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Goya Y Lucientes, Francisco De GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO DE BIBLIOGRAPHY Bayeu’s influence that the artist was invited to the Primary Sources court of Madrid in 1774 to paint designs (also Go´ngora, Luis de. Polyphemus and Galatea. Introduction by known as cartoons) for the royal tapestry factory. Alexander A. Parker. Translated by Gilbert F. Cunning- ham. Austin, 1977. Translation of Fa´ bula de Polifemo y Goya’s ability was soon recognized, and he was Galatea (1612). given permission to paint tapestry cartoons ‘‘of his —. The Solitudes. Translated by Gilbert F. Cunning- own invention’’—that is, he was allowed to develop ham. Baltimore, 1968. Translation of Soledades (1612– original subjects for these images. He painted three 1614). series of tapestry cartoons for rooms in the royal Rivers, Elias L., intro. and ed. ‘‘Luis de Go´ngora.’’ In Re- residences before the tapestry factory cut back pro- naissance and Baroque Poetry of Spain, pp. 157–198. duction in 1780 because of a financial crisis engen- New York, 1966. Prospect Heights, Ill., 1988. Selec- dered by Spain’s war with England. The decade of tion of poems with prose translations. the 1780s was nevertheless one of great advance- Secondary Sources ment for the artist, beginning with his election to Beverley, John. Aspects of Go´ngora’s ‘‘Soledades.’’ Amster- the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando in dam, 1980. 1780 and continuing as he won patronage for reli- Collins, Marsha S. The ‘‘Soledades,’’ Go´ngora’s Masque of the gious paintings and portraits from the grandest fam- Imagination. Columbia, Mo., 2002. ilies in Spain, including the duke and duchess of Gaylord [Randel], Mary. ‘‘Metaphor and Fable in Osuna and the count and countess of Altamira. His Go´ngora’s Soledad primera.’’ Revista Hispa´nica appointment as court painter in April 1789, four Moderna 40 (1978–1979): 97–112. months after Charles IV had acceded to the throne, McCaw, R. John. The Transforming Text: A Study of Luis de cemented his fortunes. Go´ngora’s ‘‘Soledades.’’ Potomac, Md. 2000. Smith, Paul Julian. ‘‘Barthes, Go´ngora, and Non-Sense.’’ Documents and paintings of the early 1790s PMLA 101 (1986): 82–94. suggest the artist’s growing unease with the limita- Terry, Arthur. ‘‘Luis de Go´ngora: The Poetry of Transfor- tions imposed on painters by traditions and patron- mation.’’ In Seventeenth-Century Spanish Poetry: The age. Images in his final series of cartoons, such as Power of Artifice, pp. 65–93. Cambridge, U.K., and The Straw Mannikin (1792; Museo del Prado, Ma- New York, 1993. drid), betray an increasingly cynical view. As one of MARSHA S. COLLINS several academicians asked in 1792 to report on the institutional curriculum, he responded that ‘‘there are no rules in painting.’’ Thus, although the turn in Goya’s art to a more liberated exploration of un- GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO precedented subject matter is often credited to a DE (1746–1828), Spanish painter and printmaker. serious illness suffered in 1792–1793, such a Born on 30 March 1746 in the village of change might have occurred in any case. From 1793 Fuendetodos, Francisco Goya received his earliest onward, in addition to his work as a painter of artistic training in the provincial capital of commissioned portraits and religious paintings, Saragossa, under the Neapolitan-trained painter Goya explored experimental subjects—ranging Jose´ Luza´n y Martı´nez. In 1766 Goya competed from shipwrecks to scenes of everyday life in Ma- unsuccessfully in a drawing competition at the drid—in uncommissioned paintings, prints, and Royal Academy of San Fernando. Documents reveal drawings. This experimentation led to the publica- his entry into another academic competition in tion in 1799 of a series of eighty aquatint etchings Parma, Italy, in 1771, where he received an honora- known as Los Caprichos, whose subjects encompass ble mention for the painting Hannibal Crossing the witchcraft, prostitution, fantasy, and social satire. It Alps (Fundacio´n Selgas-Fagalda, Cudillero, Spain). is wrongly thought that these etchings jeopardized On his returning to Saragossa in 1772, Goya Goya’s relationship with his patrons; that this is not undertook religious commissions for private pa- the case is proven by Goya’s promotion to first court trons and religious organizations. In 1773 he mar- painter eight months after their publication. The ried the sister of the court painter, Francisco Bayeu y artist would continue to paint portraits including Subı´as (1734–1795), and it was probably through The Family of Charles IV (1800–1801, Prado), as 82 EUROPE 1450 TO 1789 GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO DE Francisco de Goya y Lucientes. The Second of May 1808. THE ART ARCHIVE/MUSEO DEL PRADO MADRID/THE ART ARCHIVE well as works for the king and queen’s close confi- mous works, little is known of their original func- dant, Manuel Godoy, that include portraits, alle- tion or placement, or of their early reception. gories, and probably the Naked Maja and the Goya continued in his position as first court Clothed Maja (c. 1797–1805; Prado). painter under the restored monarch, who neverthe- In 1808 Napoleonic forces invaded Spain, the less preferred the neoclassical style of the younger royal family abdicated, and Napoleon’s brother, Jo- Vicente Lo´pez. In 1819 Goya purchased a villa on seph Bonaparte, assumed the Spanish throne. In the outskirts of Madrid and painted on the walls of 1810 Goya undertook etchings documenting the its two main rooms images of witchcraft, religious atrocities of war, today known as the Disasters of ceremonies, and mythical subjects today known as War. Goya probably continued work on these etch- the Black Paintings (1819–1823; Prado). In 1824 ings even after the Spanish government of Ferdi- the artist left Spain and after a brief trip to Paris nand VII was restored in 1814, although the series settled in Bordeaux among a colony of Spanish ex- of eighty plates was published only in 1863, thirty- iles. Here he continued to paint and draw, and also five years after Goya’s death. On the restoration of to experiment with the technique of lithography— the Spanish monarchy, Goya depicted The Second of leading to the publication of The Bulls of Bordeaux, May and The Third of May (1813–1814; Prado) to a masterpiece in that medium. He died in Bordeaux commemorate the Spanish uprising against French on 26 April 1828. troops; although these are among Goya’s most fa- See also Spain, Art in. EUROPE 1450 TO 1789 83 GRANADA BIBLIOGRAPHY Granada’s capitulation in 1492 to the forces of Gassier, Pierre, and Juliet Wilson. The Life and Complete Ferdinand V and Isabella I (ruled 1474–1504), Works of Francisco Goya. New York, 1971. king and queen of Arago´n and Castile, signaled the Tomlinson, Janis. Francisco Goya y Lucientes, 1746–1828. end of independent Muslim power on the Iberian 2nd ed. London, 1999. Peninsula. Though the treaty of surrender guaran- —. Goya in the Twilight of Enlightenment. New Haven and London, 1992. teed Granadans their traditional religion, forced conversions in 1499 drove the Muslim community JANIS TOMLINSON to insurrection. The crown responded by rescinding the treaty and demanding mass baptisms. By 1501 the city’s Muslim population—estimated at fifty GRANADA. Located in the southeastern sector thousand souls in 1492—either emigrated to North of the Iberian Peninsula, the city of Granada lies in Africa or became Moriscos (Muslim converts to the northern foothills of the Sierra Nevada, some Christianity). Thousands of ‘‘Old Christian’’ new- sixty kilometers from the Mediterranean. It rose to comers from southern and central Castile soon re- prominence in the mid-thirteenth century as capital placed the e´migre´s. By 1561, immigrants to the city of the Muslim kingdom of Granada, the last survi- numbered around thirty thousand, perhaps twice ving state of medieval Al-Andalus or Islamic Iberia. the dwindling Morisco population. Both Moriscos During the latter half of the fifteenth century, Gra- and immigrants found employment in Granada’s nada faced growing internal instability and the in- lucrative silk industry. Granadan Moriscos dyed the creasing militancy of its northern neighbor, the raw silk produced by rural Morisco peasants; immi- Christian kingdom of Castile. grants, however, dominated the weaving process. Granada. A seventeenth-century view of the city from Civitates Orbis Terrarum, by Braun and Hogenberg. THE ART ARCHIVE/ BIBLIOTECA NAZIONALE MARCIANA VENICE/DAGLI ORTI (A) 84 EUROPE 1450 TO 1789.
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