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Female Masuclinity and Nationalism in Eighteenth-Century British Literature

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Female Masuclinity and Nationalism in Eighteenth-Century British Literature ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: WHEN THE CLOTHES DO NOT MAKE THE MAN: FEMALE MASUCLINITY AND NATIONALISM IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY BRITISH LITERATURE Leslie J. Jansen, Doctor of Philosophy, 2006 Dissertation Directed By: Professor Susan S. Lanser Department of English Recently, masculinity has garnered much attention from scholars of eighteenth- century literature and history. However, these studies focus almost exclusively on the masculinity performed by men. Likewise, studies of female masculinity tend to examine masculine women only within the context of women. My dissertation lies at the convergence of these two areas of inquiry by examining the implications of female masculinity on normative masculinity and the link between these masculinities and nationalism from the early to late eighteenth century, with particular emphasis at the mid-point of the century. I argue that female masculinity was integral to the development and construction of an idealized masculinity and that both positive and negative responses to female masculinity fostered nationalist propaganda and aided in the development of the British Empire. In the first chapter, I trace the shifting grounds of normative masculinity and argue that what constitutes masculinity narrows as the century progresses and is defined by its resistance to any connection with French culture, particularly within the rising middle class. Chapter two examines three female soldier narratives, some of the only positive representations of female masculinity. I argue that the authors praise female masculinity as a means of creating a heroic masculinity to serve the nation. The third chapter examines the function of female husbands. I argue that these texts employ female husbands as a means of inciting xenophobia and promoting nationalism, through narrative strategies of silence and disclosure. In the final chapter, I discuss the masculine women who populate four domestic novels. I posit that female masculinity functions as a means of authorizing sentimental masculinity, a mode of masculinity popular in mid-to late eighteenth-century novels. Through the examination of texts such as novels, pamphlets, and biographies, my dissertation insists that female masculinity was an integral force in the construction of normative masculinity and was intimately linked to a nationalist agenda in the eighteenth century. WHEN THE CLOTHES DO NOT MAKE THE MAN: FEMALE MASCULINITY AND NATIONALISM IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY BRITISH LITERATURE by Leslie J. Jansen Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2006 Advisory Committee: Professor Susan Lanser, Chair Professor Vincent Carretta Professor William Cohen Professor Katherine King Professor Laura Rosenthal © Copyright by Leslie J. Jansen 2006 For the two most important women in my life: Joan A. Jansen (in memoriam) and Stacey J. Gaines ii Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the help and support of many people. Although she left the University of Maryland just as I was beginning this project, Sue Lanser graciously stayed on as my director and saw me through this long process. I am very grateful to the countless hours of work and generous feedback she provided. She has been a model of scholarly excellence. Vin Carretta’s suggestions were helpful in thinking through the historical and organizational aspects of this dissertation, and I am also very appreciative of his support and wit, both of which helped me through some of the more difficult times with this project. Laura Rosenthal’s observations and suggestions helped me to see this project in completely new ways. She also provided a perspective that I could not achieve on my own, and she was instrumental in helping me become a better writer. I am grateful to Bill Cohen who has kindly guided and supported my work since I was a master’s student. Katie King’s observations and enthusiastic support of my work have helped me to see the larger possibilities of this project. I am grateful to my friends who supported me, believed in me, patiently listened to many discussions of masculine women, and sent cookies during dissertation emergencies: Jennie Rook, Ryan and Ann Claycomb, Korey Rothman, Stacey Stewart, Narda Quigley, and Susy Gallor. I am also grateful to my family for their support. My father, John Jansen, has always supported my endeavors. My sister, Susan Karlinski, has been like a second mother to me, never failing to believe in me and always offering any assistance I needed. Carolyn Doster has always cheered my accomplishments and supported me. Barb Maisch has likewise supported me and always inquired about the status of my work. iii Finally, I am deeply indebted to the love and guidance of three people who have been and will continue to be instrumental to my accomplishments. Celia Easton has been a mentor and dear friend since I was an undergraduate. She introduced me to the eighteenth century, has been a model for my teaching, and has never failed to support and encourage me. She generously gave up her time and helped make my writing clearer and stronger. I am forever grateful to all the sacrifices my mother, Joan Jansen, made for me. Though she passed away when I was young, the example she set continues to influence me today. Stacey Gaines came into my life at the start of this project, and it is a testament to her love and patience that she stayed with me throughout it. She never ceased to support me, and she helped keep this project going when it most needed it. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements iii Chapter 1: English Masculinity in Crisis: Constructing the Nation Through the 1 Construction of Masculinity The Spectator and Masculinity 18 “The Great Masculine Renunciation” 25 Effeminacy and Sodomy 34 Nationalism 39 Sentimental Masculinity 45 Prescribing Femininity 48 Chapter 2: A Passing Phase?: Female Masculinity Serves the Nation 65 Christian Davies 75 Hannah Snell 95 Jenny Cameron 119 Chapter 3: ‘Not Fit to be Mentioned’: Silence and Disclosure in the Narratives 133 of Female Husbands The Female Husband and The Jacobite’s Journal 145 Satan’s Harvest Home 176 Catherine Vizzani 185 Charlotte Charke 197 Chapter 4: Undressing the Canon: Masculine Women in Sentimental Novels 211 Pamela 219 The History of Sir Charles Grandison 234 Evelina 249 Belinda 261 Conclusion: The Construction of (our) Modern Masculinity? 284 Bibliography 298 v Chapter 1: English Masculinity in Crisis: Constructing the Nation Through the Construction of Masculinity What an Inundation of Ribbons and Brocades will break upon us? What Peals of Laughter and Impertinence shall we be exposed to? For the Prevention of these great Evils, I could heartily wish that there was an act of Parliament for Prohibiting the Importation of French Fopperies. Joseph Addison, The Spectator 45 The Model of this Amazonian Hunting-Habit for Ladies, was, as I take it, first imported from France, and well enough expresses the Gayety of a People who are taught to do any thing so it be with an Assurance; but I cannot help thinking it sits awkwardly yet on our English Modesty. Richard Steele, The Spectator 104. On March 1, 1711, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele launched The Spectator, a publication that lasted only a few years but significantly influenced cultural norms. In just the first few months of publication, Addison and Steele addressed an issue that would capture the attention of biographers, pamphleteers, journalists, moralists, and novelists throughout the eighteenth century: masculinity—in both men and women—and its connection to nationalism. Addison and Steele’s anxiety about the influence of foreign, especially French, culture parallels the concerns of other eighteenth-century writers, who feared that nations, such as France, would make Englishmen effeminate and Englishwomen masculine. Addison, Steele, Henry Fielding, and John Cleland, to name a few, contended that this inversion of natural genders was a threat to Britain’s strength and would render it vulnerable to foreign invasion at a time when Britain was creating its empire and positioning itself as the dominant world power.1 Of particular interest to Addison, Steele, and to all of the authors I will discuss, is the effect female masculinity has on normative masculinity; indeed, this is the focus of this project. Some writers praise female masculinity because it motivates and strengthens masculinity, while others 1 I will develop this argument in full in chapter 3, where I discuss works by Fielding and a text translated by Cleland. 1 deride it because it is unnatural and usurps male privilege. Despite the variety of responses to female masculinity, these texts are united by the interplay between the masculinity performed by men and the masculinity performed by women. Even when authors denounce female masculinity, it is nevertheless integral to the construction of masculinity and to the nationalistic fervor that pervades throughout the eighteenth century. Before delving further into The Spectator, I want to address the central topic of this project: masculinity. Though masculinity in the eighteenth century was far from a coherent, monolithic concept, the texts I discuss attempt to fix notions of masculinity, such that it appears to have one, universal denotation. Masculinity in these texts is defined by possession of a male body and by strict adherence to heterosexuality;2 these qualifications functioning in conjunction with each other are unique to the eighteenth century, as I will discuss later. But female masculinity troubles both of these “natural” elements of masculinity, disrupting the connection between maleness and masculinity and revealing gender, sex, and sexuality to be performative. Thus, I will show how masculinity is a constructed category, despite the belief in the eighteenth century that it was naturally the possession of men. When I use the term “female masculinity,” I am not suggesting that it is derivative or imitative of the masculinity performed by men.
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