large turbine generators; the problem them, converting it into heat. This is

97

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC make s.feel work lor yo

.... ,

'11

Unique A. O. Smith process offers industry four benefits

Perhaps you can ca pitalize on A. O. provide the answer to your production Smith's experience in mas s production of problems. It's possible, too, that you can military aircraft propeller blades. make good use of other A. O. Smith suc­ For this critical job, we developed a cesses in the field of aviation. Our experi­ unique manufacturing method. To make ence includes volume production of air­ each hollow steel blade, seventeen pieces craft landing gear, structural airframe of steel were precision-forged and contour components and other products in a vari­ rolled ... then automatically welded to­ ety of metals. gether. Result: a 4-way pay-off -(1) Write for comprehensive brochure that LIGHTER, (2) STRONGER blades ... describes the special skills of A. O. Smith's produced in (3) LESS TIME and at (4) Aeronautical Division ...also tells of the LOWER COST. many other ways we work steel to make The techniques employed here may steel work for you.

Through research t�JigfSaw" puzzle

.••perfectl y solved

Dotted lines on hoUow steel pro­ A.O.Smith peller blade show where welding CORPORATION loined the seventeen precision­ forged, (on tour-rolled .Ieel pi""e•. MILWAU KEE I, WISCONSIN 11 plants in New 'tork, New Jers�y, Pen�SYlv3ni3, Ohio, Wisconsin,Illinois, Texas and California. International Division: Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC clearly a very efficient way of collecting rated by one-inch air spaces. The whole energy from the sun, provided that the collector is tilted in a southerly direction heat so generated is not allowed to es­ to "see" as much of the sunshine as pos­ cape. Yet in practice even the best black sible. These are called flat-plate collec­ surface has a much lower efficiency as a tors. They are simple and reliable and collector of usable heat, because when do not have to be turned to follow the the surface becomes hot it loses heat to sun. But they are not very efficient at its environment. While it is possible to higher working temperatures. As the insulate the surface on its rear side, it temperature of the collector plate rises cannot be covered on the side facing the above the temperature of its surround­ sun except by transparent substances ings, the heat losses increase and the net such as glass or air. useful heat collection diminishes. Thus, In thin sheets glass is not a very good when used to heat water for domestic insulator of heat. A layer of air about purposes in summertime, such collectors an inch thick, however, provides a fair may have an efficiencyof about 50 per degree of thermal insulation. Heat still cent, but in winter the collection effi­ passes across the air layer by convection ciency, even on a sunny day, may be and by radiation of heat from the hot under 40 per cent. In cloudy weather it surface to the colder glass. If several may fall to a very low value. If the water sheets of glass with intervening air were heated until it boiled-which it spaces are used, the insulation of the would do only during the middle hours heated surface is improved. Unfortu­ of a very sunny day-the efficiency would nately every extra sheet of glass cuts be so low that such collectors are not down the amount of sunshine reaching considered satisfactory for the produc­ the black absorbing surface. The solar tion of steam. water-heaters that have been used for So long as we are able to utilize our many years in Florida and California collected solar energy in the form of consist of blackened metal plates in­ low-temperature heat, we can over the sulated on the rear and covered on the year convert 40 to 50 per cent of the upper side with two sheets of glass sepa- photons to useful heat. About the best

Electric motors Automobile EXPERIMENTAL FLAT-PLATE COLLECTOR at the National Physical Laboratory of frames Israel traps solar energy between a reflector and transparent plastic. At right is a light meter.

99

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC What high-speed relays for the artificial satellite?

Of course, nobody who knows is say­ ing out loud just what kind of high-speed relay-if any-is going into the artificial Earth satellite planned for the Interna­ tional Geophysical Year. But anyone can speculate . And the other day at Bristol, we were thinking how well the characteristics of Bristol's Syncroverter® high speed relay suit it for any guided missile and aircraft con­ trol and navigation system as well as air­ to-ground telemetering and analog and digital computers. For instance:

TYPICAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ° ° Temperature range: -55 C to 100 C ...• ; Operating shock: 30G II milliseconds VARIOUS BLACK SURFACES are tested for their effectiveness in ahsorbing light while duration .... Vibration {l0-55 cps): lOG. not radiating heat. Each sample is inserted in the light absorption meter at upper right• . . . Contact ratings: up to 28v, 200 mao ... Stray contact capacitance: less than 15 mmfd .... Pull-in time (including bounce): as low as 200 microseconds .... brop.. out time: 300 microseconds .... Life: example of such an application is the cents per square foot of collector. If such At least 1000 hours at 400 operations per heating of houses by solar energy. Here a collector can be built and installed for, second .•.. Mounting: Octal tube socket. a collection temperature of about 150 say, a dollat'"per square foot, it may be degrees Fahrenheit is usually high considered economic. When we realize If your design-satellite or Earth-bound enough to heat the house by means of that nearly a third of all fuel consumed in -calls for critical d-c to a-c signal con­ circulating hot water. Of course this the U. S. is for space heating, we can see version and/or high-speed keying, make house heating is required only in winter, that the possibility of domestic heating sure you have the facts on Bristol's Syn­ when the collector efficiencyis generally by solar energy may not only be of in" croverter before you release the draw­ lower than average. As a very rough terest to the individual householder but ings. Write: The Bristol Company, 133 guide, about a fifth of the annual sun­ of national importance. Several sun­ Bristol Road, Waterbury 20, Conn. 6.39 shine falling on a collector might be use­ heated houses have already been built, fully employed for house heating in re­ mostly based on research conducted for gions with clear winters. In regions with the past 15 years under Hoyt C. Hottel cloudy winters about a 10th of the an­ at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech­ BRISTOL nual sunshine would be utilized. The nology. Recent improvements in collec­ INSTRUMENTS · RECORDERS . AUTOMATIC CONTROLS . TELEMETERING SYSTEMS fuel saved annually by such a collector tor construction and their incorporation FASTENERS · AIRC RAFT CO MPONENTS might amount to between 10 and 20 into architectural design promise that

100

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC With TENITE POLYETHYLENE

300 seals for dry cells

• can be made In one shot

Washers of Tenile Polyethylene molded for Roy-O-Vae Company by Evans-Zeier Plastic Company, both of Madison. Wisconsin

Every day sees new uses develop for molding temperatures to completely Tenite Polyethylene. Here's one that's fill every one of the 300 tiny mold cavi­ cutting costs and simplifying assembly ties. Small wonder, then, that Tenite procedures for a leading manufacturer Polyethylene was the plastic chosen of dry cell batteries. by the molder of these washers. Formerly, dry cells were finished by This Eastman plastic has exception­ pouring molten pitch around the car­ ally good molding properties. Its fast, bon anode to seal the open end. But even flow permits use of more compli­ look how Ray-O-Vac speeds this opera­ cated molds than were ever before tion. A molded Tenite Polyethylene practicable with Polyethylene. Investi­ washer is force-fitted over the carbon gate for yourself the production econo­ rod and the metal edges of the cell are mies that may result through use of POLYETHYLENE then crimped into the washer. Result: easy-to-mold Tenite Polyethylene. In­ a water-tight seal, no electrical leak­ vestigate, too, the ability of this plastic an Eastznan plastic age, and faster production. to add longer life, better performance Design of the individual washers or greater sales appeal to some prod­ was no problem. But the design of the uct you make. For more information mold itself was. For collectively, 300 about this versatile plastic, write washers in one shot represented quite EASTMAN CHEMICAL PRODUCTS. INC., an intricate molding. Needed was a subsidiary of Eastman Kodak Com­ plastic that flowed easily at normal pany, KINGSPORT, TENNESSEE.

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC many more solar houses will be built in reducing heat loss from collectors has the future. recently been made. One discouraging ENGINEERS Thus far we have considered only the fact about black surfaces is that while conversion of the photons of sunshine to they are good absorbers they are also low-temperature heat. What happens strong radiators of heat. Indeed, the PARTS APPLICATION when we wish to secure mechanical or physicist describes a good radiator as a (Reliability) electrical power? To obtain this kind of "black body." This rough generalization power from heat it is necessary to use of a more precise and limited phYSical ME or EE degree with design ex­ some kind of heat engine. Herein lies law seems to have led solar engineers to perience and/or application ex­ the real difficulty. accept, almost philosophically, the no­ perience. Job will be to recom­ mend types of parts to be used It is a fundamental law of physics that tion that because solar absorbers must and how these parts shall be used. the conversion of heat into power is al­ be black to absorb sunshine they must ways an inefficient process. But as the also lose much of the energy they absorb. Qualified men will become a vital temperature of the heat source rises, so Now the more precise physical law part of a Reliability Group. does the efficiency of conversion. The states that a strong radiator of heat is GM large power stations of today convert "black" only for the radiation wave­ only about 30 per cent of the heat con­ lengths that it emits, the word "black" INERTIAL GUIDANCE tent of their fuel into electricity, the meaning that it is an absorber for these other 70 per cent being carried away by same wavelengths. But it need not ab­ SYSTEM PROGRAM the cooling water and wasted. These sta­ sorb other wavelengths. A weak radiator tions use steam at 900 degrees F. or is a poor absorber of heat waves, but higher. At lower temperatures in, say, a might conceivably be a good absorber of steam locomotive, as little as 8 per cent other wavelengths. Now it happens that • ELECTRONICS DIV., of the heat of the fuel is converted into moderately hot bodies radiate only ener­ Milwaukee 2, Wis. power. All this means that if we wish to gy of long wavelength, whereas solar convert our solar heat into power, we radiation is all of short wavelength. Thus Enjoy Challenging Opportunities in the must collect the heat at as high a tem­ what we want is a surface that is "black" most versatile Laboratories in the country. Work with the top men in the field and perature as possible. But we have noted for sunlight but is not "black" for the with the finesttest, research and develop­ that the efficiency of collectors decreases wavelengths of radiant heat. The prob­ ment facilities. We are in the process of a as their temperature of collection in­ lem is rather like that of making optical Major, Permanent, Expansion Program. New Plant facilities being added in sub­ creases. So in coupling a solar heat col­ color filters. urban Milwaukee area. lector to a heat engine, we must choose The solution is a polished metal sur­ To aid you in your professional advance­ a temperature of operation which gives face coated with a rather special thin ment AC will provide financial assistance us the best compromise on combined ef­ black layer. These surfaces appear black, toward your Master's degree. A Graduate Program is available evenings at the Uni· ficiency. For flat-plate collectors of the and they absorb more than 90 per cent of versity of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. type presently being used to heat water sunlight. Yet the polished metal under­ GM's Electronics Division aggressive posi­ the "best" temperature (probably be­ neath radiates very little of the heat it tion in the field of manufacture and GM's tween 100 and 150 degrees F.) results receives from the surface coating. We long-standing policy of decentralization creates individual opportunity and recog­ in an engine which theoretically might call such surfaces "selective black" sur­ nition for each Engineer hired. convert 5 per cent of the incoming solar faces because they can distinguish be­ Recent EE,ME energy into power. This figure falls to tween solar and heat radiation. 2 or 3 per cent in a real system. Clearly Trials in Jerusalem of the new sur­ Graduate Inquiries this is not good enough, for even the 5 faces show that in normal use they can Also Invited per cent conversion efficiency of our ini­ reduce radiant heat loss by a factor of a Milwaukee offersideal family living in a tial example was not sufficient to pay for eight and in special applications by progressive neighborly community in cool, the cost of the collectors. factor of 14. One immediate result of southern Wisconsin where swimming, boat­ The need for higher working tempera­ this work is that it is now possible to ing, big league baseball and every shopping and cultural advantage is yours for the tures has tempted engineers to use mir­ build a simple flat-plate collector which taking. rors or lenses to concentrate sunshine on in sunny weather will boil water ancl To arrange personal, confidentialintervi�w a small receiver. Here the heat losses produce low-temperature steam at about in your locality send full facts about your­ will be proportionately smaller than 35 per cent collection efficiency without self today to those of a system with a large exposed any concentrating mirrors. An applica­ Mr. John F. Heffinger absorbing surface. In this way high­ tion that immediately comes to mind, Supervisor of Salaried Personnel pressure steam can be produced, and particularly for those living in hot, sun­ with accurate paraboloidal mirrors such ny climates, is the use of a solar energy as those used in searchlights, tempera­ collector to operate an absorption-type tures up to 6,000 degrees F. have been cooling unit for air conditioning. Such obtained and used for research purposes. units, which have been built in the U. S. However, such mirrors are prohibitively for many years, operate from steam at expensive, and even if they could drive atmospheric pressure. It is thus now an efficient steam turbine they would be perfectly practical to couple a solar en­ entirely uneconomic as sources of power. ergy collector to such an air conditioner. The hotter the sunshine, the better the .N.. the National Physical Laboratory of cooler works. Israel in Jerusalem another and So far we have confined ourselves to more direct approach to the problem of collectors that are unchanged, except for

102

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC From sketch-out to check-out AMF has missile experience you can use

• AMF today plays a part in more than half the missile programs under way. One of its

subsidiaries, Associated Missile Products Corporation, is the only private firm devoted exclu­ sively to missile support equipment. And AMF activities cover practically every stage of design,

development, and production ... including mechanical and electronic test equipment ... auxiliary

power supplies ... field and depot handling equipment ... launchers ... ground and flight control

systems • See for yourself why AMF's experience in missiles, as well as in a host of other fields,

has made it the "can do" company.

Research, Development, Production in these fields: • Armament • Ballistics • Radar Antennae Defense Products Group' • Gujded Missile Support Equipment DEFENSE AMERICAN MACHINE & FOUNDRY COMPANY • Auxiliory Power Supplies PRODUCTS • Control Systems 1101 North Royal Street, Alexandria. Va •

103

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ",.-.r�- _ .... , <' " . r'\ being heated, by the radiation they ab� then condensed (by cold ocean water) J • . . � ..... ') sorb. In some materials the absorption to yield sweet water. n••• o ut of. this nettie, d();nger, The over-all energy conversion of such � � .. � j of a photon causes a chemical reaction, we pluc th"s /lower,sa f�y." and newly formed compounds carry in systems is inefficient, but the "collector" . � H""J tv. p�". l l"ct II. Scene} them the energy given up by the ab� costs nothing. However, the low effi­ sorbed photon. A notable example is a ciency means that tremendous quantities growing plant, which stores energy from of sea water must be handled in order the sun by photosynthesis and releases to produce a reasonable quantity of this energy when we eat the plant or power. The present efforts of French en­ burn it. The photochemical conversion gineers working in the African port of of sunlight is remarkably inefficient. A Dakar on this temperature-difference growing plant, for example, collects and plant are almost entirely devoted to solv­ stores only .1 to .5 per cent of the sun­ ing the purely mechanical but difficult light it receives. No one has any real idea problem of pumping huge quantities of how to increase this efficiency greatly. water from the depths of the ocean. Another possible type of collector con­ At Dakar the temperatures used are verts solar energy directly into electric about 82 degrees F. for the "hot" water current. Until very recently this method and 46 degrees for the "cold," a range of collection was not significantly more that would be extremely discouraging to efficient than photosynthesis. The best the designer of a heat engine. Nizery Free people have always lived with danger. photoelectric cells could convert only realized this and inaugurated a series of For freedom is a precious thing ... hard about .5 per cent of sunlight into useful experiments to try to raise the tempera­ won, hard kept ... under constant threat electrical energy. In the past few years ture of the surface water by passing it born of envy the investigation of semiconductor ma­ into shallow pans where it would be fur­ And yet this very danger is a source of terials has produced a solar battery that ther heated by sunshine. The tempera­ freedom's strength. Time and again, free converts 10 per cent of sunlight into ture of the water rose very little, because people have boldly faced dangers that electricity [see "The Solar Battery," by the water surface rapidly lost heat by Gordon Raisbeck; SCIENTIFIC AMERI­ radiation, conduction, convection and threatened to destroy them, and in so CAN, December, 1955]. Although it is evaporation. Attempts were therefore doing found the strength to survive. efficient, the solar battery costs so much made to reduce the evaporation losses by For many things seem to flourish best in (about $3,000 per square foot) that it floating a thin film of oil on the surface' an atmosphere of embattled freedom ... can be used only for very special appli­ of the water. This procedure increased ideas and energies, will and determination, cations where a small amount of power the temperature of the water but not even the men and machines that make it is essential and no other source is avail­ enough to change the over-all picture. possible for freedom to exist and thrive. able. Of course research and develop­ Furthermore, oil tends to be blown to ment will undoubtedly reduce the cost one side of the pan. If a metal cover or This, in a very real sense, underlies our of this device, but whether it can do so glass window is used we are of course job at Sandia Corporation. At Sandia by a factor of 1,000 is unpredictable. getting back to a fabricated collector. LaboratOry in Albuquerque, N. M. and at The engineering aspects of a tempera­ our' branch installation at Livermore, Cal., p to this point we have discussed the ture-difference plant are now being we probe new dimensions of research and U possibilities of improving the effi­ studied at the University of California development engineering to help ptOvide ciencies of various fabricated heat col­ by a group under Everett D. Howe, but the strength that keeps us free. Specifically, lectors. Another approach is to find or the method of getting the water initially our task is design and development of create a collector that costs almost noth­ hot has not been determined. ing. Even if it were very inefficient, such A most interesting possibility in utiliz­ nuclear weapons that deter aggression and a collector might prove economically ing sunshine for this purpose has been guard our freedom. sound in an area where land is not ex­ proposed by Rudolph Bloch of the Dead Exploration of advanced problems in this pensive. Sea Works in Israel. Bloch has suggested challenging and important field provides The cheapest large collector we know that if a shallow pond is arranged so that outstanding career opportunities for en­ is an ocean or a lake. The surface waters the water at the bottom is very salty and gineers and scientists. We are currently of a large body of water are heated by the water at the top is comparatively seeking additional professional staffmem­ the sun; thus they are hotter than the fresh, the heavier salt water heated by sunlight striking the bottom will stay at bers, and will welcome the opportunity to waters at the bottom. It is therefore not surprising that attempts have been made the bottom instead of rising to the top send you more information. to drive a heat engine using the surface by convection. The cold water at the Please address inquiries to waters as the heat source and the deeper top would then act as an insulating STAFF EMPLOYMENT DIVISION 569A. waters for condensation. This system, blanket for the hotter water below. This first proposed by the Frenchman Georges heated water would be carefully de­ Claude and later taken up by his coun­ canted to provide the source for a tem­ S�f'JC>I� trymen under the leadership of the late perature-difference plant. Andre Nizery, has the important ad­ Water can also be used as an energy �CORPORATION vantage that it can be used to desalt collector for photosynthesis. It has been sea water. The relatively hot surface found that certain types of algae such as m water enters a low-pressure vessel, where Chlorella can, when placed in a tank of ALBUQUERQUE. NEW MEXICO part of it flashes into vapor. This drives water six inches deep, convert about 2 an extremely low-pressure turbine and is per cent of the solar energy falling on

104

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC DELAY LINES

by

••• fixed and variable, distributed consta stability. Designed for

Micro-second Control for an Electronic Pulse Scarcely fifteen years ago radar made its sensational debut when it helped defeat Hitler's Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain. Since then its scientific offspring have become commonplace in such fields as aerial navigation, interrogation (IFF) and missile guidance. All these elaborations of the basic radar '. principle, and many others now on the scientific horizon, depend on an electronic pulse train, established and controlled by means of a delay line

•..the very heart of the apparatus ...that determines its scope and usefulness. There was pressing need for a variable' delay line, self-contained, with utmost accuracy and stability. Now Admiral research has developed such a unit. Where the flexibility of fixed delay lines is LOOK TO Adm;r,,' FOR limited by the number of taps, the Admiral unit RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND is infinitely variable within its overall capacity. PRODUCTION IN THE FIELDS OF: It is adjustable with the greatest of ease for any desired interval ... without auxiliary circuitry. COMMUNICATIONS UHF AND VHF • MILITARY Accuracy is limited only by the accuracy of the TELEVISION • RADAR • RADAR BEACONS AND IFF measuring equipment. Stability is maintained RADIAC • TELEMETERING • DISTANCE MEASURING MISSILE GUIDANCE . CODERS AND DECODERS over an extreme temperature range. These delay CONSTANT DELAY LINES • TEST EQUIPMENT lines, completely self-contained, including switching apparatus, are much lighter, more compact, and cost far less to make. Write � FACILITIES BROCHURE describing Admiral about designing a delay line for .... "",., ., . Admiral plants, equipment and your special application. ) ) experience sent on request. *Admiral research has also developed a new y procedure for making fixed delay lines very much smaller, with excellent phase characteristics. ENGINEERS: .The wide scope of work in progress at Admiral creates challenging opportunities in the field of your choice. Write Director of Engineering and Research, Admiral Corporation, Chicago 47, Illinois.

Admiral Corporation Government Laboratories Division, Chicago 47, illinois

105 © 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC the tank. Normal vegetation might uti­ lize only .1 per cent. Yields of 15 dry tons per year per acre have been ob­ tained from Chiarella, and some workers believe that much higher yields are pos­ sible. If the Chlorella is burned as a fuel, the system cannot compete with the thermal systems previously described. But if it is used as protein or converted to alcohol by fermentation, as suggested by R. L. Meier of the University of Chi­ cago, the process looks more promising. Algae ponds are much cheaper than glass and metal flat-plate collectors, but they are not as cheap as would appear. The water must be mechanically stirred to expose all the algae to the sunshine, and carbon dioxide must be added to speed photosynthesis. A good deal of thought has been given of late to making cheaper col­ lectors of glass, metal and mirrors. Far­ rington Daniels and his colleagues at the University of Wisconsin are searching for ways to make very cheap mirrors of aluminized plastics, metal foil on ce­ ment, and other such combinations. Sil­ vered glass and metal mirrors are too expensive, but it is just possible that these new techniques might produce crude mirrors (with rather low concen­ trating power) at a fraction of the pres­ ent price. Because of the higher conver­ sion efficiency of a concentrating system, What will you be dOing in 1966 ? these might then compete with the flat­ plate systems now being used. Cessna's continuous planned expansion provides greater There are a few other methods of har­ potential for security in your future as an experienced engineer. nessing sunshine, such as solar ovens and Commercial aviation's "New Concept" ... Business Flying, solar stills. A great deal of work has been offers new horizons for the engineer at Cessna. A balance of done on these methods in various parts military and commercial projects provide diversification of of the world, including the U. S. The assignments, and unlimited opportunities for advancement and present picture is that they are still too recognition. Join Cessna and grow with Cessna. expensive and limited in usefulness.

STRUCTURES ENGINEERS-Assignments in: o summarize, we may say that using I. Aircraft component load determination 4. Airframe static test analysis T solar energy to supply low-tempera­ 2. Complete in-flight air-load survey 5. Airframe component stress analysis programs 6. Programming complex and detailed ture heat is economic in many circum­ 3. Structural preliminary design analysis problems for our digital computer. stances, and a large increase in the num­

For comprehensive in/ormation, write: Professio1lal Placement SUI'ervisor - Dept. SA ber of houses heated and cooled by solar energy can be expected in the next few years. The production of power from the sun by means of a heat engine is still un­ economic in most areas, but advances in methods of collection and collector de­ sign show promise of improving the economics to a point at which it is worth

W1CfUTA. KANSAS while in many areas where cheap con­ ventional fuels are not available. Even today it is economic in a few extreme cases. Among the non thermal processes photosynthesis may one day offera rea­ sonable method of harnessing sunshine. The photoelectric process will be signifi­ cant only if completely new methods are conceived which will reduce the cost of the apparatus by a factor of 1,000.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC NUCLEAR NEWS FROM ATOMICS INTERNATIONAL

Industry1s First Private CENTRAL EXPOSURE I-l/Z IN. DIA.TUBE Research Reactor BEAM TUBE PNEUMATIC J IN. DIA. Z IN.DIA. TUBE Now in Operation

The Armour Research Foundation's I nuclear reactor, located on the lllinois � Institute of Te chnology Campus on VOID SPACE State Street near Chicago's Loop, began operating early this spring. This marked the first time that private industry has had at its disposal a nuclear reactor ex­ pressly designed for industrial research.

Already under way at Armour are '���::::j:::�.6IN. SQUARE programs by participating companies, ACCESS PORTS taking advantage of the revolutionary research techniques made possible by the new facility. The schedule includes ...._ ___ BORAL allocation of reactor "time" for private LINER studies, free of security restrictions. Areas of study include: food and drug processing; materials research -glass, ceramics, plastics, rubber, textiles, etc; petroleum, chemicals and other indus­ 6 IN. DIA. ACCESS PORT trial materials and processes. The Model L8 Armour reactor is of the homogeneous solution type, de­ signed to operate at 50 KW and to pro­ Reactor Plan View duce a maximum thermal neutron flux of about 1.7 xl 012 neutrons/ cm "-sec at ARMOUR RESEARCH REACTOR MODEL La the center of the reactor core. Exposure Characteristics facilities are provided through which Design Power. 50kw the neutron flux is available in varying Zero Power Criticol Moss' . intensities for experimental purposes. 850 gm U235 Power level is controlled either manu­ Maximum Thermal Neutron Flux l.7x lO'2n/cm2_sec ally or automatically by a vertical Mass Coefficient of Reactivity' 0.03%/gm control-rod system. The reactor is safe­ Temperature Coefficient of Reactivity' -0.029%/oC guarded by a unique control system Fuel Solution Temperature at 50 kw' 80° C which "scrams;' or automatically shuts down the reactor, if necessary. Excess Reactivity at 20° C, Zero Power' 3% Reactivity Held in Control and Safety Rods· 8% (2% each rod) One of several reactors produced by H: U235 Atomic Ratio' 350 ATOMICS INTERNATIONAL, a Division U235 Concentration' . 75gm/liter of North American Aviation, Inc., the Power Density, Maximum design and construction of the L8 5.5 watt/cm3 Model is based on the company's 10 Power Density, Average 3.85 watt/cm3 years' experience in the development of * Approximate Value peaceful applications of nuclear energy. Brief General Description Other applications include a reactor -The reac­ beam tubes, 3" to 6" ID; straight and tor fuel is a light water solution of designed for a prominent southern curved pneumatic tubes, 1 Y2" and 2" U02S04, enriched in U235. This fuel is California university, specially adapted ID; central exposure tube; horizontal for cancer and other medical research; contained in a spherical stainless steel thermal column 5' square, with four 6" core tank, which is surrounded by a the important Sodium Reactor Experi­ access ports. In addition there are spe­ ment in the Santa Susana Mountains graphite reflector. The reactor is cial exposure facilities which make use near Los Angeles, part of the AEC shielded with high density concrete of the gamma activities in the reactor 3.5 program to develop economical power (density gm/cm3) plus other se­ atmosphere. from nuclear energy; plus development lected materials. Fuel-handling, gas­ If you are interested in any phase of and design of a 75,000 KW sodium­ handling and cooling systems are provided; also complete instrumenta­ our activities, ATOMICS INTERNATIONAL graphite nuclear power plant. ATOMICS INTERNATIONAL is a major tion and equipment are installed for is staffed and equipped to help you. reactor builder-experienced in the remote operation and to provide auto­ Please write: Applications Engineering design, construction and operation of matic safety action. Service, Dept. SA-N3, ATOMICS INTER­ nuclear reactors for research and the Experimental Facilities-The experi­ NATIONAL, P. O. Box 309, Canoga Park, production of power. mental facilities include nine assorted California. Cable address: ATOMICS.

ATOMICS INTERNATIONAL A D I V I 5 ION 0 F NOR T HAM E RIC A N A V I A T ION. INC. PIONEERS IN THE CREATIVE USE OF THE ATOM

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Dr. G. E. Moore, B. S., Syracuse (1935). Ph. D. in chemistry. Stan­ ford (1940). came to the General : Electric Research Laboratory in 1946 from Los Alamos, N. M. He has specialized in the fields of combus­ tion and rocket propellants and is the author of various papers on ther­ mochemistry and thermodynamics. He has been head of the Labol atory·s combustion research unit since 1955.

Research for better rockets

General Electric's Dr. G eorge E. Moore applies basic studies of combustion to development of propellants

Behind the use of rocket motors in such devices as As General Electric sees it, providing individual guided missiles and earth satellites is a history of scientists with freedom and incentive to solve the painstaking research into the fundamentals of com­ problems of research is part of solving the larger bustion. Dr. George E. Moore's contributions to this problem of how we can all live better, with better comparatively new science have included calculations materials and better products with which to work, of the effectof combustion-chamber size and shape on better jobs, and extra human satisfactions in terms rocket efficiency, innovations in the use of fuels, and of what people expect and want in life. new understanding of the general chemistry of rockets. He and a group of General Electric associates have devised a new type of "hybrid" motor-using both liquid and solid fuels-that is a model of simplicity Progressls Ovr MosfImporfanf Prot/vel and efficiency in rocket propulsion and promises to play a significantrole in what is certain to be a big _ future for rockets. GEN ERAL ELECTRIC

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SEXUALITY IN BACTERIA

It has only recently been shown that bacteria have chromosomes and genes. No,v it has been found that one bacterium can inject

Its genes into another by conjugation, gIvIng flse to a hybrid

by Elie L. Wollman and Fran�ois Jacob

exual reproduction is common this question as Paul Verlaine on the we may learn from bacteria about ge­ . among living things. The mating topic of love: netic processes in general. Genetics has S process, however, varies widely made its principal progress as the among forms of life as different as men Ces passions qu'eux seuls nomment en­ science of breeding. It is through the and algae. Among highly evolved organ­ core amours mating of individuals that differfrom isms such as man, mating is the obliga­ Sont 'des amours aussi, tendres et one another by recognizable character­ tory method of multiplication. On the furieuses istics that the concept of the gene as the other hand, sexual reproduction seems to Avec des particularites curieuses unit of heredity has emerged. These be rare among simpler, one-celled or­ Que n' ant pas les amours certes de tous same experiments, plus the study of the ganisms. les jours. anatomy and physiology of cells, give us Bacteria are a case in point. At one our picture of the organization of the time it was thought that bacteria had [These passions which only they in their genes in the structure of the chromo­ no sex. Though some observers claimed sport some. Through the exchange and recom­ they had beheld the tiny creatures in the Call love: they too are love, tender and bination of genes in sexual reproduction act of conjugation, the prevailing view furious we comprehend the spread of change denied them a nucleus, chromosomes or And with particularities curious and the stabilization of characteristics in genes. If they were thus lacking in equip­ Not love of the everyday sort.] a species. Since bacteria could not be ment for carrying on genetic processes, mated, they have not been of much use sexuality could have no meaning in the The question of sex in bacterial repro­ to geneticists working along these lines. life of bacteria. duction is important not only for its The presumably sexless bacteria have Recent work, however, shows us that relevance to our understanding of the been fruitful, nonetheless, in another we must be as broad in our approach to genetics of bacteria but also to the things major line of research in genetics. This

CONJUGATING BACTERIA are shown in this electron micro­ viruses, the tadpole·shaped objects aTound it. This technique is graph. The bacterium at upper left is labeled with killed bacterial used when experiments call for observation of individual bacteria.

109

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC is the study of mutation, the sudden change in a hereditary characteristic of a species. Mutations are rare events. To study them requires large homogeneous populations and a rapid cycle of repro­ duction-specifications not easily met even by the fruit flyand maize, the two beloved subjects of the geneticist. Given a suitable culture medium, however, some bacteria will produce a new gener­ ation' every 20 minutes. Bacteria are easy to handle and available in very large populations: a quarter-teaspoon of a broth culture of Escherichia coli, the colon bacillus, contains more than a bil­ lion bacterial cells. Bacteriologists noticed long ago that when bacteria were cultured in a medi­ um that was made deliberately un favor- . able to their growth, they often acquired, sooner or later, the ability to grow in this medium. This acquired characteristic of the bacterial population was thereafter inheritable. In this manner, it was found, 1 bacteria could "adapt" to innumerable 1 changes in the physical or chemical con­ stitution of the medium and to the pres­ ence of drugs or bacterial viruses. At first bacteriologists thought that the environ­ ment acted in some way upon the bac­ teria to change their properties. As the result of a summer's collabora­ tion at Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y., Salva­ dor E. Luria and Max Delbrtick were able to show in 1943 that this "adapta­ tion" is effected by the same process of mutation and selection observed in the evolution of other organisms. They found that it is, in most cases, the out­ 1 � / 1 come of change in a discrete and herit­ able characteristic in a single bacterium -a mutation in a gene-followed by se­ lection of the mutant offspring. Such

RECOMBINATION of genetic traits in bac­ teria through mating of two different mutant strains was demonstrated in the experiment diagrammed at left. From a culture of bac­ leria able to synthesize four amiuo acids (A, 8, Sand T; see key at lower right) and hence able to grow in a minimal medium (white culture dish at top) two strains were firstisolated, one unable to synthesize A (upper left) and the other unable to syn­ �A thesize T (upper right). To make them grow, the corresponding amino acids, indi­ _B cated by crosshatch, had to be supplied to the culture medium. From these two strains �s mutants unable to synthesize Band S, respec­ tively, were isolated in turn. When the two strains were sown alone in Ininimal media �T (blank culture dishes at lower left and right) no colonies were formed. When they were sown together (center) on minimal me­ dia, the colonies proliferated and could be transplanted on minimal media (bottom).

110

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC SYSTEMS CAPABILITY

-where to look for it!

For systems work, at the discussion stage particularly, 9,000 with an exceptionally broad range of technical you must look beyond narrow fields of capability. The abilities. norm should be a company's past and present per­ Over $80 million was expended on engineering and formance in all the technical fields and branches of research functions in fiscal 19 55. industrial science systems work calls upon today. Twenty-four widely dispersed manufacturing divi­ The more deeply rooted you are in all the things of sions located coast to coast employ 50,000. which systems are comprised, the better able you are The Bendix Systems Planning Group at headquarters to produce completely dependable systems. in Detroit coordinates major systems work and gives Bendix has an engineering and research staffof over you a single, centrally located contact.

Bendix offers exceptional capabilities in every phase of systems work'

DISCUSSION • CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

• ANALYSIS • RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

• PROTOTYPE DESIGN & MANUFACTURE

• ENVIRONMENTAL & OPERATIONAL TESTS

• SYSTEMS PRODUCTION • SUPPORT

& FIELD SERVICE

AVIATION CORPORATION FISHER BLDG., DETROIT 2, MICHIGAN

III

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC 112

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC mutations can affect all known charac­ tremely rare in bacterial cultures, if they You Get Things Done With teristics of bacteria, including the mor­ existed at all. Joshua Lederberg and Ed­ Boardmaster Visual Control phology of their colonies, their virulence ward L. Tatum attacked this question and their nutritional requirements. Fur­ at Yale University just 10 years ago. ther investigation showed that radiations They set a brilliantly devised experimen­ and certain chemicals increase the fre­ tal trap for the rare recombinant. quency of mutation in bacterial popula­ In designing their experiment, they tions, just as they do in higher organisms, took advantage of an important finding thus confirming that bacteria, as well as established in the investigation of the fruit flies, must have genes. bread mold Neurospora by George W. The next question was whether bac­ Beadle and Tatum at the California In­ terial genes are organized and disposed stitute of Technology. This mold is sexu­ on some kind of structure like a chromo­ ally differentiated. By mating nutritional some. The evidence strongly suggested mutants, that is, strains which lacked that this was the case. Biochemists had the capacity to synthesize different nu­ found that bacteria contain desoxyri­ tritional factors, Beadle had shown that bonucleic acid, or DNA, the helical mole­ such synthesis is under genetic control Gives Graphic Picture of Your Operations­ cule which is found in chromosomes. [see "The Genes of Men and Molds," by -{;:, Spotlighted by Color George W. Beadle; SCIENTIFIC AMERI­ Cytologists, in turn, had shown that the -{;:, Facts at a glance-Saves Time, Saves Money, DNA in bacteria is concentrated in CAN, September, 1948]. With the knowl­ Prevents Errors bodies as it is in the nuclei of other cells. edge that nutritional capacity is a hered­ -{;:, Simple to operate-Type or Write on Cards, Snap in Grooves That DNA is indeed the bearer of itary characteristic, Lederberg and Ta­ -{;:, Ideal for Production, Traffic, Inventory, hereditary characteristics in bacteria was tum set out to determine whether bacte­ Scheduling, Sales, Etc. proved in 1944 by O. T. Avery, Colin M. ria can exchange this characteristic. -{;:, Made of Metal. Compact and Attractive. MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty at the As the subject of their experiment Over 60,000 in Use Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re­ they adopted the ubiquitous Escherichia Complete price $4950 including cards search. They were able to transfer a coli. This bacterium grows perfectly on 24-PAGE BOOKLET NO. C-100 a minimal medium containing only F R purified extract of DNA from one strain EEl Without Obligation of pneumococcus to another. This arti­ minerals and sugar as a source of energy I Write for Your Copy Today ficial injection of a gene into a cell was and carbon. In other words, from such GRAPHIC SYSTEMS followed by the appearance of its asso­ simple materials it is able to manufacture 55 West 42nd Street. New York 36, N. Y. e:iated characteristic, the ability to all the complex elements of its proto­ synthesize a certain complex sugar, in plasm. Nutritional mutants can be in­ PHYSICISTS, MATHEMATICIANS the descendants of the cell. duced in E. coli by treatment of the culture with ultraviolet radiation, X-rays Honeywell's Aeronautical Division is conducting advanced research projects he success of this experiment sug- or mustard gas, and isolated by suitable in the areas of inertial guidance, stabi­ T gested that there must be some screening procedures. Such mutants will lized platforms, inlet geometry control, air data computers and operational natural mode for the exchange and re­ not grow on the minimal medium even digital computers. combination of hereditary character­ if billions of cells are seeded. • Several unusual positions are open istics in bacteria. Since no one had ever From a common strain Lederberg and in our Aeronautical Research Depart­ ment for physicists and mathematicians observed such a process, it was clear Tatum isolated two different lines of with a Master's Degree or higher. Ex­ that recombinant individuals must be ex- nutritional mutants. As indicated in the perience or interest is desirable in digital and anal�g computing, inertial guidance diagram on page 1l0, one mutant lacked -both from a physical equipment and the ability to manufacture two particu­ mathematical analysis stan dpoint­ supersonic aerophysics and numerical lar amino acids; it could grow on a analysis. minimal medium only if these two acids • These are permanent positions in both basic and applied research in a were supplied. The second mutant was BACTERIAL GENES are transferred from group reporting directly to division similarly unable to manufacture two management. You will take professional one bacterium to another in the linear order responsibility for your project and its other amino acids. When the two strains demonstrated in the experiment diagrammed translation into the desired goals. on the opposite page, suggesting that the were mixed, however, and seeded to­ CONSIDER THESE ADVANTAGES genes are organized on a chromosome·like gether on minimal medium, numerous Minneapolis, the city of lakes and structure. The "male" in these diagrams is colonies were formed that could be in­ • parks, offers you metropolitan living in tagged with virus as in the electron micro­ definitely replanted on minimal medium. a suburban atmosphere. No commuting. graph on page 109. Conjugation begins a few It was clear that something had hap­ • Your travel and family moving ex­ penses paid. minutes (at upper right) after the two pened on the agar plates between the strains are mixed. The transfer of genetic • Salaries, insurance-pension pro­ two strains. New individuals, able to grams, plant and technical facilities are material (at left center) begins a few min­ synthesize all four amino acids, and all first-rate. utes later. The letters represent the location hence bearing characteristics inherited along the chromosome of genes for specific, If you are interested in a career with a from each "parent" strain, had appeared. identifiahle traits. Experimental interrup­ company whose sound growth is based Further experiment showed that this on research, call collect or send your tion of c

113

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC rect contact between the E. coli strains variations on the first successful labora­ prevented the production of hybrids. tory mating of E. coli have since told us This ingenious experiment, performed much more about bacterial genetics. on purely theoretical grounds, clearly Lederberg himself, continuing his demonstrated that genetic recombina­ work at the University of Wisconsin, laid tion does exist among bacteria. The study the experimental foundation for the im­ of bacterial genetics, however, presents portant conclusion that the genes of E. some very special problems. Geneticists coli are organized on a chromosome ordinarily try to examine all the progeny structure. He isolated strains of nutri­ of individual matings, or at least to tional mutants distinguished by a va­ take random samples of the progeny riety of other characteristics having of a series of like matings. With E. coli nothing to do with the nutritional defect the procedure is quite different. The rate for which they were selected. When he of recombination in a cross such as crossed two such strains he found that Tatum and Lederberg effected is about their recombinants inherited some of one recombinant per million bacteria of these characteristics from each parent. each parental type. This precludes any The characteristics were not randomly possibility of examining the offspring of transmitted to the recombinant but a single mating event. It also makes it turned up in fixedpatterns of associa­ necessary to choose in advance, as they tion. Bacterial genes must thus be ar­ did, the type of hybrid offspringone ranged on linear structures analogous to hopes to find. Despite these difficulties, the chromosomes in the nuclei of animals

A /-\

-- c ) � ( -- )

This field experiment by the Com ­ bat Operations Research Group involved time required for armor to locate and bring under fire anti­ tank gun emplacements before being themselves hit ... a typical B example of vital problems chal­ lenging Technical Operations scientists at CORG.

PHYSICISTS MATHEMA TICIANS and other SCI ENTISTS

will findin CORG a small, grow­ ing research group, where freedom to think and unlimited creative op­ portunities are paramount. Con­ tact with widely varied scientific disciplines, excellent living condi­ tions, plus all usual benefits, are among CORG's advantages.

For in/ormation, write to Dr. F. C. Brooks, Director COMBAT OPERATIONS RESEARCH GROUP Fort Monroe, Virginia

TECHNICAL GENETIC EXCHANGE in bacteria occurs in the three ways shown here. "Transformation" (A) involves experimental or accidental transfer of genetic material from one bacterium OPERATIONS, Inc. to another, "Transduction" (B) is accomplished by viruses which carry genetic material from one strain of bacteria to another. "Conjugation" (C) requires direct contact of bacteria.

114

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ENGINEERS ••• lOOK rEN YEARS AHEADI

Will your income and location allow you to live in a home like this ... spend your leisure time like this?

They can ... if you start y our Douglas career now!

Your objectives are probably high professional standing, good income, good security and good living. All four can be achieved at Douglas. Douglas has the reputation of being an "engineer's outfit," with the three top administrative posts being held by engineers. Maybe that's why it's the biggest, most successful unit in its field. Certainly it offers the engineer unexcelled opportunities in the specialty of his choice ...be it related to missiles or commercial or military aircraft. You've looked around. Now look ahead ... and contact Douglas. For further information about opportunities with Douglas in Santa Monica, El Segundo and Long Beach, California and Tulsa, Oklahoma, write today to:

DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMPANY, INC. e. C. LaVene, 3000 Ocean Park Boulevard, Santa Monica, California

First in Aviation

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC and plants. It was not yet possible, how­ and females are mixed together, they ever, to establish the location of each rapidly come into contact. Under opti­ gene on the chromosome or to determine mal conditions each supermale begins whether bacteria have more than one conjugation with a female within a few chromosome. minutes. This can easily be observed under the microscope, especially when ) important step toward the answer the two types of cells exhibit differences A to these questions was taken in 1952 in shape or motility or when one is when William Hayes at the University tagged with killed bacterial virus, as in of London demonstrated that the mat­ the electron micrograph on page 109. ing of bacteria involves a kind of sexual The two bacteria lie side by side in differentiation. Hayes made this discov­ conjugation for as much as half an hour. ery by an experiment in which he treated During this period a portion of genetic one or the other partner in a mating with material is slowly passed from the super­ streptomycin, thereby rendering it in­ male to the female. This was discovered capable of division. In one case there in our laboratory when we subjected would be no recombination. When the mating suspensions to vigorous beating other partner was treated, recombination in a Waring blendor. Beating the suspen­ -would occur. This differential result in­ sions at different times during conjuga­ dicated that the two parental types play tion developed the quite unexpected different roles in mating. One behaves evidence that the male genes enter the like a male whose transitory role is to female cell in a definiteorder, peculiar fertilize the other. Evidently this capaci­ to each strain. ty is not impaired by streptomycin. In order to get recombinants, however, it is he results of a series of such experi- essential that the capacity to divide Tments on one strain are shown in the should remain unimpaired in the other, diagram on page 112. It is seen that the or female, partner. Genetic recombina­ gene for the first demonstrable charac­ tion in bacteria can thus be visualized as teristic, one that controls the synthesis a one-way transfer of genetic material of the amino acid threonine, starts pene­ British Industries Corporation from a male type to a female. t\'ating at about seven minutes. This is This sexual differentiation was con­ followed at nine minutes by B, a gene Port Washington, New York firmed by Joshua and Esther Lederberg which controls the synthesis of another 10 LITCHFIELD PARK at Wisconsin and by L. L. Cavalli in amino acid, leucine. At minutes Italy. They showed that the two types comes C, a gene for sensitivity to the PHOENIX, ARIZONA may be distinguished by a sex deter­ drug sodium azide; at 11 minutes, D, a NEW ELECTRONIC LABORATORY minant which is possessed by the male gene for sensitivity to the bacterial virus NOW BEING STAFFED and is lacking in the female. The sex strain known as Tl; at 18 minutes, E, a determinant has a surprising potency; gene for lactose fermentation; and final­ This modern laboratory is being organ· F, ized as the Western Division of the well· when males and females are mixed to­ ly, at about 25 minutes, gene which established Aerophysics Departments of gether, it is transferred with high effi­ controls galactose fermentation. the Goodyear Aircraft Corporation of ciency to the females and transforms The process of conjugation thus lends Akron, Ohio. them into males. the strongest support to the notion that KEY PERSONNEL BEl NG SElECTEO The special nature of sex in bacteria bacterial genes are organized on a linear FOR FUTURE EXPANSION was further underscored by a discovery structure; that is, on a chromosome. The

Openings are available for experienced of Hayes that the male transfers only a chromosome always enters the female personnel and recent college graduates part of its genetic material to the female. with the same extremity first and carries The recombinants always inherit a larger the genes into the female in the same se­ COMPLETE MISSILE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS fraction of their genetic characteristics quence. When everything proceeds nor­ MICROWAVES, SERVOMECHANISMS, from their mother than from their father. mally, about one third of the total length AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION, RADARS The male can therefore be viewed as a of the male chromosome penetrates the AND STABILIZED ANTENNAS. gene donor, whereas the female is a gene female cell. Beating in the blendor not Long range research and development proiects acceptor. only separates the mating cells but chops Investigators succeeded in amassing the chromosome off at the point to which WESTERN LIVING AT ITS BEST "IN THE VALLEY OF THE SUN" all of this lore about the sex life of E. coli it has penetrated. Of course even under despite the one-in-a-miIlion rarity of its natural conditions spontaneous break­ Modern Inexpensive Housing manifestation in the reproduction of the ages may occur. Inside the female, the GOODji-EAR AIR(:RAFT species. Experimental procedures were chromosome segment is still functional A subsidiary of the very much simplified when Hayes and and, longer or shorter, takes its part in GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO. Cavalli independently discovered strains the formation of genetic recombinants. Send resume to: of supermales 100 and 1,000 times more This detailed picture of the mating A. E. Manning potent than ordinary males. The very process prompted a re-examination of Engineering and Scientific Personnel Goodyear Aircraft Corporation process of conjugation in bacteria was the difference in fertility between the Litchfield Park, Arizona now opened to detailed investigation. supermales and ordinary males. Was this Similar opportunities available in our Several steps can be identified and a difference in the ability to make close AAron, Ohio Laboratory described. First of all, when supermales contact with the female? Or was it a dif-

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Record radiation data in lab or plant

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Valuable aid in chemical nucleonics, this in­ sensitivity model .•.can be changed by 10 or to by means of a range switch. System strument records currents as small as 10.15 100 1 accuracy is approximately 1 % of scale. Zero ampere ...useful in isotope tracer studies, drift should not exceed 0.3 millivolt per day. nuclear fuel reprocessing, and similar atomic Input resistor is 1011 ohms for highest current investigations. sensitivity ... also supplied in values down to 105 ohms. exceptionally high sensitivity of the HE High stability and low system noise assure de­ Brown Electrometer makes it ideal for a T pendable measurements. Switches can be pro­ wide range of atomic radiation measurements. vided in the instrument to actuate external Use it with beta gages, ion chambers, photo­ alarn1S at preset limits of radiation leveL electric scintillation counters or other detecting elements which produce minute currents. It is The Brown Electrometer, proved by years of excellent, too, for use in mass spectrometers ... use in leading atomic installations, is a valuable in spectroscopic analysis using vacuum photo­ asset in any lab doing nuclear studies.Call your tubes. local Honeywell fieldengineer for a discussion of your application ...he's as near as your phone. The Electrometer consists of a preamplifier head connected to a special ElectroniK recorder. MINNEAPOLIS-HONEYWELL REGULATOR CO., In addition to current measurements, it can be Industrial Division, Wayne and Windrim Ave­ supplied as a high-impedance millivoltmeter. nues, Philadelphia 44, Pa.-in Canada, Toronto Full scale range is 10.13 amperes for maximum 17, Ontario.

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117

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC "ference in ability to inject genetic mate­ rial? Recent experiments show that a'll I know from my own experience all of the de­ types of males are able to conjugate in tails involved in making a decision about an equally high percentage of cases. But changing jobs. You wonder what ordinary males are then able to inject only a very small piece of chromosome you will be doing ••• the which does not carry any known charac­ will be associated wi teristic except the sex determinant itself. ing conditions,. The otherwise recognizable recombi­ is there nants are formed by the rare supermale a short mutants that turn up in a population of few of the normal males. The supermales can be reasons distinguished from one another accord­ should get ing to the characteristics they inject into in the mail females. so that an Now that we know bacteria are interview c equipped with genes and chromosomes be arranged. and the capacity for sexual reproduction, I am att our attention turns to the question of snapshot of what happens inside the female cell to in the country the genetic material injected by the male. We want to know how a given to schools, c piece of material is integrated into the minutes from ices. genetic s tup of a cell, making more of This is only ons why most of itself and' imposing its features on the the folks who co an interview just biochemical machinery of the offspring. st� •••wire the w e to start packing ••• This problem is not peculiar to bacteria; knowing she will love the living part of it. it is the general problem of how the re­ Now about the work and the people •••• combinant chromosomes of the offspring The attached clipping will give you a brief are assembled from the chromosomes of idea of some of Farnsworth's activities for the parents. Because it is possible to con­ the military and industry in the fields of trol the transfer of their male chromo­ electronics and nuclear energy. Your associ­ somes, bacteria may help us to develop ates will be eminent scienti�ts and engi­ important information on this question, neers with many "firsts" to their credit in Sexual reproduction in bacteria thus holds high interest for the geneticist. It electronics. (Like Philo Farnsworth, our Tech­ is perhaps more important to his work nical Director and the inventor of electronic than it is to the survival of the bacteria. television.) We must recall that for the most part And don't worry about permanency or they reproduce by simple division and stability. Being a member of the world-wide very rapidly. Enormous populations can International Telephone and Telegraph Corp­ be built whose capacity for adaptation oration makes Farns . th big enough to assure to environmental changes is insured by that yet it � small enough for flex- the random appearance of a great va­ ibili n recognition of the riety of spontaneous mutants. Recom­ ·ndividual. Here you bination by sexual exchange seems n ill be heard •••not merely incidental to the survival and SO evolution of bacterial populations. Yet e� just one of the herd. f course, all the we find among bacteria the range of processes we have discussed here for the other advantages are exchange of genetic material between included: liberal individuals. These fillin gaps in the evo­ elocation expense, lutionary scale of sexual reproduction, advanced education t and they open up new approaches to the at no cost to you. u¥ study of genetics. CO To get the whole ascinating Farns­ here is little doubt that the basic worth story ••• T features of genetic recombination must be similar whether they occur in bacteria or in man. It would be rather surprising if the study of sexual repro­ duction in bacteria did not lead to deep­ er understanding of the process of genet­ ic recombination, which is so vital to the survival and evolution of higher or­ ganisms.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Perhaps you are not receiving a salary commensurate with your work.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC BOOKS

Two social scientists re flect on secrecy, loyalty and disloyalty

able or restrictive and eventually dam­ own business. There is a necessary bal­ aging to their work. ance between publicity, privacy and se­ Obviously this is an abnormal con di­ by Harry L. Shapiro crecy. Often the balance is an uncertain tion in the sense that it is one that has one, fluctuating in one direction or an­ THE TORMENT OF SECRECY, by Edward never existed before in this form in our other, but always righting itself in a A. Shils. The Fr ee Press ($3.50) society. It of course raises many ques­ sound democratic community. This THE LOYAL AND THE DISLOYAL, by tions. In the firstplace, is it or was it maintenance of equilibrium is inherent Morton Grodzins. University of Chi­ necessary? Is it symptomatic of latent in a pluralistic society such as ours, cago Press ($4). forces in our democracy? Is it an expres­ where men may join together in a variety sion of cultural conditions that were ag­ of ways and where the excesses of one or the past decade we have under­ gravated by the tensions of war? Above element may be restrained by the inter­ Fgone in this country an experience all, what are loyalty and disloyalty? ests of another. that has no precise counterpart in It is natural that the tensions created Secrecy for reasons of state has always our history. The trust of the average by the atmosphere of suspicion and in­ been a bar rier to publicity, and attains Am erican in the loyalty of other Ameri­ vestigation, by the demands for loyalty its maximum and necessary effectiveness cans, and particularly of those connected oaths and by the rediscovery of the Fifth in the fieldof foreign and military policy. with government, was profoundly shaken Amendment, should have sti mulated Information about military resources, in­ by a series of widely publicized charges some basic reflection on the problems of tentions, strategy and tactics are con­ and exposures. We have seen Federal, loyalty and security. In the two books sidered legitimate matters for secrecy. state and comm unity investigations into reviewed here som"e of these questions Traditionally the major threat to this se­ the loyalty of individual citizens. Accu­ have been thoughtfully analyzed . crecy was the spy working for the enemy sations of treason have been freely lev­ In The Torment of Secrecy Edward and the major protection the use of coun­ eled at a variety of people, some in rather A. Shils, professor of social sciences at terintelligence. exalted positions. Charges of espionage the University of Chicago, has under­ In the past, because of our traditions have been brought against fellow Amer­ taken the formidable task of identifying and our cultural conditioning, this kind icans, with a conviction handed down in the basic principles and traditions of a of secrecy was relatively rare. It was, at least one case. In addition to this, free society and, in particular, of the however, generally respected by the in­ thousands of employees of the govern­ U. S. "After nearly a decade," he writes, stitutions of publicity. How was the bal­ ment have been screened as security "of degrading agitation and numerous ance upset? risks, and virtually everyone planning to unnecessary and unworthy actions, the Shils sees one factor in the existence leave the country or to enter it on a visit disturbance aroused in the United States of another kind of secrecy which before has had to be cleared whether he knew by the preoccupation with secrecy and World War II never played an important it or not. subversion has begun to abate. All is not role in our national life. This is the se­ We have had in the past episodes of yet entirely serene. Ma ny of the injus­ crecy of revolutionary activity. It is the re crimination following periods of crisis. tices committed have not yet been fear of such activities that generates an After the Civil War and World War I righted-if they can ever be righted­ invasion of privacy and demands a charges of bad management, of profiteer­ and security policies are not yet suffi­ heightened uniformity and solidarity. It ing and of other de linquencies were ciently realistic, but the abatement is ignores the legitimate privacy of the in­ common. So me of them were perhaps substantial and genuine." dividual or corporate body. It calls for justified ; others were ways of letting off But, he goes on, "a great society publicity and creates a di sequilibrium . steam-a kind of catharsis for the ten­ should not allow its partial recovery Inevitably, under these pressures, a sions that preceded them . But never be­ from a humiliating and unjustifiable greater secrecy is demanded . fore have so many citizens been scru­ lapse from decent conduct to diminish Shils considers these tend encies to be tinized with suspicion. the necessity for the conscientious scru­ peculiarly characteristic of a populistic Under such circumstances the fever tiny of the lapse. It must try to under­ society such as ours under strain. Public­ of distrust tends to become uncontrol­ stand in the most detached and unimpas­ ity in this country, compared for exam­ lable, with the result that no group is sioned way what that lapse signifies in ple with that in Great Britain, has always exempt from attack. Even the clergy, terms of its own history and general tended to claim prerogatives; thus its normally a respected and trusted seg­ principles. It must reaffirm and clarify its encroachment on privacy is more likely ment of the population, found itself standards and turn a cold eye on its to occur. Even our highest officials use touched by the infection. Scientists in weaknesses." the "leak" for political purposes, and particular have had to endure suspicions It is Shils's thesis that a free so ciety our legislators findtheir careers depend­ and to work under conditions that to can exist only when public spirit is bal­ ent upon the uses of publicity. many of them were personally intoler- anced by an inclination to mind one's The disequilibrium between publicity

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC and privacy wa s brought about, Shils spected serious books, while Collier's PUBLICATIONS, COURSES, ON believes, by a number of overt factors. and The Saturday Evening Post did not. These were the world situation, involv­ This loaded comparison strikes a rather COMPUTERS P 2E: THE COMPUTER DIRECTO RY. 1956. 100 pages; ing Communism as a threat to our insti­ sour note. 370 Organization entries; 100 entries or l'roducls and Senices for Sale in the Computer Field; 220 entries on tutions, the atomic bomb and the evi­ Shils's argument rests fundamentally Automatic Computers: over 130,000 words of condensed. dences of conspiracy. But these factors on the fact that in a pluralistic societ y factual information about the Computer Field ...... $5.00 P 2: CO MPUTERS AND AUTOM ATION. l-fonthly arti­ cles. papers, reports, reference information. on computing operate because of deeper characteristics citizens must respect one another and machinery, cybernetics, robots, and their applications and implications, including automation. Annual subscription. of our culture and institutions. In a accept the role of law. He admits the $5.50 COURSE C 22: SMALL ELECTRIC BRAIN MACHINES country of such diverse and recent ori­ need for security and a limited secrecy -AND HOW TO MAKE THE M: Includes two manuals (112 pages), by E. C. Berkeley, of construction plans and gins as the U. S., the "Americanism" of for reasons of state. But security, he feels, explanations. a complete set of over 400 parts including 6 multiple switches of a new design, a 250-page book, course various groups comes under suspicion must be atta ined without violence to the directions, and personal instruction and guidance, for mak­ ing over 45 arithmetical, logical, reasoning, computing, very readily in times of crisis. The older essential balance of publicity and priva­ puzzle-solving and game-playing machines. Each machine displays intelligent behavior, runs on one flashlightbattery, groups question the commitment of the cy; exaggerated fears injure security it­ requires no soldering (all connections with nuts and bolts). Demonstrates in easily-put-together models the fascinating newer ones. Hyperpatriotism becomes a self. The outlawing of the Communist variety of reasoning and computing circuits. Course Fee in- cluding everything...... reaction of the insecure. Xenop hobia, Party, for example, he considers to be a ...... $29.00 (in U.S.A.). Returnable in one week. which goes back to our earliest days and hindrance to the surveillance of the has served to speed the assimilation of Party. The Congressional investigations SYMBOLIC LOGIC Course S 20: THE ALGEBRA OF CLASSES. AND OF immigrants, can become a fundamental yielded little, for all the damage they in­ STATES AND EVENTS. AND HOW TO DESIGN CIR· CUlTS WITH IT. The algebra of AND, OR. NOT, IF. IS, cause for uncertainty and doubt in their Hicted. The existing mechanisms for se­ WHEN, BEFORE, HAPPEN . . • classes. statements, conditions, states. events, changes, etc. Boolean algebra fellow Americans. Isolationism is another curity purposes work well and should modified to include time. Applications to on-oft.'circuits using relays, electronic tubes, diodes, delay lines, flip flops. deep-seated determinant that encour­ be allowed to do the job without inter­ sequential circuits, etc. Circuits for control, programing, computing, etc. The course includes four publlcatIons total­ ages the overt factors of disequilibrium. ference. ing 127 pages, course directions, set of Questions and as­ Signments, and personal instruction and guidance. Course Shils sees a reinforcement of these The Torment of Secrecy affirms a Fee including e\'erything...... $18.00 P 16: SYMBOLIC LOGIC-TWENTY PROBLE MS AND trends in the American practice of poli­ faith in the self-regulating processes of SOLUTIONS. Report. Contains 20 problems (many new and practical) and their worked-out solutions. G uide to using tics. U. S. politics makes a heavy de­ our democracy, but it does so without symbolic logic in actual situatiollS...... $1.80 Your money is returned at once if you are not satisfied. Send mand on the individual performance of minimizing the dangers that beset them. request direct-not through a dealer. We offer 30 publica. tions, and 32 courses by mail. We have students in 48 states the candidate for office. Support from It is an impressive job, and one badly and territories. 20 foreign countries. Ask us for information. needed in a time like this. Shils ends his the party organization is relatively un­ r----·MAIL THIS COUPON-----'l important. Thus the candidate is highly book with a plea for a moderation and m k t I :� 5 W:sh� g�:� ���� ���5��:�o �: lle 60. Mass. I ease s nn me it m Circle d Pi 16 sensitive to the voters. He responds to order that allow for both conservation I �. r .:; � � �2 � 20 I J their deep-seated attitudes and to the and change. The enemy is extremism­ I Returnable in 7 days fOl' full refund i f not satisfactory. I c s n 20 vocal and vigorous minorities of his dis­ revolutionary or reactionary. t o er .. co�·t·of"ha� dl � E�rn�!\�I���? ¢ per I I 1 :� �� � � �� I trict. Face to face with the bureaucrats, Morton Grodzins, another University I I he finds himself in competition with of Chicago professor and chairman of them and often at a disadvantage be­ the University's department of political cause of their specialized knowledge and science, ha s explored in The Loyal and competence. the Disloyal an other phase of the sa me For a long time the intellectual in problem that concerns Shils. In this American politics was an outcast, but in book, with a brilliance that sh ades into recent years intellectuals began to enter facility and overgeneralization, Grodzins public service. As bureaucrats they in­ ha s essayed the difficult business of ana­ herited the distrust in which the politi- lyzing what makes for disloyalty. , cian ha s always held them. The situation Loyalty, according to Grodzins, is was aggravated by a number of irritants, a relative thing; it has many fac ets and MODERN GREEK-any of 34 languages available among 0thers the feeling on the part of its expression as national loyalty is an for FREE TRIAL AT HOME With LINGUAPHONE-The World's Standard Conversational the legislators that the intellectuals con­ outgrowth of a complex series of group Method-You Start to SPEAK another language TOMORROW -0' IT COSTS YOU NOTHING! sidered themselves superiOr. It is the commitments and identifications. Even By listening to Linguaphone's fine, life-Uke record­ ings for just 20 minutes a day, you can learn an­ intellectual who is the hero of Shils's the concept of loyalty to the na tion, other language AT HOME-the same easy, natural way you learned to speak English long before you book, and to whose defense he ha s come. which we hold as the highest loyalty, is went to school. He sets out to explain how it came a recent development in Western so­ Only LINGUAPHONE brings 8 to 12 of the wodd's best native language teachers into your home. You about that the intelligentsia became al­ ciety; in an earlier time, for example, heal' both men and women converse about up-to­ date everyday matters in their native tongue. YOU lied with the bureaucracy of the U. S., loyalty to the Church transcended all understand-You SPEAK correctly as they do. It's and why leftist attitudes appealed to others. Grodzins' analysis draws from like living in another land. That's why Linguaphone is used 'round the world some of them. Their basic attitudes, he cultural and political data and seeks to by scientists, educators, governments and business firms. More than a million home-study students of asserts, were in the American tradition. give the concept of loyalty, with all its all ages have learned to speak another language this ideal way. '--:- _ _ He enters an apologia for the involve­ conflicts and contradictions, a dynamic "-: --:-----:- =-----=- -;-:---c Send or call today for Free booklet , "Passport ment of the intelligentsia with Comm u­ and living reality. To A New World": also details on how you may obtain a COMPLETE Course-unit in the lan­ nist ideas. His case is a cogent one and In the sense that loyalty can be guage you choose on FREE TRIAL. linguaphone undoubtedly contributes much to our equated with behavioral or cultural pat­ Institute. T-3076 Rock. Plaza. N. Y. 20. CI 7-0830. I - understanding of the situation that de­ terns, all men have loyalties. Generally �I;G�;;�� -;N-;T-;;�;- --; ;'0;01 I T-3076 Rock. Plaza, New York 20, N. Y. I veloped in the 1930s. His book might speaking they have a variety of them. Please send me: 0 FREE Book. I Details on FREE '.rria!. No obligation, of course. I have been more effective if in several They have loyalties to family; to the 0 I My language interest is. I instances he had not str ained his evi­ group with which they work; perhaps to I ...... I dence to the point of absurdity. For ex­ their union, club or lodge; to their oc­ I � �;r:;' ...... ::: I I City ...... Zone...... State... ample, he argues that New Masses ap­ cupation or profession, and ultimately to I I World'S Standard Conversational Method For Over pealed to intellectuals because it re- Half a Century I the nation. This follows from the or- I______1

121

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Announcing a special THE WORLD OF

WORLD MATHEMATICS The most extensive collection ever published, OF not only a rich collection but a history of mathematical for layman and expert, of the great literature of ideas and the men who originated them. From Vajda on Matching Pennies to Mathematics from the Rhind Papyrus of Egypt to Einstein's Mendel on Heredity, and Eddington on Gravity theories, Edited by JAMES R. NEWMAN. Presented in 4 A wealth of wonderful reading is con­ handsome boxed volumes [ each 640 pages ]; with 1,000 tained here for the literate, the curious, the the drawings, halftones and facsimile reproductions lively-minded. See Ronald A. Fisher's Mathematics of a Lady Tasting Tea. Read George Bernard Shaw on The Vice 0/ Gam­ N'SEPTEMBl;:R 25, 1956, after 15 years of sense, here are more than 2,500 pages of bling and the Virtue of Insurance. O preparation, THE WORLD OF M ATHE­ selections from a literature unparalleled for Do you know what the smallest thing in MATICS will at last be published in four lucidity and imaginative splendor. the Universe is? The biggest? The fastest? llJagnificent volumes. With its publication, a Included are 133 great books, essays, The slowest? Read D'Arcy Thompson's es­ lavish selection of writings by the world's articles, and stories -more than one mil­ say, On Magnitude. From Vajda's essay on foremost mathematicians is, for the first lion words. All are woven together with a Matching Pennies and Von Neumann's clas­ tIme, ayailable as a unifiedlibrary within word commentary by James R. New­ ' 130,000 sic "Theory of Games" to the mathematics' th� reach of the general reader. man, member of the Board of Editors of of music -even the mathematics of ethics, From Archimedes on "Poppies and the Scientific American Magazine. His explana­ metaphysics, and golf-every field0/ mathe­ Universe" to Lewis Carroll's logical non- tory and biographical essays make THE matical thought is represented.

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, I. GENERAL SURvn -P.E.B. Jourdain: The Nature 0/ Mathematics. II. HISTORICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL - Her­ bert Westren Turnbull: The Great Mathema­ ticians; James R. Newman: The Rhind Papy­ rus; Plutarch: Arc himedes; Sir Oliver Lodge: Johann Kepler; Rene Descartes: Geomet�y; PLUS selections by Alfred North Whitehead, Eric Temple Bell, Bishop Berkeley, John May­ nard Keynes, and 6 others. III. ARITHMETIC, NUMBERS AND THE ART OF COUNTING -Archimedes: Poppy Seeds and The Universe; W. W. Rouse Ball: Calculating Prodigies; Sir Isaac Newton: The Binomial Theorem; Richard Dedekind: Irrational Num· bers; PLUS selections by Bertrand Russell, O. Koehler, 3 others. IV. MATHEMATICS OF SPACE AND MOTION­ William Kingdon Clifford:The Science 0/ Space, The Space Theory 0/ Matter; Leon· hard Euler: The Seven Bridges 0/ Konigsberg. A Famous Problem. Morris Kline: Projective Geometry; Hermann Weyi: Symmetry; Erwin Panofsky: Durer as a Mathematician; PLoUS selections by 5 others. V. MATHEMATICS AND THE PHYSICAL WORLD -Galileo: Mathematics 0/ Motion; H. G. J. Mosley: Atomic Numbers; C. V. Boys: The Soap Bubble; Gregor Mendel: Mathematics 0/ Heredity; Clement V. Durell: Theory 0/ Relativity; PLUS selections by Sir William, Bragg, Erwin Schrodinger, 15 others, VI. MATHEMATICS AND THE SOCIAL SCI­ ENCES -Thomas Robert Malthus: Mathemat· ics 0/ Wealth; Lewis Fry Richardson: Stat· istics 0/ Deadly Quarrels; Leonid Hurwicz: On the Theory of Games; 7 others. VII. THE LAWS OF CHANCE -Pierre Simon De LaPlace: Concerning Probability; Charles Sanders Peirce: The Red and The Black;

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Pre-publication Offer on MATHEMATICS

"Simple" Arithmetic and the ' two basic books are included in full: P. E. B. printing, and reduce the cost per set, we are Theory of Relativity Jourdain's Thed' ature of Mathematics (long accepting advance reservations from read­ O. Koehler's report on birds "who learned out of print) and Herbert Westren Turn­ ers of this announcement. In return for to think in un· named numbers" gives you a bull's The Great Mathematicians (not other­ helping us increase the size of this printing fresh, out·of.the.way view of "simple" wise available in America). Together they by entering your reservation now, you will counting and thought processes. form a brilliant prelude to the 131 essays, receive the complete set at a special pre­ J. B. S. Haldane's celebrated essay, On articles, demonstrations, and mathematical publication price of only $14.95. !liversions that follow. (See partial contents.) , Being The Right Size, leads you from a con­ How to Take Atlvantageof This Offer templation of mice (to whom "gravity pre­ Special First-Edition. sents practically no danger") to a new basis By mailing the special reservation cou­ PRE-PUBLICATION OFFER for judging systems of government. pon below you are assured of a first-edition THE set of THE WORLD OF MATHEMATICS at the C. V. Boys discourses on the delicate A work of the size and scope of architecture of the soap bubble. WORLD OF MATHEMATICS -utilizing the fin­ pre-publication price. Copies ordered in this way will come to you as soon as they The mathematics of space aljd motion est printing, paper, and binding -would They will be billed to you and the physical world is presented in the ordinarily be priced at $50 or more. How­ are off the press. at the special price only even writings of Galileo, Helmholtz, and others. ever, advance enthusiasm has encouraged 0/ $14.95 if the final price turns out to be higher than And one of the prizes of the collection is the publishers to plan an unusually large we now anticipate. the best popular explanation ever offered of first printing. It is hoped in this way the re­ Relativity -C. V. Durell's. tail price of four volumes, boxed and stamp­ We believe you will want to have this dis­ tinguished work not only for yourself, your As a springboard to the understanding ed in gold, may be brought down to $20. children, and their heirs, but as a Christmas and enjoyment of mathematical thought, In order to build up the size of the first present for someone to whom you wish, this year, to give a princely gift. We urge you to mail the Reservation Coupon and take ad­ vantage of the savings on what is certain to be one of the most wished-for presents of Ernest Nagel: The Meaning of Probability; XVI. THE VOCABULARY OF MATHEMATlCS­ 1956. (This offer expires Sept. 25, 1956.) Henri Poincare: Chance; 3 others. Edward Kasner and James R. Newman: New Names for Old_ VIII. STATISTICS AND THE DESIGN OF EX­ SEND NO MONEY PERIMENTS -Jacob Bernoulli: The Law of XVII. MATHEMATICS AS AN ART -John i W. Large Numbers; C. Tippett: Sampling and N. Sullivan: Math emat cs as an Art. L. Simply fill out the reservation and mail it to­ Standard Error; M. J. Moroney: On the Aver­ XVIII. THE MATHEMATICIAN EXPLAINS HIM­ HE ORLD age and Scatter; PLUS selections by G. B. SELF -G. H. Hardy: A Mathematician's Apol­ day. If after you have examined T W Shaw, John Graunt, Edmund Halley, Sir Ron­ qgy; Henri Poincare: Mathematical Creation; OF MATHEMATICS in your home for three ald A. Fisher. How Ideas Are Born; John Von Neumann: weeks, you are not absolutely sure that you IX. THE SUPREME ART OF ABSTRACTION: The Mathematician. and your family will treasure it for years to GROUP THEORY -Cassius J. Keyser: The XIX. VARIOUS CLEVER MACHINES-john Von come, return it to us and owe nothing. Group Concept; Sir Arthur S. Eddington: N<;mmann:Theory 0/ Automata; A. M. Tur­ Otherwise, we shall bill you at the special The Theory of Groups. ing: Can a Machine Think?; Clacde Shan­ pre·publication price. Mail coupon to your non: A Chess-Playing Machine. X. THE MATHEMATICS OF INFINITY -Ber­ bookseller, or: SIMON AND SCHUSTER, Pub· XX. THE UNGENTLE USES OF MATHEMATICS trand Russell : Mathematics and the M eta­ lishers, Dept. 630 Fifth Avenue, New - 47, physicians; Hans Hahn: Infinity. F. W. Lanchester: Mathematics in War­ fare; Morse and Kimball: How to Hunt a York 20. XI. MATHEMATICAL TRUTH AND THE STRUC­ Submarine. TURE OF MATHEMATICS -Carl G. 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Rouse N ame ...... , .... , ...... , ..., ...... _,...... , ...... gained; Hans Hahn: The Crisis in Intultion. Ball, 7 others. XV. BECOMINGONE'S OWN MATHEMATI­ PLUS interpretive essays by the editor and 89 Address ...... , ...... , ... , ...... ,. , ...... , .. ", ...... , ...... , ...... CIAN -G. Polya: How to SQlve It_ 1,000 illustrations. Zone

City .... , ...... , .. ... (if any) .. , .... .state ...... Indicate the number of EXTRA sets you wish reserved for D Christmas giving -and billed to you at special low pre .. I publication price. I (Mail at once to toke advantage of this special offer. Offer expires September 2S, 1956.) © 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC !. ganization of society in which the com­ loyalty by the case of the Japanese­ the loyal from the disloyal, Grodzins has ponent elements can be tolerated only as Americans who during World War II coined the word "traitriot." A traitriot they reinforce the larger body. These were evacuated from their homes in may be one who puts certain values, like loyalties can exist because they serve the California and held in concentration the welfare of all mankind, first and that basic satisfactions and status that an in­ camps. The example is used to demon­ of the nation second. He may be an dividual derives from the various group­ strate how devotion to family and to American-born Japanese who has be­ ings of which he is a part. Am erican id eals of justice (whi ch the come pro-Japanese because he has cher­ Besides these indirect connections Japanese felt had been betrayed ) could ished values of American democracy that foster loyalty, there are also the result in disloyalty. which, in his experience, have been direct connections that the nation makes The road to treason itself grows out violated . Traitriotism may also be found with the individual. One example is the of disloyalty and discontent. As Grodzins in shifting loyalties to a social class or actual services rendered to the indi­ points out, the paths are numerous and group. An example is the man who rises vidual by the nation, although this may devious, but alienation starts the jour­ in the social scale and abandons his old be overemphasized and is contradicted ney. The mechanism he suggests is that loyalties and friends. Here we have an to some extent by other sections of Grod­ since loyalty is an essential feature of 11U­ illustration, it seems to me, of a defect zins' argument. Id entificationof the in­ man life, the individual whose loyalty is in Grodzins' exposition : he freely dividual with the nation is reinforced by destroyed for one reason or another must eq uates social and political loyalty. This familiarity, ethnocentrism and, of course, seek a new loyalty. Adrift and lonely, he undoubtedly enlarges the scope of his by language and traditions. "Life," says may join a deviant group. Friendship, analysis, but it also makes it less con­ Grodzins, "m ay be hell. But disloyalty is living up to the demands of the group, vincing. the last way out. By inclination or by de­ dedication and integration lead him on In the concluding section of his book fault, most men are patriots." and eventually make any break with the Grodzins discusses the problem of se­ All men findthe mselves in a network group extremely difficult. Grodzins in­ curity in the light of his previous analysis of loyalties, so me of which may be in dicates that these conditions only rarely of the dynamics of loyalty and disloyalty. competition or conflict: the claims of the make for disloyalty. Most people, "de­ Here he is in esse ntial agreement with family as against those of the occupa­ spite disenchantment," do not go the Shils. The necessity for security is a very tional group, those of the profession as whole road. Does Grodzins mean to sug­ real one, he indicates, but he finds that against those of the church, and so on. gest that disloyalty is largely due to ac­ current methods of assuring it are not In this connection Grodzins seems to de­ cident? If so, why are there so few? well suited to the task. Reputations have fine conflict as disloyalty and ultimately The ambiguity of the ter ms used by been ruthlessly de stroyed; frustration treason. But conflict need not mean dis­ the author unfortunately make the read ­ and discontent generated . Scientists es­ loyalty. After all, disagreement with the er a bit uncomfortable. For example, we sential to the national welfare have been government is still permissible in a de­ are offered as an instance of disloyalty unnecessarily alienated . Mo re desirable mocracy. To bolster his argument on the the butchers who flouted price regula­ methods of adm inistration and more ex­ strength of primary group loyalty tions during the war. "Such violations act knowledge of the ingredients of loy­ Grodzins cites the data of the French clearly define the stuff out of whi ch dis­ alty would, Grodzins claims, more ade­ psychologist Jean Piaget on the strength loyalty is made." This goes far beyond quately protect the nation. of face-to-face relationships am ong chil­ the legal and customary definition of It is, I suppose, inevitable for a book chen. These are often more power ful disloyalty and ends by becoming a T e­ on such a controversial and difficult sub­ than parental or other controls. It is ductio ad absurdum. Since everyone ject to leave the reader with a sheaf of risky, it strikes me, to draw an analogy breaks or flouts some regulation or other queries and rejoinders. But one cannot between adult behavior and that of -traffic, tax and so on-we are all dis­ but adm ire the many insights that children still in play group s. The pat­ loyal and on the road to treason. Grodzins brings to the problem, and his terns of behavior go through develop­ Grodzins describes the Duke of Wind­ bold application of cultural studies to mental stages ; the compulsions for the sor as an alienated person-the infer­ the phenomena of loyalty and disloyalty. six-year-old are not necessarily the same ence being that he chose love instead of Grodzins recognizes that he must gener­ as those for the 16-year-old or the adult. country. I must confess that it is hard alize rather too freely on his data. This Some men resolve conflicts between to accept the former Edward VIII as an may leave the reader who is unfamiliar national and non-national loyalty by oc­ alienated Briton bereft, according to with this information occasionally gasp­ casional choices against the nation; oth­ Grodzins' definition, of the satisfactions ing for air. But like The Torment of Se­ ers drift aimlessly into national disloyal­ of play groups and of national identifi­ crecy, The Loyal and Disloyal serves to ty. But for most men the national loyalty cation. definea problem of the first importance. is am biguous enough to contain the va­ Where are the disloyal to be found? ri ous conflicts. Thus the Poles of Chicago Grodzins suggests: Wherever there are Short Reviews can urge an anti -Soviet policy on the dissatisfactions and alienation. Although U. S., fulfilling a loyalty to Poland and they are not to be found in any one WELLERS I:\, DARKNESS: AN I NTRO- acting as Americans at the same time. group, conditions favorable for their D DUeTIO:\, TO THE STUDY OF TER­ In contrast with the dynamics of loy­ em ergence are probably more frequent MITES, by S. H. Skaife. Longmans Green alty in a democracy, totalitarian regimes in some. College students, because they and Company ($5). There are 1,929 deliberately foster direct ties. The pri­ are generally in a stage of social transi­ known species of termites (1,86 1 living mary groups are controlled; in a sense tion and have not yet established them­ and 68 fossil), the oldest of the social all life becomes political. Terror, al­ selves in the social milieu, are particu­ insects, with an established lineage of though often overestimated as an effec­ larly susceptible. Moreover, the idealism 5@me 200 million years. Dr. Skaife's en­ tive political force, goes a long way in of college students makes them readier grossing monograph gives a detailed ac­ reinforcing loyalty to the nation. for discontent. count of the strange ways of the black­ Grodzins illustrates the origin of dis- To illustrate the fine line that divides mound termite, common to the mountain

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC slopes near Cape Town, South Africa-a the king. These are the remnants of the that the ordinary reader will find it as en­ species never studied before. Termites, wings the pair used on their brief lightening and enjoyable as the student South African or other, are the "most nuptial flight, their one excursion into does. Dr. Kuenen discusses the cycle of difficult of all insects to study in a living the outside world, when they departed water, the configuration of the ocean state in the laboratory" and little is as prince and princess from the mounds floor, tides, the great ocean circulations known about them. They live in "fortress of their respective parents, met, mated, and currents, the interaction between the homes" -a ssuming they ar e not at this and founded their own community. Both atmosphere and the ocean, the effect of very moment crunching through beams the king and the queen are exalted over water waves upon the earth's crust. His under your living room-where the ra ys all their subjects in having eyes. How­ account of wave formation and behavior of the sun never reach them. Skaife's ever, when one lives in perpetual dark­ is a model of lucidity, as is the story of species makes black mounds which rise ness, it is perhaps worse to have eyes the calculations underlying the da mming to about two feet and contain thousands than to have been born blind. Skaife's re­ of the Zuider Zee, a brilliant example of of cells used as living quarters. The cells markable account, based on years of per­ applied research carried out by a com­ are connected by circular openings about sonal observation, describes the life and mittee under the chai rmanship of the a sixteenth of an inch in diameter. The order of the community, population con­ eminent physicist H. A. Lorentz. We are building materials of the mounds are trol, rearing the young, the succession to told that if all the salt dissolved in the particles of soil and termite excrement, the throne, the protozoan parasitic part­ oceans of the world were collected and a quick-hardening substance which acts ners of the termite, their enemies, their spread upon the continents, they would as a weatherproof cement; the excrement caste problems. A chapter is devoted to be covered with a layer 500 feet thick; thus combines the functions of sanitation other species of termites, among them the total amount of the water in the at­ and construction. In the heaviest winter the Australian Amitermes meridionalis mosphere, if condensed, would form a ra ins the mounds stay dry; they stand Froggatt which builds the most ex­ layer no more than one inch thick. for decades, and a man jumping on a traordinary inse ct structures in the Vl'inds, storms, clouds, he ating and mound does not damage it. The inhabi­ world, the fa mous Port Darwin wedge­ evaporation at the earth's surface are tants themselves are less durable. The shaped compass mounds. These reach a fully dealt with, as is water in the solid majority of the adults are workers, male height of 12 feet and a length of 10 feet state, including snow, avalanches and and female, about a fifth of an inch long, and are always placed so that they point glaciers. A chapter is devoted to ground sterile, quite blind, slow-moving, soft­ north and south; thus they obtain pro­ water-from springs, geysers and under­ bodied, with white heads and gray or tection from the fierce heat of the mid­ ground streams to karst landscapes and black abdomens. They are defenseless day sun which strikes only the narrow stalactites. In a section on surface wa ter, creatures, entirely at the mercy of their edge of the wedge. An outstanding ex­ apart from the usual topics, one finds de­ age-long foes-agile, aggressive ants that ample of popular natural history. Illus­ lightful out-of-the-way information on would wipe them out if they could get trations. potholes, turbulent flow, meanders, fans at them. Part of their protection comes of debris, and "piracy or beheading"­ from soldier termites-5 per cent of the EALMS OF \VATER, by P. H. Kuenen. when one river captures a portion of a R population-which are also sterile males John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ($6.50 ). If neighboring river's territory and. so and females, the same size as the workers one were to name the inorganic sub­ weakens its victim that "it stands no but with large yellow heads and power­ stance which is the greatest repository chance of ever recovering its lost do­ ful curved jaws. But the soldiers cannot of diverse qualities, the most typical em­ main," and simply gets thinner and stand offthe ants for more than a few bodiment of the laws and forces of na­ thinner in ensuing battles. Many maps, seconds. The main protection of the ture, the ubiquitous and indispensable drawings, diagrams and plates, all of community is the mound itself, which is servant and supporter of life-the sub­ which contribute substantially to the ex­ ronstantly being enlarged by marvelous stance would be water. It is the only position. engineering operations conducted en­ kind of matter to be found on earth as tirely from the inside. Only in the event a solid, a liquid and a vapor. It is re­ UTHERFORD, BY THOSE WHO KNEW of an accidental break are the soldiers sponsible for nearly all visible move­ R HIM. Physical Society (eight shil­ called upon to fight. The blind workers ments in inanimate nature. In the outer­ lings sixpence). A collection of the first fill the hole with grains of sand and ce­ most three miles of the earth there is five Rutherford lectures of the Physical ment them together-usually a matter of three times as much water as all other Society of London. The lecturers, H. R. seconds-and the soldiers on the outside substances together. It is an almost uni­ Robinson, J. D. Cockroft, M. L. E. Oli­ who have been keeping off the ants are versal solvent. It has the highest surface phant, E. Ma rsden and A. S. Russell, left to die. The safety of the community tension of all fluids. It possesses extraor­ knew Rutherford and worked with him is pa ramount. Reproduction is the func­ dinary properties when subjected to so that, besides describing his scientific tion of a king and queen, who live in freezing, the greatest thermal co nduc­ discoveries, they are able to add their plain quarters like their subjects. The tivity of all liquids except mercury, the personal reminiscences. An interesting king is dark brown, a quarter of an inc h highest dielectric constant of all fluids, picture emerges of Rutherford's youth, long, and timid. When there is an alarm­ the greatest heat of vaporization, the his education in New Zealand and Cam­ or, at any rate, when he is alarmed-he greatest thelmal capacity and heat of bridge, his career at McGill, Manchester hides under his wife's huge abdomen fusion (after ammonia ). These are but a and the Cavendish Laboratory. There is which is bloated with eggs and fat. She few of the facts set forth in this fascinat­ a good deal of overlapping and repeti­ is one half to three quarters of an inch ing book by Dr. Kuenen, a noted geolo­ tion in the various accounts, and the long, depending on her age, and changes gist of the University of Groningen. Rich memories and anecdotes, while mildly color over the years, from white to red­ though it is in scientific details, Kuenen's diverting, are in the main small beer. dish brown, as a result of the constant work is so wide in its scope, so clearly Rutherford was of course one of the licking of her abdomen by her sons and written (and so ably translated by May eminences of modern science and it is da ughters. She has wing stumps. as does Hollander) , so vivid in its presentation, understandable that his former pupils

126

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC ENGINEERS • SCIE NTISTS

REPUBLIC AVIATION CORPORATION'S DIRECTOR OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Dr. Theodore Theodorsen Invites You ToJo in NEWLY CENTRALIZED RESEARC H GROUP

Presenting Notable Opportunities and Facilities To Produce Independent Work in All Fields o} Modern Aeronautics and Physics.

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If the American aeronautical industry is to retain its leade rship our scientists must rise to the demands posed by supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. These are among the most complex machines ever conceived by the versa tile mind of man.

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127

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC and associates delight in honoring his the firsttwo pages of the book, integra­ memory. It remains, however, that his tion and differentiation are made plain, witticisms were not exceptionally witty no less for young beginners than for ma­ nor his epigrams memora bly epigram­ ture general readers; and by page 13 the matic, and that the recital of his foibles vital relation between slope and area­ is of general interest only on the theory the very core of the calculus-is lucidly that it was gracious of the great man to exposed. Menger's pedagogic technique ... Electrical behave, at times, as foolishly as any embraces several novelties-among them other mortal. new symbols and the elimination from ... Mechanical all consideration of the hallowed y-axis, ESEARCH REACTORS ($ 5.50 ) ; RE- which plays no role in his conception of CHALLENGING OPPORTUNITIES R ACTOR H ANDBOOK: P HYSICS ($ 12); the calculus (all curves are oriented only To men with a degree and REACTOR H ANDBOOK: ENGINEERING with respect to a basic horizontal line, or an interest in ($15) ; REACTOR HANDBOOK: M ATERI­ x-axis). These features may cause ortho­ ALS ($ 10.50); NEUTRON CROSS SECTIOKS dox teachers considerable suffering, and ($12) ; CHEMICAL P ROCESSING AND students who already know the calcu­ GYRO EQUIPMENT ($ 5). McGraw-Hill Book lus-or think they do-will find it a lot Company, Inc. The purpose of these harder to get used to Menger's accent volumes, most of which were commis­ than those who are first tasting the ASSEMBLY sioned by the Atomic Energy Commis­ language. Still the renovations are likely sion four or five years ago, is to make to benefit all concerned, sophisticates as available to persons engaged in the re­ well as innocents, for it is doubtful that and TEST actor field a wide variety of sc ientific a sounder and more sensible entry into Engineers who have a personal interest in and technical data accumulated in AEC the subject has appeared in many years. precision mechanisms, where a high degree of accuracy is required ... men with pride laboratories or by other groups under in the precision of the product they help AEC contract or sponsorship. Issued HE VETERAK M OTOR-CAR, by David build. initially as classified documents, the T Scott-Moncrieff; THE V INTAGE Mo­ Yo u will constantly be doing development handbooks have now been revised and TOR-CAR, by Cecil Clutton and John work and testing in one of the most versa­ tile Laboratories in the country ... working released for general distribution, with Stanford. Charles Scribner's Sons ($5 with the top men in the field and with the what is still regarded as "secret" in­ each). These indispensable shelf items finest test, research and development facili. formation having been deleted. Since for boys and girls of every age present a ties. W'e are in the process of a Major, Per­ manent, Expansion Program. New plant there are frequent innovations in this delightful sampling of facts about auto­ facilities being added in suburban Milwau­ fledgling sphere of technology, the edi­ mobiles made between 1905 and 1914 kee area. tors advise the prac titioner "to survey and 1919 and 1930. Among the subjects To aid you in your profe ssional advance­ the literature from August, 1952, in of loving attention are the leading rac­ ment will provide fin ancial assistance AC order to bring himself up to date." But ing drivers (gentlemen and profession­ toward your Master's degree. A Graduate Program is available evenings at the Uni­ since the later literature may not have als), classic endurance and reliability versity of \Visconsin, Milwaukee. been declassified, this procedure may tests, races and hill climbs, great build­ GM's Electronics Division aggressive posi­ involve difficulties and somewhat limit ers and designers, the evolution of en­ tion in the field of manufacture and GM's long-standing policy of decentralization the usefulness of the series, especially gines and body styles, fashions in motor­ creates individual opportunity and recog­ for the scientists and engineers of for­ ing clothing, relevant statistics. N ote­ nition for each Engineer hired. eign countries to whose representatives worthy items: In the pre-windshield pe­ Recent EE,ME sets of the complete work were presented riod the standard cold-weather driving at the Geneva Conference in 1955. uniform in France was a goatskin coat Graduate Inquiries with the fur outside; in the U. S., a rac­ Also Invited ALCULUS : A MODERN A pPROACH, by coon coat; in England, a "dark-blue mel­ C Karl Menger. Ginn and Company ton cloth lined with fur" topped-so as • ($5). It is unusual for this department not to be conspicuous-by a bowler hat. Mil waukee offers ideal family living in a to review textbooks, but this is an un­ Lady drivers were not required to wear progressive neighborly community in cool, southern Wisconsin where swimming, boat­ usual textbook. Dr. Menger has long corsets; lady passengers regarded as a ing, big league baseball and every shopping been interested in developing improved sports car "any car which you cannot and cultural advantage is yours for the methods for teaching the calculus. Dur­ walk through with your hat on." The taking. ing the war, while directing mathemati­ 1907 Peking to Paris race was won by To arrange personal, confidential interview in your locality send full facts about your­ cal courses in the large Navy training the Prince Borghese in an Itala. In 1904 self today to center at the University of Notre Dame, a secondhand 50-horsepower Fiat (four he began "serious study of how some of speeds ahead, magneto ignition, red up­ • the stultifying routine drill in mathe­ holstery) was advertised for sale at Mr_ John f. Heffinger matics might be replaced by instruction 1,500 pounds. The 1917, seven-h.p. Supervisor of Salaried Personnel that would lead to better understand­ Bebe Peugeot, designed by the immortal ing." After testing various innovations on Ettore Bugatti, is the most marvelously his many students, including "slightly edible-looking car ever built. The 1901) tired" engineers, he achieved this new four-cylinder Cadillac was so beautiful­ approach. Fundamental concepts are ly engineered that three separate speci­ clearly explained at the outset; symbols mens had their parts "scrambled" and are unambiguously defined and the rules reassembled under the observation of of operation are precisely formulated. In Royal Automobile Club juc1ges-a feat

128

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC FAIRCHILD C-123 TAKES THE LOAD OFF HIS MIND

When the Air Force moves bulk supplies and equipment or personnel, or virtually any equipment or men anywhe re, they know they can put their confidence and their payload into Fairchild C-123's.

Especially designed to airlift large consignments of men and equip­ ment with the greatest flexibility of movement, the C- 123 needs only short unprepared fieldsto land and takeoff.

Easy-loading rear ramp shortens ground time, and the C- 123's high­ lift characteristics make possible quick, sure delivery to the rough spots, inaccessible or impractical to reach by any other aircraft.

For a wide range of performance, the Fairchild C- 123 is a versa tile, rugged transport that takes any load required in tough logistics assign­ ments -another proven example of the big job capability that Fairchild builds into its aircraft. � FAIRCHILD AIRCRAFT DIVISION · HAGERSTOWN, MARY lAND A Division of Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation

•••WH ERE THE FUTURE IS MEASURED IN LIGHT-Y EARS!

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC never seen before or since." The net and undulated her hair with irons," profitto the makers on each Cadillac was "phialiges" who painted her brows and $20. Fine photographs. hair, "psecacies" who perfumed and "ponceuses" who powdered her face, TUDIES IN ANCIENT TECHNOLOGY, by "catoptrices" who held her mirror, "flam­ S Plant Location... R. J. Forbes. W. S. Heinman (three baries" who held her fan, "appracia­ trices" who directed the operations, and The country's leading expert in the volumes, $5.50 each). These ath'active, field, Leonard C. Yaseen, Senior Part· admirably illustrated volumes contain a "cosmetes" in charge of the dresses. ner, Fantus Factory Locating Service, collection of essays on ancient technol­ has written a completely new and ogy by a University of Amst erdam NFORMATION THE ORY IN PSYCHOLOGY, up-to-date guide to all the factors in I scientific plant location. Mr. Yaseen scholar well known in the field. Among edited by Henry Quastler. The Free has located plants for thousands of the subjects surveyed by Dr. Forbes are Press ($6). The rather severely techni­ leading firms, including Westing­ cal papers collected in this volume, most house, Philco, American Brass, Alex­ the uses of bitumen and petroleum in ander Smith, Merck, Rockwell Mfg. antiquity, water supply, irrigation and of them drawn from a 1954 conference N ow he brings together for manage­ drainage, land transport and road build­ arranged by investigators at the Uni­ ment a complete working guide to all factors in selecting a community- in· ing, cosmetics and perfumes, foods and versity of Illinois, deal with the applica­ cluding raw materials, labor, markets, alcoholic beverages. His studies, rich in tions of information theory to experi­ wage levels, utilities, taxes, etc. detail, give vivid pictures of the arts and mental psychology. As the editor points PLANT LOCATION is indeed an extraordinary "industrial Baedeker crafts of Egypt, India, China, Mesopo­ out in an interesting essay, the theory for the manufacturer who wishes to tamia, Rome, Greece and other ancient which has grown from the writings of set up shop in the most favorable lands. One reads, for example, of the Claude Shannon and other pioneers ap­ circumstances." (N.Y. W.T. & Sun.) "The thoroughness and practicability widespread uses of bitumen as a bonding pears to provide useful tools in making 0/ the contents have never been and mending material, for lighting and models of "human information process­ equalled under one cover." (South­ heating, for waterproofing, in magiC and ing." Between the stimulus, which is the western Electric Service Co.) It would cost many thousands of medicine (just the thing, according to observation of a physical fact, and the dollars to get this information else­ Pliny, for a chronic cough or shortness of response, also a physical fact, there is a where. PLANT LOCATION can also breath), as a fumigant in agriculture, for mediating apparatus-the nervous sys­ save a tremendous amount of time in reviewing these necessary factors. See mummification and embalming. Bitumi­ tem. If this is treated as a "black box," a free examination copy now with­ nous materials, including petroleum, one may learn a good deal about input­ out obligation. If you keep it, pay only were also much used in warfare to set output probabilities, and in time certain plus shipping (or save by re­ $10 fire to ships and the walls and buildings plausible models emerge as to the in­ mitting $10 now-full refund guar­ anteed). Write to American Research of enemy cities, either by direct applica­ ternal structure and function of the black Council, Dept. SA-I, 11 East 44 St., tion or by coated arrows; and as "Greek box itself. Neurophysiological data can N. Y.I7. Fire" (a mixture of petroleum and quick­ then be fruitfully combined with the lime ) in hand grenades, syringes and more formal system to achieve a better various missiles "for the burning of understanding of how living beings se­ BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE armies." A most interesting essay de­ lect, arrange and act upon the informa­ A quarterly journal stressing an interdis­ scribes ancient recipes for eye paints, tion provided by various stimuli. Lest ciplinary approach to general theories of behavior and empirical research specifically rouges and powders, the manufacture of psychologists be carried away by some oriented toward such theories. cosmetics, and classical make-up se­ of the exciting pos sibilities of this new Contents of the January and April issues­ Biological and cultural evolution: some analo­ crets. To free the face from wrinkles approach, one of the contributors, Alfred gies and explorations, R. VV. Gerard, Clyde Egyptian ladies used a mixture of gum Leonard, warns that a good many re­ Kluckhohn, and Auatol Rapoport; Effect of ex­ of frankincense, wax, fresh balanites oil, searches in which the techniques of in­ perience on a determinate dynamic system, '''l. Ross Ashby; Communications and social change, and rush nuts ("Make it and thou shalt formation theory are used might be Richard L. Meier; Game theoretical analysis of congressional power di stribution for a stable see," says the recipe ). "Interior of the carried out more effectivelyusing older two-party system, R. Duncan Luce and Arnold fruit of the kesbet tree is mixed with red methods or concepts. "It may well be," A. Rogow; Limits of the equilibrium model in social research, DaYidEaston; Adaptive behav­ ochre and applied to the face very often" he says, "that in so doing we would do ior from random response, Donald T. Campbell; A calculus for ethics: a theory of the structure to "expel spots in the face." Powder less violence to ... the problems we are of value, Nic holas M. Smith. puffs and long, elegant lipsticks were investigating as well as to information Editorial Board-Franz Alexander, psycho­ widely used. The great Roman baths had theory." analysis; Alex Bavelas, social psychology; David Easton, political science; Ralph W. Ger­ speCial anointing rooms with heated ard, biology (neurophysiology); Donald G. Mar­ floors and pictures on the wall; each part ALEN OF PERGAMON, by George Sar- quis, psychology; Jacob Marschak, economics; G James G. Miller, psychiatry and psychology; of the body had its own perfume, and at ton. University of Kansas Press Anatol Rapoport, mathematical biology; Ralph W. Tyler, education; and Raymond W. Wag­ fashionable dinners precious unguents ($2.50). This little book, presenting the goner, psychiatry. were "sprayed on the guests from pipes third of the Logan Clendening Lectures Annual Subscription, $6.00 installed for the purpose." Pastilles were on the History and Philosophy of Medi­ ----MAIL THIS COUPON TODAY ---, sold for bad breath. Henna was used as cine, exhibits the late George Sarton's BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE, ample erudition, sympathy and ability Mt. Royal and Guilford Avenues I a nail paint and both manicure and pedi­ Ba ltimore 2. Maryland (Dept. A·I) I cure were considered essential. In spiritedly to portray the leading figures Please send me BEHAVIORAL SCIEXCE for I one year to the address below. Greece a wealthy lady disposed an army of science in the intellectual, social and I Check one : of beauty specialists; it consisted of political setting of their time. The range I o Remittance of $6.00 is enclosed o Bill me I "tractatores" to give her an after-bath of Galen's interests and skills was KAME I massage, "unctoristes" to rub her with astounding. He was an anatomist and ADDRESS .. I cosmetics, "depilaristes," "pictrices" to phYSiologist; a physician, surgeon and I brush her hair, "ciniflones" who "combed, pharmacist; a philosopher, historian and I I lustered (sometimes with gold dust! ) philologist. The famous Kiihn Greek-

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Boeing's new Mach 4 tunnel : a vital st ep in the engineering art

Typical of Boeing's superb facilities, this In addition to the new tunnel, engi­ challenging world of tomorrow at Boeing­ new supersonic wind tunnel will lead to neers find other advanced facilities at Seattle or Boeing- Wichita. Won't you important engineering advances. It is Boeing: the latest electronic computers, write and find out today? capable of producing velocities four times a chamber that can simulate altitudes up • JOHN SANDERS, Staff Engineer -Personnel the speed of sound, and will be teamed to 10 0,000 feet, a new multi-million-dol­ C. • Boeing Airplane Co., Dept. B·53, with Boeing's present transonic tunnel lar Flight Test Center, and many more. Seattle 24, Wash . for a research facility that will be the This is evidence of Boeing's steady • R. J. B. HOFFMAN, Administrative Engineer most advanced and versatile of its kind growth. The company now employs more • Boeing Airplane Co., Dept. B·53, Wichit a, Kansas in private industry. The new tunnel will than twice as many engineers than at • If you want further information on the advan· be in operation very shortly. the peak of 'World War II-and more • tages of a career with Boeing, please send co upon to either of the above addresses. Mechanical and civil engineers will be engineers are needed. able to test new structural components Engineers who come to Boeing will find Name ______and materials under the extreme condi­ stimulating work, at the very frontiers of • Col lege(s)'______Degree(s)_ Year(s) _ tions of hypersonic Right. Electrical en­ engineering knowledge. They will find

Address______gineers will develop new techniques in individual recognition and opportunity • instrumentation, and try out new ideas for advancement in small, tightly inte­ • Ci ly ______Zone 8Iale' ____ in radome configuration design and grated "teams" in research, design or pro­ • Telephone numbe r______many other fields.Aeronautical engi­ duction. And they and their families will neers will be able to study the behavior enjoy living in the pleasant and progres­ of aircraft and guided missiles in high­ sive community of Seattle or Wichita. BOEING speed Right. There may be a place for you in this Aviation leadership since 1916 SEATTLE, WASHINGTON WICHITA, KANSAS MELBOURNE, FL ORIDA

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC Latin edition of his works consists of 22 thick volumes, and is probably not com­ plete. Dr. Sarton sketches Galen's life and background, his thought, his trea­ tises, his character and style and his in­ fluence-which deserved to be great but t/ was even greater than it deserved. As in all of Sarton's writings, the extensive scholarly footnotes, while somewhat pro­ fuse and adorned, are full of engaging historical trinkets.

Notes

THE ANNUAL SURVEY OF PSYCHO­ ANALYSIS, VOLUME III, edited by John Frosch, Nathaniel Ross, Sidney Tara­ chow and Jacob A. Arlow. International U niversiti�s Press ($10). The third vol­ ume of this useful, comprehensive an­ nual which presents skillful condensa­ tions of the current journal literature of psychoanalytic theory and practice.

Next ADVANCES IN ApPLIED MECHANICS, VOLUME IV, edited by H. L. Dryden and Th. von Karman. Academic Press, Inc. Step ... ($10). Eight survey articles appear in the fourth volume of this series, dis­ cussing such topics as the turbulent Military airplanes powered by Pratt & Whitney boundary layer, nonlinear elasticity, Aircraft jet engines have repeatedly penetrated the physical and statistical aspects of fa­ sound ba"rrier. Sixteen international airlines have tigue, dislocation theory of plasticity of ordered passenger planes, also to be powered by our" metals, elastic stability. jet engines, that will cruise at more than 550 miles per hour. SURVEYS IN MECHANICS, edited by What will be the next step - the next great G. K. Batchelor and R. M. Davies. Cam­ break-through in aviation progress? The answer may bridge University Press ($9.50). A col­ be a nuclear aircraft engine that will permit a plane lection of surveys of research in me­ to circle and recircle the world without refueling. chanics written in commemoration of the Development of this A-engine offers tremendous 70th birthday of the noted British physi­ challenge to the engineers and scientists who work on cist Sir Geoffrey Taylor. The range of this project at Pratt Whitney Aircraft. It gives & Sir Geoffrey's work is evidenced by the them a unique opportunity to do creative thinking at, a or beyond, the frontiers of current knowledge in all fact that each of the 10 articles is in major technical fields. At the same time, it offers field in which he has been active. excellent possibilities for early professional recognition

LAND, CEA , and advancement in one of America's growth companies. Am & O N by R. P. Beckin­ If you are an ambitio.us engineer or scientist, it sale. Essential Books, Inc. ($ 4). An ably could be to your advantage to contact us immediately. written and dependable introduction to Please ser.d your complete resume to Mr. P. R. Smith, physical geography. The general reader Office ll,Employment Department. as well as the student will find in these pages a sound and succinct presentation of basic information on the earth. ENGINEERS · MECHANICAL ENGINEERS . CHEMICAL ENGINEERS • EN GINEERING PHYSICISTS. METALLURGISTS THE NEZ PERCES, by Francis Haines. University of Oklahoma Press ($5). A history of a famous tribe who once ruled

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC THE AMATEUR SCIENTIST

Concern£ng an inexpensi()e and safe method for the generation of X-rays

by the glass walls or metal parts after Why has Simons's hobby failed to the seal-off. I simply held the 01 in my catch on? One reason is that commercial hand and touched its prongs to the high­ X-ray equipment is costly. Even tubes of voltage terminal of the coil. relatively low power are priced at $100 "Instead of filling with a lavender and up. Many other commercial X-ray arry Simons of Kearny, N. J., is a lonely amateur scientist. "For 23 glow, like the quartz bulb, the inside of parts are also expensive and difficult to H years," he writes, "I have been the tube remained dark but the glass in procure. The apparatus supplying high dabbling in the X-ray portion of the elec­ contact with the magnesium lighted with voltage to conventional tubes, while no tromagnetic spectrum without once com­ a pale greenish fluorescence that re­ more complex than the power supply of ing across a fellow amateur. Thousands minded me of the glow emitted by old a husky radio transmitter, calls for spe­ of enthusiasts can be found in the region style X-ray tubes of the gas type. Was cial rectifying devices, transformers and of radio waves, of light and of gamma the radio tube producing X-rays? other components not regularly stocked rays. But none of them come to' play "To obtain the answer to these ques­ by dealers in electrical supplies. in my back yard. If the prospect of ex­ tions I put a narrow band of tinfoil Moreover, X-rays have earned a bad ploring fresh electromagnetic territory around the top of the tube and grounded reputation as playthings. No distinction sounds interesting to any of these ama­ it-as a substitute for the electrode pre­ can be drawn between the danger of ex­ teurs, I can promise good hunting in the viously represented by my hand. I then posure to a high-powered X-ray machine 10-8-centimeter region-and for a total fished a small block of wood, which hap­ and the fallout of an H-bomb. It is a investment of less than $20." pened to have two screws in it, from the danger that extends not only to the ex­ As a lure Simons offers the collection trash box and placed it on a sheet of perimenter but to his potential progeny. of radiographs reproduced on the next photographic film wrapped in black Human evolution is the result of muta­ page. He takes special pride in the pic­ paper. The combination was exposed to tions caused by, among other agents, ture at the top, which shows screws em­ the energized tube for 15 seconds at a cosmic rays and the radiations of radio­ bedded in an inch-thick block of wood. distance of seven inches. When I had active elements in the earth's crust. Any This shot resulted from his first experi­ developed the film, I discovered a won­ radiation added by man alters the rate ment with X-rays and illustrates what derful radiograph of the screws-plus a of mutation, and is rightly a cause of can happen when a fellow with a sharp lifetime hobby that should appeal to any­ deep concern. eye follows a happy hunch. one interested in physics." ')imons has solved the problem of During a rainy weekend back in 1933 Simons was fiddling with an Oudin coil. nlumlnum bowl and This almost-forgotten gadget, a close mi"ing pail faY' radio shield relative of the Tesla coil, can step up and case low voltages 1,000 times or more. High �eo.tat ,:::/b ."bAkelite tube cdrrie:5 voltage generated in this way has an ad­ X-Y'Ay tube dod· Oudin vantage for the amateur experimenter in kick co;I 1'esonator a.�.sembly that it is relatively harmless. In the ���,,">'1 Y8" lead course of stepping up the voltage the shutter Oudin coil also increases the frequency of the current, so that it tends to flow black bake­ through the skin and away from vital lite window for x-rays organs such as the heart. "My original Oudin coil," Simons 2 li1yc.r� of Y'; writes, "was part of an ultraviolet lamp sh£f/:t lead with which I tested mineral specimens wr'a.pped for fluorescence. For no particular rea­ dround tube son I decided to replace the evacuated for oK-,..AY quartz bulb, which produced the ultra­ �,... shield violet rays, with an old radio tube of the 01 type. The glass envelope of these tubes is coated inside with a silvery film of evaporated magnesium-the so-called 'getter' which helps clear the tube of stray gas during the evacuation process and absorbs any that may be liberated X·ray apparatus built by Harry Simons of Kearny,N. J.

135

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC equipment cost. Protection against ex­ posure to the rays is not difficult to ar­ range. With these two considerations out of the way, X-rays open a range of exper­ iments equaled by few other phenom­ ena of physics. In addition to providing a source of X-rays for radiographs, a gen­ erator of X-rays in combination with accessories enables you to measure the charge of the electron, to study the struc­ ture of crystals, to observe the wave­ particle duality of matter and radiation, and to probe other microcosmic corners. Like visible light, X-rays are a form of radiant energy. Their ability to pene­ trate substances opaque to visible light, however, is neither unique nor particu­ larly unusual. Many substances opaque to light are transparent to other electro­ magnetic waves. For example, long elec­ Simons's radiograph of two screws in a block of wood trical waves, as well as the shorter ones of radio, pass freely through dry wood, plaster and other substances that do not conduct electricity and are opaque to light. If this were not so, all radio and television receivers would need outdoor antennas. On the other hand, a thick sheet of flint glass, which transmits radio waves and light with no appreciable loss, stops X-rays. The ability of X-rays to penetrate substances like flesh and bone is merely their most publicized property. However, this property provides a strik­ ing case of the immediate application of a scientific discovery. Within weeks of the description of X-rays by Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen in 1895, surgeons her­ alded them as a tool of the first impor­ tance. They are characterized chiefly by ex­ tremely short wavelength-about one Radiograph of the plug from an electric {latiron ten-thousandth the length of visible light waves. Like light waves, X-rays can be reflected, refracted, diffracted and polar­ ized. The techniques by which they are manipulated differ from those employed with light, just as light techniques differ from those of radio. The longest X-rays are indistinguishable from ultraviolet rays; the shortest are identical with gamma rays. The distinction between the two is largely a matter of definition. When the emission accompanies the dis­ integration of a radioactive substance such as radium, it is called gamma radi­ ation. Identical waves generated by elec­ tronic means are called X-rays. All radiant energy, including X-rays, has its origin in a disturbance of elec­ trical charge. Consider a point charge­ an electron-surrounded by a symmetri­ cal electromagnetic field and moving through space at constant velocity. What happens to the motion of the fieldif the central charge is speeded up or slowed

Radiograph of bones in a fish down? Experiments indicate that the

136

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137

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC field reacts much like a mass of jelly. thus becomes unstable. The normal state \\Then the central charge is accelerated, is soon restored when the electron hops �\�QIF'C! the disturbance is communicated radial­ back into its "home" orbit. This repre­ ly through the field as a wave motion­ sents the shifting of a center of charge, the outside parts of the field requiring and the excess energy is radiated into an appreciable time interval to catch up space by the accompanying electromag­ with the center. Work expended in ac­ netic wave. The abruptness of the jump, celerating the central charge is carried and hence the length of the wave, de­ away by the wave as radiant energy, at pends upon the attraction of the positive a velocity which depends on the nature nucleus for the planetary electron. When of the "jelly." In a vacuum the wave loosely bound electrons occupying an attains a maximum velocity of slightly orbit remote from the nucleus make such more than 186,000 miles per second. jumps, the length of the radiated wave The length of the wave depends upon measures on the order of 25 thousandths the abruptness with which the central of an inch-the wavelength of light. charge is either disturbed or made to This same mechanism accounts for THANK change direction. Violent disturbances the origin of one kind of X-ray. When YOU our decision to require the investment of more work a free electron, accelerated to a velocity AMERICAN lower the price � on the UNITED than gentle ones, and result in propor­ of some 18,000 miles per second, collid s SCIENTISTS 61/2 ounce, 3'" x 31/8" "Titan tionately shorter and more energetic with an electron occupying an inner Midget". Orders poured in for this fabulous, smaller than a pack of cigarettes Pocket Binocular, with which you can waves. The waves radiated by electrical shell of the atom, both the interloper and see MOUE, sharply and clearly. It's a full 10 Power with color corrected Achromatic lens. If you act Quickly YOU power lines, in which a stream of elec­ the inner-shell electron may carom into SAVE $5.00 and '\verealize more pl'ofits with volume sales. BUT, prompt action is necessary, we do not intend to fea­ trons changes direction only 60 times a space. The vacancy thus created is im­ tur'e the "TITAN MIDGET" as a lead item beyond this month! Comes complete with fIneleathel' case, straps. second, measure about 3,200 miles from mediately filled by an electron from a 7x35 crest to crest. shell more remote from the nucleus. The It is possible to subject electrons to attraction of the nucleus for this elec­ Regularly $27.95 tron is immense and the jump accord­ 5 much faster oscillations. Military radars, NOW $21.9 for example, are constructed around ingly violent. The resulting wave meas­ Brand new glasses. This UNITED binocular in the ures on the order of 250 millionths of an short tune it has been on magnetron oscillators, small copper the market has met tre­ mendous acCel)tallce. It's an chambers that have been called electri­ inch-an X-ray. all-weather performer with newest streamlined design­ cal counterparts of the familiar police This initial jump does not end the inj:C Perfcctly balanced for ease of operation. Weighs only 20 ounces! whistle. The cavities are electrically display. A vacancy has been created in Only 5%" high l Provides hrilliant, sharp images for day or night viewing. tuned to frequencies on the order of four the adjacent orbit by the electron that billion cycles per second, and streams of moved inward. Hence a series of jumps 20 POWER electrons forced into the cavities vibrate follow as electrons from orbits still more �e"er in the 100 years sinee Carl Zeiss inl"ented binoculars has it been possible to get a 20 POWER at this rate. The resulting electromag­ remote from the nucleus move in to fill PRISMATIC BINOCULAR that weighs only 18 OUNCES! Precision made. Individual forus. They netic waves measure some three inches the succession of gaps. In the end the ha"c remomblc. screw-in protcctl,'e lens caps. Lens are color corrected. Tremendous 20 from crest to crest. As the cavities are atom must capture a new electron to POWER gi ves yuu cdsp. clear viewing! Regularly $39.95 NOW ..••••.• $29.9S made progressively smaller, the pitch complete its outermost orbit. In the goes up and the wavelength goes down meantime the atom has emitted a whole 16x50 in obedience to the principle that the set of waves at progressively lower fre­ Regularly sold smaller the whistle, the shriller its note. quencies, beginning with X-rays and ex- at $69.50 Where, then, can a "whistle" be found NOW $36.93 that will accelerate charges rapidly or

Brand New, sealed In waterproofed abruptly enough to create electromag­ Plastic Bags, ju!"t 'ISthey came fl'om netic waves a mere 25 thousandths of an the factory. BUT. we will not sell them as BI'and inch long-the wavelength of visible New because the cases are blem­ Ished and show light? Nature provides such systems in marks wherc the cases rubbed against one an­ the form of molecules and atoms. other h"side of the packing cases. \Ve do Guarantee the binoculars to be The normal, stable atom emits no ra­ A-l mechanically and optically! uU'ge front lens (2" across!) assures greater illumination and brighter. sharper images. Weighs 27 oz., stands 7" high! ORDER NOW while ] 26 diation unless it is acted upon by an ex­ pair last! ternal source of energy. If a fast-moving POCKET electron encounters an atom in its nor­ mal state, the interloper may collide with Ansox ama7:ing opticu.l performer,MICROSCOPE yet it Is only 21i2"x31(s" In size IIlcludlllg Its upflght. adjustable s1:.·md.]Iolade In Germany by master optical cl·aftsmen. Weighs less than 3 one of the planetary electrons in the ounces-carTY in your pocket� Now begin­ ners, students and adults can thrillin�ly explore the world of inorganic matter. outer orbital shell of the atom. The im­ etc. See the wonders of a single drop of blood. Opens new worlds for you. Three labol'atory pact may cause the electron in the atom r · a l vi $3 •95 to jump to an orbit still more remote included.�1��;��� Low cost: � !��I�� labor enables us to offer it with easy-to-follow from the center of the atom. A suffi­ instructions. for only $3.95! 30 DAY ciently energetic electromagnetic wave

IfNO not satisfied. RISK TRIAL return impinging on the atom can accomplish for full refund. Made in Japan. Leather case, the same end, the requirement being straps included. Add 100/0 Fed. tax on bin­ oculars only, Cash or­ that the frequency of the wave coincide ders prepaid. C.O.D. 's require $2.00 deposit. with the period of the outer electron's orbital motion. In either case the atom UNITED BINOCULAR CO. 9043 S. Western. Oept. ARF-3627, Chicago 20 DEALERS, WRITE FOR LATEST WHOLESALE.PRICES gains energy from the encounter and One of Simons's X.ray tubes

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC as an Autonetics Engineer... you can achieve science-fact far stranger than science-fiction

Today at AUTONETICS there are elaborate automatic control systems actually being developed, designed and produced in quantity that make the mechanics of the wildest space fantasies look ordinary. For example, where in the pages of science·fiction is there a robot that compares with AUTONETICS ' new airborne digital computer? This 3·cubic-foot brain can solve mathematical problems in one second that would take a math whiz with pencil and paper 9 hours, or require a clothes closet full of ordinary computer equipment. It can continuously integrate 93 quantities simultaneously ... through 51 removable panels of etched, transistorized circuitry. This is only one example of AUTONETICS' far-reaching electro-mechanical technology. There are hundreds of other areas of equally advanced opportunity in missile guidance, flight control, fire control and special automatic controls. Among your tools are the latest data processing equipment, plus modern and complete environmental and flight test facilities. AUTONETICS' scientific leadership is setting the pace in this field with its unique lO-year backlog of know-how.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR: Computer Specialists Electro-Mechanical Designers Environmental Test Engineers Electronic Component Evaluators Instrumentation Engineers Fire Control Systems Engineers Flight Control Systems Engineers Electronics Research Specialists Computer Programmers Computer Application Engineers Automatic Controls Engineers Electronic Engineering Writers Inertial Instrument Development Engineers Preliminary Analysis and Design Engineers Also Openings for Draftsmen and Technicians

CONTACT: Mr. R. C. Smith, AUTONETICS Engineering Personnel Office, Dept. 991-20 SA, P.O. Box AN, Bellflower, Calif. / Autonetics A DIVISION OF NORTH AMERICAN AVIATION. INC.

AUTOMATIC CONTROLS MAN HAS NEVER BUILT BEFORE

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC tending through ultraviolet radiation ment of silicon nuclei in the glass of a

OPTICALSee the Stars. Moon. BARGAINS Planets Close Up! and visible light to heat. Crookes tube, tLat led Rontgen to his The pattern of forces acting between discovery. While studying the green flu­ ••ASSEMBLE_ with Thi� 100 Complete POWER, 8 3"7 Piece REFLECTING "Do-lt.Yourself" TELESCOPE Kit Everything :-'ou need! No the nucleus and orbital electrons respon­ orescence that appears at one stage in E e � le I �clV�ll!I�G}hinstructions. �� Kit��� includes:��� � ��?! 3" sible for the radiation is unique for each the evacuation of the energized tube, f/lO Aluminiz('d and over· coated Spherical Mirror. 60X Eyepiece nnd 100X Barlow kind of atom. Measure the radiation Rontgen observed a bright fluorescence Lens. Cros!';line Finder. Sturdy 40" Tripod, Fork type Equa­ torial Mount with locks on emitted at each frequency and you have among some nearby crystals of platino­ both axes, Ventilated 3" Mir· 1'01'Mount. hea\'y w8ll. black an identifying tag for the atom. This is cyanide. The crystals continued to glow Telescope Tube. All nuts and bolts supplied. Nothing extra to buy. Our 3" spherical mir­ the basis of spectroscopy. The funda­ even after he covered the energized tube rot' (30" r.i.) Is guaranteed to resolve detail right up to the­ oretical limit. Your finished mental particles of the atom move in with black paper. He concluded that the scope can also be used tel" restrlally. Money back guarantee. Shipping weight_to Ibs. their orbits at rates fixed by these same tube was emitting a previously unob­ Stock No. 85.025-8...... $29.50 f.o.b. Barrington, N. J. forces. In effect the atom is "tuned," served form of radiation. The Crookes 50-150-300-power MICROSCOPE much as a group of radio receiving sets tube consists of a pear-shaped glass bulb Low Price Yet Suitable for Classroom Use! only $14.95 3 Achromatic Objective Lenses on Revolving might be pretuned for a group of broad­ that is partially evacuated and fitted Turl'et: A terrific value hecause it's imported! The color-corrected, cemented achromatic lenses casting stations. with a cathode at the small end and an in the objectives �ive you superior results. I in i Atoms low on the periodic table, such anode at the large end. When a direct­ su I a ev l s light, adjustable��� �� � � mirror.'?t�J ���� Squareif �f��� stage (23/4" �� �� x ��:i�25/8") with� slide clamps.� Packed In � sturdy, as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitro­ current potential of about 20,000 volts fmished hardwood case. This is the greatest microscope bargain on the market! Try it for 10 days .•. if you're gen-the stuff of living matter-are far is connected across the electrodes, posi­ not completely satisfied, we'll refund your money in ful1: out of tune with X-rays of extremely high tive ions, accelerated by the electric .5lock No. 70.006-5...... $14.95 Postpaid book "Hunting W h c ' frequency. When such waves impinge field, bombard the cathode and dislodge NEW! J;�e� :tol\�� #:��7�� �;I�-P7'lg�. on protoplasm, they ignore the barrier electrons from the metal. Most of these and sail right through. are attracted to the anode, but some t worthASTRONOMICAL up to $ 500.00. Grind TELESCOPE your own mirror. KITContains: � ��:i, �t mirror blank. eye-piece lenses, diagonal, abr:l!:lives, etc. � X-rays of the highest frequency, those overshoot the mark. The latter electrons Stock #70.004-8...... Size 6" ...... $11.40 Postpaid . . . used for making most radiographs and continue to the end of the tube, where NEW! STATIC for the treatment of disease, are liberated they collide with the glass target.

SeeELECTRICITY a thrilling spark GENERATOR display as you when the bombarding electron crashes Soon after Rontgen's discovery, the set offa miniature bolt of lightning. Absolutely safe and harmless. Sturdi­ into the massive nucleus of a target atom. mechanism of white X-ray production ly madc--stands l4" high. Turn the handle and two 9" plastic discs rotate The precise nature of such encounters is was explained by a number of investiga­ in opposite directions. )'letal collcctor brushes pick up thc static electricity. not fully understood, but it appears that tions. These paved the way for improve­ store it in the Leyden jar type con­ denser until discharged by thc jump­ when the bombarding electron collides ments in the tube. By shaping the cath­ ing spark. Countless tricks and ex­ periments. Instruction booklet in­ with the nucleus head-on, and is stopped ode in the form of a parabolOid, for ex­ cluded. Stock No. 70,070-8...... $10.95 Postpaid dead in its tracks, the onrushing field ample, the electron stream could be consumes the entire mass of the arrested focused sharply on a metallic target com­ �SOLAR ENERGY ITEMS particle and, in effect, transforms the posed of atoms more massive than sili­ B� E� RG electron into an X-ray of very high en­ con. X-rays liberated at the spot were " � F I�a� �at n L w d Jou �!N�� 1 � �� your own Solar � ! � Furnace for cxpcrhnellta·t � tion-mml�" practical uscs. It·s easy-inex- ergy and frequency. Other electrons more energetic and cast sharper shadows . '. pensive. \Ve furnish instruction sheet. This sun powered furnace will generate strike the nucleus glancing blows, and than those from the broad expanse of terrific he3.t-IH·oduces many unusual fus· Ing effects. Sets paper aflame in seconds. are thus decelerated. The deceleration is glass. Electrostatic machines for the pro­ \ Order these componcnts: , ., Stock ::t80,040-8.... Fresnel Lens. accompanied by the emission of an X-ray duction of accelerating voltages grew in size I I o/4"xl 61!2"-f. I. 19", $3.50 Postpaid of proportionate wavelength and energy. size until some featured a spinning disk SELENIUM PHOTO CELL AND SUN BATTERY Hence when a stream of bombarding of plate glass seven feet across, capable IteQuires no extcrnal power source for '. electrons plays on a target composed of of generating 200,000 volts and currents operation. Average sunlight striking � the selenium la.yer of this cell will e n c u 2 massive atoms, the emission of radiant up to five milliamperes. All the early l l ad c t m s U1 I 0 fgbattcrY�j;: � an �ideal � component����,t �� for��! experi­�?t� � � energy includes: X-rays liberated by tubes contained some gas, the atoms of mental as well as actual applications in (l) the Ill\{�to-electric field.Overall size of cell .724" x .443" the acceleration of planetary electrons, which were needed as a source of elec­ ·x 040" Actiye cell area .26 square inch. Dircction sheet ln ." ludc - also a lens that may be used to collect light and characteristic of the kind of atoms com­ trons. The gas imposed an upper limit on focusi it d onto the selenium surface. Stock No. 30,193-5...... $2.50 Postpaid prising the target, and (2) X-rays that the accelerating voltage. The limitation span a continuous band of frequencies was impressively removed in 1913 when LOOK! NEW BOOK! 74 Pages! "The Uses of Selenium Photo Cells and Sun Batteries" from the ultraviolet range to those of W. D. Coolidge of the General Electric contains technical information on self-generating devices, including many interesting applications such as light beam­ almost infinitesimal wavelength. Company succeeded in making ductile ing, communication switch circuits, metering devices. Stock No. 9230-5 ...... $1.50 Postpaid It was this continuous or "white" filaments of tungsten, which he substi­ X-radiation, arising from the bombard- tuted for the cold cathode of the gas AA TYPE SEA CH I HT- or Solar Furnaces ..• Govt.R CostL G about $12.000.F Researchers in Solar Energy found that it was convenient and rery economical to utilize war surplus searchlights f or solar energy furnaccs. This furnace can melt stecl within seconds. SI>ecifications: 60" mirror made of 170 lbs. of 5 turn 5000 turn aluminum copper that is rhodium platinum I>latcd-wcight 2500 lbs.• height 87", width 66", length lOO"-mounted on whcels for kick coil cap casy handling. vibrato,.. primary secondary foil Stoek No. 85.033-S ...... 60" 5earchli .hl ...... $650.00 F ..0.. B. New. York ,-- /' /� BE SURE TO GET FREE CATALOG "S" Fantastic variety-never before have so many lenses, J�.;;.j! �1�1����1 .$:1i:: prisms, optical instruments, and components been of­ fered from one source. Positively the greatest assembly of bargains in all America. Imported! War Surplus! � Hundreds of other hard-to-get optical items. Write � for Free Catalog uS." � ;r- I ltO volt 1 MFD oJd vacvum Order by Stock No. Send check OT IU .0. (Open acct. to rated firms.) Money back guarantee. 60 c ycles capacitor rheostat tube 55 watts EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CORP. BARRINGTON, NEW JERSEY Circuit diagram for Simons's X-ray apparatus

140

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC lane owered P AtonUc-p A,F, tarted by Project S G rgia in N. eo Lockheed

• �• ENGI N EERIN G P ROF 1Yl. ESSIO N f/.' qJ:A L P LA � C EMENT LO AIRC c HE R AFT C K E 0 761 O P P EACH ORA D TRE T10N EPT . S A-7 E � . E .. ATL ANTA . G EORGIA

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC -J.",,,=,w,,---�,-�-�,-� co; 1- 3500 toYn:') of *.24 ....,ire enl1mded me-enet bindine po�t connected UNDERWATER VIEWING to coil end

PERISCOPES binding po:;! connected to llrrn.:t-tut'e5pYing

�%�conta,t<; si Iver �oldered specifications. Monocu- to armature I1nd binocular spring lar and fX'pes. end of �c"ew or portable. " 'Fixe<:iiii? Wide lIi '//. 50ft it'on or scanning prism armature soldered field . :� coil housing "',:� 1 o. to copper plated type�. would � • o. thet'mopla�tic We wel- tu�ing· 32 gauge �te,d 4" ong Yz" " z" cOTe con­ spring further,jnquiry Yl& ",,,,,II 50ft ma�net i.-on I. wire c.ore cerning',jj Y2"" 4/s' \(, complete d items"'*

of this nature and Q the

working - �pportu n ity of primary " turns of '14" copper tubing ease

Y2' pld�tk tube FERSON OPTICAL CO., Inc. to support high (2�� tltt'rninaJ OCEAN SPRINGS, MISSISSIPPI \fOltagt:

se.c.ond a ..y soldered -to end of 5econda. ... y p,.ima",y soldered to chrome plated c.hairglide coil -5000 secondat'y turns of ...3� ena.meled magnet. "Vire wound on 1/i clear plastiC rod With the artificial satellite and space travel almost a r:ea lity, astronomy has become source of high.voltage for Simons's apparatus today's fastest growing hobby. UNITRON'S A new handbook contains full'page illustrated articles on astronomy. observing, tele­ scopes a nd accessories. Of interest to tubes. With this independent source of after testing it, reported in the journal beginner and advanced amateurs alike. electrons, tubes could be evacuated to Radiology: "Simons's apparatus proves Contents include - the limit of pumping techniques. Ac­ that X-rays can be produced for experi-' • Observing the sun, moon, planets and celerating potentials of 300,000 volts mental purposes by a unit which can be wonders of the sky and more became practical. Such power built for a very small fraction of the Co.st • Constellation map

• Hints for observers levels aggravated another problem; the of an installation of standard commercial • Glossary Qf telescope terms. heating of the anode or target. This prob­ equipment. The machine, when in op­ • How to choose a telescope lem was first tackled by using tungsten, eration, will produce a beam of X-rays • Amateur clubs and research programs with its high melting temperature, at easily detected for a distance of several both ends of the tube, then by cooling feet in all directions. With 'r' meter the target with water, and finally by measurements we determined the in­ focusing the bombarding electrons in a tensity of the rays to be three fourths of a small spot near the edge of a motor­ Rontgen unit per minute at a distance of driven disk made of tungsten. three feet." Although Simons's tube is a far cry The explanation of this copious radia­ Please rush to me, free of charge, UNITRON'S new from large X-ray tubes of the modern tion, compared with that of a Crookes Observer's Guide and Telescope Catalog. Coolidge type, it performs astonishingly tube, appears to lie in the magnesium • Name ...... , ...... et . .. . coating of Simons's generator . : : . well. A number of years ago Simons • �; .. ::::: :::::::::::::::: :si�i�.':::::::::: 01 ::: _ shipped his firstmachine to George L, Unfortunately the old and tubes SA.July . Clark at the University of Illinois who, of similar construction are currently in L ------_ .. 142

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC THE UNIVERSE

Cluster of distant galaxies photo­ graphed by 200-inch Palomar Mountain telescope. The galaxies SCIENTIFIC are the blurry or fuzzy, noncircular f obj ects. The picture takes in less ue 0 AMERICAN than one-fifth of a degree of sky. Announcing an iss devoted to new work in extragalactic

astronomy in relation to modern cosmology

to be published in Septe,nber, I9S6

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC short supply because magnesium is no longer favored as a material to remove

• E lectrical Engineers ' gases, except in certain types of mercury­ vapor rectifying tubes which are unsuit­ able for X-ray production. For this rea­ • Physicists son (plus the fact that he is an inveterate experimenter) Simons now designs his MIT • Mathematicians own tubes and has them manufactured by a local glass blower. They cost about LINCOLN $15 each. He rarely makes two alike, for LABORATORY the same reason that amateur telescope makers seldom build two identical in­ struments. Each design is a new and

...... exciting experience. One of Simons's latest designs is illustrated on page 138. This tube is equipped with a disk-shaped cathode of molybdenum and a magne­ SAGE (semi-automatic groundenvironment) sium target. It is evacuated to a baromet­ ric pressure of .0001 millimeters of mer­ cury. The over-all length of the tube is about seven inches. Its emission is sub­ AE W (air-borne early warning) stantially greater than that of the 01 • tube. The radiographs on page 136, with the exception of the one showing the WHIRL WIND COMPUTER screws in a block of wood, were made with it. Such tubes can be made with a wide variety of target materials and cathode shapes. SOLID STATE Almost any source of high voltage can be used for energizing X-ray tubes, in­ cluding Van de Graaff electrostatic gen­ erators of the type described in this de­ partment April, HEA VY RADARS [SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, 1955]. Simons prefers to stick with the Oudin coil. It is easily constructed with hand tools. The job is simplifiedif you MEMORY DEVICES can lay hands on a vibrator of the type used in the spark coil of a Model-T Ford. As shown by Roger Hayward's diagram on page 140 and the general view on 142, SCATTER COMMUNICATIONS page the vibrator consists of a core of soft magnetic iron equipped with an armature of soft magnetic iron and a set of breaker points. The core of the vibra­ 3,800 TRANSISTORIZED DIGITAL tor is wound with turns of No. 24 magnet wire and connected in series COMPUTERS with the breaker pOints as shown. When bridged with the one-microfarad capaci­ tor and connected to the power line, the self-inductance of the coil is sufficient ...... to charge the capacitor to a potential of several hundred volts when the breaker points are adjusted to open at the peak If you are interested in participating of the current cycle. The capacitor dis­ charges through the five-turnprimary in any of these programs address: winding of the Oudin coil. The primary Research and Development is wound with five turns of }.\-inch cop­ per tubing on a 2}.\-inch plastic form MJ.T. LINCOLN LABORATORY three inches in diameter. The secondary winding consists of 5,000 turns of No. 32 Box 18 enameled magnet wire wound on a }�­ Massachusetts inch rod of clear plastic. Each layer of Lexington, wire must be carefully insulated with a layer of varnished cambric that extends well beyond the end of the coil. When the winding is completed, the secondary

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC 1------[ I I I SIDELIGHTS ON THE SCIENTISTS nllmber of a series I 5 I I I I I I I I

PERCENTAGE OF UNDERGRADUATE COL.L.EGE EXPENSES EARNED -BY SAL.ARY

How to make $10,000 (and up) Here at Ifugheswe have been analyzitlg the files of persotlal data regarding our seier/tists alld engineers. Together with some additional facts cheerfullycontributed by individuals, the findings reveal some interesting-and sometimes surprisillg­ group characteristics and relationships. In this series we shall chart alld attempt to $10000 interpret the results for AND OVER YO/l.

1-- ______�

Data obtained from a 20% random sample of the 2400 professional engineers and scientists on the staff of In the Hughes laboratories more than Hughes is pre-eminent as developer and Hughes Research and Development Laboratories. half of the engineers and scientists have manufacturer of the electronic arma­ College Expenses Earned •••and Present Salaries had one or more years of graduate ment control system now standard The chart shown here represents the per­ work; one in four has his Master's; one equipment on all Air Force all-weather celltage of undergraduate college expellses in 15 his Doctorate. Our research pro­ interceptors. Our program also em­ earned-by present salaries at Hughes. The gram is of wide variety and scope, braces ground systems radar, the Hughes net result of this comparison is, that the affording exceptional freedom as well Falcon and other guided missiles, auto­ higher the present salary of the individual­ as superior facilities for these people. matic control, synthetic intelligence. the more he earned while an undergraduate. From every standpoint, it would be Projects of broader commercial and College jobs included baby-sitting, "hash­ difficult to find a more exciting and re­ scientific interest include research in ing", collecting laundry, lawn-mowing, warding climate for a career in science. and manufacture of semiconductors; car-washil/g, etc., etc. One seientist in­ Too, we are continually stepping up electron tubes; digi tal and analog com­ cluded ill his list of college jobs-" Walkillg projects which will insure success in putation; data handling; navigation; the Deall's rheumatic bulldog." commercial as well as military work. production automation.

1------, The Laboratories now have positions open for all I I phases of work 011ground and airbome digital Scientific Staff Relations HUGHES computers-from logical design to production !I I! engineering. Why not write us? L ______� RESEARCH AND DEVEL.OPMENT L.ABORATORIES

HUGHES AIRCRAFT COMPANY Culver City, Los Angeles COllnty, California

145

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC coil must be thoroughly doped with high-grade insulating varnish. Both ends of the coil are insulated with a tube of ADMIRAL CORPORATION. GOVERNMENT LABORATORIES DiViSiON ...... 105 varnished cambric. The assembly is then Agency: Cruttenden & Eg er Associates

slipped inside the plastic form on which AEROJET-G ENERAL CORPORATION, A SUB­ SIDIARY OF THE GENERAL TIRE & RUB- the primary was wound. The outside end BER COMPANY...... BI of the secondary is brought out through Agency : D' Arcy Advertising Company YOU .. a small hole in the form and soldered to ALL AMERICAN ENGINEERING COMPANy... . 92 Agency : Gaynor Colman Prentis & Varley, Inc. one end of the primary winding. The ALLEGHENY LUDLUM STEEL CORPORATION, inner end of the secondary is threaded CARMET DIVISION...... 17 Agency : W. S. Walker Advertising, Inc. through a four-inch length of )�-inch ALUMINUM COMPANY OF AMERICA, PIG- plastic tubing and soldered to the inner MENTS DIVISION... 54 face of a chromium-plated chair glide, Agency : Ketchum, MacLeod & Grove, Inc. which serves as the high-voltage term­ AMERICAN CYANAM ID COMPANY ...... 94 , 95 Agency: Hazard Advertising Company inal. The ends of the primary form are AMERICAN MACH INE & FOUNDRY COM- then closed with disks of 3,j-inch plastic PANY, DEFENSE PRODUCTS GROUP... 10 3 Agency : Fletcher D. Richards. Inc. and secured in place with screws at the AMERICAN OPTICAL COMPANY, INSTRU- edge. A 3�-inch hole in the center of one MENT DiViSiON...... 47 disk admits the tube support for the Agency: Baldwin. Bowers & Strachan, Inc. high-voltage terminal. The chair glide is AMERICAN RESEARCH COUNCIL...... 130 Agency : B. L. :Mazel, lnc. lifted temporarily and enough trans­ ANACONDA COMPANY, THE ...... 65 former oil or potting compound poured Agency : Kenyon & Eckhardt, loco

through the %-inch tube to fill the inte­ ARM A DIVISION OF AMERICAN BOSCH IJ�, ARMA CORPORATION...... BO rior. When wired according to the dia­ and Agency : Deutsch & Shea, Inc. gram on page 140 and connected to the �--� ARMSTRONG CORK COMPANY, INDUSTRIAL power line, the coil will produce some DIVISION 24 Agency : Batten. Barton, DlIrstine & Osborn, Inc. 50,000 to 75,000 volts continuously. The ATOMIC ATOMICS INTERNATIONAL, A DIVISION OF power consumption at 110 volts and 60 NORTH AME RICAN AVIATION, INC ...... 10 7 Agency: Batten, Barton, DlIrstine & Osborn, Inc. cycles is 35 watts. 135, AUTONETICS, A DIVISION OF NORTH AMER- POWER As shown in the drawing on page ICAN AVIATION, INC...... 139 all this apparatus must be housed in a Agency : Batten, BartOli, Dursline & Osborn, Inc. Atom c power, we feel, offers well-grounded metal container. The X­ AVCO DEFENSE AND INDUSTRIAL PROD­ outstandingi opportunity for an UCTS-ADVANCED DEVEL OPMENT DIVI- engineer or scientist to grow ray tube must be enclosed in an inner SION ...... 125 Agency : Benton & Bowles, Inc. professionally. It's new enough compartment of lead sheet at least )�­ so that the work is challenging; still it's well enough established inch thick. An opening in the end of BEHAVIORAL SCI ENCE ...... 130 so that a capable man can make the double housings opposite the tube ...... 13 real progress. provides a window for the X-rays. BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORIES...... If you are interested in a Agency : N. W. Ayer & Son, Incorporated Two precautions are of utmost impor­ non-routine position that will BENDIX AVIATION CORPORATI ON ...... II I use all of your education and tance. First, Oudin coils are notorious Agency : MacManus, John & Adams. Inc. experience, we suggest you in­ emitters of radio waves that take the BERKELEY, EDMUND C., AND ASSOCiATES. ... 121 vestigate the future with the Agency : Battistone. Bruce and Doni ger, Inc. leader in Atomic Power. At form of ragged noise. They can black Bettis Plant, there are select BOEING AIRPLANE CO...... 131 out radio and television reception for Agency : N. W. Ayer & Son, Incorporated positions open fo r specially miles around. Federal regulations pro­ qualified : BRISTOL COMPANY, THE...... 100 hibit the operation of such devices un­ Agency: James Thomas Chirurg Company

• .. .. 116 PHYSICISTS less they are thoroughly shielded. If any BRITISH INDUSTRIES CORPORATION ...... Agency : The Kaplan Agency • MAT HEMATICIANS stray radiation can be detected on a • ME TALLURGISTS nearby radio or TV receiver after the apparatus is assembled as described, it CALIDYNE COMPANY, THE...... 4 • ENG INEERS Agency : Meissner & Culvcr, Inc. will be necessary to insert a low-pass Write for the booklet "Tomor­ CARBOLOY DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL row's Opportunity TODAY" filter at the point where the power cord ELECTRIC COM PANY...... 15 that describes opportunities in enters the housing. The design of such Agency : Brooke, Smith, French & Dorrance. Inc. your field. Be sure to indicate ...... 106 your specific interests. RIters is available in standard radio ref­ CESSNA AI RCRAFT CO...... Agency : Lago and Whitehead. Inc. erence texts. Whenever the machine is in operation, the experimenter should CONSOLIDATED ELECTROD YNAMICS COR- Write : Mr. A. M. Johnston PORATION ...... B9 wear a lead apron and stand well behind Agency : Hixson & Jorgensen, Inc., Advertising Dept. A-63 Westinghouse Bettis Plant the orifice through which the rays are CONTINENTAL AVIATION & ENGINEERING P. BOll a CORPORATION, SUBSIDIARY OF CON- O. 1468 emitted. It is also advisable to place TINENTAL MOTORS CORPORATION... 87 Pittsburgh 3D, Penna. few exploratory samples of RIm around Agency: The Hopkins Agency.

the room while the apparatus is in opera­ CONTI NENTAL FELT COMPANY, INC. 22 tion. When developed, these will show Agency : Ritter, Sanford & Price, Inc. the pattern of radiation and protective COOPER ALLOY CORPORATION...... 63 BETTIS PLANT Agency : Mahool Advertising, Inc. lead shielding can be installed accord­ ingly. Finally, resist the temptation to COPPER AND BRASS RESEARCH ASSOCIA- �stinShouse TION ...... 21 make X-ray examinations of the bones in Agency : J. 1\'1. Hickerson Inc. your hands or other body parts. A frozen FIRST IN ATOMIC POWER fish makes a much safer test object.

146

© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA... 10 Agency : AI Paul Lefton Company Inc.

INDEX OF ADVERTISERS RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA. EM- PLOYMENT DIVISION.. 137 Agency : Al Paul Lefton Company Inc.

RAMO-WOOLDRIDGE CORPORATION, THE... 20 JULY, 19 56 Agency : The McCarty Co.

REM INGTON RAND UNIVAC, DIVISION OF SPERRY RAND CORPORATION.. 66 DOBECKMUN COMPANy ...... 53 GOODYEAR AIRCRAFT CORPORATION, A Agency : Leeford Advertising Agency, Inc. Agency : Anderson & Cairns, Inc. SUBSIDIARY OF THE GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO... 116 REPUBLIC AVIATION CORPORATION 127 DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMPANY, INC. 115 GRAPH IC SYSTEMS.. 113 Agency : Deutsch Shea, Inc. Agency : J. Walter Thompson Company & Agency : Diener & Dorskind Inc orporated

DOW CORN ING CORPORATION.. 75 Agency : Church and Guisewite Advertising, Inc. SANDIA CORPORATION...... 10 4 HUGHES RESEARCH AND DE VELOPMENT Agency : Ward Hicks Advertising DOWNEY MISSILE ENGINEERI NG DIVISION, LABORATO RIES, HUGHES AIRCRAFT NORTH AM ERICAN AV'IATlON, INC.. .. 133 COMPANY IG SERVOM ECHANISMS, IN C...... 8 Agency : Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn, Inc. Agency : Foote, Cone & Belding Agency : Sanger· Funnell, Incorporated

16 EASTMAN CHEM ICAL PRODUCTS, INC., SIGMA INSTRUMENTS, INC...... INDIANA STEEL PRODUCTS COMPANY. THE 67 SUBSIDIARY OF EASTMAN KODAK COM- Agency : Culver Advertising, Inc. PANY . 101 Agency : The Fensholt Advertising Agency, Inc. Agency :.Fred Witt ncr Advertising SIMON AND SCH USTER, PUBLISHERS ...... 122. 123 80 INDUSTRIAL ACOUSTICS COMPANY, INC... Agency : Schwab and Beatty, Inc. Agency : Ritter, Sanford & Price, Inc. EASTMAN KODAK COMPANy...... 45 Agency : Charles L. Humrill Co., Inc. & SMITH. A. 0 .• CORPORA TION ...... 98, 99 INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS MACHINES COR- Agency : Klau-Van Pietersom-Dunlap. Inc. PORATION ...... EDMUND SCIENTI FIC CORP...... 140 ...... 76, 77 Agency : Benton Bowles, Inc. Agency : Walter S. Chittick Company & SOLAR AIRCRAFT COMPANY...... 85 Agency : The Phillips-Ramsey Company ELGIN NATIONAL WATCH COMPANY, ORDNANCE DiViSiON.... 70 KENNAM ETAL INCORPORATED .... STAUFFER CHEMICAL COMPANy...... 2 Agency : Waldie and Briggs, Inc. Agency : Ketchum, :MacLeocl & Grove. Inc. Agency : John :Mather Lupton Company, Inc.

ENJAY COMPANY, INC...... 51 STEWART-WA RNER ELECTRONICS, A DIVI­ Agency : i\l cCann-Erickson, Inc. SION OF STEWART-WARNER CORPORA- LEAR INCORPORATED ...... 148, In side Back Cover TION ...... 7 Agency : Doyle·Dane·Bernbach, Inc. EXAKTA CAMERA COM PANy.... 87 Agency: The Buchen Company Agency: The Burstin Company, Inc. LlNGUAPHONE INSTITUTE... . 121 STOKES, F. J., CORPORATION, VACUUM Agency: The Kaplan Agency EQUIPMENT DiViSiON...... 49 FAIRCHIL D AIRCRAFT DIVISION, A DIVISION Agency : The Aitkln-Kynett Co- OF FAIRCHILD ENGINE AND AIRPLANE LOCKHEED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION, CALI- CORPORATION.. 129 FORN IA DIVISION.. 119 SUN OIL COMPANY, INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS Agency : Gaynor Colman Prcntis &. Varley, Inc. Agency : Hal Stebbins, Inc. DEPARTMENT ...... 19 Agency : RUlhrauff& Ryan, Inc. FARNSWORTH ELECTRONICS CO., A DIVI­ LOCKHEED AI RCRAFT CORPORATION, SION OF INTERNATIONAL TELE PHONE GEORGIA DIVISION 141 SURFACE COMBU STION CORPORATION 23 AND TELEGRAPH CORPORATION.. 11 8 Agency: Donahue & Coe, Inc. Agency : Odiorne Industrial Advertising Agency: Chamberlin·Junk Advertising, Inc. LOS ALAMOS SCIENTIFIC LABORATORY OF FERSON OPTICAL CO., INC ... . 142 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALI FORN IA... 78 Agency: Godwin Adnrtising Agency Agency : Ward Hicks Advertising TECHNICAL OPERATIONS, INC ... 114 Agency : Bywords FORD INSTRUMENT COMPANY, DIVISION OF 96 SPERRY RAND CORPORATION.. MARTIN COMPANY, THE..... 12 TITAN IUM ALLOY MFG. DIVISION, NATION- Agency : C. M. Basford Company Agency : VanSant, Dugdale & Company, Incorporated AL LEAD COMPANY... 46 Agency : Comstock & Company M.I.T. LINCOLN LABORATORY ... 144 GARFI ELD, OLIVER, COM PANY, SCIENCE Agency : Randolph Associates KITS DEPARTM ENT... 87 UNION CAR BIDE AND CAR80N CORPORA- Agency : Daniel & Charies, Inc. MELPAR INCORPORATED, SUBSIDIARY OF TION ...... Inside Front Cover WESTI NGHOUSE AIR BRAKE COMPANY.. 73 Agency : J. i\l. Mathes, Incorporated GENERAL AMERICAN TR ANSPORTATION Agency : M. Belmont Ver Siandig. Jnc. CORPORATION, KANIGE N DiViSiON .. .. UNITED BINOCULAR CO.... 138 Agency : Weiss and Geller, Inc. MINIATURE PRECISION BEARINGS, INCOR- Agcncy : E. H. Brown Advertising Agency PORATED . 22 GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY... 108 Agency : Henry A. Loudon-Advertising, Inc. UNITED SCIENTIFIC COMPANY... . 142 Agency : Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn, Inc. Agency : Robert Hartwell Gabinc, .4.dvertising MINNEAPOLIS-HONEYWELL REGULATOR 113 GENERAL ELE CTRIC CO., AIRCRAFT NUCLE- CO., AERONAUTICAL DIVISION.. UNITED STATES PLYWOOD CORPORATION.... 134 AR PROPULSION DEPARTMENT..... Agency : Foote, Cone & Belding Agency : Kenyon & Eckhardt, Inc. Agency : Deutsch & Shea, Inc. MINNEAPOLIS-HONEYWELL REGULATOR UNITED STATES RUBBER COMPANY. 117 GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY, APPARATUS CO., INDUSTRIAL DiViSiON...... MECHANICAL GOODS DIVISION ...... 59 SALES DIVISION.. . 69 Agency : The Aitkin.Kynelt Co. Agency : Fletcher D. Richards, Inc. Agency : G. i\L Basford Company MONSANTO CHEM ICAL COMPANY, PLAS- 82 GENERAL ELECTRIC COM PANY, X-RAY DE- TICS DIVISION.. VARIAN ASSOCIATES ...... 22 PARTMENT ...... 79 Agency: Needham, Louis & Brorby, Inc. Agency : Boland Associates Agency: Klau·Van Pietersom.Dunlap, Inc.

VITRO CORPORATION OF AMERICA ...... 14 ...... 61 GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION, AC- NIAGARA BLOWER COMPANy..... Agency : Molesworth Associates ELECTRONICS DIVISION...... 102, 128 Agency : The Mos s·Chase Company Agency : E. H. Brown Advertising A.g ency

WESTERN ELECTRIC COMPANy...... GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION, NE W 18 PAN ELLlT, INC...... Agency : Cunningham & Walsh Inc. DEPARTURE DiViSiON ...... Back Cover Agency : Sidney Clayton & Associates Agency : D. P. Brother & Company WESTI NGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION. POTTER & BRUMFIELD, INC.• SUBSIDIA RY OF BETTIS PLANT...... 146 AMERICAN MACHINE & FO UNDRY COM- GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION, SAG- Agency : Ketchum, .M acLeod Grove. Inc. PANY ...... 93 & INAW STEERING GEAR DIVISION.. 91 Agency : Fletcher D. Richards, Inc. Agency : D. P. Brother & Company WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPOR ATION, PRATT & WHITNE Y AI RCRAFT, DIVISION OF COMMERCIAL ATOM IC POWER DIVI- GIANNINI, G. M., & CO., INC... . II UNITED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION 132 SION 52 Agency : Grant Advertising, Inc. Agency : G. F. Sweet & Co., Inc. Agency : Fuller & Smith & Ross Inc.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC resa Goell in Archaeology, Vol. 5, No. Are you the BIBLIOGRAPHY 3, pages 136-144; Autumn, 1952. THE WARS OF THE J EWS. Flavius Jo­ engineer who sephus. E. P. Dutton & Co., 1915. Readers interested in further reading

on the subjects covered by articles in this THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS can move In issue may find the lists below helpful. THE DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGE IN THE fast company? A STUDY OF VALUES NUCLEUS. Kenneth W. Ford and David L. Hill in Annual Reviews of THE CLASSIFICATION OF VALUES: If you're the sort of engineer who's happiest A Nuclear Science, Vol. 5; 1955. when he's setting the pace, you might do well METHOD AND ILLUSTRATION. Ethel M. to scan the list of jobs now open at Lear- a company that's blazed the way in filling the Albert in American Anthropologist, SPACE PERCEPTION 58, 221-248; precision needs of aviation. You will receive Vol. No.2, pages April, IN THE CHICK a prompt reply by writing to Don Cook, 1956. Dept. E-I, 3171 SOllth Bundy Drive, Santa DOMINANT AND SUBSTITUTE PROFILES Monica, Calif. Excellent openings available THE EYE AND THE BRAIN. R. W. Sperry in Grand Rapids, Michigan; Cleveland, Ohio; OF CULTURAL ORIENTATIOKS: THEIR in Scientific American, Vol. 194, No. Arizona; Santa Monica, California. SIGNIFICANCE FOB THE ANALYSIS OF 5, pages 48-52; May, 1956. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION. THE VERTEBRATE EYE AND ITs ADAP­ Aerodynamics Florence Aeronautical design Rockwood Kluckhohn in Social Forces, TIVE RADIATION. Gordon Lynn Walls. Aircraft electrical systems 28, 376-393; Automatic flight controls Vol. No.4, pages May, Cranbrook Institute of Science, 1942. Computers 1950. VISION WITH SPATIAL INVERSION. F. Communications (aircraft) W. Electro-mechanics ENEMY WAY MUSIC: A STUDY OF SOCIAL Snyder and N. H. Pronko. University Electronic packaging AND ESTHETIC VALUES AS SEEK IN Flight reference systems of Wichita Press, 1952. Flight instrumentation NAVAHO MUSIC. Fractional H. P. motors David P. McAlIester. Gyroscopes Papers of the Peabody Museum of PALEOBIOCHEMISTRY Hydraulic systems Magnetic amplifiers Harvard University, Vol. 41, No. 3; Missile controls 1954. CONFERENCE ON BIOCHEMISTRY, PALEO­ Navigation systems (aircraft) Process engineering MODERN HOMESTEADERS: THE LIFE OF ECOLOGY, AND EVOLUTION. W. P. Pumps (aircraft and industrial) Ouality control A 20TH-CENTURY FRONTIER COM­ Woodring in Proceedings of the Na­ Radar MUNITY. Z. 40, Servo mechanisms Evon Vogt. Harvard Uni­ tional Academy of Sciences, Vol. Systems analysis versity Press, 1955. 219-224; 1954. Test equipment design pages Transistorized circuitry VALUES AND VALUE-ORIENTATIO"S IN STABILITY OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS THE THEORY OF ACTION.Clyde Kluck­ AND ITS BEARING UPON THE PROBLEM lEAR hohn in Toward a General Theory of OF ANABIOSIS. D. Keilin in Science Action. Harvard University Press, Progress, Vol. 41, No. 164, pages 577- 1951. 592; October, 1953. ZUNI L AW: A FIELD OF VALUES. Watson Smith and John M. Roberts. Papers PROGRESS IN SOLAR POWER of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, Vol. 43, No. 1; 1954. EKERGY SOURCES-THE WEALTH OF THE WORLD. E. Ayres and C. A. Scarlott. THE RADIO SKY McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1952. SOLAR EKERGY RESEARCH. Edited by A DETAILED RADIO MAP OF THE SKY. Farrington Daniels and J. A. Duffie. J. D. Kraus and H. C. Ko in Nature, University of Wisconsin Press, 1953. Vol. 175, No. 4447, pages 159-161; January 22, 1955. SEXUALITY IN BACTERIA THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE DISCRETE

SOURCES OF COSMIC RADIO RADIA­ BACTERIAL GENETICS. W. Braun. W. B. TION. B. Y. Mills in Australian Jour­ Saunders Company, 1953. nal of SCientific Research, Series A, INHERITANCE, VARIATION, AND ADAPTA­

Vol. 5, No .2, pages 266-287; 1952. TION. Joshua Lederberg in Bacterial IDENTIFICA TION OF THE RADIO SOURCES Physiology, edited by C. H. Werkman IN CASSIOPEIA, CYGNUS A, AKD Pup­ and P. W. Wilson. Academic Press, PIS. W. Baade and R. Minkowski in Inc., 1951. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 119, No.1 , THE MECHANISM OF GENETIC RECOM­ pages 206-214; January, 1954. BIKATION IN ESCHElUCHIA COLI. W. RADIO ASTRONOMY. J. L. Pawsey and Hayes in Cold Spring Harbor Sympo­ R. N. Bracewell. Oxford University sia on Quantitative Biology, Vol. 18, Press, 1955. pages 75-93; 1953.

THE TOMB OF ANTIOCHUS I THE AMATEUR SCIENTIST

NIMRUD DAGH: THE TOMB OF ANTI­ ApPLIED X-RAYS. G. L. Clark. McGraw­ OCHUS I, KING OF COMMAGEKE. The- Hill Book Company, Inc., 1940.

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© 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC © 1956 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC DEPARTURES OF TOMORROlN

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