Introduction 1

Notes

Introduction 1. J. E. Cookson, The British Armed Nation, 1793–1815 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997), v. 2. Christopher Lloyd, The British Seaman, 1200–1860: A Social Survey (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1968), 123. 3. H. V. Bowen, War and British Society, 1688–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 3. 4. Alan Forrest, Conscripts and Deserters: The Army and French Society during the Revolution and Empiree (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). 5. John Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688–1783 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–18377 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992). 6. HO/28/40: Lieut. Comm. Thomas Hawkes to J. W. Croker, 15 Aug 1811. 7. HO 28/7: R. Dawson, Lt. Governor of the Isle of Man, to Grenville, 20 July 1790. 8. The best studies of impressment are likely to be local histories for this reason. Keith Mercer, “Sailors and Citizens: Press Gangs and Naval- Civilian Relations in Nova Scotia, 1756–1815,” Journal of Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society 10 (2007): 87–113; Keith Mercer, “The Murder of Lieutenant Lawry: A Case Study of British Naval Impressment in Newfoundland, 1794,” Newfoundland and Labrador Studies 21, no. 2 (2006): 255–289. 9. HO 28/7: R. Dawson to Grenville, 20 July 1790; HO 28/24: Evan Nepean to John King, 11 July 1798; HO 28/34: John Barrow to J. Beckett, 1 September 1807; HO 28/40, John Barrow to J. Beckett, 21 August 1811. This simmering sense of injustice helps provide context for similar (but less clearly explained) violent episodes else- where, such as the ones witnessed by the young William Lovett in his Cornish ﬁshing village. William Lovett, Life and Struggles of William Lovett (London: Macgibbon and Kee, 1967), 1–3. 10. I discuss some additional examples from the archives in Isaac Land, “The Humours of Sailortown: Atlantic History Meets Subculture Theory,” in City Limits, ed. Glenn Clark (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, forthcoming). 172 N otes

11. Anthony G. Brown, “The Nore Mutiny: Sedition or Ships’ Biscuits? A Reappraisal,” Mariner’s Mirror 92, no. 1 (February 2006): 63, for sailor shortage. 12. Margarette Lincoln, Representing the Royal Navy: British Sea Power, 1750–18155 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), 32. 13. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Classs (New York: Vintage, 1963); Jonathan Rose, The Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001);the term in quotation marks fi rst appeared in Rosemary Ommer and Gerald Panting, eds., Working Men Who Got Wet (St. Johns: Memorial Uni- versity of Newfoundland, 1980). See also Colin Howell, and Richard Twomey, eds., Jack Tar in History: Essays in the History of Maritime Life and Labourr (Fredericton, New Brunswick: Acadiensis Press, 1991). Nicholas Rogers, The Press Gang: Naval Impressment and its Opponents in Georgian Britainn (London: Continuum, 2007) came into my hands too late for me to engage with it fully here. 14. The best-known work is Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987). 15. N. A. M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (New York: Norton, 1986), 145–204. 16. I am referring to Robert Colls’s bold reading of Rodger’s work in John Hutchinson, Susan Reynolds, Anthony D. Smith, Robert Colls, and Krishan Kumar, “Debate on Krishan Kumar’s The Making of Eng lish National Identity,” Nations and Nationalism 13, no. 2 (2007): 193. 17. Rodger, Wooden World, 345: “It offends against every canon of experience and common sense to suppose that men who proved under the supreme test of battle to be brave, disciplined, skilful and daring, were in their everyday lives the degraded subjects of an arbitrary tyranny.” On the same page: “[N]o one who has ever commanded ships or men imagines that cruelty and oppression are the way to mould an effificient fighting force.” Fiercely comprehensive claims of this sort can only be intended to silence disagreement, but consider Omer Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 95–105; for the Red Army, Anthony Beevor, Stalingradd (New York: Viking, 1998), 85–86. 18. N. A. M. Rodger, “Stragglers and Deserters from the Royal Navy During the Seven Years’ War,” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 57, no. 135 (May 1984): 56–79. See also Robert R. Dozier, For King, Constitution, and Country: The English Loyalists and the French Revolutionn (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Ian R. Christie, Stress and Stability in Late Eighteenth-Century Britain: Refl ections on the British Avoidance of Revolution (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984); Clive Emsley, “The Social Impact of the French N otes 173

Wars,” in Britain and the French Revolution, 1789–1815, edited by H. T. Dickinson (New York: St. Martin’s, 1989), 211–228; H. T. Dickinson, The Politics of the People in Eighteenth-Century Britain (New York: St. Martin’s, 1995). 19. Lloyd, British Seaman, 132–133. 20. Samuel Leech, A Voice from the Main Deck (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1999), 17. 21. Stephen Conway, “War and National Identity in the Mid-Eighteenth- Century British Isles,” English Historical Review 116, no. 468 (September 2001): 863–893. The admittedly awkward-sounding term “trans-local feeling of solidarity” does have the merit of approach- ing this problem with the appropriate humility: Juliane Engelhardt, “Patriotism, Nationalism and Modernity: The Patriotic Societies in the Danish Conglomerate State, 1769–1814,” Nations and Nationalism 13, no. 2 (2007): 206. See also J. E. Cookson, “The Napoleonic Wars, Military Scotland and Tory Highlandism in the Early Nine- teenth Century,” Scottish Historical Review 78 (1999): 60–75; J. E. Cookson, “Service without Politics? Army, Militia and Volunteers in Britain during the American and French Revolutionary Wars,”War in His- tory 10, no. 4 (2003): 381–397; Stephen Conway, The British Isles and the War of American Independencee (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000). 22. Mark Philp, ed., Resisting Napoleon: The British Response to the Threat of Invasion, 1797–18155 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006). 23. Linda Colley, “The Apotheosis of George III: Loyalty, Royalty, and the British Nation, 1760–1820,” Past and Present 102 (February 1984): 94–129. 24. Robert Fahrner, The Theatre Career of Charles Dibdin the Elder (1745–1814), (New York: Lang, 1989). 25. Conrad Gill, The Naval Mutinies of 17977 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1913) is still the standard work on these events. 26. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nationss, Book 1, Chapter 10. 27. Linda Colley, “Whose Nation?: Class and National Consciousness in Britain, 1750–1830,” Past and Present 113 (November 1986): 97–117; Linda Colley, “Britishness and Otherness: An Argument,” Journal of British Studies 31 (October 1992): 309–329; Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992). For the continuing debate and response to Colley’s work on nationalism, see Krishan Kumar, The Making of English National Identity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Stephen Conway, War, State, and Society in Mid-Eighteenth-Century Britain and Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). 28. Lincoln, Representing the Royal Navy, 19, 62, 140–143; the window treatment is Plate 6. 29. Charles Mackay, Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowdss (1852; London: George G. Harrap, 1956), 628–629. 174 N otes

For material culture that made a fetish of the sailor, see the lavishly illustrated J. Welles Henderson and Rodney P. Carlisle, Marine Art and Antiques: Jack Tar, a Sailor’s Life, 1750–1910 (Woodbridge: Antique Collectors’ Club, 1999). For an account focusing on this phenomenon, broadly defi ned, in the 1880s and 1890s, see Cynthia Fansler Behrman, Victorian Myths of the Sea (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1977). 30. Colley, Britons, 127. 31. John Nicol, The Life and Adventures of John Nicol, Marinerr (Edin- burgh: William Blackwood, 1822), 208–210. 32. Quarterly Revieww 35, no. 49 (January 1827): 164. For context on Lockhart, see William Thomas, “Religion and Politics in the Quar- terly Review, 1809–1853,” in History, Religion, and Culture: British Intellectual History, 1750–1950, ed. Stefan Collini, Richard What- more, and Brian Young (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 136–155. 33. Quarterly Review 35, no. 49 (January 1827): 149. 34. London Magazinee (June 1750): 266–268. 35. Colley remarked, I hope in jest, that the battle of Waterloo had “made the world safe for gentlemen again”: Britons, 191. Consider the devastating indictment of expedient and disingenuous wartime rhetoric in Rebecca Earle, “Creole Patriotism and the Myth of the ‘Loyal Indian’,” Past and Present 172 (August 2001): 125–145. The “gentlemen” on both sides of Spanish America’s wars for independence had a lot to say about the fi ne qualities of the Indians, but they had no intention of empowering the indigenous majority after the fi ghting was over. 36. My argument here has affi nities with, but goes beyond, E. P. Thompson, “Which Britons?” in E. P. Thompson, Making History: Writings on History and Culture (New York: New Press, 1994), 319–329. 37. Tyne Mercury, October 23, 1815; Norman McCord, “The Seamen’s Strike of 1815 in North-East England,” Economic History Revieww 21 (1968): 127–143. 38. Rogers, Press Gang, 125.

Chapter 1 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1st edition (1768), s.v. “Clupea”; Britan- nica, 3rd edition (1797), s.v. “Fishery” and “Clupea”; Richard Ayton and William Daniell, A Voyage Round Great Britainn (London: Scolar, 1978), 3: 78–79. 2. Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Centuryy (London: Pelican, 1982), 56; Philip Payton, The Making of Modern Cornwall: Historical Experience and the Persistence of Difference (Redruth: Dyl- lansow Truran, 1992), 86–89; Jane Grigson, Jane Grigson’s Fish Book (London: Michael Joseph, 1993), s.v. “herring” and “pilchards and sardines.” Notes 175

3. For a description of a genuinely Atlantic lifestyle, see Jerry Bannister, “Citizen of the Atlantic: Benjamin Lester’s Social World in England, 1768–69,” Newfoundland Quarterly 38, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 32–37. For other examples of the deepwater emphasis, Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth C entury (New York: Routledge, 2003); Emma Christopher, Slave Ship Sailors and their Captive Cargoes, 1730–18077 (New York: Cam- bridge University Press, 2006); Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking, 2007). Contrast with Isaac Land, “Tidal Waves: The New Coastal History,” Journal of Social History 40, no. 3 (Spring 2007): 731–743, and Michael N. Pearson, “Littoral Society: The Concept and the Problems,” Journal of World History 17, no. 4 (2006): 353–373. 4. P. M. Horsley, Eighteenth-Century Newcastlee (Newcastle upon Tyne: Oriel, 1971), 227–228. 5. Peter Earle, Sailors: English Merchant Seamen, 1650–17755 (London: Methuen, 1998), 6–7. Ships involved in the North Sea trades would make four or ﬁ ve voyages a year: Ralph Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuriess (London: Macmillan, 1962), 205. 6. Davis, Shipping;; John M. Mackenzie, “Lakes, Rivers, and Oceans: Technology, Ethnicity, and the Shipping of Empire in the Late Nine- teenth Century,” in Maritime Empires: British Imperial Maritime Trade in the Nineteenth Century, ed. David Killingray, Margarette Lincoln, and Nigel Rigby (London: Boydell, 2004), 127. Daniel Vickers, Young Men and the Sea: Yankee Seafarers and the Age of Sail (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005) is a stimulating reappraisal of maritime history from this perspective. 7. Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 83, 89, 93, 119, 159. Despite Rediker’s evident sensitivity to the labor environment of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, he repeatedly cites sociological or ethnographic studies (by Vilhelm Aubert and others) that deal with conditions on twentieth-centuryy merchant vessels and oil tankers, which were arguably more isolated than vessels from the Age of Sail. Improvements in technology and food preservation per- mitted them to stay at sea for much longer periods. 8. Ibid., 37. 9. This is also the starting point for Jesse Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets: Merchant Seamen in the Politics of Revolutionary America,” William and Mary Quarterlyy 25 (1968): 371–407. 10. Rediker, Devil, 161. 11. Ibid., 162. 12. Ibid., 147, 168, 191. 13. Ibid., 3, 5. 176 N otes

14. See the description of London in Ibid., 24–35. 15. Ibid., 286. 16. Gordon Jackson, “Ports, 1700–1840,” in Cambridge Urban History of Britain, ed. Peter Clark (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 2: 726–731, contains much insight in a very short space, but deals with sailors mainly as a social and administrative problem for the authorities. Contrast with Judith Fingard, Jack in Port: Sailortowns of Eastern Canadaa (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982). 17. Ibid., 41, 197. 18. This approach is not abandoned in Marcus Rediker, “Liberty beneath the Jolly Roger: The Lives of Anne Bonny and Mary Read, Pirates,” in Iron Men, Wooden Women: Gender and Seafaring in the Atlantic World, 1700–1920, ed. Margaret S. Creighton and Lisa Norling (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 1–33. 19. Rediker, Devil, 166. 20. Margaret Hunt, “Women and the Fiscal-Imperial State in Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,” in A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire, ed. Kathleen Wilson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 29–47; for women and seafaring communities more generally, Creighton and Norling, eds., Iron Men and Wooden Women; Lisa Norling, Captain Ahab Had a Wife: New England Women and the Whalefifi shery, 1720–18700 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Valerie Burton, “Boundaries and Identities in the Nineteenth-Century English Port: Sailortown Narratives and Urban Space,” in Identities in Space: Contested Terrains in the Western City since 1850, ed. Simon Gunn and Robert J. Morris (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), 137–151; Vickers, Young Men, 146–149. 21. Simon P. Newman, “Reading the Bodies of Early American S eafarers,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 55, no. 1 (January 1998), quoted 72–73; Earle, Sailors, 19. See also Vickers, Young Men, 3, 139. 22. Rediker, Devil, 8. 23. Edward Coxere, Adventures by Sea of Edward Coxere, ed. E. H. W. Meyerstein (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 37; quoted in Rediker, Devil, 79. 24. Rediker, Devil, 172–176. 25. N. A. M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (New York, NY: Norton, 1986), 118, 344–346, seems skepti- cal that there weree many confl icts and tensions in British society, but this is, to say the least, an idiosyncratic reading of E. P. Thompson’s writings on the “moral economy” and other crowd actions. 26. Thomas Hodgskin, An Essay on Naval Discipline (London: Sher- wood, Neely, and Jones, 1813), ix; ODNB, s.v. “Thomas Hodgskin”; for Cochrane, see Timothy Jenks, Naval Engagements: Patriotism, Cultural Politics, and the Royal Navy, 1793–1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 247–290. Notes 177

27. Dean King and John B. Hattendorf, eds., Every Man Will Do His Duty: An Anthology of Firsthand Accounts from the Age of Nelson (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), xxii, xxv. For a different approach to sailors’ autobiographies, see Margaret S. Creighton, Rites and Pas- sages: The Experience of American Whaling, 1830–18700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 28. Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker, The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners and the Hidden History of the Revolution- ary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon, 2000); see also Julius S. Scott, “The Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of the Haitian Revolution,” Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1986; Jesse Lemisch, Jack Tar vs. John Bull: The Role of New York’s Seamen in Precipitating the American Revolution (New York: Gar- land, 1997). 29. Rediker, Devil, 90. 30. Robert Hay, Landsman Hay: The Memoirs of Robert Hay, 1789–18477, ed. M. D. Hay (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1953), 155–156. 31. On this point, contrast Linebaugh and Rediker, Many-Headed Hydra with Isaac Land, “The Many-Tongued Hydra: Sea Talk, Maritime Culture, and Atlantic Identities, 1700–1850,” Journal of American and Comparative Culturess 25, nos. 3–4 (December 2002): 412–417. 32. Cal Winslow, “Sussex Smugglers,” in Albion’s Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth-Century England, ed. Douglas Hay, Peter Line- baugh, John G. Rule, E. P. Thompson, and Cal Winslow (New York: Pantheon, 1975), 119–166; John G. Rule, “Wrecking and Coastal Plunder,” in Albion’s Fatal Tree, ed. Hay et al., 167–188; Gavin Daly, “English Smugglers, the Channel, and the Napoleonic Wars, 1800–1814,” Journal of British Studies 46 (January 2007): 30–46. 33. Earle, Sailorss; Paul van Royen, Jaap Bruijn, and Jan Lucassen, eds., “Those Emblems of Hell”?: European Sailors and the Maritime Labour Market, 1570–1870 (St. John’s, Newfoundland: International Mari- time Economic History Association, 1997); Ralph Lloyd-Jones, “The Men Who Sailed with Franklin,” Polar Record 41, no. 219 (2005): 311–318. 34. Rediker, Devil, 154–155. The overlap between naval and merchant seamen is conﬁﬁ rmed in Earle, Sailors, 185. 35. Rediker, Devil, 83. 36. N. A. M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (New York: Norton, 2005), 499–501. 37. Denver Brunsman, “The Evil Necessity: British Naval Impressment in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World,” Ph.D. dissertation, Princ- eton University, 2004. Even mayors of cities in foreign countries like Prussia imagined that the Royal Navy would be a good destination for their criminals: Richard J. Evans, Tales from the German Underworld: Crime and Punishment in the Nineteenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 40–41. 178 N otes

38. The London and Westminster Guide (London, 1768), xv. The same wording appeared again in John Fielding, A Brief Description of the Cities of London and Westminsterr (London, 1776). 39. For the uncertainties of this troubled transitional period, see for example D. S. Neff, “Bitches, Mollies, and Tommies: Byron, Masculinity, and the History of Sexualities,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 11, no. 3 (July 2002): 395–438. 40. Hans Turley, Rum, Sodomy, and the Lash: Piracy, Sexuality, and Mas- culine Identity (New York: New York University Press, 1999). 41. For overviews that terminate too early to appreciate Dibdin’s full impact, see Harold F. Watson, The Sailor in English Fiction and Drama, 1550–18000 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931); Terence M. Freeman, Dramatic Representations of British Soldiers and Sailors on the London Stage, 1660–1800: Britons Strike Home (Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen, 1995). 42. Edward Barlow, Barlow’s Journal of his life at sea in King’s Ships, East and West Indiamen and other Merchantmen from 1659 to 1703, transcribed by Basil Lubbock, 2 vol. (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1934) 1: 146, 128, 161–163, 175. 43. Barlow, Journal, 1: 163. 44. Ibid., 1: 134, see also 2: 548. 45. Ibid., 1: 244, 119, 137, 2: 424. 46. Coxere, Adventures, 87; for languages and “passing,” 26, 29–30, 60, 108. 47. Ibid., x. 48. Barlow, Journal, 1: 161–162; for similar passages about “poor men,” 1: 213–214, 2: 358. 49. Earle, Sailors, 167–182. 50. Barlow, Journal, vol. 1, 146. 51. HO 28/24: St. Vincent to Evan Nepean [forgery in Jersey], 8 Feb- ruary 1798; Christopher Lloyd, The British Seaman, 1200–1860: A Social Surveyy (Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1968), 163 [forgery in Sunderland, London, and New York]. 52. Matthew Barker, Tough Yarns (London: Efﬁ ngham Wilson, 1835), 120–121. If we take it as axiomatic that Britishness was the smart bet, as Colley likes to suggest, do we risk condescending to the “deluded” deserters? See also Jesse Lemisch, “Listening to the ‘Inarticulate’: William Widger’s Dream and the Loyalties of American Revolution- ary Seamen in British Prisons,” Journal of Social History 3, no. 1 (Fall 1969): 1–29. 53. HO/28/45, f141. 54. For one example, John Cremer, Ramblin’ Jack: The Journal of Captain John Cremer, 1700–1774, ed. R. Reynell Bellamy (London: Jonathan Cape, 1936), 82, 114–115. It is true that racial categories seem to have hardened in most places after the late seventeenth century, but if sailors were susceptible to those changing terrestrial norms, N otes 179

that susceptibility in itself implies an underlying weakness in the rough egalitarianism that Rediker identifified at the heart of maritime culture. 55. Rodger, Command, 498; Michael Lewis, A Social History of the Navy, 1793–18155 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1960), 127–133, 137, 139. 56. Peter Linebaugh, “All the Atlantic Mountains Shook,” Labour/Le Travailleurr 10 (Autumn 1982): 87–121, speculated that one quarter of the Navy’s crews may have been black; for some updates and corrections, see Philip D. Morgan, “Black Experiences in Britain’s Maritime World,” in Empire, the Sea, and Global History: Britain’s Maritime World, c. 1760–c.1840, ed. David Cannadine (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 105–133, especially 113–114. See also W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African-American Seamen in the Age of Saill (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). For Asian seamen, see Michael H. Fisher, “Working Across the Seas: Indian Maritime Labourers in India, Britain, and in Between, 1600–1857,” International Review of Social History 51 (2006): 21–45; David A. Chappell, Double Ghosts: Oceanian Voyagers on Euroamerican Ships (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1997). 57. Linebaugh and Rediker, Many-Headed Hydra. 58. Thomas Clarkson, The Substance of the Evidence of Sundry Persons on the Slave Trade in The British Transatlantic Slave Trade, Vol. 3, The Abolitionist Struggle: Opponents of the Slave Trade, ed. John Oldfifield (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2003), 222. 59. Brian Howman, “Abolitionism in Liverpool,” in Liverpool and Transatlantic Slavery, ed. David Richardson, Suzanne Schwarz, and Anthony Tibbes (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007), 292. 60. Frederick Marryat, Peter Simple (New York: Henry Holt, 1998), 63. 61. Deirdre Coleman, ed., Maiden Voyages and Infant Colonies: Two Women’s Travel Narratives of the 1790s (London: Leicester University Press, 1999), 130. 62. David Vincent, Bread, Knowledge, and Freedom: A Study of Nine- teenth-Century Working Class Autobiography (London: Europa, 1981), 26–27; see also Geoffrey Best, War and Society in Revolution- ary Europe, 1770–1870 (Bath: Leicester University Press, 1982), 201; Peter Hofschröer, Wellington’s Smallest Victory: The Duke, the Model Maker, and the Secret of Waterloo (London: Faber and Faber, 2004). 63. N. A. M. Rodger, “Mutiny or Subversion? Spithead and the Nore,” in 1798: A Bicentenary Perspective, ed. Thomas Bartlett, et al. (Dublin: Four Courts, 2003), 564. 64. William Spavens, The Narrative of William Spavens, introduction by N. A. M. Rodger (London: Chatham, 1998), vii. 65. Rodger, “Mutiny or Subversion?” 564. 66. Peter Bailey, “Will the Real Bill Banks Please Stand Up?: Towards a Role-Analysis of Mid-Victorian Working-Class Respectability,” Journal of Social History 12, no. 3 (Spring 1979): 336–353. 180 N otes

Chapter 2 1. Charles Reece Pemberton, The Autobiography of Pel. Verjuice, ed. Eric Partridge (London: Scholartis, 1929), 202. For reflflections on the meaning and broader context of passages like this one, see Valerie Burton, “‘Whoring, Drinking Sailors’: Reflfl ections on Masculinity from the Labour History of Nineteenth-Century British Shipping,” in Working Out Gender: Perspectives from Labour History, ed. Margaret Walsh (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999), 84–101. 2. “Molly put the kettle on,” in Vocal Museumm [British Library 1077. g.47.(14)]. 3. “Jack Tar” in The Singing Island: A Collection of English and Scots Folksongs, ed. Peggy Seeger and Ewan MacColl (London: Mills Music, 1960), 67; BMC 9106. 4. John Winton, Hurrah for the Life of a Sailor! Life on the Lower Deck of the Victorian Navyy (London: Michael Joseph, 1977), 164; Charles McPherson, Life on Board a Man-of-Warr (Glasgow: Blackie, Fullarton, 1829), 1. 5. Examples are numerous. Three representative caricatures are BMC 5087, 9642, 11139. 6. For a legal defense of this form of conscription, see Charles Butler, On the legality of impressing seamen, 2nd ed., with additions “partly by Lord Sandwich” [1778; The Pamphleteerr 23 (1824): 234–239]. J. R. Hutchinson, Press-Gang Aflfl oat and Ashore (London: Eveleigh Nash, 1913); Daniel James Ennis, Enter the Press-Gang: Naval Impressment in Eighteenth-Century British Literaturee (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2002); Nicholas Rogers, The Press Gang: Naval Impressment and its Opponents in Georgian Britain (London: Continuum, 2007). 7. The literature on plebeian resistance is vast. Classic treatments include Eric Hobsbawm, Bandits (1969; New York: New Press, 2000); George Rudé, The Crowd in History: A Study of Popular Disturbances in France and England, 1730–1848, rev. ed. (London: Serif, 1995); E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: New Press, 1993); Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged. Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Centuryy (Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 8. George Orwell, England Your England and Other Essayss (London: Secker and Warburg, 1954), 197. 9. Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), 97–151; Paul Kléber Monod, Jacobitism and the English People, 1688–17888 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 256; E. P. Thompson, “The Crime of Anonymity” in Albion’s Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth-Century England, Hay et al., eds. (New York: Pantheon, 1975), 255–344; James S. Donnelly jun., “Hearts of Oak, Hearts of Steel,” Studia Hibernicaa 21 (1981): 7–73. N otes 181

10. Monod, Jacobitism, 182, my italics; see also John Brewer, “The Number 45: A Wilkite Political Symbol,” in England’s Rise to Great- nesss, ed. Stephen B. Baxter (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 349–376. 11. Thompson, Customs in Common, 75. 12. Rudé, Crowd in History, 150 for Rebecca. 13. Gale E. Christianson, “Secret Societies and Agrarian Violence in Ireland, 1790–1840,” Agricultural Historyy 46 (1972): 369–384. 14. Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York: Vintage, 1985), 75–106. 15. Contemporary scholarship on subculture and pop culture informs my thinking here, but as I have just shown, these phenomena are not new. It is therefore not really anachronistic to invoke the insights of Imani Perry, Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip-Hop (Dur- ham: Duke University Press, 2004), 50–51; Tricia Rose, Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary Americaa (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1994), 61, 100–101, 124. 16. Susan A. Phillips, Wallbangin’: Grafﬁﬁ ti and Gangs in L.A. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 207. 17. I have found Dick Hebdige’s work especially helpful: Subculture: The Meaning of Style (London: Routledge, 1979); Isaac Land, “The Humours of Sailortown: Atlantic History Meets Subculture Theory,” in City Limits, ed. Glenn Clark (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, forthcoming). See also more recent literature such as Russell A. Potter, Spectacular Vernaculars: Hip-Hop and the Politics of Postmodern- ismm (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 8, 57; Phillips, Wallbangin’, 23, 148–150. 18. The hip-hop group Cypress Hill used this sentence as a sneering refrain in one of their best-known songs, “How I could just kill a man.” Speaking unintelligible jargon in a public place is just such a proclamation: here is something you can’t understand. 19. Nicholas Rogers, “Liberty Road: Opposition to Impressment in Britain during the American War of Independence,” in Jack Tar in History: Essays in the History of Maritime Life and Labour, ed. Colin Howell and Richard Twomey (Fredericton, New Brunswick: Acadi- ensis Press, 1991), 55–75; Paul A. Gilje, Liberty on the Waterfront: American Maritime Culture in the Age of Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). 20. Gilje, Liberty, 129, 234. 21. John Nicol, The Life and Adventures of John Nicol, Marinerr (Edin- burgh: William Blackwood, 1822), 3–8; Robert Hay, Landsman Hay: The Memoirs of Robert Hay, 1789–18477, ed. M. D. Hay (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1953), 28–29; Thomas Trotter, Medicina Nau- tica: An Essay on the Diseases of Seamenn (London, 1797), 35–36, claims that Robinson Crusoe made many “proselytes” of boys from inland towns. See also Jonathan Rose, The Intellectual Life of the 182 N otes

British Working Classes (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 108–109. 22. Nicol, Life, 3; William Robinson, Nautical Economy (London: William Robinson, 1836), ix–xii, 1–4; George Irwin, Narrative of the Voyages (Hexham: M. Dickenson, 1830), 5. 23. McPherson, Life, 1. 24. Ibid., 22–23. 25. Nicol, Life, 8. 26. Irwin, Narrative, 6–8. 27. Peter Earle, Sailors: English Merchant Seamen, 1650–17755 (London: Methuen, 1998), 67–82, 96–98, offers a helpful, if understated, overview. 28. Robinson, Nautical Economy, 2; Jonas Hanway, The Origins, Progress, and Present State of the Marine Society (London, 1770), 50–51; Hay, Landsman Hay, 37; Matthew Barker, Greenwich Hospital (London: James Robins, 1826), 170; Irwin, Narrative, 6–8; Pemberton, Auto- biography, 138–140. 29. The material culture of an eighteenth-century warship is brilliantly evoked in James P. McGuane’s photographic essay, Heart of Oak: A Sailor’s Life in Nelson’s Navyy (New York: Norton, 2002). 30. Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Mer- chant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 163; Peter Linebaugh, “All the Atlantic Mountains Shook,” Labour/Le Travailleurr 10 (Autumn 1982): 110–112; J. H. Parry, “Sailor’s English,” Cambridge Journall 2 (1948–1949): 660–670. 31. BMC 5087. 32. Hay, Landsman Hay, 44. 33. John Cremer, Ramblin’ Jack: The Journal of Captain John Cremer, 1700–1774, ed. R. Reynell Bellamy (London: Jonathan Cape, 1936), 82, 114–115. 34. Irwin, Narrative, 36; Samuel Kelly, Samuel Kelly: An Eighteenth- Century Seaman, ed. Crosbie Garstin (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1925), 61; Nicol, Life, 32; Cremer, Ramblin’ Jack, 78; John Bechervaise, Thirty-Six Years of a Seafaring Life (Portsea: Woodward, 1839), 156, 219; McPherson, Life, 181; Barker, Greenwich, 49. 35. Hay, Landsman Hay, 44. 36. Cremer, Ramblin’ Jack, 69, 200; Robinson, Nautical Economy, 54–55. 37. Barker, Greenwich, 147, 163; Robinson, Nautical Economy, 67–68. 38. For context on alcohol and the military, see N. A. M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (New York, NY: Norton, 1986), 72–74; Paul E. Kopperman, “‘The Cheapest Pay’: Alcohol Abuse in the Eighteenth-Century British Army,” Journal of Military Historyy 60, no. 3 (July 1996): 445–470. Alcohol was also used (and abused) to an extravagant degree on merchant ships; see A Notes 183

Soldier [Joseph Donaldson], Recollections of an Eventful Life Chieflfl y Passed in the Armyy (Glasgow: W. R. McPhun, 1824), 53–57 for a particularly memorable instance. Notwithstanding the book’s title, Donaldson devotes about 60 pages to his brief stint as a sailor in his early teens. 39. Christopher Lawrence, “Disciplining Disease: Scurvy, the Navy, and Imperial Expansion, 1750–1825,” in Visions of Empire: Voyages, Botany, and Representations of Nature, ed. David Philip Miller and Peter Hanns Reill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 80–106; Anne Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: The Remark- able Story of Captain Cook’s Encounters in the South Seas (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 433–437. 40. James Cook’s Journal, 28 August 1769. Accessed via South Seas project, http://southseas.nla.gov.au/index.html ; see also Earle, Sailors, 132–133. 41. Samuel Leech, A Voice from the Main Deck (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1999), 29; Earle, Sailors, 137. 42. Robinson, Nautical Economy, 83–84; Barker, Greenwich, 76. 43. Leech, Voice, 36. 44. Barker, Greenwich, 190–191 and Barker, Tough Yarns, 94–96, 119–120; see also Trotter, Medicina Nautica, 35–43, for an outsider’s description of the “toughness” ethic as it was expressed in combat, as well as sailors’ fi erce loyalty and generosity to former shipmates. Relevant songs include “Blow Boreas Blow,” in A Col- lection of Sea Songs on Several Occasionss (London, 1720), 6; “The Neglected Tar,” in The Greenwich Pensioner’s Garlandd [BL 11621. c.2.(20)], 5–6; “The Jovial Sailor’s Crew,” in The Jovial Sailor’s Garlandd [BL 11621.c.2.(30)], 2–4; “The Hardy Sailor” and “The Forecastle Sailor” in Jem of Aberdeen’s Garlandd [BL 11621. c.2.(32)], 6–7; “Pretty Nancy from Yarmouth,” in The Life of a Man: English Folk Songs from the Home Counties, ed. Ken Stubbs (London: English Folk Dance and Song Society, 1970), 60; “The Ship in Distress,” in The Penguin Book of English Folk Songs, ed. R. Vaughn Williams and A. L. Lloyd (London: Penguin Books, 1957), 96. 45. Barker, Greenwich, 198; Cremer, Ramblin’ Jack, 188. 46. Bechervaise, Thirty-Six Yearss, 48, 73; Kelly, Samuel Kelly, 68–71. In George Crabbe’s 1810 poem, “The Borough,” the British tars disdain to cheat the innkeeper by wiping off the reckoning, even though it would have been easy to rub the chalk off the walls: Letter XI, lines 203–228. 47. Cremer, Ramblin’ Jack, 86. 48. Clive Behagg, “Secrecy, Ritual, and Folk Violence: The Opacity of the Workplace in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century,” in Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century England, ed. Robert D. Storch (London: Croom Helm, 1982), 154–179. 184 Notes

49. Nicol, Life, 174–175; John Bechervaise, A Farewell to My Old Ship- mates (Portsea: W. Woodward, 1847), 54; Hay, Landsman Hay, 59. 50. Bechervaise, Farewelll, 17–18; see also 5–6, 11–17, 20, 40; M cPherson, Life, 138. 51. Pemberton, Autobiography, 199. 52. Ibid., 198. 53. Leech, Voice, 226–228; Cremer, Ramblin’ Jack, 132; Pemberton, Autobiography, 213, Bechervaise, Farewelll, 47. 54. Jacob Nagle, The Nagle Journal, ed. John C. Dann (New York: Wei- denfeld and Nicolson, 1988), 65. 55. Glasgow City Archives, T-ARD 3/9: Greenock Merchants’ Society minutes, 25 November 1790; HO 28/36: Captain S. Horton to Admiralty, 26 June 1809. 56. [n.a.], A Letter to a Naval Offifi cer from a Friend (London: Murray and Highley, 1797), 11. 57. Nicol, Life, 158–160. 58. Bechervaise, Thirty-Six Years, 256–258; see also Kelly, Samuel Kelly, 129. In the ballad “The Young and Single Sailor,” in Folk Songss, ed. Williams and Lloyd, 104–105, a sailor successfully masquerades as—and is accepted as—a “man of honour.” 59. Irwin, Narrative, 46–49. George Miller, A Trip to Sea from 1810 to 1815 (Long Sutton: John Swain, 1854), 49: a sailor dresses as a surgeon’s servant to avoid the gang. 60. Naval offifi cers sometimes outfi tted their men at their own expense, a practice that was more characteristic of the army. Scott Hughes Myerly, British Military Spectacle: From the Napoleonic Wars through the Crimea (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996). A ship named the Harlequinn had a boat’s crew fi tted out by the captain “as if they had signed on to appear in a pantomime”: Christopher Lloyd, Captain Marryat and the Old Navyy (London: Longmans, Green, 1939), 15. 61. Rodger, Wooden World, 15, 64–65; Michael Lewis, A Social History of the Navy, 1793–18155 (London: Allen and Unwin, 1960), 75; Ronald Hope, A New History of British Shippingg (London: John Murray, 1990), 248–249. See also Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Hartford, CN: Park, 1882), 247. 62. McPherson, Life, 1; Barker, Tough Yarns, 6; Hay, Landsman Hay, 190; Donaldson, Recollections, 15. For additional citations and a longer discussion of clothing, see Land, “Humours of Sailortown.” 63. Dudley Jarrett, British Naval Dress (London: Dent, 1960), 48, 55, 62, 69. See also Amy Miller, Dressed to Kill: British Naval Uni- form, Masculinity and Contemporary Fashions, 1748–1857 (London: National Maritime Museum, 2007). 64. Tobias Smollett, Roderick Random (1749), chapter 25. 65. Trotter, Medicina Nautica, 39–40. 66. Ibid., 38. 67. Barker, Greenwich, 142. N otes 185

68. Lewis, Social History, 108–109. 69. Robinson, Nautical Economy, 38–39. 70. [n.a.], The Jovial Songster, or Sailor’s Delightt (Gainsbrough, 1792), 1. 71. Tim Hitchcock, English Sexualities, 1700–18000 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), 24–41, 58–75, 64; Randolph Trumbach, Sex and the Gender Revolution, vol. 1, Heterosexuality and the Third Gender in Enlightenment London (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 55–63, 69, 195, 394, 425–430. 72. “The Sailor’s Return,” in The London Songsterr [BL 1077.g.47.(9)]. 73. A Collection of Sea Songs on Several Occasionss [BL 1720 (8)]. 74. Trumbach, Sex, 1: 90–111; Anna Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (Berkeley: Uni- versity of California Press, 1995), 42–62. 75. Pierce Egan, Life in Londonn (London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1821), 286. 76. “The Sailor’s Resolution,” in The Mariner’s Concertt [BL 1077. g.47.(25)]. 77. Trumbach, Sex, 1: 279. See also 116, 140 of Trumbach for prostitutes whose fathers were “at sea.” 78. “The Oak and the Ash,” in Life of a Man, ed. Stubbs, 54–55. 79. “Tarry Trousers,” in The Wanton Seed: More English Folk Songs from the Hammond and Gardiner MSS., ed. Frank Purslow (London: Eng- lish Folk Dance and Song Society, 1968), 110. 80. Bodleian Ballads: Firth c.13(169). See also Harding B 25(1340). 81. “Portsmouth Jack,” in Portsmouth Jack’s Garlandd [BL 11621. c.2.(58)], 2–3. 82. Trumbach, Sex, 1: 199. 83. Trotter, Medicina Nautica, 459–461; Thomas Trotter, A Practicable Plan for Manning the Royal Navy without Impressment (Newcastle upon Tyne: Longman, 1819), 40. 84. Hay, Landsman Hay, 190–191. 85. Vickers, Young Men, 132. 86. “Portsmouth Jack,” in Portsmouth Jack’s Garlandd [BL 11621. c.2.(58)], 2–3. 87. Rodger, Wooden World, 44; Todd Endelman, The Jews of Georgian England, 1714–18300 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979), 137–138; Robinson, Nautical Economy, 56–61, 64–65; C. Northcote Parkinson,Portsmouth Point: The Navy in Fiction, 1793–1815 (Liverpool: University Press of Liverpool, 1948), 98–104. 88. “The Oak and the Ash,” in Life of a Man, ed. Stubbs, 54–55; “Home Boys Home,” in The Seeds of Love: A Comprehensive Anthology of Folk Songs of the British Isless, ed. Stephen Sedley (London: Essex Music, 1967), 14–15; “The Basket of Eggs,” in Folk Songss, ed. Williams and Lloyd, 18–19. 89. BMC 11204. For an example of the genre that this song was satirizing, see BMC 10691. 186 N otes

90. “The Distracted Sailor’s Complaint,” in The Distracted Sailor’s Garlandd [BL 11621.e.2.(14)], 2–4. 91. “The Sailor’s Advice to his Brother Sailors,” The Horn-Fair Garland [BL 11621.e.2.(23)], 8. See also BMC 9802, “Poll of Plymouth’s prayer”; BMC 11965, “A Seaman’s Wife’s Reckoning”; Trumbach, Sex, 1: 110. 92. “Rounding the Horn,” in Folk Songss, ed. Williams and Lloyd, 90. 93. Trumbach, Sex, 1: 163. 94. Maud Karpeles, Folk Songs from Newfoundland (Hamden, CT: Archon, 1970), 117–119. 95. “The Sailor’s Return,” in The London Songsterr [BL 1077.g.47.(9)]; “The Sailor’s Advice to his Brother Sailors,” in The Horn-Fair Garlandd [BL 11621.e.2.(23)]. For plebeian misogyny, see Clark, Struggle, 63–88. 96. Nagle, Journal, 154–157; “Maggie May,” in Seeds of Love, ed. Sedley, 12–13; (quoted) “Up to the Rigs of London Town,” in Life of a Man, ed. Stubbs, 74–75; “Ratcliffe Highway,” in Folk Songss, ed. Williams and Lloyd, 85; “The Green Bed,” in Ibid, 48–49; “Jack Tar,” in Sing- ing Island, ed. Seeger and MacColl, 67. 97. Bodleian Ballads: Harding B 25 (46). 98. Peter Linebaugh, “The Tyburn Riot against the Surgeons,” in Albion’s Fatal Tree, ed. Hay et al., 92; Francis Grose, A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, ed. Eric Partridge (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1963), s.v. “dock.” 99. POB: Thomas Bedworth; Murder, 13 September 1815. 100. POB: Robert Anderson, Matthew Goodall; Murder, 23 May 1792. 101. POB: John Colley; Murder, 29 May 1811. 102. POB: John Taylor; Murder (attempted), 1 June 1808. 103. On this topic generally, see Anna Clark, Women’s Silence, Men’s Violence: Sexual Assault in England, 1770–1845 (London: Pandora, 1987). For sodomy cases and crowd violence, see for example B. R. Burg, Boys at Sea: Sodomy, Indecency, and Courts Martial in Nelson’s Navy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 17, 73.

Chapter 3 1. Some sources spell her middle name “Ann,” without the “e.” I am following the spelling favored by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 2. R. S. Kirby, Life and surprising adventures of Mary Anne Talbot (1809), ed. Paul Royster, http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/32/, 37, 40. 3. Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990). 4. Fraser Easton, “Gender’s Two Bodies: Women Warriors, Female Hus- bands and Plebeian Life,” Past and Present 180 (August 2003): 152. N otes 187

Also of interest here is Lynne Friedli, “‘Passing Women’: A Study of Gender Boundaries in the Eighteenth Century,” in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, eds., Sexual Underworlds of the Enlightenment (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 234–260; Scarlet Bowen, “‘The Real Soul of a Man in Her Breast’: Popular Opposition and British Nationalism in Memoirs of Female Soldiers, 1740–1750,” Eighteenth-Century Life 28, no. 3 (Fall 2004): 20–45. 5. Easton, “Gender’s Two Bodies,” 133, 168. Giovanni Bianchi, The True History and Adventures of Catharine Vizzani (London, 1755), 64–65, urges his readers to stop “making so light” of cross-dressing because it could lead to lesbian activity. 6. Peter Guillery, “The Further Adventures of Mary Lacy : ‘Seaman,’ Shipwright, Builder,” History Workshop Journall 49 (2000): 212–220. 7. “The Rakish Female Sailor,” Bod. Frith c.12 (238); Lillian Faderman, Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendship and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Presentt (London: Women’s Press, 1985), 47–62; Camilla Townsend, “‘I am the Woman for Spirit’: A Working Woman’s Gender Transgression in Victorian London,” Victorian Studiess 36, no. 3 (Spring 1993): 293–314; Rudolf M. Dekker and Lotte C. van de Pol, The Tradition of Female Transvestism in Early Modern Europe (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989); Alison Oram and Annmarie Turnbull, eds., The Lesbian History Sourcebook: Love and Sex between Women in Britain from 1780 to 1970 (New York: Routledge, 2001), 11–49. 8. “The Female Cabin Boy,” Bod. Harding B 11 (3512), which has the distinction of being the only ballad included in The Literature of Les- bianism: A Historical Anthology from Ariosto to Stonewall, ed. Terry Castle (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003). 9. “The Pimlico Tar,” Bod. Harding B 22 (235). 10. “The Rakish Female Sailor,” Bod. Frith c.12 (238). 11. The problem of naming and evidence is considered in the following: Martha Vicinus, “‘They Wonder to Which Sex I Belong’: The His- torical Roots of the Modern Lesbian Identity,” Feminist Studies 18, no. 3 (Autumn 1992): 467–497; Emma Donoghue, Passions Between Women: British Lesbian Culture, 1668–1801 (New York: HarperCollins, 1993); Anna Clark, “Anne Lister’s Construction of Lesbian Identity,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 7, no. 1 (1996): 23–50. The essays in Part III of Sue Morgan, ed., The Feminist History Reader, (New York: Routledge, 2006), 203–270, recapitulate and continue this conversation. For alternative approaches, see Theresa Braunschneider, “Acting the Lover: Gender and Desire in Narratives of Passing Women,” Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation 45, no. 3 (2004): 211–229; Nan Alamilla Boyd, “Bodies in Motion: Lesbian and Transsexual Histories,” in The Transgender Studies Reader, ed. Susan Stryker and Stephen Whittle (New York: Routledge, 2006), 420–433. 188 N otes

12. Dror Wahrman, The Making of the Modern Self: Identity and Culture in Eighteenth-Century Englandd (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004). 13. Carolyn D. Williams, “Women Behaving Well: Early Modern Examples of Female Courage,” in Presenting Gender: Changing Sex in Early-Modern Culture, ed. Chris Mounsey (London: Associated University Presses, 2001), 72. 14. Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Routledge, 2003), 92–128 is a superb account of this. 15. Suzanne J. Stark, Female Tars: Women aboard Ship in the Age of Sail (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1996), 47–81. The baby, Daniel Tremendous McKenzie, who received a medal, is mentioned on page 81. His middle name was that of the ship on which he was born. 16. Here I differ from Easton, “Gender’s Two Bodies,” 149. 17. Kirby, Talbot, 21. 18. Stark, Female Tarss; Anna Kirsten Clark, “Womanhood and Manhood in the Transition from Plebeian to Working-Class Culture: London, 1780–1845.” Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 1987, 196–219. Clark discovered 38 instances of “women who tried to enlist or actually served as sailors and soldiers.”: 205. 19. Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 65; Matthew Barker, Greenwich Hospital (London: James Robins, 1826), 199. 20. Ferdinand Mount, “Fraud Squad,” London Review of Books, 2 August 2007, 19–21. 21. [n.a.], Minutes of the Evidence taken before the Committee appointed by the House of Commons, to Enquire into the State of Mendicity and Vagrancy in the Metropolis and its Neighborhoodd (London: Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, 1815), 19–20, 27, 29, 69–71, 76–81; John Thomas Smith, Vagabondiana, or Anecdotes of Mendicant Wanderers (London: J. and A. Arch, 1817), 25–26. 22. POB: Weskett and Cooper, 12 December 1764. 23. Lloyd’s Evening Postt, May 25–27, 1768; Todd Endelman, The Jews of Georgian England, 1714–18300 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979), 205; see also George Rudé, Wilkes and Liberty: A Social Study of 1763 to 1774 (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), 99, for journeymen weavers dressing as sailors in 1763 to attack their rivals in a wage dispute. 24. POB: Tate and Connoway, 20 February 1799); Hall and Chapman, 15 January 1800; Roberts 3 December 1800; Moorhouse, 3 December 1800; Brewer and Doyle, 13 January 1802; Nicholson, 4 December 1828, Welch and Lewis, 14 January1830, Davis and Simmons, 6 January 1831. 25. POB: Smith and Pearson, 29 October 1783. For a similar case in which the woman’s disguise left the witnesses uncertain and led to an acquittal, see Ann Hocks, 12 September 1744. Notes 189

26. POB: Williamson, 5 July 1749. 27. “The London Merchant,” Bod. Harding B 25 (1133). 28. Stark, Female Tars, 89. 29. Eneas Mackenzie, A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Town and County of Newcastle upon Tyne Including the Borough of Gates- headd (Newcastle upon Tyne: Mackenzie and Dent, 1827), 184. 30. Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia’s Foundingg (New York: Vintage, 1988), 205–209; C. H. Currey, The Transportation, Escape, and Pardoning of Mary Bryant (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1963). 31. Ian Duffifield, “‘Haul Away the Anchor, Girls’: Charlotte Badger, Tall Stories, and the Pirates of the ‘Bad Ship Venus’,” Journal of Austra- lian Colonial History 7 (2005): 35–64; Marcus Rediker, “Liberty beneath the Jolly Roger: The Lives of Anne Bonny and Mary Read, Pirates,” in Iron Men, Wooden Women: Gender and Seafaring in the Atlantic World, 1700–1920, ed. Margaret S. Creighton and Lisa Nor- ling (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). 32. Stark, Female Tarss, 102. For “William Brown,” another misreported incident, see ibid., 86–87, and the correction in Morgan, “Black Experiences,” 105–106. For the possibilities and diffificulties inher- ent in reading the autobiographies of people who are known to be profificient liars, see Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, “Seven Tales for a Man with Seven Sides,” in Chain Letters: Narrating Convict Lives, ed. Lucy Frost and Hamish Maxwell-Stewart (Carlton, South Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 2001), 64–76. 33. Hannah Snell, Female Soldier, ed. Dianne Dugaw (Los Angeles: William Rogers Clark Memorial Library, 1989), 8, 16. 34. Stark, Female Tarss, 102–110. 35. Richard D. Altick, The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, 1800–1900 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), 28, 74; see also David Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture: England, 1750–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 196–227. 36. Dianne Dugaw, Warrior Women and Popular Balladry, 1650–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). “Lovely Nancy,” Bod. Harding B 17 (175b); “Bristol Bridegroom,” Bod. Harding B 6 (56); “Faithless Captain,” Bod. Harding B 1 (15). 37. “The Female Tar,” Bod. Harding B 11 (1192). 38. “The Cabin Boy,” Bod. Harding B 25 (321). 39. “The Female Smuggler,” Bod. Harding B 11 (1446). 40. “A New Song, call’d Female Sailor,” Bod. Harding B 12 (166). Similar songs include “The Sailor Dear,” Bod. Harding B 25 (1686); “The Female Captain,” Bod. Harding B 16 (93a). 41. “Britons Strike Home,” Bod. Harding B 11 (1310). 42. “The Faithless Captain or, Betrayed Virgin,” Bod. Harding B 1 (15). 43. “Gosport Tragedy or The Perjured Ship Carpenter,” Bod. Harding B 3 (33); “Polly Love, or The Cruel Ship Carpenter,” Bod. Harding B 11 190 Notes

(3053A); “Polly’s Love, or The Cruel Ship Carpenter,” Bod. Frith c.13 (206). 44. “The Sailor’s Tragedy,” in The Contented Wife’s Garlandd [British Library 11621.e.2.(9)], 4–6. 45. Kirby, Talbot, 24; Mary Slade, The History of the Female Shipwright (London, 1773), 17, 46. 46. For parody and re-citation, see Marjorie Garber, Vested Interests: Cross- Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Routledge, 1992), 142. 47. “Billy Taylor,” Bod. Harding B 20 (205). 48. “Britons Strike Home,” Bod. Harding B 25 (299). 49. “The Fair Maid’s Adventure for her Sweetheart,” Bod. Harding B 25 (189). 50. J. R. Hutchinson, Press Gang Aﬂ oat and Ashore (London, 1913), 70. 51. Gentleman’s Magazine, May 1773, 250. 52. Kirby, Talbot, 37; Cecilia Lucy Brightwell, Memorials of the Life of Amelia Opiee (Norwich: Fletcher and Alexander, 1854), 17–21; Stark, Female Tars, 96. 53. Randolph Trumbach, “London’s Sapphists: From Three Sexes to Four Genders in the Making of Modern Culture,” in Body Guards: The Cultural Politics of Gender Ambiguity, ed. Julia Epstein and Kristina Straub (New York: Routledge, 1991), 112–141.

Chapter 4 1. Kathleen Wilson, “Empire, Trade, and Popular Politics in Mid- Hanoverian Britain: The Case of Admiral Vernon,” Past and Present 121 (November 1988): 74–109; Gerald Jordan and Nicholas R ogers, “Admirals as Heroes: Patriotism and Liberty in Mid-Hanoverian England,” Journal of British Studiess 28, no. 3 (July 1989): 201–224; Timothy Jenks, “Contesting the Hero: The Funeral of Admiral Lord Nelson,” Journal of British Studiess 39, no. 4 (October 2000): 422–453; the celebrity and notoriety of admirals is also discussed extensively in Margarette Lincoln, Representing the Royal Navy: Brit- ish Sea Power, 1750–1815 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002). 2. For moderation as the ideal for masculine taste and masculine conduct, see Amelia Rauser, “Hair, Authenticity and the Self-Made Macaroni,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 38, no. 1 (2004): 101–117. For Greek or Roman-like composure in adversity, notice the discussion of Major André in Sarah Knott, “Sensibility and the American War for Inde- pendence,” American Historical Review 109, no. 1 (February 2004): 19–40. Also of interest here is Philip Carter, Men and the Emergence of Polite Society: Britain, 1660–1800 (London: Longman, 2001), 88–123. 3. Stevens predates the most inflfluential codififi cation of physiognomy: Johann Caspar Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy (London: Holloway and Hunter, 1789–1798); Melissa Percival and Graeme Tytler, eds., Physiognomy in Profifi le: Lavater’s Impact on European Culture Notes 191

(Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2005); Sharrona Hyla Pearl, “As Plain As the Nose on Your Face: Physiognomy in Nineteenth- Century England,” Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 2005. 4. George Alexander Stevens, Lecture on Headss (London, 1785), 72; for 1780 playbill, Gerald Kahan, George Alexander Stevens and the Lecture on Heads (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 148. 5. Stevens, Lecture on Headss, 77–78. 6. A valuable and heavily illustrated guide is Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture, 1500– 1900 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981). 7. Alan McNairn, Behold the Hero: General Wolfe and the Arts in the Eighteenth Centuryy (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1997), 138–139; Simon Schama, Dead Certainties: Unwarranted Speculationss (New York: Knopf, 1991), 7; Sir Joshua Reynolds, Discourses on Art, ed. Robert R. Wark (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), Lectures III, VII, XIII; Rochelle Gurstein, “The Elgin Marbles, Romanticism, and the Waning of ‘Ideal Beauty,’” Daedalus 131, no. 4 (Fall 2002): 88–100. 8. William Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, ed. Joseph Burke (Oxford: Clarendon, 1955), 141. 9. For context on Rowlandson and his contemporaries: Draper Hill, Mr. Gillray the Caricaturist: A Biography (London: Phaidon, 1965); Ronald Paulson, Rowlandson: A New Interpretation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972); Robert L. Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life, Times, and Artt (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996). 10. Hogarth, Analysiss, 141. The British Museum’s copy of this print, BMC 11139, has the sailor’s face tinted brown, whereas the Walpole Library’s copy, used here, has a paler complexion. The contours of the face, however, rather than the skin complexion, were what counted for the devotees of physiognomy. 11. “Heart of Oak” was written for David Garrick’s comic play “Har- lequin’s Invasion”: Egon Wellesz and Frederick Sternfeld, eds., The New Oxford History of Music: The Age of Enlightenment, 1745–1790 (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), 337. 12. Robert Greenhalgh Albion, Forests and Sea Power: The Timber Prob- lem of the Royal Navy, 1652–18622 (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1965), 4, 133–134; Harvey Green, Wood: Craft, Culture, History (New York: Viking, 2006), 137–188. 13. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 166; Stephen Daniels, “The Political Iconography of Wood- land in later Georgian England,” in The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design, and Use of Past Envi- ronments, ed. Denis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 43–82; Murray G. H. Pittock, Inventing and Resisting Britain: Cultural Identities in Britain and Ireland, 1685–1789 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), 103–104. 192 N otes

14. Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: A History of the Modern Sensibility (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983), 220; Schama, Land- scape and Memory, 174. 15. N. A. M. Rodger, Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (New York: Norton, 1986), 183. 16. Robert Wallace, A Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankindd (Edin- burgh, 1753), 93–94; Thomas Short, A Comparative History of the Increase and Decrease of Mankindd (London, 1767), 25ff, 29–30; James Steuart, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Oeconomy (London, 1767), vol. 1, 70–71. 17. J. S. Bromley, ed., The Manning of the Royal Navy: Selected Public Documents, 1693–1873 (London: Navy Records Society, 1974), 109. 18. Ibid., 104–113. For a response, see Gentleman’s Magazinee 28 (1758), 195–196. 19. Donna Andrew, Philanthropy and Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Centuryy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 56–57, 69–70, 100–101, 111; D. E. C. Eversley, Social Theories of Fertility and the Malthusian Debatee (Oxford: Clarendon, 1959); Jonas Hanway, The Origins, Progress, and Present State of the Marine Society (London, 1770), 11, 43–44, 48, 51; for a suggestion in a similar spirit, Gentleman’s Magazinee 32 (1762), 34–35. 20. For a proposal from that same year urging that the government itself fund such an endeavor, see Bromley, Manning Pamphletss, 95–103. See also Roland Pietsch, “Ships’ Boys and Youth Culture in Eighteenth-Century Britain: The Navy Recruits of the London Marine Society,” Northern Mariner 14, no. 4 (October 2004): 11–24. 21. Wallace, Dissertation, 19, 21, 146–147; John Fielding, An Account of the Origins and Effects of a Policee (London, 1758), viii; Steuart, Inquiry, vol. 1, 69; A. Ferguson, An Essay on the History of Civil Soci- ety, 4th ed. (London, 1773), 230ff; for a famous refutation of these views, see T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population, ed. Patricia James (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), Part III, Chapter XIV. 22. For an elegant summary, see Denis Diderot, Encyclopédiee (Geneva, 1765), s.v. “Population.” I have adapted the “barbarism to decadence” phrase from Oscar Wilde. 23. William Buchan, Domestic Medicine; or the Family Physiciann (Edinburgh, 1769), 576–578; later edition of Domestic Medicinee (Manchester, 1804), 347; Wallace, Dissertation, 95, 98–99; Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, 1: 79; Malthus, Population, 23. 24. See for example Wallace, Dissertation, 19; Malthus, Population, 23–24. 25. Gentleman’s Magazinee 39 (December 1769), 601–602. 26. Britannica 1st ed. (1771), s.v. “Fishery.” 27. Isaac Land, “‘Sinful Propensities’: Piracy, Sodomy, and Empire in the Rhetoric of Naval Reform,” in Discipline and the Other Body: Humanitarianism, Violence, and the Colonial Exception, ed. Anupama Notes 193

Rao and Steven Pierce (Duke University Press, 2006), 90–114; Hans Turley, Rum, Sodomy, and the Lash: Piracy, Sexuality, and Masculine Identity (New York: New York University Press, 1999). 28. Rodger, Wooden World, 80–81; Peter Earle, Sailors: English Merchant Seamen, 1650–17755 (London: Methuen, 1998), 100–103; Kathleen Wilson, The Island Race: Englishness, Empire and Gender in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Routledge, 2003), 169–200; Kath- leen Wilson, “Thinking Back: Gender Misrecognition and Polynesian Subversions aboard the Cook Voyages,” in A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire, 1660– 1840, ed. Kathleen Wilson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 345–362; Tim Hitchcock, English Sexualities, 1700–1800 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), 58–75, esp. 64; B. R. Burg, Boys at Sea: Sodomy, Indecency, and Courts Martial in Nelson’s Navy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). 29. See for example Philo Nauticus (1758) in Bromley, Manning Pamphlets s, 104–113. 30. Gentleman’s Magazinee 33 (January 1763), 16–17; see also the proposal in Gentleman’s Magazinee 33 (March 1763), 120. For a glimpse of the results, see Jean Dunlop, The British Fisheries Society, 1786–1893 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1978), 40–41. 31. Cited in Andrew, Philanthropy, 123. 32. George Forster, A Voyage Round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000), 1: 121–122. 33. Ibid., 1: 290. See also Ibid., 2: 611. 34. Ibid., 2: 612. 35. Johann W. von Archenholz, A Picture of Englandd (London, 1789), 2: 205–206. 36. William Wales, Remarks on Mr. Forster’s Account (London, 1778), reprinted in Forster, Voyage, 2: 699–753; quoted page 701. The Eas- ter Island statues are discussed on 722–723. For Wales’s most explicit defense of the sailors, 751–752. Contrast Wales’s attitude toward sailors with a text from 1774: Janet Schaw, Journal of a Lady of Qual- ity, ed. Evangeline Walker Andrews (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 46–47, 72–73. 37. Hoxie Neale Fairchild, The Noble Savage: A Study in Romantic Naturalismm (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928); Gerald Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism: A Cultural History, 1740– 18300 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1987), 81ff, 127–139; John Brewer, The Pleasures of the Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1997), 113–122; Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside, 1750–1840 (Cambridge: Polity, 1994). 38. Charles Dibdin, The Professional Life of Mr. Dibdin (London: Charles Dibdin, 1803), 1: xxi; Charles Dibdin, Observations on a Tour 194 N otes

through almost the whole of Englandd (London: G. Goulding, 1801), 2: 92, 145. 39. Dibdin, Professional Life, 1: xxii. 40. Ibid., 1: 2; Dibdin, Observations, 1: 39, 170, 173, 209; 2: 94–95, 255. 41. Peter de Bolla, The Education of the Eye: Painting, Landscape, and Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Britainn (Stanford: Stanford Uni- versity Press, 2003), 72–103. 42. Mark Judd, “‘The Oddest Combination of Town and Country’: Popular Culture and the London Fairs, 1800–60,” in Leisure in Britain, 1780– 1939, ed. John K. Walton and James Walvin (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983), 21–22. For Tobias Smollett, Roderick Random (1749), 2: 39–40, 108, 194, 202; 3: 249. 43. [n.a.], A Lecture on Hearts, 2nd ed. (London, 1767), 4–6. 44. [n.a.], Annual Register 1773, 202–207; Jeremy Black, “Introduc- tion,” in The British Navy and the Use of Naval Power in the Ei ghteenth Century, ed. Jeremy Black and Philip Woodﬁ ne (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988), 16. 45. George Stevens, The Trip to Portsmouth; A Comic Sketch of One Act, with Songss (London, 1773), 16–17. 46. See for example the characters of Ben in Edward Neville’s Plymouth in an Uproar: A Musical Farcee (London, 1779), and Cabin in Robert Benson’s Britain’s Glory, or A Trip to Portsmouthh (London, 1798), ﬁ rst performed in 1794; see also Gillian Russell, The Theatres of War: Performance, Politics, and Society, 1793–18155 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 65, 98, 102. 47. ODNB s.v. George Alexander Stevens. 48. Uvedale Price, Essay on the Picturesque (London, 1796); William Combe, The Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Picturesque (London: J. Diggins, 1812), 108–109. 49. Illustration is facing page 121 in Combe, Syntax. 50. For context on Augustus Keppel’s reputation in 1779, see Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture and Imperialism in England, 1715–1785 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 140–165, 255–258. 51. For the commemoration of naval victories, see Pieter van der Merwe, “The Glorious First of June: A Battle of Art and Theatre,” in The Glorious First of June, 1794: A Naval Battle and its Aftermath, ed. Michael Duffy and Roger Morriss (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2001), 132–158. 52. For Dibdin’s life and career see: Robert Fahrner, The Theatre Career of Charles Dibdin the Elder (1745-–1814), (New York, NY: Lang, 1989); Charles Dibdin, The Songs of Charles Dibdin, ed. George Hogarth (London: How and Parsons, 1842), xiii–xxx. 53. Fahrner, Theatre Career, 122–127. 54. Dibdin, Songs, xxiii. 55. “Money.” Grose, Classical Dictionary, s.v. rhino. Notes 195

56. Dibdin, Professional Life, 3: 8; see also 2: 240. 57. Dibdin, Songs, xxi. 58. Dibdin, Professional Life, 1: 6; NMM PAH 7358, PAF 4013, 4016, 4019, 4020, 4031, 4037, 4042, 4043; [n.a.], Jack Sprit-Sail’s Frolic, 2nd ed. (London, 1791). BMC 7817, NMM PAF 4028; Rina Prentice, A Celebration of the Sea: The Decorative Art Collections of the National Maritime Museumm (Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1994), 63; Greenock Advertiser, June 11, 1802; Sara Ste- venson, The Fishermen and Women of the Firth of Forth (Edinburgh: Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1991), 27. 59.Dibdin, Professional Life, 1: 8. See also Henry Lee as quoted in Fahrner, Dibdin, 157. 60. Eric David Mackerness, A Social History of English Musicc (London: Routledge, 1966), 135. 61. “Tom Tuff,” Bod. Harding B 12 (166). This song appeared else- where under the title “Tom Tough.” 62. For statements equating the sacrififices of sailors with those of their offifi cers, at least in the matter of lost limbs, see Timothy Jenks, Naval Engagements: Patriotism, Cultural Politics, and the Royal Navy, 1793– 1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 200–218. However, many prints continued to present sailors as only marginally relevant to naval victories: BMC 5991, 8469, 8470; NMM, PAF 4026. 63. NMM, PAH 7358, PAF 4031, PAF 4013, PAF 4016, PAF 4019, PAF 4020, PAF 4037, PAF 4042, PAF 4043. 64. Russell, Theatres of War, 95–121; Jenks, Naval Engagements, 231–232. 65. Conrad Gill, The Naval Mutinies of 1797 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1913); for a historiographical overview, see N. A. M. Rodger, “Mutiny or Subversion? Spithead and the Nore,” in 1798: A Bicentenary Perspective, ed. Thomas Bartlett, et al. (Dub- lin: Four Courts, 2003); see also N. A. M. Rodger, The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–18155 (New York: Norton, 2005), 442–453; Anthony G. Brown, “The Nore Mutiny: Sedition or Ships’ Biscuits? A Reappraisal,” Mariner’s Mirror 92, no. 1 (February 2006); Anne Hawkins and Helen Watt, “‘Now is our time, the ship is our own, huzza for the red fl ag’: Mutiny on the Inspector, 1797,” Mariner’s Mirror 93, no. 2 (May 2007): 156–179. 66. [n.a.], Letter from a Naval Offificer, 14–15. 67. British Criticc 9 (1797), 666. 68. Jenks, Naval Engagementss, 88–89. 69. The 1797 mutinies did, in fact, elicit a Cheap Repository Tract of their own: [n.a.] The Loyal Sailor; or, No Mutineering (London, 1797). See also Christopher Anstey, Britain’s Genius (Bath, 1797). 70. ADM 1/727, Papers of the Repulse. 71. ADM 1/5125. 196 N otes

72. For example, ADM 1/5125 closes with the words “Health and Prosperity attend you——your loving Brothers——Red for Ever—— Huzza” while the version in ADM 1/5486 has instead “We remain, Dear Countrymen, Yours affectionately.” 73. Delegates to Admiralty, 18 April 1797; quoted in Gill, Mutiniess, 363. Clark, Struggle. 74. ADM 1/5486. 75. Another gender-oriented analysis, Jeffrey D. Glasco, “‘The Seaman Feels Him-self a Man,” International Labor and Working-Class History no. 66 (Fall 2004): 40–56, has surprisingly little to say about this dimension of the mutinies. Also on the gendered nature of labor on ships: Mary Conley, From Jack Tar to Union Jack: Representing Naval Manhood in the British Empire, 1870–1918 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008), 147. 76. Rodger, Command of the Sea, 450. 77. Here my interpretation differs signifi cantly from Frank Mabee, “The Spithead Mutiny and Urban Radicalism in the 1790s,” Romanticism 13, no. 2 (2007): 133–144. 78. This line appears in both surviving versions, ADM 1/5125 and ADM 1/5486. 79. Glasgow Courier, April 25, 1797. 80. Newcastle Chronicle, April 29, 1797; Newcastle Courantt, April 29, 1797. 81. [n.a.], A Letter to the Tars of Old England (London, 1797), 11. 82. BMC 10443. 83. NMM: PAF 3795. 84. Lincoln, Representing, 149–151, remarks on the growing popularity of the belief that the society of women had an improving effect on men. In this view, the Navy—by removing males from female inflflu- ence—predictably did harm to the morals of their conscripts, while anything that strengthened their bonds to women would gradually make them more amenable to polite society. 85. BMC 5609; 7753; George Morland, “Jack in the Bilboes,” painting; engraving by R. Clamp, 1797. George Morland’s painting “Execrable Human Traffifi c,” displayed at the Royal Academy in 1788, also depicts a proud, virtuous man about to be battered and humiliated. In this case, the outrage depicted is the African slave trade, not impressment. 86. NMM: PAF 4001. Also viewable online: http://www.maryevans. com/search.php, search by title or call number 10239053. For the juxtaposition of characters representing beauty and ugliness in the same picture, see Paulson, Rowlandson, 46–47. See also Hogarth, Analysis, 139. 87. For another example of Jack Tar ass John Bull, Walpole 807.8.0.1, “John Bull threatened by Insects from all Quarters.” Jeannine Surel, “John Bull,” in Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, ed. Raphael Samuel (London: Routledge, 1989), N otes 197

3: 3–25; Miles Taylor, “John Bull and the Iconography of Public Opinion in England c. 1712–1929,” Past and Presentt 134 (February 1992): 93–128; Tamara L. Hunt, Deﬁ ning John Bull: Political Cari- cature and National Identity in Late Georgian England (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), 121–169.

Chapter 5 1. John Bechervaise, A Farewell to My Old Shipmates (Portsea: W. Woodward, 1847), 7. 2. John Bechervaise, Thirty-Six Years of a Seafaring Life (Portsea: Wood- ward, 1839), 38–39. See Iliad Book VI, 447–449, and also Aeneid, Book II and the fi rst lines of Book III. David Skilton, “Tourists at the Ruins of London: The Metropolis and the Struggle for Empire,” Cercles 17 (2007): 93–119. For the belief in a direct historical link between the fall of Troy and the founding of the British nation, see Margreta de Grazia, Hamlet without Hamlet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 65–67. 3. As quoted in Skilton, “Tourists at the Ruins,” 94. 4. HO 28/24 f144. 5. ADM 1/727, papers of the Repulsee (C370a) (my italics). 6. [n.a.], An Inquiry into the Nature and Effects of Flogging in the Royal Navy and the Merchant Service, 2nd ed. (London: Hunt and Clark, 1826), 1. 7. Thomas W. Laqueur, “Bodies, Details and the Humanitarian Narrative,” in The New Cultural Historyy, ed. Lynn Hunt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 176–204. For more general discussions of the cultural context of humanitarianism, see Thomas L. Haskell, “Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility,” Part 1, American His- torical Review 90 (1985): 339–361 and Part 2: 547–566; G. J. Barker- Benfifield, The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). 8. James Walvin, England, Slaves, and Freedom, 1776–18388 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986), 156; Adela Pinch, Strange Fits of Passion: Epistemologies of Emotion, Hume to Austen (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996). 9. William Robinson, Nautical Economy (London: William Robinson, 1836), vii; Charles Reece Pemberton, The Autobiography of Pel. Ver- juice, ed. Eric Partridge (London: Scholartis, 1929), 215. 10. Bechervaise, Farewell, 76. 11. Samuel Leech, A Voice from the Main Deck (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1999), 17. Hester Blum’s important and stimulating The View from the Masthead: Maritime Imagination and Antebellum American Sea Narratives (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008) nonetheless has little to say about the political views of her sailor-authors. 198 N otes

12. Jonathan Rose, Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 344. To fi nd his sources, Rose used John Burnett, David Vincent, and David Mayall, eds., The Autobiography of the Working Class: An Annotated, Critical Bibliogra- phy (New York: New York University Press, 1984). Also of great value is Vincent, Bread, Knowledge, and Freedom. 13. Rose, Intellectual Life, 335, 321. 14. Pemberton, Autobiography, 3. 15. James Field Stanfifi eld, Observations on a Guinea Voyagee [1788], in The British Transatlantic Slave Trade, vol. 3: The Abolitionist Struggle: Opponents of the Slave Trade, ed. John Oldfi eld (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2003), 116, 130. 16. Stanfifi eld, Observationss, 122. 17. Ibid., 104. 18. Ibid., 122, 104, 133. 19. Ibid., 103–104. 20. John Nicol, The Life and Adventures of John Nicol, Mariner (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1822), 1. 21. Ibid., 1–2. 22. Ibid., 1–2. For his life, see ODNB, s.v. “John Nicol”; Tim Flannery, “Introduction,” in Tim Flannery, ed., The Life and Adventures of John Nicol, Mariner (New York: Atlantic Monthly, 1997), 1–18. 23. Nicol, Life, 206. 24. Ibid., 204. 25. Ibid., 204–206. 26. Ibid., 19, 119. 27. Nicol’s outlook, then, is an instructive contrast to the one suggested in Emma Christopher, “‘Ten Thousand Times Worse than the Convicts’: Rebellious Sailors, Convict Transportation and the Struggle for Freedom, 1787–1800,” Journal of Australian Colonial History 5 (2004): 30–46. 28. Peter Mandler, “ ‘Race’ and ‘Nation’ in Mid-Victorian Thought,” in History, Religion, and Culture: British Intellectual History, 1750– 1950, ed. Stefan Collini, Richard Whatmore, and Brian Young (Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 232. 29. Matthew Barker, Greenwich Hospital (London: James Robins, 1826), 7, 99. 30. The dissemination of Dibdin words and music was discussed in the previous chapter. Dibdin songs were familiar to the young American sailor Herman Melville, who quotes Dibdin a number of times in his fi rst novel, Typeee (1846). 31. Charles McPherson, Life on Board a Man-of-Warr (Glasgow: Blackie, Fullarton, 1829), 158–159. Dibdin references abound in the autobiographies; see for example John Brown, Sixty Years’ Gleanings from Life’s Harvest (New York: D. Appleton, 1859), 95. 32. For his life, see ODNB, s.v. “Matthew Henry Barker.” Some library catalogues still list him only by his pen name “The Old Sailor.” 33. Barker, Greenwich, 80. Notes 199

34. Ibid., 49. 35. Ibid., 18. 36. Ibid., 147. 37. Ibid., 187. 38. Ibid., 163, 169, 197. 39. Ibid., 149. See also Matthew Barker, Tough Yarnss (London: Effifi ngham Wilson, 1835) 17. 40. Barker, Greenwich, 191. 41. Ibid., 197–200. 42. Ibid., 19–20. 43. Michael Snape, The Redcoat and Religion: The Forgotten History of the British Soldier from the Age of Marlborough to the Eve of the First World War (London: Routledge, 2005), 38. 44. Jonathan Martin, The Life of Jonathan Martin, 3rd ed. (Lincoln: R. E. Leary, 1828), 15–17 is a particularly delightful account of his attempts to preach in churches. He is accused of killing a pony through witchcraft on page 38. 45. ODNB, s.v. Jonathan Martin. 46. Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 170, 175–176. 47. Snape, Redcoat and Religion, 67. 48. G. C. Smith, The Quarter Master; or, the Second Part of The Boat- swain’s Mate (Cincinnati: Western Navigation and Bible Tract Society, 1819), 8. Originally published in London, 1812. 49. Almost every evangelist who ministered to the armed forces in this period had a story to tell of this kind. For one, see Roald Kverndal, Seamen’s Missions, Their Origin and Early Growth: A Contribution to the History of the Church Maritime (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1986), 163–164. 50. Snape, Redcoat and Religion, 95. Not every variety of Christianity was consistent with service in the military; see Henry Taylor, Memoirs of the Principal Events in the Life of Henry Taylor (North Shields: T. Appleby, 1811), 8–11, 57, for a sailor who became a Methodist con- vert and a pacifi st in the late 1750s. He joined the Quakers in 1778. 51. Richard Marks, The Retrospect, 13th ed. (London: James Nisbet, 1828), 92–105, 113–114. See also Margarette Lincoln, Representing the Royal Navy: British Sea Power, 1750–18155 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), 109–136. 52. Arminian Magazinee (June 1797), 264–265. 53. Quoted in Kverndal, Seamen’s Missionss, 158. 54. Nicol, Life, 11–12; see also McPherson, Life, vii–viii, but contrast with Peter Earle, Sailors: English Merchant Seamen, 1650–1775 (London: Methuen, 1998), 103 who found bibles and prayer books appeared with some frequency in probate inventories. 55. ODNB, s.v. Smith, George Charles. 200 N otes

56. G. C. Smith, The Boatswain’s Mate, or An Interesting Dialogue between Two British Seamenn (New York: New York Religious Tract Society, 1818), 4. Kverndal, Seamen’s Missionss, 109 dates the fi rst publication of The Boatswain’s Matee at 1812. 57. Smith, Quarter Master, 8–9. For a larger context, see Jeremy Gregory, “Homo Religiosus: Masculinity and Religion in the Long Eighteenth Century,” in English Masculinities, 1660–1800, ed. Tim Hitchcock and Michèle Cohen (London: Longman, 1999), 85–110. 58. Smith, Quarter Master, 15. 59. Ibid., 21. 60. Ibid., 5. Bob’s newfound faith was tested in subsequent installments of Smith’s series, such as Jack Tars at Plymouth, or the Fourth Part of the Boatswain’s Mate (New York: New York Religious Tract Society, 1818). 61. These developments are covered in great detail in Kverndal, Seamen’s Missions, 113–353. 62. Bechervaise, Farewelll, 26–28, 106–107; Leech, Voice, 65–67, 74, 254–255. 63. Bechervaise, Farewelll, 27–28. 64. Ibid., 6, 7, 8ff, 33, 40ff, 47, 77. See also Thomas Trotter, A Practica- ble Plan for Manning the Royal Navy without Impressment (Newcastle upon Tyne: Longman, 1819), 30ff. 65. Bechervaise, Farewelll, 47. For a possible literary precedent for speeches like these, see the Richard Parker character in Douglas Jerrold’s play The Mutiny at the Nore. 66. Seymour Drescher, “Cart Whip and Billy Roller: Antislavery and Reform Symbolism in Industrializing Britain,” Journal of Social His- toryy 15, no. 1 (1981): 3–24; Patricia Hollis, “Anti-Slavery and British Working-Class Radicalism in the Years of Reform,” in Anti-Slavery, Religion and Reform: Essays in Memory of Roger Anstey, ed. Chris- tine Bolt and Seymour Drescher (Folkestone: W. Dawson, 1980), 294–315; J. R. Oldfifi eld, Popular Politics and British Antislavery: The Mobilization of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade, 1787–1807 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), 33. 67. Thomas Urquhart, Letters on the Evils of Impressment, 2nd ed. (London: J. Richardson, 1816), 16. 68. Ibid., 44–45. 69. [n.a.], Inquiry, 21–28. 70. For Leech’s life, see Michael J. Crawford, “Introduction,” in Samuel Leech, Voice, vii–xx. 71. Leech, Voice, 74. See also Matthew Barker’s later, more reform- oriented works, such as Tough Yarns, 139–152. 72. Leech, Voice, 59. 73. For masculinity, see Anna Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). 74. Earle, Sailors, 147. Notes 201

75. Earle, Sailors, 159. See also Daniel Vickers, Young Men and the Sea: Yankee Seafarers and the Age of Sail (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005),214–247. 76. Leech, Voice, 122–123 (quoted), 254–255. George Miller, A Trip to Sea from 1810 to 1815 (Long Sutton: John Swain, 1854), also advances the idea that naval reform is the best way to create obedient sailors, but religion is notably absent from his prescriptions for reform and from his book in general. See also Robinson, Nautical Economy, 105; Brown, Sixty Years’ Gleanings, 74, 84, 97–100. 77. Robert Hay, Landsman Hay: The Memoirs of Robert Hay, 1789–18477, ed. M. D. Hay (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1953), 75–76. 78. Leech, Voice, 63–64. 79. ODNB, s.v. William Robinson. 80. Robinson, Nautical Economy, iii. 81. Isaac Land, “Men with the Faces of Brutes: Physiognomy, Urban Anxieties, and Police States,” in Enemies of Humanity: The Nineteenth- Century War on Terrorism, ed. Isaac Land (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 117–135. 82. Robinson, Nautical Economy, iii. 83. For context, see Maxine Berg, The Machinery Question and the Making of Political Economy, 1815–1848 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); a new chair in Political Economy at Oxford was established by 1830: Francis E. Mineka, The Dissidence of Dissent: The Monthly Repository, 1806–1838 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944), 227. 84. Thomas Hodgskin, Popular Political Economy: Four Lectures Delivered at the London Mechanics’ Institution (London: Charles Tait, 1827), 125, 160; Robinson, Nautical Economy, 8–9, 95–96, 109–110. 85. Robinson, Nautical Economy, 69–72. 86. Ibid., 98. For the related custom of “portage,” see Vickers, Young Men, 83–86. 87. Robinson, Nautical Economy, 56–61. 88. Ibid., iii–xiii. 89. Ibid., 27–28. 90. Pemberton, Autobiography, 3; see also 125. For his life, see ODNB, s.v. “Charles Reece Pemberton”; Eric Partridge, “Charles Reece Pem- berton: A Sketch,” in Pel. Verjuice, ed. Eric Partridge, xi–xxiv. 91. Edward Royle, “Mechanics’ Institutes and the Working Classes, 1840–1860,” Historical Journal 14, no. 2 (1971): 305–321; Richard Johnson, “‘Really Useful Knowledge: Radical Education and Work- ing-Class Culture, 1790–1848,” in Working-Class Culture: Studies in History and Theory, ed. John Clarke, Chas Critcher, and Richard Johnson (1979; New York: Routledge, 2007), 75–102; Vincent, Bread, Knowledge, and Freedom, 133–165. 92. Royle, “Mechanics,” 319. Holyoake delivered a lecture about Pemberton’s autobiographical writing to Branch A1 of the London 202 N otes

Communists in 1844: Eric Partridge, “Introduction,” xiii. For context on Holyoake’s long and complex career in radical politics, see Lee E. Grugel, George Jacob Holyoake: A Study in the Evolution of a Victorian Radical (Philadelphia: Porcupine Press, 1976). 93. Mineka, Dissidence, 234–244, 250, 271–283. 94. Ibid., 266–267, 345–348. 95. Pemberton, Autobiography, 50. 96. Asa Briggs, “Ebenezer Elliott, The Corn Law Rhymer,” Cambridge Journal 3, no. 11 (1950): 686–695; Ebenezer Elliott, The Poetical Works of Ebenezer Elliott, The Corn Law Rhymer (Edinburgh: William Tait, 1840), 167–173. 97. Pemberton, Autobiography, 111; see also 102, 152. This style and content is similar to the delightful (though unfifi nished) autobiography of John James Bezer, “Autobiography of One of the Chartist Rebels of 1848,” in Testaments of Radicalism: Memoirs of Working-Class Politicians, 1790–1885, ed. David Vincent (London: Europa, 1977), 149–187. Bezer’s father, incidentally, was a naval veteran (who bore scars from fl ogging); he was eligible for Greenwich Hospital, although like many pensioners there, he had to give up his place in order to work and support his family. 98. Pemberton, Autobiography, 211. 99. Ibid., 211. 100. Ibid., 214–215. For Crabbe, see Raymond Williams, The Country and the Cityy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). 101. Pemberton, Autobiography, 159–160. 102. Ibid., 105 (cited), 213. 103. Ibid., 110–111. 104. Ibid., 108. 105. Ibid., 110. 106. Ibid., 202. 107. Ibid., 231–232. 108. Ibid., 149. 109. Ibid., 148. 110. Ibid., 112, 140. 111. Ibid., 276. 112. Ibid., 195–196. 113. Ibid., 141. 114. Ibid., 148–149. 115. Ibid., 146–147. 116. Ibid., 108. 117. Ibid., 104, 106–108. 118. Ibid., 115. 119. Bechervaise, Farewelll, 6. 120. I have developed these ideas in greater depth in Isaac Land, “ ‘Sinful Propensities’: Piracy, Sodomy, and Empire in the Rhetoric of Naval Reform,” in Discipline and the Other Body: Humanitarianism, N otes 203

Violence, and the Colonial Exception, ed. Anupama Rao and Steven Pierce (Duke University Press, 2006). 121. Pemberton, Autobiography, 213–214.

Chapter 6 1. John Tosh, “The Old Adam and the New Man: Emerging Themes in the History of English Masculinities, 1750–1850,” in English Masculinities, 1660–1800, ed. Tim Hitchcock and Michèle Cohen (London: Longman, 1999), 222. Consider in contrast: J. S. Bratton, ed., Acts of Supremacy: The British Empire and the Stage, 1790–1930 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991); Jim Davis, “British Bravery, or Tars Triumphant: Images of the British Navy in Nautical Melodrama,” New Theatre Quarterlyy 4 (1988): 122–143; Graham Dawson, Soldier Heroes: British Adventure, Empire and the Imagining of Masculinitiess (London: Routledge, 1994). 2. Douglas Jerrold, Black Eyed Susan in Nineteenth Century Plays, ed. George Rowell (London: Oxford University Press, 1953). For context on the meaning of the “rustic,” see Raymond Williams, The Country and the Cityy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). 3. Quoted in Michael Slater, Douglas Jerrold, 1803–1857 (London: Duckworth, 2002), 91. Sally Vernon, “Trouble up at T’Mill: The Rise and Decline of the Factory Play in the 1830s and 1840s,” Victo- rian Studies 20, no. 2 (Winter 1977): 117–139. 4. For the imagined contrast between lost, chivalrous Nelson and deca- dent Regency values, see Tim Fulford, “Romanticizing the Empire: The Naval Heroes of Southey, Coleridge, Austen, and Marryat,” Modern Language Quarterly 60, no. 2 (June 1999): 161–196. 5. Judy Egerton, Turner: The Fighting Temerairee (London: National Gallery Publications, 1995); see also David A. Mindell, War, Technol- ogy, and Experience aboard the USS Monitor (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 5–6, 13, 41, 124. 6. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1986), 55–56, 72–73, 78–79. 7. William Feaver, The Art of John Martin (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), 142–145; Herbert L. Sussman, Victorians and the Machine: The Literary Response to Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1968), 25. The scholarly literature on railways and their impact is vast; a recent synthesis can be found in Ian Carter, Railways and Culture in Britain: The Epitome of Modernityy (Manchester: Man- chester University Press, 2001), an even more wide-ranging book than its title suggests. 8. Thomas Carlyle, Selected Workss (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957), 24. 204 N otes

9. Ibid., 27. 10. Charles Wilson, First with the News: The History of W. H. Smith, 1792–19722 (New York: Doubleday, 1986), 143. 11. For context, see Samuel Sidney, Rides on Railways (London: W. S. Orr, 1851.) 12. Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Early Victorian Architecture in Britain (New York: Da Capo, 1972), 1: 501. 13. Henry James, English Hours, 2nd ed. (New York: Orion, 1960), 24–25. This essay, “London,” fi rst appeared in 1890. 14. Alfred Tennyson, “Locksley Hall,” in Tennyson’s Poetry, ed. Robert W. Hill, Jr., 2nd ed. (New York: Norton, 1999), 121. 15. For the “industrial novel,” see Raymond Williams, Culture and Society: 1780–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 87–109. For Manchester’s reputation, see Asa Briggs, Victorian Cities (New York: Harper and Row, 1965). 16. Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (London: Chatto and Win- dus, 1961), 54–55. 17. For Marryat’s career in the military, see Christopher Lloyd, Captain Marryat and the Old Navyy (London: Longmans, Green, 1939). 18. Frederick Marryat, Mr. Midshipman Easy (London: Dent, 1965), 160. 19. Wilson, First, 101–109. 20. Marryat, Easy, 168. 21. Frederick Marryat, Peter Simple (New York: Henry Holt, 1998), 380–395. 22. Marryat, Easy, 290, 346–348, 353. 23. Ibid., 354. 24. Ibid., 356–357. 25. Ibid., 366–367, 370, 406. For more on Marryat’s political views, see Louis J. Parascandola, “Puzzled Which to Choose”: Conflfl icting Socio- Political Views in the Works of Captain Frederick Marryat (New York: Peter Lang, 1997). 26. Wilson, First, 66; Schivelbusch, Railway Journey, 43. 27. Hitchcock, Early Victorian Architecture, 1: 492–529; Adam Morne- ment and Simon Holloway, Corrugated Iron: Building on the Frontier (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 10–27. See also Carl Thompson, “The Heroic Age of the Tin Can: Technology and Ideology in British Arctic Exploration, 1818–1835,” in Maritime Empires: British Impe- rial Maritime Trade in the Nineteenth Century, ed. David Killingray, Margarette Lincoln and Nigel Rigby (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2004), 84–99. 28. Elliot Engel and Margaret F. King, The Victorian Novel before V ictoria: British Fiction during the Reign of William IV, 1830–377 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1984), 34–35, reaches a similar conclusion. Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), has interesting ideas about Marryat as an early example of imperialist literature. N otes 205

29. Carlyle claimed to despise Marryat’s ﬁ ction, but read it anyway: Parascandola, Puzzled, 77. 30. For some more recent parallels, see the wide-ranging essay by James Chapman, “‘This Ship is England’: History, Politics, and National Identity in Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003),” in The New Film History: Sources, Methods, Approaches, ed. James Chapman, Mark Glancy and Sue Harper (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 55–68. 31. Allison Lockwood, Passionate Pilgrims: The American Traveler in Great Britain, 1800–1914 (New York: Cornwall Books, 1981), 250–269. 32. “Photographic Exhibitions in Britain, 1839–1865,” http://peib. dmu.ac.uk/index.php. 33. Sara Stevenson, The Fishermen and Women of the Firth of Forth (Edin- burgh: Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1991), 11. 34. Malcolm Daniel, “‘The Pictures are as Rembrandt’s but Improved’: Calotypes by David Octavius Hill and Robert Adamson,” The Metro- politan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, 56, no. 4 (Spring 1999): 12–23, quoted page 15. 35. Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1978); Robert G. David, The Arctic in the British Imagination, 1818–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000). 36. Stevenson, Fishermen, 27. 37. Schivelbusch, Railway Journey, 62–63. 38. Patrick Wright, On Living in an Old Country: The National Past in Contemporary Britain (London: Verso, 1985), 161–192. 39. For some recent works that also summarize earlier interpretations, see Louise Purbrick, “Introduction,” in The Great Exhibition of 1851: New Interdisciplinary Essays, ed. Louise Purbrick (Manchester: Man- chester University Press, 2001), 1–25; Lara Kriegel, Grand Designs: Labor, Empire, and the Museum in Victorian Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007). 40. Grove Art Online, s.v. “Joseph Paxton” and “Exhibition Architec- ture”; Hitchcock, Early Victorian Architecture, 1: 530–553; Schivel- busch, Railway Journey, 46–49. 41. Jeffrey A. Auerbach, The Great Exhibition of 1851: A Nation on Dis- play (London: Yale University Press, 1999), 106, 139, 148; Purbrick, “Introduction,” 2–3. 42. Peter Gurney, “An Appropriated Space: The Great Exhibition, the Crystal Palace and the Working Class,” in The Great Exhibition of 1851: Interdisciplinary Essays, ed. Louise Purbrick (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), 114–145. 43. T. M. Devine, The Scottish Nation: A History, 1700–2000 (New York: Viking, 1999), 106–107, 113, 162–163, 252–253, 263–264; Stevenson, Fishermen, 23. 44. ODNB, s.v. “Hill, David Octavius”; Peter Mandler, The Fall and Rise of the Stately Home (London: Yale University Press, 1997), 21–70; 206 N otes

Michael Fry, The Dundas Despotismm (Edinburgh University Press, 1992), 331–338; Eric Hobsbawm and T. O. Ranger, eds. The Inven- tion of Tradition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 45. John Wilson and Robert Chambers, The Land of Burns (Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1840), 1: 44–45. 46. Stevenson, Fishermen, 23–24. 47. Ibid., 23–36. A historian of Englishness misidentiﬁ ed these photo- graphs as representing Newhaven in Sussex, which of course deprives them not only of their Scottish context, but their extremely pointed commentary on big-city life: Robert Colls, Identity of England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), Caption to Plate 1. 48. SRO, GD 226/18/17/1 and /2; Joyce Moffet, “Trinity House of Newcastle,” TWAS Searchroom Pamphlet no. 1186, 4; Gordon Jackson, Hull in the Eighteenth Century: A Study in Economic and Social Historyy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 325–326; Land, “Domesticating the Maritime,” 133. 49. Jon Press, “The Collapse of a Contributory Pension Scheme: The Merchant Seamen’s Fund, 1747–1851,” Journal of Transport History, New Series, 5 (1979): 91–104; TWAS, GU/TH/91. 50. SRO, GD 226/18/220, letter of 28 July 1761. See also Margaret Leven’s petition of 1 February 1762. 51. Press, “Collapse,” 93. 52. Ibid., 98. 53. SRO, GD 226/9/2; TWAS, GU/TH/21/16; Press, “Collapse,” 94. 54. Mackenzie, Descriptive and Historical Accountt, 687; G. McCombie, “The Buildings of Trinity House, Newcastle upon Tyne,” Archaeolo- gia Aeliana , 5th ser., 13 (1985): 163–186. 55. SRO, GD 226/1/4; GD 226/1/10; GD 226/4/6; GD 226/4/9. 56. Jackson, Hulll, 281; R. A. Cage, The Scottish Poor Law, 1745–1845 (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1981), 28, 71; Eric Hopkins, Working-Class Self-Help in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin’s, 1995). 57. SRO, FS 1/7/4; see also FS 1/17/144 for a similar stipulation. 58. SRO, FS 1/11/13; FS 1/11/28 and FS 4/82. 59. SRO, FS 1/11/28 and FS 4/82; FS 1/17/171; FS 1/11/13. 60. SRO, FS 1/11/13. 61. SRO, FS 1/7/4; 1/11/28; FS 1/17/144; FS 1/11/13. See Anna Clark, Struggle, 35–39. 62. D. O. Hill, “Willie Liston ‘Redding the Line’” is available in many reproductions, and online at the National Portrait Gallery (London)’s website under the call number NPG P6 (217). 63. Sara Stevenson, Facing the Light: The Photography of Hill and Adam- son (Edinburgh: Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 2002), 111. 64. Holger Hoock, “Nelson Entombed: The Military and Naval Pantheon in St. Paul’s Cathedral,” in Admiral Lord Nelson: Context and Legacyy, ed. David Cannadine (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 115–143. Notes 207

65. Haskell and Penny, Taste and the Antique, 230. 66. Later efforts to display Nelson’s ship, the Victory, as a tourist attrac- tion in Portsmouth led to a similar experience of estrangement and letdown. For an early, and devastating, appraisal, see Henry James, English Hours, 156–158. This essay, “English Vignettes,” ﬁrst appeared in 1879. 67. [n.a.], The Visitor’s Guide to the Sights of London (1844), 108. 68. For “safe mooring,” Matthew Barker, Greenwich Hospital (London: James Robins, 1826), 104. 69. John Maule and John Cooke, A Historical Account of the Royal Hospital for Seamen at Greenwichh (London: G. Nicol, 1789), 14; Press, “Collapse,” 91. 70. ADM 73/52–54. 71. See for example ADM 2/1711. 72. Maule and Cooke, Royal Hospitall, 86. 73. ADM 65/81; ADM 67/20. 74. For clothes and seabed: ADM 67/20, 4 June 1757. 75. ADM 65/82, G. Jackson to Sir Charles Hardy, 16 March 1776. 76. ADM 65/85, Lt. Robert Lowtham to Sir Richard Pearson, 9 June 1803. 77. ADM 65/85, Keith to Viscount Hood, 12 June 1803. 78. ADM 65/82, Diamond et al. to Sir Evan Nepean, 12 August 1795; “W. L.” to Evan Nepean, 26 April 1797; W. Pierrepont to Lt. Gov- ernor of Greenwich Hospital, 8 July 1797; “W. L.” to Capt. Oswald, 7 July 1798; ADM 65/83, Nepean to Palliser, 3 October 1795; Peti- tion of Pensioners to Sir Rich. Pearson, April 1801; ADM 65/85, Richard Pearson to Lord Hood, 22 March 1803; M. Melhinish to Greenwich Hospital, 27 March 1803. 79. ADM 67/20, 28 December 1751; Maule and Cooke, Royal Hospitall, 85. 80. ADM 65/81, letter of 23 January 1762. 81. ADM 65/81. 82. ADM 65/82, Stephens to Palliser, 8 July 1782; ADM 65/93. 83. National Maritime Museum, BHC 1815. 84. Thomas Hood, “Sonnet to a Decayed Seaman,” The Works of Thomas Hoodd (New York, 1861), 2: 191. 85. For a more optimistic reading of state provision for families, see Patricia Y. C. E. Lin, “Extending Her Arms: Military Families and the Transformation of the British State, 1793–1815,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1997. 86. Lloyd, British Seaman, 177. 87. Sarah Monks, “National Heterotopia: Greenwich as Spectacle, 1694–1869,” Rising East: The Journal of East London Studies 2, no. 1 (1998): 156–166. 88. [n.a.], Visitor’s Guide, 9. See also Matthew Barker, Tough Yarns (London: Efﬁ ngham Wilson, 1835), 7–42. 89. [n.a.], Visitor’s Guide, 17. 208 Notes

90. George Mogridge, Old Humphrey’s Walks in London (Nashville, TN: E. Stevenson, 1855), 206, 209, 212. First edition: London: Religious Tract Society, 1843. 91. Mogridge, Old Humphrey’s Walks, 206. 92. Zachariah Allen, The Practical Tourist (Boston: Carter, Hendee, 1833) 2: 296. 93. Benjamin Silliman, Journal of Travels in England, Scotland, and Holland, 2nd ed. (Boston: T. B. Ait, 1812), 1: 284–285. 94. Lockwood, Passionate Pilgrimss, 109. See also Tamara L. Hunt, Defi ning John Bull: Political Caricature and National Identity in Late Georgian Englandd (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), 13. 95. For the wider salience and cultural circulation of arctic imagery, see Chauncey C. Loomis, “The Arctic Sublime,” in Nature and the Victorian Imagination, ed. U. C. Knoepfl macher and G. B. Tennyson (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), 95–112, quoted page 98; Francis Spufford, I May Be Some Time: Ice and the English Imagination (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997); Jessica Richard, “ ‘A Paradise of My Own Creation’: Frankenstein and the Improbable Romance of Polar Exploration,” Nineteenth-Century Contexts 25, no. 4 (2003): 295–314. 96. John Barrow, A Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions (London: John Murray, 1818), 364. 97. Quoted in Jen Hill, White Horizon: The Arctic in the Nineteenth- Century British Imagination (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008), 11–12. 98. For a more nuanced assessment of the slow transition from sail to steam, see Graeme J. Milne, Trade and Traders in Mid-Victorian Liverpool: Mercantile Business and the Making of a World Port (Liver- pool: University of Liverpool Press, 2000), 21–45. 99. Edinburgh Revieww (December 1817): 416. 100. Illustrated Londonn News, May 24, 1845, 328. 101. Ibid., 328. 102. “The Navigation of the Antipodes,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Maga- zine 62, no. 385 (November 1847): 515–533. 103. For a sense of the frenzied search and the extensive media coverage, see W. Gillies Ross, “Clairvoyants and Mediums Search for Franklin,” Polar Recordd 39, no. 208 (2003): 1–18. 104. Times, October 23, 1854. See also Illustrated London Newss, October 28, 1854, 421–422; November 4, 1854, 433. 105. Times 10/30/54: E. J. H., letter to the editor; Times 10/31/54: Rae’s reply to E. J. H.; Times 11/1/54: “Medicus,” letter to the editor. 106. Charles Dickens, “The Lost Arctic Voyagers,” fi rst published in Household Wordss in two parts, on December 2 and 9, 1854. For the text, see Charles Dickens, Miscellaneous Paperss (London: Chapman and Hall, n.d.): 1: 499–526; quoted 503; see also 508. For Rae’s N otes 209

response to Dickens, published December 23, 1854, see John Rae, “The Lost Arctic Voyagers,” in Harry Stone, ed., Charles Dickens’ Uncollected Writings from Household Words, 1850–18599 (Blooming- ton, IN: Indiana University Press, 1968), 2: 513–522. 107. Dickens, “Lost Arctic Voyagers,” Part 2, 516. 108. Times 10/24/54. See also “Travellers’ Tales,” Blackwood’s Edin- burgh Magazine 78, no. 481 (November 1855): 586–599. 109. Richard Ormond, Sir Edwin Landseerr (London: Thames and Hudson, 1981), 204–209; for context, see Alison Yarrington, “The Commemoration of the Hero, 1800–1864: Monuments to the Brit- ish Victors of the Napoleonic Wars,” Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1980. “Man Proposes, God Disposes” has been widely reproduced and can be viewed online at http://www4.rhbnc.ac.uk/ picture-gallery/landseer.html. 110. Ormond, Landseer, 148, 192–194. 111. Illustrated London News 44, May 7, 1864, 355. 112. Ormond, Landseer, 207. 113. Pierre Berton, The Arctic Grail: The Quest for the North West Passage and the North Pole, 1818–19099 (New York: Viking, 1988). 114. Mary Conley, From Jack Tar to Union Jack: Representing Naval Man- hood in the British Empire, 1870–19188 (Manchester: Manchester Uni- versity Press, 2008), 132, for “naval manhood as a model for imperial manhood.”

Conclusion 1. William Wordsworth, Guilt and Sorrow, Stanza VI. 2. Roger Knight, The Pursuit of Victory: The Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson (London: Allen Lane, 2005), 257; Isaac Land, “What Are We at War about?” London Review of Bookss, December 1, 2005. 3. Knight, Pursuitt, 531; Holger Hoock, “Nelson Entombed: The Mili- tary and Naval Pantheon in St. Paul’s Cathedral,” in Admiral Lord Nelson: Context and Legacy, ed. David Cannadine, (New York: Pal- grave Macmillan, 2005), 115; Timothy Jenks, “Contesting the Hero: The Funeral of Admiral Lord Nelson,” Journal of British Studiess 39, no. 4 (October 2000): 427, notes that traditionally, a lord of the manor was escorted to his tomb by a complement raised “from the tenantry.” 4. Margaret Whinney (revised by John Physick), Sculpture in Britain, 1530–1830, 2nd ed. (New York: Penguin, 1988), 348. Hoock, “Nelson Entombed,” 123, identififi es the boys as young midshipmen, i.e., not even common seamen but future offificers. 5. Hoock, “Nelson Entombed,” 124. As stratififi ed as Nelson’s Navy was, upward mobility through the ranks would become more dif- ficult in future generations. Fiction and children’s games about this 210 N otes

bygone era encouraged Victorian boys to imagine that they would enjoy similar opportunities for advancement: Mary Conley, From Jack Tar to Union Jack: Naval Manhood in the British Empire, 1870–1918 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008), 107–114. 6. Jonathan Rose, The Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 324. 7. Gareth Stedman-Jones, Languages of Class: Studies in English Working Class History, 1832-19822 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 96,102. 8. Matthew Brown, “Not Forging Nations but Foraging for Them: Uncertain Collective Identities in Gran Colombia,” Nations and Nationalism 12, no. 2 (2006): 223–240. 9. Anna Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Classs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Catherine Hall, Keith McClelland, and Jane Rendall, Deﬁ ning the Victorian Nation: Class, Race, Gender and the Reform Act of 1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 10. Linda Colley, “Whose Nation?: Class and National Consciousness in Britain, 1750–1830,” Past and Present 113 (November 1986): 117, acknowledges “dividing and ruling” as a tactic in the post-Napoleonic era—as if those circumstances were different—but presumably those who roused the volunteers in the 1790s and 1800s did so in the expectation that the war would, one day, be over. Mass mobilization always comes with an expiration date, even if the commitment to mobilize is temporarily left open-ended. 11. I have discussed this in considerable detail in Isaac Land, “Bread and Arsenic: Citizenship from the Bottom Up in Georgian London,” Journal of Social Historyy 39, no. 1 (Fall 2005). See also Isaac Land and Andy Schocket, “New Approaches to the Founding of Sierra Leone, 1786–1806,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial Historyy 9, no. 3 (Winter 2008). 12. John Knox, Observations on the Northern Fisheriess (London: J. Walter, 1786), 6. These model villages are discussed further in Jean Dunlop, The British Fisheries Society, 1786–1893 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1978). 13. Brenda Assael, “Music in the Air: Noise, Performers and the Con- test over the Streets of the Mid-Nineteenth Century Metropolis,” in The Streets of London: From the Great Fire to the Great Stink, ed. Tim Hitchcock and Heather Shore (London: Rivers Oram, 2003), 183–197. 14. John Thomas Smith, Vagabondiana, or Anecdotes of Mendicant Wanderers through the Streets of London (London: J. & A. Arch, 1817), 33. 15. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings, ed. Vincent Carretta (New York: Penguin, 2003), is also of interest. I will discuss Equiano’s relationship to Britishness in a forthcoming publication. Notes 211

16. Clark, Struggle, 220–232. 17. Charles Cunningham, A Narrative of Occurences That Took Place during the Mutiny at the Noree (Chatham: William Burrill, 1829), 116. 18. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–18377 (New Haven: Yale Unversity Press, 1992), 5, 372. 19. Michael Lewis, The Navy in Transition, 1814–1864: A Social History (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1965), 166–193; Eugene Rasor, Reform in the Royal Navy: A Social History of the Lower Deck, 1850 to 1880 (Hamden, CN: Archon, 1976), 34–35; John Winton, “Life and Education in a Technically Evolving Navy, 1815–1925,” in The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy, ed. J. R. Hill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 250–279. 20. Isaac Land, “‘Sinful Propensities’: Piracy, Sodomy, and Empire in the Rhetoric of Naval Reform,” in Discipline and the Other Body: Humanitarianism, Violence, and the Colonial Exception, ed. Anupama Rao and Steven Pierce (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006). 21. Rozina Visram, Asians in Britain: 400 Years of History (London: Pluto, 2002); Michael H. Fisher, Counterﬂﬂ ows to Colonialism: Indian Travelers and Settlers in Britain, 1600–18577 (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004). Shompa Lahiri, “Patterns of Resistance: Indian Seamen in Imperial Britain,” in Language, Labour and Migration, ed. Anne J. Kershen (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), 155–178; Sarah Palmer, Politics, Shipping, and the Repeal of the Navigation Laws (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990). 22. Laura Tabili, “We Ask for British Justice”: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Imperial Britainn (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994). 23. Thomas Trotter, Medicina Nautica: An Essay on the Diseases of Seamen (London, 1797), 38. 24. I. J. Prothero, Artisans and Politics in Early Nineteenth-Century London: John Gast and His Times (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 141. 25. Matthew Henry Barker, Greenwich Hospital, A Series of Naval Sketches, Descriptive of the Life of a Man-of-War’s Man. By an Old Sailorr (London: James Robins, 1826), 200. Bibliography

Manuscript Collections Dundee City Archives. Glasgow City Archives. National Archives (formerly Public Record Offifi ce, Kew). Scottish Record Offifice. Tyne and Wear Archives Service. Watt Library, Greenock.

Prints and Ephemera British Library. Collections of broadsides. 1077.g.47; 11621.c.2. Music collection. H.35 (A Collection of Sea Songs on Several Occasions, 1720). British Museum. Satires. National Maritime Museum. Prints.

Contemporary Newspapers and Periodicals Annual Register. Arminian Magazine. Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine. British Critic. Edinburgh Review. Gentleman’s Magazine. Glasgow Courier. Greenock Advertiser. Illustrated London News. Lloyd’s Evening Post. London Courant. London Magazine. Newcastle Chronicle. Newcastle Courant. 214 B ibliography

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Adamson, Robert, 138–139 Brewer, John, 2 Africans or African-Americans, 24, Britannia, 72, 78–80, 102, 105, 46, 164–165, 169 106, 132–133 attitudes toward, 25, 35, 93–94, Britishness, 7, 9–10, 24–26, 109–111, 129–130, 163–165. 77–104, 110–112, 120–121, Altick, Richard, 66 123–130, 139–140, 153–158, Anderson, Bob, 53 159–165 Arctic, 139, 153–158 Brown, Matthew, 162 Asia and Asians, 24, 168 Bryant, Mary, 64 Atlantic world, 3, 15, 19, 110, 128, Burns, Robert, 89, 142–143 166–167 autobiography, 26–28, 33, 64–65, Calotypes. Seee photography 95, 105–130, 167 Calton Hill, 144 Ayr, 142–143 cannibalism, 86, 126, 155–158 Carlyle, Thomas, 133–134, Badger, Charlotte, 64 141, 155 Bailey, Peter, 27 Catholics, 6, 132 ballads. Seee songs Chalmers, Thomas, 144 Baptist, 117 Chartists, 9, 132, 166 Barker, Matthew, 37, 113–115 China, 111 Barlow, Edward, 21–23 Clark, Anna, 46, 166 Barrow, John, 153–154, 156 clothing, 34, 39–41, 61–62, 63 Bechervaise, John, 40, 105, 107, Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 110 119–120, 129–130, 166 Colley, John, 53 Bedworth, Thomas, 52–53 Colley, Linda, 2, 6–11, 103, 159, Beesmore, Elizabeth, 52–53 162–163, 167 Bentley’s Miscellany, 113 Colombia, 162 Bethel movement, 119, 122 “Condition of England” Benin, 110 question, 135, 141, 142 Billingsgate, 16 Conrad, Joseph, 158 Black Ey’d Susan, 131, 138 Conway, Stephen, 4 Bond, Thomas, 150 Cook, James, 36–7, 86–88, 166 Bonny, Anne, 64 Cookson, J. E., 1, 168 Bowen, Essex, 57 Cooper, James Fenimore, 126 Bowen, H. V., 1 Corn Law, 125, 157, 166 240 I ndex

Cornwall, 13 Forrest, Alan, 3 courage. Seee heroism Forster, George, 86–88, 97, 158 Coxere, Ned, 17, 21–23 Forster, Johann Reinhold, 86 Crabbe, George, 126 Foundling Hospital, 84 cross-dressing, 57–76 Fox, William Johnson, 125 Cruikshank, George, 113 France and the French, 1, 2, 4, 5, Cruikshank, Isaac, 92–93 6, 24, 59, 79–80, 83, 91–93, Crystal Palace. Seee Great Exhibition 97, 100, 105, 116, 118, 160 of 1851 Franklin, Sir John, 154–158 Friendly Societies, 146–147 Davidson, Thomas, 151 Dell, John, 53 Gaskell, Elizabeth, 135 Dell, Susannah, 53 Gast, John, 169 Dibdin, Charles, 5, 78, 89–98, Gibbon, Edward, 106 99, 103, 107, 112–114, 115, Gilje, Paul, 32 126, 167 Glasgow, 34, 125, 131, 142, 144 Dickens, Charles, 113, 156–157 Great Exhibition of 1851, 132, Douglas (Isle of Man), 2, 5 138–144, 147–148 drink and drunkenness, 15, 29, Greenwich Hospital, 5, 6, 8, 39, 36–37, 39, 122, 147 149–153 Dugaw, Dianne, 58, 70 Dumbarton, 146–147 Hanway, Jonas, 34, 86, 161 Dysart, 146–147 Hay, Robert, 34, 35, 48 Hercules, 148, 169 Earle, Peter, 121–122 heroism, 59–60, 66–76, 77–104, Easton, Fraser, 57–58, 59 119–123, 126–128, 136, Edinburgh, 8, 34, 111, 138, 147–148, 160, 165 142, 144 herring, 2, 13, 169 Egan, Pierce, 46 Hill, David Octavius, 138–148, Elliott, Ebenezer, 125 161 Empire and imperialism, 86–88, Hodgskin, Thomas, 17, 123 105–112, 127–130, 153–158, Hogarth, William, 81–82 159–170 Holyoake, George Jacob, 125 Equiano, Olaudah, 10, 109, Home Offi ce, 2, 10, 24, 27, 164 110, 169 Hoock, Holger, 160 Hood, Thomas, 151 factories, 131, 142 Howe, Richard, 92–93, 96 Falconbridge, Anna Maria, 25 Hull, 43 Ferguson, Thomas, 53 Hume, Joseph, 115 Fielding, John, 20–21, 99 Hunt, Margaret, 16 Fighting Temerairee (painting), 132 fi shing, 2, 13, 143–148 impressment, 2–7, 19–20, 30, 34, Flaxman, John, 160 39, 54–55, 66–70, 102, 104, fl ogging, 104, 106, 109, 121–122, 112, 150, 159, 167–168, 169 124, 127–129, 130, 166, Inuit, 155–156 167–168 Ireland and the Irish, 6, 31, 35, 142 I ndex 241

Irwin, George, 34, 40 language, 35, 36, 41–44, 88–97, Isle of Man, 2, 43 98, 114, 117–118, 124 Laocoön, 77–78 Jack Tar, 3–6, 8–11, 13–28, 30, “lascar”, 24 32, 37, 54–55, 60, 77–104, Leech, Samuel, 37, 38, 108, 119, 105–109, 115–130, 131–132, 121–122 147–153, 155–158, 159–170 Leith, 144–145 experience of combat, 29, 38, lesbianism, 58–59 127 Lewes, Lee, 80 experience of corporal Libertinism. See misogyny; sexuality; punishment, 38, 120–122 and women fatalism, 37, 38 Lincoln, Margarette, 3, 7 as father, 83–86, 98–99, Linebaugh, Peter, 3, 18, 25 145–147 Liston, Willie, 147–148 initiation of outsiders, 34, 38 Liverpool, 25, 43, 110, 128 loyalty to shipmates, 38 Lockhart, J. G., 8 loyalty to ofﬁﬁcers, 18, 114, 122, London, 1, 5, 8, 16, 20–21, 128–129 40, 43, 46, 57, 64, 65, 74, as married or engaged, 46–54, 75, 89, 90, 93–95, 98–99, 101–103, 145–147, 134–135, 144, 148–153, 150–152 157–158, 164–165. See also in old age, 149–153 St. Paul’s Cathedral; patriotic or nationalist Westminster Abbey sentiments, 97–104, 105, loyalism, 4–9, 18, 99, 107–109, 110–115 112–115, 122, 126–129, in port, 39–55 159–170 radical or revolutionary luxury, 81, 85–87, 101–102 tendencies, 5–6, 10, 14–19, 110, 123–130, 167–170 Mackenzie, John, 14 as religious, 95, 105, 115–123, Macpherson, James, 88, 89 167 Malcolm, Pulteney, 114 resistance to impressment, 42–44 Malthus, Thomas, 85, 123 spending habits of, 29 Manchester, 48, 131, 135, 138 Jenks, Timothy, 97–98, 99 Mandler, Peter, 112 Jerrold, Douglas, 131, 138 Marine Society, 34, 40, 84, 86 Jersey, 105, 119, 129 maritime culture, 13–28, 29, Jews, 94 83–88, 167–170 John Bull, 102 Marks, Richard, 117 Johnson, Joseph, 164–165 Marryat, Frederick, 25, 126, 135–138 Kelly, Samuel, 37 Martin, Jonathan, 116 Keppel, Augustus, 92 Martineau, Harriet, 125 Kirby, R. S., 57 masculinity, 29–33, 36–55, 77–104, 106–107, 115, 117–123, Lacy, Mary, 58, 72 136–138, 146–148, 159–163 Landseer, Sir Edwin, 157–158 Mayhew, Henry, 139 242 I ndex

McPherson, Charles, 41, 113 Ormond, Richard, 158 Mechanic’s Institutes, 125, 129 Orwell, George, 30 Methodism, 22, 91,115, 116, Ossian, 88 117, 167 Middle Passage, 109 Paciﬁﬁ c, 86–88 Mill, John Stuart, 125 Paine, Tom, 8, 98, 99, 111, 116 misogyny, 44–55, 69, 71–76, 166. parody, 31, 60, 71–76, 125, 149 See alsoo sexuality; women Paxton, Joseph, 140 Monks, Sarah, 152 Pemberton, Charles, 29, 34, 38, Monthly Repository, 125–126 107, 109, 124–130 Morland, George, 102 philanthropy, 84. See alsoo Marine Mungo, 93–94 Society; Trinity Houses music. See songs photography, 138–148, 161 mutinies of 1797, 97–104, 107, phrenology, 136–137 124, 157, 161, 166 physiognomy, 78–82, 87–88, 93, Myles, William, 117 100–101, 123, 132, 147–148 Mylls, Jean, 145 picturesque, 91 pilchard, 13 Nagle, Jacob, 38, 51 Pinaforee (operetta), 131 Napoleon. Seee France and the piracy, 86, 97, 166 French Pitt, William (the Younger), Nasty-Face, Jack. Seee Robinson, 96, 167 William Place, Francis, 125 national and regional identities, pleasure gardens, 89 24, 35 Plymouth, 117 nationalism, 1–11, 77–104, “political economy”, 123 117–130, 159–167 Portsmouth, 48, 90–91, 124 Naval reform, 108, 115–123, 126, Press, Jon, 145 167–168 press gangs. Seee impressment Nelson, Horatio, 10, 96, pronatalism, 78, 83–86, 161 100–104, 113, 118, 124, prostitutes, 48–49, 61, 85–86 132, 148–149, 154, 158, Punch, 132, 141, 143 160, 166. See alsoo Trafalgar Newcastle upon Tyne, 10, 13, 169 Quarterly Review, 8–9, 154 Newhaven, 138, 144–148 Nicol, John, 8–9, 33, 34, 40, Rae, Dr. John, 155–156 111–112, 117, 130 railroads, 132–138 Nore, 98, 99. See alsoo mutinies of railway stations, 134–135 1797 Rambling Jack (Jack Cremer), 35, Northwest Passage. Seee Arctic 37, 38 nostalgia, 131–158 rape, 54 “nursery of seamen”, 83–86, 103, Read, Mary, 64 140, 143–148, 154, 161, 164 Rediker, Marcus, 3, 4, 11, 14–28, 116, 167 Olden Time, 142 revolution, 3, 18, 167 Oldham, 108 Reynolds, Joshua, 80 I ndex 243

Robinson, William, 34, 36, 43, Spain and Spaniards, 86, 118, 123–124 127, 162 Roderick Random. Seee Smollett, Spithead, 6, 98. See alsoo mutinies Tobias of 1797 Rodger, N. A. M., 4, 26–27 St. Andrews, 143–144 Rogers, Nicholas, 10 St. Paul’s Cathedral, 57, 160 Romans and Roman Empire, Stanﬁﬁ eld, James, 109–111, 121, 80–81, 85, 106 128, 130 Rose, Jonathan, 3, 108–109, 162 Stark, Suzanne, 65, 74, 75 Rowlandson, Thomas, 81–82, 91, State power, 1–11, 16–26, 30, 32, 100–101, 132, 147 55, 66–70, 167–168 Royal Navy, 1–10, 16–20, 23–24, steam power, 132–134, 154–155 26–28, 30, 36–37, 39, 40, Stedman-Jones, Gareth, 162 58, 68–69, 87, 95, 105–107, Stevens, George Alexander, 80, 116–117, 120–122, 136–137, 90, 93 153–155, 167–168. See also Stevenson, Sara, 139, 144, 147 impressment; Jack Tar Subculture, 30–33, 40–44, 62, Russell, Gillian, 97 117–119, 167–170 Russia and Russians, 24, 127 Talbot, Mary Anne, 57, 58, 64, 65, sailors. Seee Jack Tar 72, 74–76, 166 Sailor’s Magazine, 119, 126 Taylor, John, 54 sailortown, 29–55 theater, 89–90, 93–97, 131–132 Schama, Simon, 81 Thompson, E. P., 3, 99 Scotland and the Scots, 9, 111, Tosh, John, 131 138–148 Trafalgar, 10, 23, 101–102, 111, seamen. Seee Jack Tar 123, 124, 152, 154, 160 sexuality, 20–21, 29, 33, 45–55, Trafalgar Square, 157–158 57–59, 83–88. See also Trinity Houses, 144–146 masculinity; sodomy; women Trotter, Thomas, 42–43, 168 Shadwell, Charles, 21 Trumbach, Randolph, 75 Sierra Leone, 25, 164 Turner, J. M. W., 132 slavery, 25, 111, 112, 120–121, 128 Unitarians, 125 slave trade, 25, 109–111, 120, 128 United States of America, 23 Smith, Adam, 6, 9, 123 urban anxieties, 9, 131, 140–148 Smith, George Charles, 117–119 Urquhart, Thomas, 121 Smith, Mary, 61–62 Smith, W. H., 134–135 Vickers, Daniel, 48 Smollett, Tobias, 21, 42, 89–90 Vincent, David, 26 Snell, Hannah, 64, 65, 72, 74 virility, 77–78, 96–97, 99. sodomy, 54, 85–86. See also See alsoo masculinity; “nursery of sexuality seamen”; sexuality Somerset, 74 songs, 45–48, 50–52, 58, 63, Wales, William, 88 66–74, 83, 94–97, 106, 165 Wales and the Welsh, 124 244 I ndex

Wellington, Duke of (Arthur 99, 100, 101–103, 112, Wellesley), 127, 132 143–147, 149–151, 166, 169 West, Benjamin, 80–81, 101, 152 Wood, Sarah, 54 Westminster Abbey, 148–149 Wordsworth, William, 159 whiteness, 25, 129–130, 163 working class, 3, 120, 125, 129, Wilberforce, William, 128 162, 166–170 Williamson, Ann, 62 Wolfe, James, 80–81, 101, 104 York, 116 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 69 women, 16, 29, 32, 33, 36, 38, 39, 40, 44–55, 57–76, 78, 96–97,