CAN FARMERS ADAPT TO CLIMATE CHANGE?

CAN FARMERS ADAPT TO CLIMATE CHANGE?

Arvind L. Sha J. Jangal R. Suresh CAN FARMERS ADAPT TO CLIMATE CHANGE? Supported by International Development Research Centre under the IDRC Opportunity Fund ISBN 978-818188816-99-x

Public Affairs Centre No. 15, KIADB Industrial Area Bommasandra – Jigani Link Road Bangalore -562106 Phone: +91 80 2783 9918/19/20 Email: [email protected] Web: pacindia.org © 2016 Public Affairs Centre

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This book is focussed at livelihood experts, community mangers, Think tanks, NGO’s and academicians who are working to understand the impacts of climate variability and the steps taken by the government, and local bodies to address this issues. This pioneering citizen centric study, triangulates climate change, communities and governance to understand how communities are coping with the issues of climate change. This study was funded as a part of IDRC Opportunity Fund and was conducted in collaboration with CSTEP, and ISET-N.

Editing, layout, design and production by PUNYA PUBLISHING PVT. LTD. INDIA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This path-breaking study is the first step towards a larger initiative. The study could not have been completed without the help of several individuals and organisations. We are indebted to them, and take this opportunity to thank all those who contributed at various stages of the study. We thank the agrarian communities of the five study villages; Oourdeyanatham, Valapuram, Sathangudi, Nandivanam, and Karuvalarcheri ( taluk, district), who actively participated in the exercises. In addition, we are grateful to Mr. Renganathan, Chairman of the Cauvery Delta Farmers Association, for sharing his vast knowledge of agriculture and experience about the changes in the Cauvery delta. We gratefully acknowledge the help of officials of the Department of Agriculture, Thanjavur, for sharing their experience and perception, which enriched the study. We express our gratitude to civil-society organisations and institutes, which actively participated in the round table. Their participation made a tremendous contribution to the study by providing insight on agriculture; livelihoods, governance and climate change. We express our heartfelt thanks to the members of DHAN Foundation – our field partners, led by Mr. Adhinarayanan, Faculty at Tata-DHAN Academy, who helped to conduct the field research and round table, and greatly contributed in completing the study. Our special thanks are due to the team from the Institute for Social and Environmental Transition – Nepal (ISET-N), who joined us in the field exercise and shared their knowledge on scenario planning exercise. We are also thankful to Dr. Rajivkumar Chaturvedi (National Environmental Sciences Fellow, Indian

v Institute of Science, Bangalore) for sharing his scientific analysis on climate change in . We are grateful to the Center for Study of Technology and Policy (CSTEP) for their support and cooperation in the successful completion of the study. We extend our thanks to Ms. Mary Pushpa Kanthi, Administrative Officer at PAC for playing a key role at various stages and in the completion of the study and Ms. Kirthana, an intern at PAC whose support during the field exercises was very useful to the study.

vi Contents

Acknowledgements v 1 Background 11 2 Introduction 13 3 Study Area 16 4 Methodology 27 5 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process 33 6 Resilient Thanjavur – A Think Tank 52 7 Learnings and Limitations 53 8 Conclusions 55

1 Village Profiles 1 – Karuvalarcheri 58 2 Village Profiles 2 – Valapuram 79 3 Village Profiles 3 – Nandhivanam 94 4 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham 111 5 Village Profiles 5 – Sathangudi 125

Tables Table 1: List of Study Villages/Panchayats/River System 19 Table 2: Community Perception on Climate Change – Oorudayanatham 20 Table 3: Community Perceptions on Climate Change – Valapuram 22 Table 4: Community Perceptions on Climate Change – Sathangudi 23 Table 5: Community Perceptions on Climate Change – Nandhivanam 24 Table 6: Community Perceptions on Climate Change – Karuvalarcheri 25 Table 7: Highlights of the PRA exercises 40 Table 8: A typical score sheet 44 Table 9: Vulnerability Index Scored by the officials of the Agriculture Department 45 Table 10: Vulnerability Index and Ranking of the study villages 48 Table 11: Format for identifying key options for the issues identified 51 Tables - Village Profiles Table 1: Types and number of houses in Karuvalarcheri 60 Table 2: Main occupations and the number of households involved 61 Table 3: Land Holding in Karuvalarcheri 62 Table 4: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Karuvalarcheri to continue farming 63 Table 5: Table highlighting 30 years trend (1984 - 2014) in Karuvalarcheri 68 Table 6: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Karuvalarcheri 71 Table 7: Scores of Karuvalarcheri by Community Representatives 76 Table 8: Vulnerability Index for Karuvalarcheri 77 Table 9: Table highlighting the options to overcome issues related to Physical Capital, Karuvalarcheri 78 Table 10: Types and number of houses in Valapuram 80 Table 11: Main occupations in Valapuram and the number of households involved 80 Table 12: Land Holding in Valapuram 80 Table 13: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Valapuram to continue farming 81 Table 14: Table highlighting 30 years trend (1984 - 2014) in Valapuram 83 Table 15: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Valapuram 86 Table 16: Scores of Valapuram by Community Representatives 91 Table 17: Vulnerability Index for Valapuram 92 Table 18: Options/Pathways to move to a better scenario – Valapuram 93 Table 19: Types and number of houses in Nandhivanam 95 Table 20: Main occupations in Nandhivanam and the number of households involved 95 Table 21: Land Holding in Nandhivanam 95 Table 22: Table highlighting 30 year trend (1984 - 2014) in Nandhivanam 96 Table 23: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Nandivanam 98 Table 24: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Nandhivanam to continue farming 103 Table 25: Scores of Nandhivanam by Community Representatives 108 Table 26: Vulnerability Index for Nandhivanam 109 Table 27: Options/Pathways to move to a better scenario – Nandivanam 109 Table 28: Types and number of houses in Oourodeyanatham 112 Table 29: Main occupations in Oourodeyanatham and the number of households involved 112 Table 30: Land Holding in Oourodeyanatham 112 Table 31: Table highlighting 30 year trend (1984 - 2014) in Oourodeyanatham 114 Table 32: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Oourodeyanatham 117 Table 33: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Oourodeyanatham to continue farming 119 Table 34: Scores of Oourodeyanatham by Community Representatives 122 Table 35: Vulnerability Index for Oourodeyanatham 123 Table 36: Options/Pathways to move to a better scenario – Oourodeyanatham 124 Table 37: Types and number of houses in Sathangudi 126 Table 38: Main occupations in Sathangudi and the number of households involved 126 Table 39: Land Holding in Sathangudi 126 Table 40: Table highlighting 30 year trend (1984 - 2014) in Sathangudi 127 Table 41: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Sathangudi 129 Table 42: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Sathangudi to continue farming 132 Table 43: The scores of Sathangudi by Community Representatives 134 Table 44: Vulnerability Index for Sathangudi 135 Figures Figure 1: Map of the Cauvery delta zone 14 Figure 2: Map of Tamil Nadu highlighting Thanjavur 17 Figure 3: Map Showing 18 Figure 4: Map of Kumbakonam Taluk Highlighting the Selected Panchayats 19 Figure 5: Framework for Climate Change Score Card 28 Figure 6: Modified DFID Framework for Sustainable Livelihoods 29 Figure 7: Graph showing variations in Average Minimum Temperature in Cauvery Delta 34 Figure 8: Graph showing the variations in Average Maximum Temperature in Cauvery Delta 34 Figure 9: Mean Annual Temperature Trends for 1951 - 2010 35 Figure 10: Annual Rainfall Trends in India for 1951 - 2010, 36 Figure 11: Average Temperature of Cauvery Delta (1901 - 2000) 37 Figure 12: Classification of indicators based on Livelihood Capitals 43 Figure 13: Analysis of Scores of Researchers, CSOs and Community Representatives 46 Figure 14: Role of Livelihood Capitals on Crop Production 47 Figure 15: Vulnerability of Agriculture in Cauvery Delta 49 Figure 16: Coordinates for Scenario Planning 50

Figures – Village Profiles Figure 1: Role of Livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Karuvalarcheri 76 Figure 2: Scenario Planning for Karuvalarcheri 77 Figure 3 : Role of livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Valapuram 91 Figure 4 : Scenario Planning for Valapuram 92 Figure 5 : Role of Livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Nandhivanam 108 Figure 6 : Scenario planning with prioritised issues – Nandivanam 109 Figure 7 : Role of Livelihood Capitals on Agriculture in Oourodeyanatham 122 Figure 8 : Scenario planning with prioritised issues – Oourodeyanatham 123 Figure 9 : Role of Livelihood Capitals on Agriculture in Sathangudi 134 Figure 10 : Scenario planning with prioritised issues – Sathangudi 135 1

Background

The entire world is grappling with climate change and its effects and the South Asia is among the most vulnerable regions. Heat waves, variability in monsoons, droughts, the melting of Himalayan glaciers, flooding, and rise in the sea level are some of the expected changes in climate. Besides these, an increase in the number of extreme weather events, such as cyclones, heavy rain, and riparian and coastal flooding are also anticipated. These events will degrade the environment, reduce livelihood options, increase migration from affected areas, and affect health and well-being of the people, especially of the poor and marginalised communities. Most people in South Asia rely on agriculture for their livelihood, which heavily depends upon the monsoon. The increased variability in monsoons, which is expected to continue, shortage of water for agriculture would become even more acute in the future. Therefore, managing people and livestock, which is one of the daunting tasks for the region, will be intensified by socio-economic challenges and environmental degradation. In such a situation, mitigating emissions and developing low-carbon pathways becomes critical, but a still greater necessity is to adapt to living in a warmer world. Hence, to protect the livelihood of local communities, it is essential to assess their vulnerability to climate change, and accordingly plan adaptation. The approach adopted in such an assessment and planning must be all-inclusive; and local communities, who are the most affected, must play a primary role in accepting and implementing these measures.

11 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Scientists and researchers throughout the world are relentlessly working towards developing methodologies to assess vulnerability, along with approaches and strategies for adaptation. The assessments being designed and conducted include top-down methodologies, which downscale climate change models and effects, or use secondary levels of data and information; and bottom-up frameworks, which try to understand why, and how, local people and natural systems are vulnerable to climate change. Such bottom-up analyses are needed to understand the risks and to take appropriate policy decisions. Therefore, a study titled ‘Climate Adaptation and Resilience in South Asia’ was undertaken – a collaborative effort of three think tanks of South Asia; Center for Science, Technology and Policy, India (CSTEP), Institute of Environmental Transition – Nepal (ISET – N); and Public Affairs Centre, India (PAC). This study was carried out in the Cauvery delta (Kumbakonam taluk, Thanjavur district) by PAC in partnership with the DHAN Foundation. It focuses on the Climate Change Score Card (CCSC) – a tool that connects livelihoods, governance and climate variations and provides results based on the field research. Section 1 gives a brief background of climate change in the deltas. Section 2 provides an introduction of the Cauvery delta. Section 3 explains the relevant study area and the current conditions in the villages where the study was conducted. Section 4 looks at the theoretical and conceptual framework. Section 5 outlines the methodology with a brief description of Climate Change Score Cards. The report concludes with the limitations faced during the study and the important lessons learned.

12 2

Introduction

Cauvery river, the fourth-largest in southern India, flows from the north west to the south east. The Cauvery delta lies at the bottom of the Cauvery basin in the eastern part of Tamil Nadu, between 10o N to 11o30 N latitude and between 78o15 E to79o45 E longitude. The Cauvery delta zone is spread over 1.45 million hectares, 11 per cent of the area of Tamil Nadu [Cauvery Delta Sub Basin Tamil Nadu, National Water Mission, 2011], and comprises of several districts of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry namely, Nagappatinam, Thanjavur and Thrivarur and parts of Trichy, Cuddalore and Puddukottai. The Cauvery delta zone is dotted with a complex water system, which is currently plagued with the issues of surface and ground water depletion, coastal instability and salinity intrusion. The normal annual rainfall is about 945 mm, of which 48 per cent is dependent on the north east monsoon, and 32 per cent on south west monsoon. Since the delta entirely relies on rains for recharging its water resources, monsoon failures lead to acute water scarcity and severe drought [Nathan, 1995]. Scientific analysis of climate change reveals an increase in the extreme events; droughts (three consecutive years, 2011, 2012, and 2013) [Rajendran, 2014], floods in 2010, and untimely an increase in the intensity of cyclones in the past decade. The erratic behaviour of monsoon has rendered agriculturists (agriculture is the primary livelihood in the region) highly dependent on groundwater, which has caused an increase in salinisation, resulting in migration.

13 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Figure 1 Map of the Cauvery delta zone A brief field survey was carried out by PAC in the Cauvery delta during the proposal development under the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Asia and Africa (CARIAA). It highlighted numerous issues related to variations in climate and their impact on livelihoods in the delta. The field survey consisted

14 Introduction of household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. It reinforced the conceptions of the impacts of environmental variables on the lives and livelihoods of local communities, and helped in understanding and articulating the impact of climate change on livelihoods in the delta. The survey highlighted another startling fact of reduction in the intensity and frequency of the south west monsoon (May to September). The north east monsoon (October to December) is delayed by 20-30 days; and this affects the traditional cropping cycle. The increase in spatial and temporal variations in precipitation has made villages completely dependent on ground water.

Increase in the dependence on ground water for irrigation Ground water being available in abundance, the delta farmers – who used to grow two crops a year – are now cultivating three crops. The increase in spatial and temporal variations in rainfall has made the agrarian community highly dependent on groundwater, which is available in abundance at shorter depths. This has resulted in an increase in the cropping intensity (from two crops to three crops a year). This increased crop intensity and the dependence on groundwater has resulted in salinity intrusion affecting soil quality and hence productivity of crops. Furthermore, sand mining and extensive use of chemical fertilizers to boost the productivity has added to the burden of available resources [natural]. This added burden on the limited natural resources and decrease in soil quality has driven agricultural labourers and practitioners to migrate to urban areas in search of better livelihood options. This survey provided us an opportunity to develop an initial understanding of the delta zone, and in the selection of the five villages as study area.

15 3

Study Area

Thanjavur, being an important historical and economic centre in Cauvery delta, was chosen as the study area. The district covers an area of 3396.57 sq.km with a population of 24,06,957(the Census, 2011) and can be classified into two main regions, deltaic and non-deltaic. The deltaic region covers the entire northern and eastern parts of the district and the river Cauvery, with its wide network of branches, irrigates more than half of the district. It comprises the whole of Kumbakonam taluk, parts of Thanjavur and Papanasam taluks. The rest of the southern and western areas of the district are non-deltaic or upland region. A substantial part of the upland regions which was dry has now been brought under irrigation with the help of Grand Anaicut canal, which is fed by the Cauvery-Mettur Project and by the extension of the Vadavar river. The non-deltaic region is devoid of hills and slopes gradually seawards (District Profile-Thanjavur, 2014). Agriculture is the main livelihood of the region and paddy, cotton, black gram, sugarcane and coconut, are the major crops in the district. As the study focused on agriculture livelihoods in the delta region, Kumbakonam block/taluk was selected with a sample of five villages in four gram panchayats and two river systems based on the following criteria:  located within the Kumbakonam taluk boundary  agriculture is the predominant livelihood  located away from the state and national highway

16 Study Area

Figure 2: Map of Tamil Nadu highlighting Thanjavur

1713 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Figure 3: Map Showing Thanjavur District Table 1: List of Study Villages/Panchayats/River System

18 Study Area

Sl. No Villages Panchayat River System 1 Oorudayanatham Uthamadhani 2 Valapuram Valapuram Maniyar 3 Sathangudi Agarathur 4 Nandhivanam Marathanallur Thirumalai Rajan 5 Karuvalarcheri

Figure 4: Map of Kumbakonam Taluk Highlighting the Selected Panchayats

19 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

3.1 Introduction to the Study Villages—Community Perception on Climate Change  Oorudayanatham, a village of about 220 households is located on the banks of the river Maniyar. The village is divided into two parts; one is resided by the Most Backward Caste (MBC) and the other by the Schedule Caste (SC). Both the castes have among them land owners, farmers and agricultural labourers (who work only on lands in the village). Agriculture is the predominant livelihood of the village with an average land holding of 0.33 acres per person. Ground water is the main source for drinking as well as for agriculture. There have been changes in the pattern of cropping, weather and climate parameters. Water is shared among farmers who own bore wells and those who do not through a unique water sharing mechanism.

Table 2: Community Perception on Climate Change­—Oorudayanatham

Year Rainfall Temperature Fog 1984  The north-east  Hot summer  December monsoon which was experienced to February was brings rainfall in from April to May winter and mist the delta region was and mid of June period distributed in the months of September and October (Aippasi and Karttikai). This season is usually coupled with low pressure in the Bay of Bengal, resulting in cyclones which cause heavy rainfall

20 Study Area

2004  North-east  Summer  January to Monsoon starts experienced from mid of March from October to April to June full December. In the month month of November continuous rains were received. Increase in summer showers 2014  Month of May  Summer  January to and June (Vaikasi) season from March-end. received rain March to July. Three to four rainy Now a days the days (30 years ago community feels this month had no very hot, and rainy days) experiences more  Delay in north- heat. With more east monsoon and heat the ground no continuous rains. water has gone Four to five rains down and there in the months up to is a delay in wind December. season  Unseasonal cyclone and low pressure occurs from January to May and it is increasing.

 Valapuram, a village located two kilometres from the main road, is at the tail end of the river Maniyar. The village is home to about 200 households and is divided into two. One part of the village is occupied by the Pallar community, primarily agricultural labourers and the other part constitutes majorly of Schedule Caste land owners. Ground water is the main source of irrigation for agriculture in the village. The communities have observed a change in weather and climate parameters over the past 30 years which has

21 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

led to a change in the cropping pattern in the village. The village faces the problem of migration of youth to nearby cities in search of better employment opportunities. 1 2Table 3: Community Perceptions on Climate Change—Valapuram Year Rainfall Temperature Fog 1984  Regular rain  Pankuni to  January to in the months Vaikasi1 was March was the of September the summer winter. During to December. period. Generally this period fog Non-stop Rain temperature and mist was (Adamalai). reached experienced. It maximum of 90- was good for 95 degree F. pulse crops and vegetable. 2004  Slight change  Generally in the rain fall temperature (October to reached November). maximum to 90- 95 degree F. 2014  “There is  Summer  “Ippa no difference was experienced kalammari pani between monsoon up to mid of peyuthu”. Even season rain and Adi2. At present, in June during summer rain now- the highest evening and early a-days”. temperature morning mist was  Rainy days recorded in the observed. It is not have reduced. area is 102 to 105 good for crop. Mostly rain degree F. During January comes during heavy mist was cyclone or when observed which there is a low damaged the crop pressure in Bay of (disease). Bengal.

1 Tamil Months of April to June 2 Adi is Tamil for July 22 Study Area

 Sathangudi is a village of about 250 households and is located at a distance of five kilometres from the nearest highway. The village is located along downside of the Maniyar river system. Clayey soil and its location at the downside of the river have rendered the village prone to floods. Agriculture is the predominant livelihood, which is dependent mainly on ground water.

Table 4: Community Perceptions on Climate Change—Sathangudi

Year Rainfall Temperature 1984 North-east monsoon used Hot summer experienced to start in September, only for two months from (Ippasi and Karthikai) April 15 to June 15. and distribution of rains was throughout these two months. During the same period cyclone and low pressure would also bring heavy rains. 2004 Distribution of Rain Summer period has highly changed. extended from March to May. 2014 May and June receive Hot season from March rains. Three to four rainy to June. Now the days (30 years ago this community feels more month had no rainy heat hence the ground days). There is a delay in water has gone down and north-east monsoon and there is a delay in wind there are no continuous season. It leads to pest rains. Four to five rains in and diseases in cotton a month up to December. and other crops. Unseasonal cyclone and low pressure. Cyclones have increased from January to May.

23 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

 Nandhivanam, a hamlet located along the Thirumalai Rajan river, has 250 households and is away from the main road. The land is mostly held by few land owners and the rest are agricultural labourers working in the fields. The village has undergone drastic changes in the weather and cropping pattern. There is evidence of migration to other places by the youth of the village.

3Table 5: Community Perceptions on Climate Change—Nandhivanam Year Rainfall Temperature 1984 North-east monsoon begins Hot weather prevails only in September (Ippasi and during April and May. Karthikai) and the two months receive continuous rains (adaimalai3 ). In the same period cyclone and low pressure brings heavy rains. 2004 Erratic distribution of rainfall Starts from March to June during north-east monsoon first week. period and here is no continuous rain in those days.

2014 Month of May and June Hot season from mid of (Vaikasi) receives rain. Three February to June. Now, to four rainy days (30 years ago the community feels more this month had no rainy days). heat and they attribute it to Delay in north-east monsoon depletion of underground and no continuous rains. Four water and delay in wind to five rains in the month up season. It leads to pest to December. Unseasonal and diseases in cotton and cyclone and low pressure occurs other crops. from January to May and is increasing.

 Karuvalarcheri, a hamlet consisting of 130 households, is located along Thirumalai Rajan river. Agriculture is the predominant livelihood with ground water being the main source for irrigation and drinking.

3 Adaimalai means continuous rain in Tamil

24 Study Area

Table 6: Community Perceptions on Climate Change—Karuvalarcheri Year Rainfall Temperature Fog 1984 North-east Hot summer December monsoon starts in experienced to February September during April and experienced mist. (Ipasi and May. Extremely useful Karthikai) In June (Vaikasi) for cultivation of and there is wind starts and pulses. distribution of reduces the effect rains throughout of temperature. (adaimalai) the Summer is two months. In manageable with the same period dress in the field. cyclone and low pressure bring heavy rains. 2004 Delay in the onset Summer begins of monsoon. from March and Rain received ends in the first only during week of June. low pressure or cyclone.

2014 Delay in north- Hot season from east monsoon and February to no continuous June. Now the rains. Four to five community feels rains in a month more heat, hence up to December. the ground water level has gone down and there is delay in wind season.

25 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Year Rainfall Temperature Fog Unseasonal It leads to pest Heavy mist Cyclone and low and diseases in during December pressure occurring cotton and other It damages crops. from January to crops Cotton May is increasing. needs irrigation May and June every 12 to 15 (Vaikasi) receives days. Paddy rain. Three to four requires irrigation rainy days (30 every day. years ago these months had no rainy days).

26 4

Methodology

Public Affairs Centre’s (PAC) approach to assessing the impact of climate change and formulating adaptation methods is founded on the following strategic principles:  Knowledge Creation: Knowledge is power; hence generation of people’s knowledge through Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC) empower communities to dialogue effectively with governance structures4.  Empowerment: Knowledge generated through CCSC and secondary sources of information will enable the community to monitor the impact of climate change on their lives. This will result in a more informed and empowered community. The local communities are explained the science behind climate change and its impacts on their livelihoods and the surrounding environment.  Constructive and meaningful engagement for policy influence: Dialogue is a means of constructive engagement with governance structures at different levels. This is supported by the creation of action platforms that connect communities with informed and motivated government representatives. Keeping these strategies a basis for communicating with policy makers and communities, Public Affairs Centre (PAC) has developed a unique social

4Public Affairs Centre defines governance structures as service providers (constitutional and traditional) to the community. These include Local and Central Governments, Banks, Community Association and henceforth.

27 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? accountability tool, ‘Climate Change Score Cards’. The main objective of the ‘Climate Change Score Card’ is to empower community voices and bring the communities and government authorities on the same platform to engage in 3Ds; Debate-Discuss-Decide. The platform assists to address issues that impact the environment and identify solutions that would be beneficial to the policy makers as well as communities. CCSC enables local communities to gain knowledge through the process of knowledge creation. The science of climate change and its impacts is demystified to the communities while conducting PRA exercise. The instrument is designed to be amenable to interpretation and comprehensive use by the often uneducated community members in climate change affected areas, yet elegant and rigorous enough, and worthy of presentation to state authorities. Various governance strategies and changes in climate patterns impact livelihoods both in a positive and/ or a negative way. Hence, CCSC can be deemed as a triangulation of Livelihoods – Governance – Climate Change.

Climate Change

CCSC

Livelihoods Governance

Figure 5: Framework for Climate Change Score Card

4.1 Modified Sustainable Livelihood Approach As the study is focused around livelihood and its vulnerability to climate variations, the sustainable livelihood framework derived from the Department of

28 Methodology

International Development (DFID) is applied. It is a holistic approach that strives to capture and provide a means for understanding the fundamental causes and dimensions that affect the livelihoods. The frame attempts to draw out relationships between different aspects that affect livelihoods, allowing for more effective prioritization of action at an operational level. The sustainable livelihood approach aims to achieve lasting livelihood improvements using asset-based indicators5 . The livelihood capitals considered are:  Natural: Land, Water, Forests, Environmental Services  Physical: Infrastructure, Tools, Technology  Financial: Credits, Savings, Wages  Social: Formal and Informal groups, Social networks/cohesions, Collective representation  Human: Skill, Capacity, Education, Health, Motivation

Natural

Governance Physical

Livelihoods

Human Financial

Social

Figure 6: Modified DFID Framework for Sustainable Livelihoods The proposed framework adds Governance (both constitutional and traditional) as an asset because governance structures play a pivotal role in supporting the people and their livelihoods. Access and control over land and water, dispute resolution

5Sustainable Livelihoods Support Office, 1999

29 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? and modulation of the way of life are aspects that are customarily controlled by traditional governance structures. Modern governance instruments in a democratic society are the implementation of rules and regulations, demarcation of territory of competing users and dispute resolution of larger issues. In addition, democratic governance processes also stream resources from other areas to those in need and under stress from climate variability. The provision of incentives (such as subsidies) and punitive measures for misuse of resources (through judicial and executive means) also contribute to balance in the use of natural resources in times of stress or shortage.

4.2 Vulnerability Assessment “Vulnerability’ is defined as the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes”6. Vulnerability is a function of the sensitivity of a system to changes in climate and the ability to adapt the system to changes in climate. Under this framework, a highly vulnerable system would be one that is extremely sensitive to modest changes in climate. It can be represented as Vulnerability = (Exposure + Sensitivity) – Adaptive Capacity

Exposure Adaptive Vulnerability Capacity Sensitivity

Vulnerability is a function of three parameters:  Exposure: Defined as a degree of climate stress upon a particular unit analysis; it may be represented as either long-term changes in climate conditions, or by changes in climate variability, including the magnitude and frequency of extreme events (IPCC, 2001).

6 IPCC, FAR 2007

30 Methodology

Exposure consists of two major elements:  The things that can be affected by climate change (populations, resources, property etc.)  The change in climate itself (sea-level rise, variations in precipitation and temperature and extreme events)  Sensitivity: Smith et al. (2001) define sensitivity as the degree to which a system will be affected by, or responsive to climate stimuli. Sensitivity can be altered by socio-economic changes (drought-resistant crops, flood shelters, etc. reduce the degree of sensitivity).  Adaptive Capacity: It refers to the potential or capability of a system to adjust to climate change, including climate variability and extremes, so as to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences7. In simple words, adaptive capacity is the capability of a system to adapt to impacts of climate change. Vulnerability is often reflected in the condition of the economic system as well as the socio-economic characteristics of the population living in that system. The bottom-up climate-change vulnerability assessment is part of the pilot study in five villages of Kumbakonam taluk in Thanjavur district. The specific purpose of the study is to evaluate the vulnerability of agriculture-based livelihood to variations in climate and various policies and schemes of the Government of Tamil Nadu. The study aims to develop a vulnerability index and rank the various villages in Kubakonam taluk in terms of their performance on the index. The index tries to capture a comprehensive scale of vulnerability by including numerous indicators that serve as proxies. Specifically, the study looks at five different sources of vulnerability based on the capitals of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework; viz., the natural capital, physical capital, financial capital, social capital and human capital. The results of the index on the capitals are compared to capture the true nature of vulnerability of the people living in these villages. For the purpose of our understanding, we follow the IPCC Third Assessment Report, according to which vulnerability is defined as “The degree, to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change,

7 Smit and Pilifosova, 2001

31 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

We also look at government policies, schemes and programs under the ambit of ‘governance’, as these also affect the vulnerability of the livelihood and community. In literature, quantitative assessment of vulnerability is usually done by constructing a ‘vulnerability index’. This index is built on several sets of indicators that result in vulnerability of the village. It produces a single number, which can be utilized to compare different regions. Literature on index number construction specifies that there should be reliable internal correlation between these indicators. For more on developing Vulnerability Index refer CCSC, an implementation guide published by PAC.

CCSC Tool Kit

32 5

Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

Climate Change Score Card is a derivation of the Community Score Card. It empowers vulnerable people through the knowledge shared and generated from interacting with the community. Climate Change Score Card helps understand both sides of the issue, and brings various stakeholders (communities, CSOs, Policy Makers, Government Officials) on a single platform, with a common aimof improving the resilience of vulnerable communities. Steps in implementing Climate Change Score Cards  Input tracking: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Regulation Analysis, Climate Data Analysis (modelling and forecast)  Selection of Indicators: classified into livelihood capitals  Scoring of Vulnerability: by communities and governance structures  Scenario Planning: Governance V/s Livelihood capitals by the communities  Interface Meeting: bringing together all stakeholders at the district level8  Policy Discourse: at provincial and state levels

Input Tracking Exercises The input tracking exercise involves three main components - Analysis of Climate Data - Regulations analysis and - Understanding the community through Participatory Rural Appraisal methods

8As this was a short study spanning 6 months, the study focussed mainly up to scenario planning and identification of pathways to reduce the vulnerability

33 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

5.1 Climate Change in India, Tamil Nadu and Cauvery Delta It is important to first get a good grasp of the basic climate profile of any region before studying the impact of climate change. Hence an analysis of variations in rainfall and average temperature in India, Tamil Nadu and the delta level was conducted. Based on the analysis of weather data available from the Indian Meteorological Department the changes in temperature and rainfall in India show an increase of average minimum and average maximum temperature over the years (1901 – 2009) It is seen in the Figure 7 there has been a steady increase in temperature, in the Cauvery delta region – Source IMD Data.

26.00

25.50 R² = 0.3728

25.00

24.50

24.00

23.50

23.00

22.50 1901 1904 1907 1910 1913 1916 1919 1922 1925 1928 1931 1934 1937 1940 1943 1946 1949 1952 1955 1958 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000

Source: IMD Data Figure 7: Graph showing variations in Average Minimum Temperature in Cauvery Delta

33.50 R² = 0.3713 33.00 32.50 32.00 31.50 31.00 30.50 30.00

Source: IMD Data Figure 8: Graph showing the variations in Average Maximum Temperature in Cauvery Delta

34 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

An analysis of average temperature and rainfall in the state of Tamil Nadu shows an increase in average temperature significantly at 95% confidence level with 0.02 degree Centigrade/year. The variations in rainfall of the state is also said to be increasing with 0.8 mm/year. The results are based on the analysis of IMD data by Dr Rajiv Chaturvedi and are shown in the figures 9 and 10.

Source IMD Figure 9: Mean Annual Temperature Trends for 1951 – 2010,

35 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Source IMD Data Figure 10: Annual Rainfall Trends in India for 1951 – 2010, The Cauvery delta is also not very different from the state and country in terms of increasing average temperature and increasing variations of rainfall as can be seen in the graph (Fig. 11).

36 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

7000.00

6000.00 R² = 0.0173

5000.00

4000.00

3000.00

2000.00

1000.00

0.00 1901 1904 1907 1910 1913 1916 1919 1922 1925 1928 1931 1934 1937 1940 1943 1946 1949 1952 1955 1958 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000

Source IMD Data Figure 11: Average Temperature of Cauvery Delta (1901 – 2000)

5.2 Regulation Analysis One of the key components of governance analysis is to understand the rules and regulations that govern the lives and livelihoods of the people. In CCSC, one important premise of governance analysis is that, the expression of regulations and acts that impact the lives of people is through the design and implementation of schemes. Hence a macro analysis of the regulations is to be conducted to understand the policy environment. In addition, a more detailed study of specific schemes of the government that have a direct bearing on the sector is to be carried out. The analysis will be prepared on the basis of, policy design, target audience, feedback mechanisms, benefits envisaged for the target audience with a specific focus on improving the adaptation capacity of the vulnerable communities. An analysis of the various programmes and schemes of agriculture was made as part of the study and presented to the farmers. The feedback of the farmers was that the programmes and schemes are not tuned to the needs of changing climate and even the existing programmes and schemes are not reaching the poor and vulnerable sections of the farming community.

37 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

5.3 Participatory Rural Appraisal Methods Participatory Rural Appraisal Methods were used to generate a basic understanding of the villages that were studied. The PRA methods employed were: Resource Plot – It was decided that Social mapping and Resource mapping will be clubbed together to gather information related to identify vulnerable villages based on the resources and the social capital available. This exercise helped us to identify issues related to

Resource Plotting Exercise  Migration status  Land holding categories  Population density  Livelihood practices  Family wise livelihoods  Infrastructure – water sources  Crops and cropping pattern  Natural Resources connected to agriculture—land, soil type/quality, canals, riverine systems, ponds, irrigation facilities such as bore wells

38 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

 Methods of water sharing  Vulnerable resources, zones  Geography and topography Services and Opportunity Map – PRA method explored spatial realities of communities with specific reference to local people’s perceptions of the available services and opportunities. This map helps to provide valuable visual information on services and opportunities available in the area. The discussions also help in identifying the aspirations of the people and ways in which they can be realised.  How adequate is the services for agriculture – Quality  Institutions – transparency and accountability

 Access to technology Services and opportunity exercise  Loan facilities for agriculturist  Crisis management – compensation tools by Government  Insurance - Insurance agency, what they insure and when Trend Analysis linking with Seasonality Diagrams – to assess the changes that have occurred over a given time frame  Cropping pattern, yield  Rainfall  Temperature  Cultivation practices Force Field Analysis – Is used to identify and analyse forces affecting a situation and bring about a positive change. It will help us understand the driving and restraining forces to agriculture as livelihood Livelihood Analysis – Helped examine and depict the livelihoods and focus on income, expenditure, crisis etc,. The highlights of the PRA exercises in the five study villages is as shown in the Table 7.

39 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Table 7: Highlights of the PRA exercises

Services and Resource Force Field Opportunity Trend Analysis PRA PRA Management Analysis

Exercise Mapping For irrigation A field level Water sharing There has been of crops, there research needs among farmers an increase in are 38 bore- to be conducted between those the number of wells owned in the fields who own a bore sunny days from by the farmers of farmers. well and those 75 days (March- in this village. Presently, who do not own May) in 1984 Water, for crop there is no to 90 days at cultivation, is consultation present. being shared with farmers among those to evaluate who have their needs bore-wells and and priorities. those who don’t Visits from have bore- government wells. Ground agriculture water level extension is 35-40 feet. or research During rainy personnel are

Oorudeyanatham season water is being drained irregular and as there are inadequate. proper drainage facilities. Cauvery river water is not available as the river canals are not functioning. People face water scarcity during the summer months.

40 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

There are 30 The availability Availability of Reduction in the bore wells of farm groundwater at a number of rainy with the depth machinery depth of 25 feet. days during ranging between and regulated The soil is very the monsoons. 25 to 220 feet. markets is an rich in nutrients. Hence, there is The river water important reason no difference reaches the for continued between village through cultivation of monsoon and the main canal. paddy. summer rain The canals are these days. Valapuram silted and at Increase in present they are the number of not functioning. sunny days with an increase in temperature from 90oF to 102oF There are 30 There has been The agriculture Erratic and bore-wells with a significant labourers in unseasonal a depth ranging reduction in the villages are rainfall coupled between 40 to the extension supportive and with increasing 160 feet. The services to there is a mutual temperatures river water farmers and understanding lead to flooding reaches the the visit of and support and increase in village through government to continue pest attacks. the main canal. agriculture agriculture in Since the department the villages. canals are silted officials to the Sathangudi they are not villages have functioning. drastically reduced and hence farmers depend upon private agro- service agencies.

41 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Of the 127 acres Agriculture The farmers and Erratic rainfall of agricultural programmes, the agriculture and increase in land 110 acres is meant to reach labourers in the the number of temple land and marginal and villages have summer days the remaining 17 small farmers by established has brought acres belong to and large reach mutual support about changes in farmers. a few better mechanisms cropping pattern The village off farmers. which help and the intensity is connected Small, marginal timely of crops. to Thirumalai farmers agricultural Rajan River require on operations. which has field extension

Nandhivanam effective service network of support from canals for government irrigation of agriculture agriculture departments lands. staff by scheduling regular visit to the village. Groundwater There is a lack Availability of There has is available at a of adequate groundwater and been a shift in depth of 40 feet. support from mechanisation is the cropping The soil is very Government the motivating pattern; from fertile and the schemes and factor for turmeric and village is fed by programs. agriculture. black gram to canals and sub- Farmers are paddy and from canals. unable to get paddy to paddy Out of 161.50 the benefits of and cotton acres, 38 bore seed subsidies, crops.

Karuvalarcheri wells irrigate training 111 acres. programmes, Borewells storage irrigate 68.73% facilities, land of the area development during dry techniques, etc. seasons.

42 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

In order to understand the local scenarios a database of information on lives and livelihood activities of the people were mapped and primary knowledge gathered. The purpose of this database was to develop indicators, which were used for scoring and assessing the vulnerability of the villages that were studied. PRA exercise in the village 5.4 Selection of Indicators Indicators were established for assessing the vulnerability of agriculture to climate change, as agriculture was identified as the primary livelihood in the study area. These indicators were developed based on the findings of the Participatory Exercises, Regulation Analysis and Climate Data Analysis during the input tracking exercise. The indicators were chosen in such a manner so as to have a comparison between the livelihood capitals (natural, physical and financial) within a village and also with other study villages.

Modified Sustainable Livelihood Framework

Natural Physical Financial

Rainfall Temperature Bore wells Accessibility to Soil characteristics Farm Machinery Credit Groundwater Markets Asset Base River Figure 12: Classification of indicators based on Livelihood Capitals

43 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

5.5 Scoring of Vulnerability The process of scoring provides an opportunity for community members to discuss amongst themselves the various aspects of the indicator and arrive at a common score. These discussions and debates promote critical thinking and reasoning, and usually ensure that some of the minor issues get clarified right at this stage. Further, it ensures that all members of the community are informed about the issue and have a clear understanding and agree at identical level. The beauty of the exercise is not in the numbers but in the richness of the discussion that goes on between community members before the scoring. Hence facilitation is very important. The scoring provides the basis for developing a vulnerability index (VI), which ranges between 0 to 1 with, 0 being the least vulnerable and 1 being highly vulnerable. Table 8: A typical score sheet Parameters Cropping Crop Crop Crop Pattern Production Intensity Infestation (The Type (The (Pests and Capitals Indicators of crops number Diseases) grown) of Crops Grown in a Year) Natural Rainfall Temperature Soil Characteristics Groundwater River/Canal Water Physical Irrigation System (Bore wells) Farm Machinery Market Facilities Financial Accessibility to Credit Asset Base

44 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

5.5.1 Scoring by Government Officials The indicators were communicated to the officials of the agriculture department, to get their perspective of vulnerability of agriculture in Kumbakonam Taluk of Thanjavur district. The deputy director of agriculture with his team participated in the scoring process and the details of the scores are as shown in Table 9 Table 9: Vulnerability Index Scored by the officials of the Agriculture Department

Livelihood Capitals Vulnerability Natural Physical Financial Index 0.64 0.69 0.60 0.67

It can be seen that the overall vulnerability of Kumbakonam Taluk, based on the agriculture department is 0.67. This score highlights the livelihood capitals are highly vulnerable indicating that agriculture livelihoods in the Taluk is highly vulnerable to climate change.

5.5.2 Scoring by Researchers and Civil Society Organisations An exercise was carried out at the round table ‘Resilient Thanjavur – A Think Tank’ organised at Thanjavur. The round table was an assimilation of ideas of researchers and representatives from civil society organisations and farmer communities. (Read more on the round table in the section ‘Resilient Thanjavur – A Think Tank’ in the following pages.) The participants of the round table were divided into three main categories; Researchers, Civil Society Organisations and Livelihood Practitioners. Livelihood practitioners were further divided into two groups of men and women. This was deliberately done to assess the role of climate change on gender vulnerability. The participants scored the indicators in their respective groups. The analysis of the indicators showed that Natural Capital was the most influential capital for agriculture and thus the most vulnerable livelihood capital in Thanjavur delta.

45 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Natural (0.5)

Physical Governance (0.25) (0)

Agricultural

Human Human (0.25) (0.25)

Social (0)

Figure 13: Analysis of Scores of Researchers, CSOs and Community Representatives It can be seen in the Figure 12 that the aggregate score for the livelihood capital is very low and ranges from 0 to 0.5. An interesting fact is, social capital is also ranked the lowest, indicating that local agrarian communities are currently facing a deficit in social trust. Another way of interpreting the scores is that the governance capital has the least influence for carrying out agriculture in the delta. This is a matter of concern as Governance is to play an important role in the lives and livelihoods of the people in terms of subsidies, policies, schemes and programs, rendering the communities vulnerable to varying climate and weather patterns.

5.5.3 Scoring by Community representatives The score sheets were displayed and discussed with the members of the community.Each indicator was explained in detail to community representatives who had gathered for the discussion. These representatives were asked to provide scores for the indicators with adequate reasoning which had to be agreed by all the members assembled at the meeting. Please refer the Annexures for village wise details of scores and the reasons for the scores. Once the scoring exercise was completed vulnerability index for each capital was calculated giving equal weight

46 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process to all indicators. Patnaik and Narain method was used for normalising the scores and calculating the vulnerability index. One advantage of this method is that we can compute the indices based on individual capital and ranks can also be allotted to each capital. The scores for each of the capital were then visualized through spider diagrams which highlighted that cropping pattern (the type of crops grown) in all the villages under study are dependent on the bore-wells and hence groundwater plays an important role in determining the type of crops grown as against the river or canal water as is seen in the figure below. It is necessary to emphasise that agriculture in the delta region is highly dependent on groundwater rather than river water. This is an interesting find which helps us conclude that unplanned and over extraction of ground water is one of the main reasons for increased vulnerability in the area to changing climate. This also highlights how unplanned coping strategies lead to maladaptation, as is the case in Cauvery delta as many agriculturists are dependent on groundwater for cultivating crops in addition to river water.

Rainfall 5 4.5 Asset Base Temperature 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 Credit 1.5 Soil Characteristics

1 Karuvalarcheri 0.5 Valapuram 0 Nandivanam Ooredyanatham Sathangudi

Market Groundwater

Farm Machinery River / Canal Water

Irrigation System (Bore well)

Figure 14: Role of Livelihood Capitals on Crop Production While analysing cropping intensity it was found that currently, three paddy crops are cultivated every year, which is dependent on groundwater. This is justified by the fact that cropping intensity (number of crops grown per year) is entirely dependent on groundwater and not on rainfall or river water. This rings alarm bells

47 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? as agricultural practices, especially the intensity of crops grown in the river delta region in dependent on groundwater in entirety and not on river water.

5.5.4 Vulnerability Index The vulnerability index of the study villages is shown in the table 10. The table also captures the vulnerability of individual livelihood capitals (Natural, Physical, and Financial). It can be seen from the table that natural capital is having the least influence in terms of adding the farmers choose the type of crop and the number of crops grown per year. This is a matter of great concern as most of the agriculture is dependent on groundwater for growing crops. This coupled with varying climatic patterns such as erratic rainfall and increase in average temperature is set to increase the vulnerability of the farmers in Cauvery Delta in the coming years, as groundwater levels have already decreased in depth from 15 feet (1990) to nearly 120 feet presently. Finance is another vital capital for agriculture and is highly influential indicator for assessing the vulnerability of the communities. Farming communities especially the small and marginal farmers are highly dependent on money lenders as they find it difficult to link up with formal institutions such as banks and cooperative societies. The communities are not aware and lack the will to apply for climate finance tools such as crop insurances and others as they have not faced any extreme conditions such as droughts and floods. In case of droughts, the farmers increase the use of groundwater and overcome the extreme conditions. This has decreased the will among farmers to shift to climate friendly financial tools such as crop insurances. The village of Valapuram is highly vulnerable to climate change, with vulnerability index of 0.59. The village is vulnerable in every capital as agriculture in the village is highly influenced by ground water and bore wells are the only source of irrigation in the village9. Table 10: Vulnerability Index and Ranking of the study villages Livelihood Capitals Vulnerability Vulnerability Study Villages Natural Physical Financial Index Ranking Oourodeyanatham 0.18 0.15 0.29 0.27 5 Valapuram 0.34 0.84 0.75 0.59 1

9 For more details, please refer Annexure 2

48 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

Sathangudi 0.41 0.83 0.75 0.53 2 Nandivanam 0.28 0.39 0.65 0.36 4 Karuvalarcheri 0.34 0.67 0.65 0.51 3 Representation of the above mentioned vulnerability index and is shown in the figures below. It can be seen from the figures below the agriculture department rates the delta area to be highly vulnerable to climate change. The vulnerability ranking by the department is higher than the vulnerability of villages ranked by the communities themselves. Additional analysis of the vulnerability of individual livelihood capitals (Natural, Physical and Financial) highlights that local communities are entirely dependent on physical and financial capitals, rendering them highly vulnerable to changing climate. It should be noted that, currently the local communities are not entirely dependent on natural capital to pursue their livelihoods and are coping with improvements in physical and financial capitals which, has increased their vulnerability to climate change.

Sathangudi 1

0.8

0.6 Agri Department Oourodeyanatham 0.4

0.2 Natural 0 Physical Financial

Karuvalarcheri Nandhivanam

Valapuram

Figure 15: Vulnerability of Agriculture in Cauvery Delta

5.6 Scenario Planning Scenario planning follows the vulnerability index; this helps us identify the current state of the study areas with respect to climate change and its impacts on

49 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? their livelihoods. This is a process where, issues related to governance of agriculture especially with a reference to climate change. These issues are mapped and identified from the input tracking exercises. Furthermore, issues are raised are classified under the livelihood capitals, which are depicted on Cartesian coordinates. The X axis depicting the livelihood capitals and the Y axis depicting the governance capital analysed during the regulations analysis corresponding to the livelihood capital used. Good

Bad - Good Good -Good

Governance Capital Governance Livelihood Capitals Bad Good

Bad - Bad Good - Bad

Bad

Figure 16: Coordinates for Scenario Planning The process of scenario planning helps the community to prioritise options and move from their current vulnerable situation to a better state through existing policies, schemes and programmes. This is achieved by briefing the community representatives on specific and applicable policies by government at the national and the state level. This process empowers communities by generating awareness and helps identify current policies that consider climate change impact. Scenario planning aides community members in identification of key institutions at the panchayat, district and state level that can be approached to reduce their impacts to climate change.

50 Climate Change Score Cards (CCSC): A Process

Table 11: Format for identifying key options for the issues identified Key Institutions Key Key Issues Options Panchayat District State Officials

5.7 Interface Meeting and Policy Discourse As the current study is a short duration study hence, the study focused on scenario planning and options/pathways to be followed to help communities to shift from the current scenario to a better one. But, an interface meeting and a policy discourse are also to be undertaken to provide a meaningful conclusion to the study. The interface meeting facilitates an action platform that connects communities with the rest of the stakeholder groups. Stakeholders include key representatives of the livelihood groups, who were instrumental in the scenario planning exercise, community-based organisations, government officials, public agencies, federation members, worker’s unions, research organizations, and others. This platform gives an opportunity for both parties to discuss the issues, the suggestions that the communities have in addressing these issues and also the supply side constraints from other stakeholders in accepting/implementing the suggestions. The intention of such a moderated discussion is to bridge the knowledge gap between the providers and communities and start a process of constructive engagement. The discussion may in itself not end in actions but will initiate the process of taking relevant steps towards reducing the gap and improving the governance in a phased manner. This is a conflict-resolution exercise that is intended to be translated into a mutually agreeable plan of action to address the issues of the communities. Depending on the issues identified such interactions may need to be held at different levels starting from Gram Panchayat to District to State and even at the level of Central ministry.

51 6

Resilient Thanjavur – A Think Tank

A round table discussion titled ‘Resilient Thanjavur – A Think Tank’ was held in Thanjavur on the 18th of June 2014. The round table saw an assembly of varied individuals from research institutes, Agriculture Universities, Civil Society Organisations and Agriculture Community Members. The round table discussion validated the findings of the PRA about the increase in temperature and increase in variations in precipitation in Cauvery delta through scientific analysis of IMD data. The study process was made clear to the participants and the indicators were shared. The indicators that were shared covered all six capitals of the modified sustainable livelihood framework viz, Natural, Physical, Financial, Human, Social, and Governance.

52 7

Learnings and Limitations

7.1 Learnings from the Project The overall learning of Public Affairs Centre is on how to go about generating systematic data and knowledge, for developing a framework, for assessing climate adaptation and resilience in river deltas focussing on agriculture livelihoods. The framework is a culmination of social science and pure science research with bottom up citizen centric approach through participatory tools on one hand and on the other scientific evidences to compare with people’s knowledge and experiences of climate variations impacting their life and livelihood. Through this study Public Affairs Centre has also refined the CCSC tool by applying and adding an additional dimension (Vulnerability Index and Scenario Planning) to make it more comprehensive. The round table organised as part of the study has revealed to us that there is a scope for building a platform with various stakeholders which will act as knowledge building and action platform to feed the policy makers at various levels. Capacity development of the Public Affairs Centre team through field visits in regard to scenario planning and shared learning dialogue methods of the Institute of Social and Environmental Transition. The team has amended and incorporated this in the process of Climate Change Score Cards. Related to various changes in use of resource persistent in the delta, there has been a considerable amount of learning in the following areas

53 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

 Elaborate and extensive river canal systems that once worked as lifeline of farmers are now found to be either defunct and/or function in a limited manner. This is mainly due to siltation and encroachment of these canal systems.  Over exploitation of ground water in the delta, because of which agriculture thrive at present indicates a negative trend for greater changes in the future.  Lack of awareness on climate change and agriculture issues among agricultural communities Through the study, we interacted with experienced farmers and their groups to gather the traditional paddy varieties which are found to be resilient to drought and flood in delta region which are being recognized by the formal researchers and policy makers for further research and initiates. Interviews and one on one discussion with practitioners threw light on the benefits of traditional crop varieties and organic farming to both environmental and economic sustainability of the livelihood. The details of the economic benefits and a brief write-up on the interview with practitioners can be read in detail in the case study titled “Traditional varieties of paddy can help to adapt to the changing climate in Cauvery delta”.

7.2 Limitations  The study used the most vulnerable capital to plan the scenario for the village to move to a ‘good – good’ scenario. All the livelihood capitals are to be considered for an overall development of the village.  Community representatives have their own affiliation for a political party which also hampered the study. The social climate in a few villages also hampered our work as different communities did not want to sit in a single platform.  Due to constraints of time and resources in this study we will be identifying the highest vulnerable livelihood capital based on the vulnerability index and use it for scenario planning exercises.  Only current vulnerability is assessed and not the future vulnerability. The vulnerability indices can be worked out for each period of time and they can be compared to the changes in vulnerabilities over the period of time.

54 8

Conclusions

The study highlighted many issues related to the livelihood capitals (Natural, Physical and Financial). It can be concluded that Natural Capital doesn’t influence the pattern and the intensity of agriculture followed in the delta. This is a matter of concern as agriculture livelihood in the present scenario is dependent heavily on groundwater and the depths have increased from 15 feet to greater than 120 feet in the past three decades. The present dependence on extraction of the groundwater with increasing variations in precipitation and increasing temperature will render the delta highly vulnerable in the future. Another stark highlight of the study is the influence of Governance Systems on agricultural livelihoods. It can be seen from figure 13, that the governance systems have very little or the least impact for carrying out agriculture in the delta. This is a matter of concern as Governance is to play an important role in the lives and livelihoods of the people in terms of subsidies, policies, schemes and programs, rendering the communities vulnerable to varying climate and weather patterns. The study highlighted that though the delta has a unique and an ancient system of canals, the water does not reach many of the villages as the canals are in a near defunct condition due to encroachment and siltation. Waste and rampant mining of sand has also resulted in their clogging. In addition to the defunct condition of the canal system, erratic rainfall and the increase in temperature has rendered the agricultural communities vulnerable to the changing climate. Another cause of

55 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? concern in the delta is that presently, groundwater is extensively used for agriculture which has reduced the availability of water from a depth of 40 feet to nearly 120 feet and 220 feet in a few villages. During the round table ‘A Resilient Thanjavur – A Think Tank’, it was found that there is a scope for building a Think Tank involving various stakeholders to integrate the concerns of the vulnerable communities through knowledge building and action platform to feed information to the policy makers at various levels. The view of the Public Affairs Centre (PAC) is that the concerns of the communities should be integrated in an organic fashion through ‘Community Centred Governance’. This will be the best way to address many of the issues of climate change. The Public Affairs Centre believes that local communities have a vast fund of knowledge and can offer local and easy practical solutions to inculcate in their daily lives. What is required is an instrument that allows them to consolidate all their knowledge, connect it with the vast nebula of regulations and laws that apply to their lives, and empower them to engage with the governance structure in a constructive and result-oriented manner. In this regard the Public Affairs Centre developed a unique social accountability tool, the Climate Change Score Card (CCSC). CCSC is a bottom-up inclusive method which is unique as it integrates social science research with technical research. The method is also unique as it leads to research plus action on the ground as we at PAC believe in leaving something behind with the community.

56 Village Profiles

1: Karuvalarcheri 2: Valapuram 3: Nandhivanam 4: Oourodeyanatham 5: Sathangudi Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Introduction Karuvalarcheri, is a quaint village located within the Kumbakonam Taluk, in the Grama Panchayat of Maruthanallur in Tamil Nadu. It is famous for its temple of KaruValarkkumNayagi – the Goddess who blesses the development of the foetus. The village is irrigated by Thirumalai Rajan branch of Cauvery River. It is surrounded by Maruthanallur on the West side, Enanallur in South, Krishnapuram in North and Alagaputhur in East. The predominant livelihood of villagers of Karuvalarcheri is farming. Paddy and cotton are the major crops cultivated in the village. PRA tools were used for assessing people’s perception of effects of climate change on agriculture. Prior to the PRA exercises, the team made two visits to build a rapport with the villagers. A total of 37 community members (22 Women and 12 Men) participated in the exercises. The symbols for different houses were evolved by participants, before starting the exercise, after getting clarification from PRA team. The following PRA exercises were conducted in the village:  Social and Resource Mapping  Service and opportunity mapping  Trend and seasonality analysis  Force field analysis

58 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Interviews with locals FINDINGS FROM PRA EXERCISES

Social and Resource Mapping A representative from the community started the process of drawing the village map with the help and guidance of the village elders. Social and resource mapping exercises were conducted in the village to understand the socio - economic status, settlement of the village and the availability of natural resources. It was highlighted from the exercise that the village is divided into three parts, adjacent to temple, Vadakku (North), therku (South) SC settlement and Northwest settlement. There were 146 households with a population of 585 persons living in the village. There were 296 men and 289 women. Out of the 146 households, 91 households were involved in agriculture and agriculture labour, and 54 households were landless families in the village. Most of the landless people cultivated cotton crop on lands leased from land holders. The village has a land area of 161.50 acres for agricultural use. Out of 161.50 acres, 38 bore wells irrigate 111 acres. The area irrigated by bore wells is 68.73 % . The topography of the village is sloping from west to east. The village lies along the Thirumalai Rajan River. The river water is supplied to the village by a Raran

59 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? canal (main) which is let into two major channels Pallavaikkal1and Mottuvaikkal2 which in turn feed 12 small channels called the Kannivaikkal. This water irrigates the agricultural area of 161.50 acres during monsoons. The channels are silted and are not efficiently managed. Lately, the channels, near the village, were de-silted under Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) The soil quality in this village is very rich. By using ground water and channel water the farmers are cultivating cotton, paddy, sugarcane, sesame, black gram and vegetables in their fields.

Table 1: Types and number of houses in Karuvalarcheri Types of Houses Number Government Assisted Houses 35 RCC houses 25 Thatched Houses 36 Tiled Houses 50

Houses in the village

1 Pallavaikkal in Tamil means low lands 2 MottuVaikkal in Tamil means uplands

60 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Table 2: Main occupations and the number of households involved3 Occupation Number of Households Agriculture 56 Agriculture with 24 Agriculture Labourer3 Agriculture Labourer 35 Brick making 1 Agriculture + Other 10 activities Government jobs 5 Petty shops 4 Private jobs 1 Dairy 1 Business 3 Priest 2 Migrated families 4

Occupations in the village

3 Agriculture Labourers here refer to small and marginal farmers who work as labourers in others field

61 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Table 3: Land Holding in Karuvalarcheri Land holding size in acre Number of families < 5 (Big farmers) 11 2 – 5 (Small farmers) 22 >2 (Marginal farmers) 58 Land less 54 Total 91

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS FOR AGRICULTURE Agriculture depends on all the livelihood capitals. There are factors that motivate and/or restrain people from their livelihoods.

Force Field Analysis

The Table 4 gives a glimpse of the motivating and restraining factors for every capital as perceived by livelihood practitioners.

62 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Table 4: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Karuvalarcheri to continue farming

Capital Motivating factor Inhibiting factor Human • The main occupation of the • High-wage rate, labour village is agriculture and most problem during transplanting of the households are engaged time. Outturn of the wage in it labour is not equal tothe wage • Farmers are knowledgeable on rate issues related to agriculture, • Young people do not have such as seed selection, knowledge about agriculture management of labour and • New generationdoes not want cultivation practices to haveagriculture as their • “We do not know any other livelihood livelihood activity except • Agriculturalistsdo not get agriculture, so we are recognition in the society like interested and forced to be in other occupations agriculture.” Natural • Availability of groundwater at • Erratic and unseasonal rainfall a depth of 40 feet during harvest seasons • Plain and uniform land January – March • Availability of River water • Non-availability of river/canal during monsoon months water at the right time/season. • Very rich soil quality. Many times release of river Farmers perceive that in water coincides with heavy Karuvalarcheri cultivation rainfall leading to damage of can be done on the rock– crops (Karuvalarcherryil kallilum • Lack of maintenance and vivasayam pannalam) management of water • Water sharing mechanisms are harvesting structures followed wherein, a farmer • Construction of check dams who does not have his own for diverting water in the upstream areas of the river. bore well can hire water Lack of awareness on bio- from a nearby bore well for fertilizer and organic farming irrigation (water sharing) (asozpirillam, phospho bacteria etc.)

63 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Physical • Two major canal systems from • Interior parts of the canal Raran canal irrigate the land are not maintained and/or in the village de-silted regularly and hence • The village has 38 bore wells hamper the free flow of water for irrigation • Even though there are well • The village has well laid out laid-out roads the village roads to and from the village is not well connected by • Availability of a market for public transport, affecting the selling agriculture produces marginal and small farmers (Kumbakonam -8 km) access to market for their • Ease of availability of produce in Kumbakonam agricultural inputs such as • There areno storage units in fertilizers and pesticides, the village resulting in selling especially from private shops of farm produce soon after the • The village has fivetractors harvest at lower prices and four power tillers shared among the villagers for agriculture work

Social • There are fourSelf Help • In effective functioning of the Groups (SHGs) (women and Canal Welfare Association men). They act as platform • Even though the village for women to share and gain has fourSHGs there are knowledge about the outside no collective actions on world agriculture issues and • Presence of Canal Welfare marketing, etc., Association • All communities of the village celebrate festivals together without any discrimination • Participatory decision making for any village function and common basic needs

64 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Financial • Accessibility to agriculture • There has been no enrollment credit from Primary of new members in Primary Agriculture Cooperative Agricultural Co-operative Society (PACS) only for Society members • The process of applying for • Availability of loans from a loan from the nationalized nationalized banks banks istedious and illiterate,poor farmers find it hard to comply with the process • The informal systems of money lending exist and they charge high interest on loan amount • Lack of awareness about crop insurance. It is paid only when loans are taken from banks and PACS Political • The price of paddy is • No minimum support price for fixed by government and other crops like cotton, black procurement of paddy is done gram etc., hence there is no by Tamil Nadu Civil Supplies competition for procurement Corporation (TNCSC) and private buyers fix low • Subsidy is provided for rate during peak harvest of a black gram cultivation by particular crop agriculture department • Three phase electricity supply • Subsidy is givenfor SRI for three to four hours only. It method of cultivation of is not sufficient. At least eight paddy. The farmers who hours per day is needed follow this method of • Subsidy schemes are not cultivation get Rs 3,000 from reaching all farmers (real/poor the government farmers). At some places, the • Minimum support price for subsidy and disaster- relief Free electricity packages

65 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

• Diesel subsidy for oil engine were received by the owners for agricultural irrigation use of land even when the land is (1/3 as subsidy or Rs.1200/ cultivated by landless/marginal farmer/crop maximum) farmers on lease

TREND ANALYSIS OF VILLAGE AGRICULTURE Cropping pattern and sources of irrigation The effects of climate change in terms of erratic rainfall and increasing temperature areaffecting the cropping pattern and crop production in the village. Agriculture has become more capital-intensive which pushes the small and marginal farmers to shift to other livelihood activities. The village had earlier two types of land, wetland and rainfed land. Paddy and black gram were cultivated in the wetlands and paddy,black gram, maize, turmeric, and egg plant (Brinjal) were cultivated in the rainfed area. After the year 2004, the number of bore-wells increased because of changes in rainfall and flow of water in the river which enabled the farmers to cultivate crops such as paddy, cotton, sugarcane and coconuts and also increase the land under cultivation. At present only paddy, cotton and black gram crops are grown. Now, the farmers cultivate only one crop of paddy due to uncertainty in the seasonal rainfall and non-availability of canal water. “Monsoon is the main season for paddy cultivation. Earlier north east monsoon was very good and rains would always come on time. But nowadays there have beenmajor changes in north east monsoon and thenumber of rainy days has also reduced.” Saida farmer. Farmers are opting for irrigation from bore wells. At present, there are 38 bore wells in the village and the average depth of water level is 60 feet. “When I joined here [Kumbakonam] the groundwater level was 10 feet below ground level, but nowadays it is 40 feet. In future,ground water level will further decrease because the number of bore wells is increasing and number of rainy days is decreasing.” The Assistant Director of Agriculture (ADA) of Kumbakonam saidaboutground water level. These days farmers aremostly cultivatinghybrid varieties. But 30 years back they were cultivating only local varieties and preserved their traditional variety of seeds.

66 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Temperature: There is an increase in temperature and it is affecting the crop yield. Prior to 2004, groundwater was used for cultivation in peak summer months of March and April, which is not the case now. Currently groundwaterusage for crop cultivation has increased, which has reduced the number of days between crops cultivated. This can be best seen in the reduction in the number of crops cultivated; there is a clear shift from paddy to cotton crops.As cotton cultivation requires less water, most of the farmers of this village are going for cotton and the number of farmers who cultivated paddy earlier, has come down. Discussions with farmers of the village highlighted that in future, they will cultivate more of cotton and black gram as they are less water intensive crops.

Soil Quality and fertilizer: As per the perception oflocal farmers, 30 years ago, soil quality for agricultural operation was very good as chemical fertilizers were not used in agriculture. They used more organic and bio-fertilizers. But now-a-days increaseduse of chemical fertilizer, pesticide and seed variety,have affected the fertility of agriculture land. The farmers have realised that their crop yieldsare going down with the excessive use of chemical fertilizers and some of them are thinking about returning to traditional practices and organic fertilizers to maintain the quality of land and increase agricultural produce.

Labour for agriculture work: In earlier days, agriculture labour was easily available in the village. Nowadaysthe availability of labourers has reduced, this coupled with increasing wage rate has resulted in mechanisation and/or leasing of farmlands to landless labourers for cultivation. Table 16, highlights the main trends that are observed in Karuvalercheriover a period of 30 years (1984-2014) as indicated by local communities.

67 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Table 5: Table highlighting 30 years trend (1984 - 2014) in Karuvalarcheri Factors 30 years before 10 years before Present (2014) (1984) (2004) Rainfall • North East • Delay in onset of • There is a rainfall monsoon used to monsoon. during the months start in September • Rains were of May and June and October(Ipasi received during (vaikasi), earlier and Karthigai) low pressure or there used to be and there used cyclone time just three to four to be an equal rainy days (30 distribution of years back these rains throughout months had no (adaimalai) the rainy days) two months. In • Delay in North the same period East monsoon and cyclone and intermittent rains. low pressure • The intensity alsobrought heavy of rainfall has rains reduced to just four to five rainy days in amonth up to December • Increase in unseasonal occurrence of cyclone and occurrence of low pressure (January to May) Temperature • Hot summer • Summer months • Currently, there wasexperienced ranged between is an increase in during April and the months of temperatures from May. In the month March and June February toJune. of June (Vaikasi) • There is a there used to be decreasein ground heavy winds water, andchange

68 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

which reduced the in wind patterns. effect of temperature It leads to pest and diseases in cotton and other crops Fog/mist • We used to • There has been no • Heavy mist has experience mist change been observed in December to in December February. This resulting in crop wasvery useful for damage cultivating pulses

Crop • Traditional • Paddy, cotton • Due to decrease in Change varieties of Paddy and coconut were the availability of were cultivated, cultivated water (river and even though • Due to less rains) the farmers it gave a low availability of have shifted yield resulting water,the number to low-water inminimum of crops (crop consuming crops return from the intensity) reduced • There has been investment. to two crops an increase in • Also there was a (Bhogam) from cultivatingcotton dearthof fodder for three crops crops followed livestock 4 by paddy for • Black gram one season. This replaced ragi, is occasionally brinjal and accompanied with turmeric crop black gram and sugarcane Labour • Less wage rate • Local labour + • Younger and high work labourers from generation is not outturn outside the village willing to involve • Local labour was in agriculture sufficient for • For agriculture cultivating the operation there entire village area has been an

4 It is observed that traditional varieties provide more fodder compared to modern crops

69 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

increase in outside labourforce to work along with local labour

Cultivation • land preparation, • Tractors were • Mechanisation of practices the leveling of land introduced for agriculture (the was done by using cultivation village has five bullocks • Seeds were used tractorsfour mini (first tractor from their own tractors/power purchased in 1970) land tillers, which are • Mostly farmers • Newer varieties used for ploughing used their such as ADT 386 of fields) own seeds for were used • Now seeds are cultivation of all • Slow shift mostly bought the crops to chemical from agro • Kolunchi5 and fertilizers centres of private other plants/crop enterprisesand were cultivated primary as green manure agriculture and they enriched cooperative the soil nutrients society before main crop • Everyone uses planting chemical fertilizer • Manual labour was used for weeding

Water • Due to rains in • Delay in release • Dependent on sources for the month of May, of water and groundwater and agriculture river water was introduction of at times on river available from bore wells water June

5Kolunchi is a green manure crop and is mulched into the soil for paddy cultivation 6 ADT 38 is a variety of rice which is a medium duration crop and is resistant to many pests

70 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Market • Agriculture • Government • Government produces were markets were market and private used for own established and buyers purchase consumption and farmers started agriculture remaining were selling toboth produce which sold to private government and has helped in the buyers private players increase of the price of paddy

SERVICES AND OPPORTUNITIES An analysis of the services and opportunities available for agriculture was conducted to assess the performance and usage

Table 6: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Karuvalarcheri Sl. Services Performance Use No. 1. Agriculture • The release of crop • Modern and new Research Station varieties is time varieties to reduce the consuming and the number of days for crop released varieties do not cultivation and increase withstand for more years the yield in the field • Field-level research activities are not happening at the village level and in the fields of the farmers • There is no consultation with farmers to get farmer’s needs and opinion

71 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

2. Assistant Director • Agriculture officers • The department is of Agriculture seldom visit the village very muchrequired • Subsidized input for getting subsidized distribution has not inputs, new varieties of reached all sections of seeds, alternate crops the village and solution for new diseases and pest 3. Primary • New membersare not • Existing members are Agriculture enrolled in the PACS. getting a loan Cooperative Only existing members • Availability of loans on Society can avail loans. jewelleryfor all farmers • Flexibility of getting loan on jewellery is good 4 Crop Insurance • Crop insurance is done • Helps farmers fight only for crop loans against frequent crop received from banks – losses due to the natural PACS and Nationalised disasterswhich make banks poor farmers’ lives • Process and payout is miserable not clearly explained by the insurers • Individual crop insurance is not done by farmers hence, the benefits are not received 5 Farmers’ • No meetings and no • Important to gather, Association action information and place farmers’ demands to the next level institutions and sharing knowledge and schemes

72 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

6 Subsidy - seeds, • Only a few farmers get • Only those seeds are Fertilizer department supplies and available which are subsidized inputs recommended by the • The subsidies do not agriculture department reach all the farmers, • Farmers are mostly especially the poor and dependent on marginalized department for black gram seeds 7 Water User • Regular meetings are • It provides a unified Association not conducted and face for sharing no action is taken on farmers’ concerns with maintenance of channels government departments such as the Public Works Department 8 Government Seed • Adequate quantity of • The Quality of seeds Farm seeds arenot available supplied is good

9 Kisan Call Centre • Response of the call centre is very good and suggestions for the problems are suited to our fields 10 Farm Machinery • Timely available, cost • Harvesting is easily effective done even during monsoons with the help of the combined harvester. Land preparation is done by using tractoronly 11 Regulated market • TNCSC procurespaddy • Bold variety paddy not at village level and is procured by private cotton is procured at persons, TNCSC government regulated procures all varieties of and private markets paddy located at Kumbakonam

73 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

12 Early Warning • Television and • Forecasts help in System (Media) Newspapersare the main planning agricultural source of information activities such as sowing, harvesting and drying 13 Soil testing • Soil samples from the • Soil analysis resultsare Centre fields are analysed by used for application of soil testing laboratories, fertilizer for different but recommendations crops or results are not timely shared 14 Public Works • There is a lack of • The irrigation channels Department allocation of funds are very vital for and maintenance of all cultivation of crops channels and shutters • A well maintained • Quality of repair and channel helps in renovation works are enriching the soil with not up to the mark nutrients 15 Electricity Board • The board immediately • Electricity is used for rectifies any problem lifting groundwater for in service and there is cultivation of crops no problem of voltage fluctuation 16 MGNREGA • Quality of the work • It provides an cannot be compared opportunity to earn with the amount of during a lean season for money spent landless labourers • It creates labour shortage during farming and has increased the wage rate too 17 Panchayat office • Farmers’ issues are not • Land records, land tax, addressed in the Gram documents for crop Panchayat meetings loan are collected at Panchayat office

74 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

• Water bodies and channel cleaning is not effective even though it is done through MGNREGA 18 Village • Maintains land records • Very important for Administration and cultivation of crops getting agriculture Officer every year. It is the basic and income certificate document for any crop whenever required loss compensation to be given by government. 19 Bank • There is no respect and • Banks have provided response to the marginal an opportunity to and small farmers’ open accounts under requirements MGNREGA • The process is lengthy • Agriculture loan is and extensive provided to a few farmers

Scoring of Vulnerability The result of the scoring exercise is as shown in the table 8. The vulnerability of individual livelihood capitals is found to be Natural (0.34), Physical (0.67), Financial (0.65) resulting in an overall vulnerability of the village to be 0.51. It can be concluded that for the village of Karuvalarcheri Physical capital in terms of borewells for extracting groundwater is a threat to the changing climate. Increase in the number of bore wells coupled with variations in precipitation will result in increasing the vulnerability of the village soon. The Figure and Table 7.show the scores by local communities on the livelihood capitals (Natural, Physical and Financial).

75 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Role of Livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Karuvalercheri

Rainfall 5 4.5 Asset Base Temperature 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 Credit 1.5 Soil Characteristics 1 Cropping Pattern 0.5 Crop Production 0 Crop Intensity Crop Infestation Market Groundwater

Farm Machinery River / Canal Water

Irrigation System (Bore well)

Figure 1: Role of Livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Karuvalarcheri

Table 7: Scores of Karuvalarcheri by Community Representatives Scores Cropping Crop Crop Crop Indicators Pattern Production Intensity Infestation Rainfall 1.00 4.00 0.00 3.00 Temperature 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 Soil Characteristics 0.00 2.00 0.00 1.00 Groundwater 4.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 River/Canal Water 3.00 0.00 4.00 0.00 Irrigation System 5.00 5.00 2.00 0.00 (Bore well) Farm Machinery 0.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 Market 4.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 Credit 0.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 Asset Base 0.00 5.00 2.00 1.00

76 Village Profile 1 – Karuvalarcheri

Table 8: Vulnerability Index for Karuvalarcheri Study Villages Livelihood Capitals Vulnerability Natural Physical Financial Index Karuvalarcheri 0.34 0.67 0.65 0.51

Good

Bad - Good Good -Good Prioritised Issues Decreasing Ground water level Reduction of river water supply Canal siltation Livelihood Capitals Bad Good

Bad - Bad Good - Bad

Bad

Figure 2: Scenario Planning for Karuvalarcheri It was observed that physical capital ishighly influencing the vulnerability of Karuvalarcheri. Hence, the issues related to physical capital were addressed in the scenario planning exercise. The issues are prioritised and listed in the second quadrant. Options are identified to overcome these issues and the same is shown in the table 9.

77 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Table 9: Table highlighting the options to overcome issues related to Physical Capital, Karuvalarcheri Key Institutions Key Issues Options Key Officials Panchayat District State Decreasing • Rain water • Panchayat DRDA Panchayat ground harvesting gramsaba, and PWD president, water • Desilting using for canal DFO, ADH of ponds, NREGA desilting. participation canals • Planting District in the • Planting trees in Forest district level more Pond and office, grievance trees and school Horticulture day reduction areas in cutting department conducted of trees for planting by District trees collector

Reduction 10 villagers Panchayat PWD office PWD office, of river jointly have president Sakkottai water to approach supply as the canal irrigates 10 villages. Canal association to be revived and should play an active role

78 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

Introduction Valapuram is a village under the Valapuram Panchayat in Kumbakonam block. This village is located in the northern side of Kumbakonam town towards Anaikarai. It is irrigated by Maniyar branch of the River Cauvery. The predominant livelihood of the village is agriculture. Paddy, black gram, sesame and sugarcane are major crops cultivated in the village. PRA methods were used for assessing people’s perception on climate change and its effects on agriculture livelihood. Prior to the PRA exercises, theteam made two visits to establish a rapport with the villagers. A total of 20 community members took part in the exercises. The following PRA exercises were conducted in the village  Social & Resource Mapping  Service and opportunity mapping  Trend and seasonality analysis  Force field analysis FINDINGS FROM PRA EXERCISES Social and Resource Mapping The village is composed of two predominant communities – Padyachi7 (vanniyar) and Pallar8 is one community, Asari9 and Muslims form the other

7 Padyachi is one of the most backward classes in Tamil Nadu 8 Pallar community comes under the schedule caste in Tamil Nadu 9Asari community falls under the backward class in Tamil Nadu

79 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? community. There are 105 houses in the village, with a total population of 415 (204 Men and 211 Women) and 192 cattle. The village has four types of soil and slopes west to east. There are 30 bore wells with a depth ranging from 25 to 220 feet. The river water reaches the village through a main canal Karvaikkal which branches into 9 Kannivaikkal (Small channels) reaching throughout the village. The canals are silted and are at present not functioning. Table 10: Types and number of houses in Valapuram Types of houses Number of houses Government Assisted Housing 21 Reinforce cement concrete 11 Thatched Houses 54 Tiled Houses 19 Total Houses 105* *4 households have migrated Table 11: Main occupations in Valapuram and the number of households involved Occupation Number of Households Agriculture 10 Agriculture with Agriculture Labourer 11 Agriculture Labourer 49 Agriculture + Other activities 9 Petty shops 2 Private jobs 13 Migrated families 4 Table 12: Land Holding in Valapuram Land holding size in acre Number of Households < 5 (Big farmers) 02 2 – 5 (Small farmers) 11 >2 (Marginal farmers) 17 Land less 71 Total 101

80 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS Table 13: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Valapuram to continue farming

Capital Motivating factor Inhibiting factor Human • The main occupation of the • Issues of agricultural capital village is agriculture and most labourers during the season of of the households are engaged rice transplantation in agriculture • High wage rate • Some percentage of people • Young people do not have have shifted to construction knowledge of agriculture works • New generation has no knowledge about agricultural practices and do not want to be involved in agriculturefor their livelihood • There is no Farmers’ association Natural • Ground water is present 25 • Non availability of river feet deep near the main canal water (Karvaikkal) at other places • Erratic and uneven ground water is available at 40 distribution of rainfall feet. • Non-availability of water • Levelled land harvesting structures within • Very rich soil quality the village • The farmers who do not have • People have limited their own bore well can hire knowledge of water bore well from the nearby management bore well for irrigation (water • Canals are non-functional sharing).

Physical • 30 bore wells for irrigation • Non availability of • Good road facility government storage units • Nearby market for selling lead to selling the produce agriculture produce immediately after harvest at a (Kumbakonam - 8 km). low price

81 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

• Sufficient fertilizer and pesticide supply from private shops • Government procurement center is there in the village Social • 6 self help groups (SHGs) • SHG meetings do not discuss provide a platform for women issues related to agriculture to share and gain knowledge. and no collective action on They celebrate every festival agricultural and marketing together in the village without issues, etc., are taken any discrimination • Participatory methods of decision making are followed towards addressing common basic needs in the village Financial • Primary Agriculture • PACS is not enrolling new Cooperatives Society gives members even if the old a crop loan of Rs. 20,000 for member from the same family members. has died • Loan on jewellery for • Lengthy documentation agriculture purpose with process for Bank loans results minimum interest rates are in poor and illiterate farmers available in nationalized not benefitting from the banks scehmes • Informal system of money lending is practiced with high rates of interest Political • Minimum support price for • There is no minimum support paddy is fixed by government price for crops like cotton, and procurement of paddy is black gram etc., Because of undertaken by TNCSC this there is no competition • Subsidy is provided for for procurement and private black gram cultivation by buyers fix low price agriculture department • .Subsidy schemes are • Subsidy is provided for rice not reaching poor and intensification (SRI) marginalized farmers • Provision of Free electricity

82 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

Table 14: Table highlighting 30 years trend (1984 - 2014) in Valapuram

Factors 30 years before 10 years before Present (2014) (1984) (2004) Rainfall • Regular rain in • Slight change in • “There is no the months of the rainfall as the difference between September to monsoon season monsoon season December shortened (October and summer rain to November) nowadays” • The number of Rainy days have decreased • Most of the rains are caused during cyclone or low pressure in the Bay of Bengal Temperature • Summer seasons • Temperature • Summer is extended from ranged from 90–95 experienced up to Panguni to Vaikasi degree F mid of Adi (July) (April to June) • At present the • Generally highest temperature temperature recorded in the reached a area is 102 to 105 maximum of degree F 90–95 degree F

Fog/mist • Fog and mist was • “Ippakalammari • Currently mist is observed during pani peyuthu” observed in June the winter months (evenings and early between January morning) to March • It has ill effect on •  It was a good sign crops for pulse crops and • Heavy mist is vegetables observed during January damaging crops

83 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Crop • Adi (July – August) • Vaikasi (May) – • Vaikasi (May) – Change – Kuruvai10 Early kuruvai Early kuruvai • Purattasi •  August – Paddy • August – Paddy (September – • November – • November–Paddy October – Samba Paddy •Thai (January – February) – Pulses • Ippasi (October – November) – Narikuruvai

Labour • Sufficient labour • Local labour + • Currently there force was labourers from has been a available for outside the village decrease in the transplanting, labour forces weeding and • The available harvesting force is mainly used for for transplanting and weeding • Harvests are mechanized Cultivation • Traditional paddy • The paddy • Currently the practices varieties were varieties cultivated varieties of paddy cultivated using changed to crops cultivated own seeds Kuruvai-ADT 45, are Kuruvai-ADT 43 45, 43 • The traditional • Samba-CR 1009, • Samba-CR 1009, varieties included ADT 46, 38, 49, ADT 46, 38, 49, Narikuruvai, BPT BPT 11 Karudan samba , • Use of inorganic Kothamalli samba, fertilizer started Muthusamba, Anilval samba

10Kuruvai is the season where the short duration crop is cultivated 11Samba is the season where the long duration crop is cultivated

84 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

• Use of organic • There is also manure was high. abundant use of • Vegetables inorganic fertilizer cultivated by using and pesticide mainly due to Eththam – Mhot the increase in disease/pest outbreak Water • Water for • There was a shift • Currently the sources for irrigation was to groundwater as entire irrigation is agriculture sourced from both irrigation channels dependent purely River water and got silted/blocked on ground water ground water with • Due to the silting Eththam12 of the channels even when Mettur Dam water is released it does not flow to the fields through canals Market • The produce • Crops grown were • Crops are sold was sold in sold in private in both private private market and government and government after preserving markets markets some quantity • The crops are not for household preserved at the consumption household level anymore and the food grains are purchased from Public distribution shops

12Eththam is a traditional method for water harvesting

85 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Service and Opportunities Table 15: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Valapuram Sl. Services Performance Use No. 1. Agriculture • Releases of new • New varieties of crops Research Station varieties of crops take which can withstand more time and the floods and droughts released varieties are in addition to pest not able to withstand resistance need to be changes in climate introduced • Field level research is • New crop and varieties not happening need to be demonstrated • There is no consultation for coping with changes with farmers in climate 2 Assistant Director • The extension services • Agriculture department of Agriculture of the Agriculture and its services are department are not very important, as it reaching the village distributes inputs with • There are no regular subsidy and assesses visits by the department the crop damage during to the villages disasters

3 Primary • Existing members • The rate of Interest on Agriculture are getting credit on a loans are low and the Cooperative timely basis formalities to get a loan Society are less cumbersome compared to banks 4 Crop Insurance • Crops are insured, when • Helps farmers’ fight the farmer takes loan against frequent crop from banks losses due to the natural disasters which make poor farmers’ lives miserable

86 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

5 Farmers’ • There is no Farmers’ • There is a need for Association association in the village collective action and representation from the villagers when discussing matters with government departments

6 Subsidy—seeds, • The village is dependent • Farmers are purely Fertilizer on private players for dependent on chemical their seeds and fertilizer fertilizer and pesticide needs, as these are for crop production as accessible and the there is low availability service provided by of farm yard manure and them is good other organic manure. • At times the seeds are Hence farmers are provided to farmers. solely depending on • Some times the inputs agro centres for nutrient are given to farmers on supply and pest and credit basis disease control (Private)

7 Water User • The Water Users • Water supply and Association Association though distribution through (WUA) present is non-functional canal system is very poor • WUA has to take it seriously and approach the departments to solve the problem • For this collective action is a must and that can be achieved through an active WUA

87 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

8 Self Help Groups • Members use this group • Opportunity for getting for their development a loan with low rate of and solving their interests problems • Acts as a platform to share individual experiences • A mark of collective pride 9 Farm Machinery • Machinery are hired • The non-availability from private players as of labour is increasing, they are easily available which coupled with the high cost of labour, makes private machinery use inevitable for doing farming 10 Regulated market • Farmers sell their paddy • Private buyers reduce crops mostly to the the price of crops and Tamil Nadu Civil Supply create a lack of demand Corporation (TNCSC) for the crops as it is established in the • Regulated markets give village and reduces the confidence for selling cost of marketing the products • There is a need for quick processing for payments 11 Early Warning • Warnings are mainly • Useful for deciding System (Media) provided on television harvest and drying of • TV news on weather is produces and fertilizer good application 12 Soil testing • The soil testing centre, • Soil test is the need of Centre has not provided any the hour. The effect on service till date. soil of the excessive use • Results are not given to of fertilizer and ground farmers.

88 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

• Recommendations are water should be known to not practical farmers for future action of saving the soil 13 Public Works • The canals have become • Water flow in the canals Department dis-functional for is very important for several years and there groundwater recharge has been no action from and also to enrich soil the department to revive the canals 14 Electricity Board • Supply of electricity is • Electricity is very inadequate, in addition important for there is high voltage cultivation, as fluctuation agriculture in the village is completely dependent on groundwater for irrigation 15 MGNREGA • Land less and marginal • It provides employment farming families for landless and are employed in marginal farmers and MGNREGA arrests migration for • The quality and the employment works undertaken are not sufficient 16 Panchayat office • Panchayat provides • The resolutions work under MGNREGA provided by for poor and Gramsabhas are marginalized farmers very important in during lean season solving issues of concern with the designated government departments

89 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

17 Village • The officer issues the • Land records are Administration required documents for maintained by VAO Officer (VAO) processing of loans with which is very important banks for availing loan from banks • These documents are also necessary for claiming insurance due to agriculture damage

18 Bank • Banks do not respond • Nationalised banks are positively towards crop providing loan with loan special interest (7 %) • The process of loan to farmers and there is procurement is lengthy a possibility for loan waving during times of calamity

Scoring of Vulnerability Scoring of indicator and Scenario mapping process was conducted on 09-07- 2014 at 11.45 am. The scoring and mapping, process started with the participation of 17 farmers in which 1 is a big farmer, 4 are small and 12 are marginal farmers.

The facilitator explained the 10 indicators and their effects on cropping. The scores and the reasons for their scoring are explained below. The result of the Scoring exercise is as shown in the Table 17. The vulnerability of individual livelihood capitals is found to be Natural (0.34), Physical (0.84), Financial (0.75) resulting in an overall vulnerability of the village to be 0.59. It can be concluded that for the village of Valapuram Physical capital in terms of bore wells for extracting groundwater is a threat to the changing climate. Increase in the number of bore wells coupled with variations in precipitation will result in increasing the vulnerability of the village in the near future. The Figure and Table 16. show the scores by local communities on the livelihood capitals (Natural, Physical and Financial).

90 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

Role of Livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Valapuram

Rainfall 5

Asset Base 4 Temperature

3

2 Accessibility to Credit Soil Characteristics Cropping Pattern 1 Crop Production 0 Crop Intensity Crop Infestation Market Groundwater

Farm Machinery River / Canal Water

Irrigation System (Bore well)

Figure 3 : Role of livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Valapuram

Table 16: Scores of Valapuram by Community Representatives

Scores Cropping Crop Crop Crop Indicators Pattern Production Intensity Infestation Rainfall 4.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 Temperature 1.00 2.00 0.00 1.00 Soil Characteristics 4.00 3.00 2.00 0.00 Groundwater 4.00 3.00 3.00 0.00 River/Canal Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation System 5.00 5.00 5.00 0.00 (Bore well) Farm Machinery 5.00 3.00 3.00 0.00 Market 4.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 Accesibility to Credit 1.00 4.00 1.00 2.00 Asset Base 1.00 2.00 3.00 3.00

91 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Table 17: Vulnerability Index for Valapuram

Study Villages Livelihood Capitals Vulnerability Natural Physical Financial Index Valapuram 0.34 0.84 0.75 0.59

Scenario Plan Good

Bad - Good Good -Good Prioritised Issues Electricity supply shortage Reduction in quantity of Rainfall Decreasing ground water level Service of Agriculture extension officers not adequate Livelihood Capitals Bad Good

Bad - Bad Good - Bad

Bad

Figure 4 : Scenario Planning for Valapuram

92 Village Profile 2 – Valapuram

Table 18: Options/Pathways to move to a better scenario—Valapuram Options/ Governance Contact Key Issues Pathways Panchayat District State persons Electricity • Demanding Panchayat Electricity Farmers supply through president board – grievance Farmers’ district day at association circle collector • Attending A.E.O. Gram Panchayat to pass resolution • Shifting to Solar motor 3.Ground • Renovation Panchayat Hindu MGNREGA water of ponds and president endowment – Panchayat kuttai 13 department president • Promoting new water bodies • Constructing new Check dams

13 Kuttai Tamil refers to a small tank or a water body

93 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

Introduction Nandhivanam village comes under Maruthanallur Panchayat of Kumbakonam block and taluk of Thanjavur district. This village is located on the south side of Kumbakonam town towards Needamangalam. For assessing people’s perception on climate change and its effects on agriculture livelihood PRA methods were used. Prior to the PRA exercises, the team made two visits to establish a rapport with the villagers. A total of 20 community members participated in the exercises. The following PRA exercises were conducted in the village  Social & Resource Mapping  Service and opportunity mapping  Trend and seasonality analysis  Force field analysis

FINDINGS FROM PRA EXERCISES

Social and Resource Mapping Social and resource mapping exercises were conducted in the village to understand the socio-economic status, settlement of the village and the availability of natural resources. The village has a population of 673 (347 men and 326 women) with a total of 179 households. It has an agriculture land area of 127 acres (110 acres are

94 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam temple lands and the remaining 17 acres are owned by farmers). The village slopes from west to east and majorly consists of clayey loam soil. The village is fed by the Thirumalai Rajan River and has an effective network of canals and channels, which feed agriculture lands. The village has a total of 38 bore wells ranging from a depth of 40 feet to 220 feet. The resource plot also highlighted the number and types of houses that are present with the main occupation of the village. Table 19: Types and number of houses in Nandhivanam Type of houses Number of houses Government Assisted Houses 69 Reinforced cement concrete Houses 27 Thatched Houses 34 Tiled Houses 40 Total houses 170

Table 20: Main occupations in Nandhivanam and the number of households involved Number of Occupation Households Agriculture with Agriculture Labourer 15 Agriculture Labourer 106 Agriculture + Other activities 9 Petty shops 13 Private jobs 11 Tile Works 25 Total Families 179

Table 21: Land Holding in Nandhivanam Land holding size in acre Number of Households < 5 (Big farmers) 06 2 – 5 (Small farmers) 04 >2 (Marginal farmers) 05 Landless 106

95 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Trend Analysis of Village Agriculture Table 22: Table highlighting 30 year trend (1984 - 2014) in Nandhivanam Factors 30 years before (1984) 10 years before Present (2014) (2004) Rainfall • North east monsoon • Erratic • Rains received in September distribution of during the month (Ippasi) and October rainfall, mainly of May and (Karthigai) the North east June (vaikasi). • Uniform distribution monsoon period Presently, there of rains during these • Uneven are three – four months distribution of days with heavy • In the same period rainfall rainfall which cyclone and low was not the case pressure also brought 30 years ago heavy rains • Delay in North east monsoon and uneven distribution of rains • Occurrence of cyclone and low pressure result in unseasonal increase in rainfall, especially during January to May Temperature • Hot temperatures • Summers started • Hot season begins were experienced from March and from Mid of during April and lasted till the February till June May first week of • Currently, the June community feels more heat and

96 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

 there is a delay in wind season • The increase in the temperature has lead to pest and diseases in Cotton and other crops Crop • The main crops • Crops grown • Currently, cotton Change grown were paddy were paddy, is grown for one (Variety) and black gram in cotton, and season followed addition to ragi, coconut by paddy one brinjal and turmeric season, and black gram, sugarcane Labour • The available labour • Labourers from • Nowadays, within the village outside the most of the was sufficient even village were labourers come though, the wages also hired in from outside the for labourers were addition to village low Local labour

Cultivation • Bullocks were used • Mechanisation • Currently, there practices for leveling of the started with the are three mini Land use of Tractor tractors in the • The seeds used for cultivation village which for cultivation • Seeds used were are used for were stored by the collected from cultivation households the previous • Seeds are • The process of crop presently, weeding made use of • Newer variety purchased from manual labour of Paddy, private and ADT 38 was government cultivated traders

97 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

• There was • Use of chemical a slow shift fertilizer is to chemical rampant fertilizer • Manual labour • The process of is still used for weeding made weeding, with use of manual minimum use of labour machinery Water • The main source of • Groundwater • Currently, sources for water for agriculture was used for cultivation is agriculture was Cauvery River, cultivation completely through its canals due to delay in dependent on • Water was released release of water groundwater from dams situated in the canals upstream in the month of June Market • The produce was • The produce • Currently, the sold to the private was sold by produce is sold buyers farmers at at Government Government market market

SERVICES AND OPPORTUNITIES MAP Table 23: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Nandivanam Sl. Services Performance Use No. 1 Agriculture • The release of newer Modern and new Research Station varieties is taking a long varieties are utilized by time farmers to reduce the • The released varieties number of days of crop are not able to withstand and increase of yield the vagaries of climate

98 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

• There is no field level research, done in the fields of farmers • There is no consultation with farmers to understand their needs and opinion 2 Assistant Director • The visit to the villages • The department is very of Agriculture by Agriculture officials useful and is required are very limited for getting subsidized • The subsidized input inputs for farming distribution has not • To promote new reached all sections of varieties of seeds, the village alternate crops • For providing solutions for new diseases and pest 3 Primary • There is no new member • Existing members get Agriculture enrolment in PACS loan Cooperative • Only existing members • Loan on Jewels are Society are availing loans provided for all farmers • Flexibility of getting a at anytime Jewel loan is good

4 Crop Insurance • Crop insurance is done • Helps farmers fight only for crop loan against frequent crop received from banks – losses due to the PACS & Nationalised natural disasterswhich banks renderlife of poor Pay-out are not clearly farmers miserable explained to the insurers. Hence individual crop insurance is not done by farmers, as they are not convinced about the idea of crop insurance

99 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

5 Farmers’ • The farmers’ association • It is an important Association though present, is not association to gather active and inform the demands of farmers to next level institution and to share knowledge and schemes 6 Subsidy - seeds, • The Agriculture • Quality seeds Fertilizer department supplies recommended by the subsidized inputs only to department are available a few farmers, who have • Mostly, farmers get regular contact with the black gram seeds from department officials the department • Subsidized seeds are not available to all the farmers especially poor and less resourceful • Adequate quantity of seeds is not producedin the government seed banks 7 Water User • Though the association • The association is very Association is there, it does not meet useful to reach PWD (WUA) on a regular basis office and share our concerns and bring about unity of action 8 Self Help groups • There are four SHGs in • SHGs provide financial (SHGs) the village assistance with low • These are actively interest mainly for the conducting meetings purchase of livestock and assist in accessing and cultivation loans • Timely support is received from groups without any long procedures

100 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

9 Kisan Call Centre • Very good response to • Useful for deciding calls harvest • Suggestions provided by the centre are suitable for our fields 10 Farm Machinery • Machinery is available • Harvest is easily done for hire from private even in the rain with players the help of combined harvester • This is cost effective and • Land preparation is available on time is done, by using tractoronly 11 Regulated market • The government • Bold variety of paddy procurement agencies is not procured by procure paddy crop at private persons whereas, village level and cotton TNCSC procures all is procured at taluk level types of paddy (Kumbakonam) 12 Early Warning • Warning is available • Weather forecasting, System (Media) on television and mainly rainfall is useful newspaper for deciding the time of harvest and/or drying to save produce from damage 13 Soil testing • Though, soil samples • Different crops are Centre are taken from the cultivated in the village, field and analysed the soil analysis result recommendation or would be useful for resultsare delayed which application of fertilizer are thus not followed by for different crops the farmers

101 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

14 Public Works • There has been a lack in • The channels are very Department maintenance of channels vital for cultivation of and shutters of the crops canals • A well maintained • Quality of repair and channel brings enough renovation works are nutrients in the water to not adequate enrich the soil

15 Electricity Board • The power supply has a • Majority of the farmers problem of low voltage use electricity for pumping ground water for cultivation 16 MGNREGA • Quality of the work is • This provides an not comparable to the opportunity to earn resources spent during lean season for • This has resulted in the land-less agricultural lack of availability of labourers labour for agricultural practices as the wages provided in MGNREGAS is higher than the wages for agricultural labourers 17 Panchayat office • Farmers’ issues are not • Land records, land tax, takenup in the Gram documents for crop Sabha meeting loan are collected from • Water bodies and Panchayat office channel cleaning is not properly executed by Panchayat, even if it is done through MGNREGA

102 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

18 Village • It maintains land records • Very important for Administration and cultivation of crops getting agriculture and Officer (VAO) every year. It is the basic income certificate, document for any crop whenever required loss compensation to be given by government. For getting loan VAO has to give patta14 and Chitta15 19 Bank • The procedure of • Accounts opened under obtaining loans is MGNREGA have lengthy provided an opportunity • The response to the for obtaining agriculture marginal and small loan, taken by a few farmers is abject farmers

FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS FOR AGRICULTURE Table 24 : Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Nandhivanam to continue farming Capital Motivating factor Inhibiting factor Human • The main occupation of the • Shortage of labour and high capital village is agriculture and wage rate, during the time of most of the households are paddytransplantation involvedin it • Young people are not Farmers inthe village have a interested in farming and do goodknowledge of agricultural not possess theknowledge practices,such as,seed selection, about agriculture management of labour and Farmersget poor recognition cultivation practices in the society as compared to theother occupations

14 Patta in Tamil is a document which provides ownership of land and is the official land record 15 Chitta in Tamil means land document containing map of land held by an individual

103 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Natural • Ground water is available at a • The water from the River Capital depth of 40 feet Cauvery is not released at • The soil quality is high and the the right time. Influential land around the village is plain politicians construct check and uniform dams and divert Cauvery • Water from the river provides water in the upstream for irrigation. A unique system • Lack of water harvesting of water sharing is followed structures among farmers, who have • There is no awareness about bore-wells and those who do bio-fertilizer and organic not have. farming (Azospirillam, Phospho bacteria, etc.) • Lack of knowledge and practice in proper water management • Unseasonal rainfall during the harvest period—January to March • Many times release of Cauvery water in the river coincides with heavy rainfall, which leads to damage of crops and loss to farmers

Physical • There are 21 bore wells used for irrigation in the village • There are three heavy load vehicles used for collective transportation of agricultural inputs and outputs in the village. The village has access to good road facility

104 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

• Markets for selling agriculture • Non-availability of produces are close by government storage areas (Kumbakonam - 6km). in the village,forces farmers • Availability of sufficient to sell of their produce fertilizers and pesticidesfrom immediately,after harvest for a private agro centres low price. • Process of converting paddy to rice is not done at the village hence, farmers procure rice from markets Canals, mainly in the interiorsare not cleaned or desilted regularly thus restricting the free flow of water Social • FiveSelf Help Groups (women • Self Help Groups don’t and men) are located in the pay attention to needs of villagewhich actas a platform farmers anddon’t discuss for villagersto share and gain farmingrelated issues such as knowledge marketing, procurement etc • There is no discrimination among the villagers, especially during village festivities and these are celebratedtogether • Participatory decision making approaches are used for conductingvillage celebrations and distribution of common basic needs Crisis based gatherings andmeetings help address the issuesof functioning of the village

105 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Financial • Primary Agricultural • PACS are not enrolling new Financial Cooperative Societies (PACS) members from families, who give loan to the tune of Rs. have lost the older members 20,000 for each member • The documentation process • Loans on Jewels of Rs of procuring bank loans 50,000-2,00,000 are extended is tedious. Thus poor and by the nationalized banks illiterate farmers have lost for agriculture purpose at a interest ingettingloans from minimum rate of interest banks. • Informal system of money lending exists with high rate of interest Crop insurance premium is collected by banks (PACS, Nationalised banks) during sanctioning of crop loan. But the farmers never receive pay-outs when they face crop damage or loss

Political • Minimum support price for • No minimum support price for paddy is fixed by government other crops like cotton, black and procurement of paddy gram, etc., hence there is no is doneby Tamil Nadu Civil competition for procurement Supplies Corporation. and private buyers fix low rate • Subsidy is provided for during peak harvest of those black gram cultivation by crops. Agriculture department • Three-phase electricity supply • Subsidy is available for for three to four hours only. It System of Rice Intensification is not sufficient, at least eight (SRI) method of cultivation of hours per day of electricity is paddy. Farmers following SRI needed method get Rs 3,000 from the government

106 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

Diesel subsidy is given for use Subsidy schemes do not ofengineoil for pumping for reach all the eligible farmers. irrigation purpose (one-third as Atsome places, the subsidy subsidy or Rs.1200 / farmer/ and disaster-relief package are crop as maximum) received by the owners of the land, even thoughthe land is cultivated by landless/marginal farmers at lease

Scoring of Vulnerability Scoring of vulnerability indicator and Scenario mapping process was done with the participation of 17 farmers. The facilitator explained the 10 indicators and their effects on agriculture. The scores and the reasons for their scoring are explained below. The result of the scoring exercise is as shown in the Table 25. The vulnerability of individual livelihood capitals is found to be Natural (0.28), Physical (0.39), Financial (0.65) resulting in an overall vulnerability of the village to be 0.36. It can be concluded that the village of Nandhivanam is highly vulnerable in terms of financial capital. As is seen from the resource plot, most of the agriculture land in the village belongs to the temple and the farmers, who on a regular basis lease it for cultivation. The lack of land holding has led to non-extension of credit from banks, resulting in inaccessibility of credit required for cultivation, rendering the agriculture practitioners vulnerable to the increasing variations in climate and its after effects. The Figure and Table 24. show the scores by local communities on the livelihood capitals (Natural, Physical and Financial).

107 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Role of Livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Nandhivanam

Rainfall 4 Asset Base 3.5 Temperature 3 2.5 2 1.5 Accessibility to Credit Soil Characteristics 1 Cropping Pattern 0.5 Crop Production 0 Crop Intensity Crop Infestation Market Groundwater

Farm Machinery River / Canal Water

Irrigation System (Bore well)

Figure 5 : Role of Livelihood Capital on Agriculture in Nandhivanam

Table 25: Scores of Nandhivanam by Community Representatives Scores Cropping Crop Crop Crop Indicators Pattern Production Intensity Infestation Rainfall 3.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 Temperature 2.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 Soil Characteristics 0.00 3.00 0.00 0.00 Groundwater 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 River / Canal Water 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 Irrigation System 1.00 3.00 1.00 0.00 (Bore well) Farm Machinery 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Market 2.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 Accessibility to Credit 0.00 2.00 0.00 1.00 Asset Base 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00

108 Village Profile 3 – Nandhivanam

Table 26: Vulnerability Index for Nandhivanam Study Villages Livelihood Capitals Vulnerability Natural Physical Financial Index Nandhivanam 0.28 0.39 0.65 0.36

Good

Bad - Good Good -Good Prioritised Issues Change in rainfall season and quantity Availability of River water duration reduced Increasing Temperature leads to pest and disease Bad Good Physical Capital

Bad - Bad Good - Bad

Bad

Figure 6: Scenario planning with prioritised issues – Nandivanam Table 27: Options/Pathways to move to a better scenario – Nandivanam Key Options/ Governance Contact Issues Pathways Panchayat District State persons Change Planting more Panchayat Forest Ministry in rainfall trees in the president Department. of Forest season villages. Using Horticulture and and Creation of MNREGA and environ- quantity awareness agriculture ment department.

109 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

among villagers for Farmers about the need afforestation grievance for increasing programme day at vegetation. District level

Avail- Controlling of Panchayat PWD Approa- ability of sand mining in president office for ching River the rivers and Gram check dam Agri- water Desiltation Sabha construction culture duration of ponds and on the river research reduced canals. stations Meeting PWD to construct check dams to avoid wastages. Formation of farmers’ associations to approachthe respective department for resolving issues

Increas- Getting ing Temp- suggestions erature and reco- leads to mmendations pest and from depart- disease ment Approa- ching farmers’ information centre (18008830 – Kisan call centre) Cultivation of short- duration

110 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

Introduction Oorudeyanatham, a village in the Uthamathani Panchayat of Kumbakonam, is situated in the north of Kumbakonam town. The village agricultural lands are irrigated by Manniyar river. The predominant livelihood of the farmers in the village is agriculture with paddy, banana, vegetable and cotton as major crops. PRA exercises were used for assessing people’s perception on climate change and its effects on agriculture livelihood. Prior to the PRA exercises, the team made two visits to establish a rapport with the villagers. A total of 11 community members participated in the exercises. The following PRA exercises were conducted in the village  Social and Resource mapping  Service and opportunity mapping  Trend and seasonality analysis  Force field analysis

FINDINGS FROM PRA EXERCISES

Social and Resource Mapping Social and resource mapping exercise was conducted in the village to understand the socio-economic status, settlement of the village and the availability of natural resources. The village has a population of 558 (299 men and 259 women) with a

111 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change? total of 132 households. It has a total of 194 livestock (55 cows and 139 goats) and an agriculture land area of 216 acres that slopes from west to east and majorly consists of delta soil. The village is fed by the Maniyar river and has an effective network of 4 canals which irrigate the agriculture lands. Presently, the main canals are silted and do not function. The village has a total of 38 bore wells ranging from a depth of 40 feet to 220 feet. The resource plot also highlighted the number and types of houses in the village along with the main occupation of the villagers. Table 28: Types and number of houses in Oourodeyanatham Type of houses Number of houses Colony 34 Reinforced cement concrete Houses 28 Thatched Houses 9 Tiled Houses 11 Total houses 132 Table 29: Main occupations in Oourodeyanatham and the number of households involved Number of Occupation Households Agriculture with Agriculture Labourer 15 Agriculture Labourer 106 Agriculture + Other activities 9 Petty shops 13 Private jobs 11 Tile Works 25 Total Families 179 Table 30: Land Holding in Oourodeyanatham Number of Land holding size in acre Households < 5 (Big farmers) 06 2 – 5 (Small farmers) 04 >2 (Marginal farmers) 05 Landless 106

112 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

Trend analysis The adi month was July to August in 1984, while in 2004, it has shifted to September to October which is continuing in 2014. The paddy variety used during 1984 was ADT36, LR-8, LR-20, Japanica, black gram. While in 2004 they were ADT38, culture, ADT39, black gram and sesame. In 2014, crops and variety changed to black gram and paddy ADT43/45 and adisayaponni15. The crop season was July to Jan in 1984, September to Jan in 2004, which is continuing in 2014 also. Earlier in 1984 the north east monsoon used to be from October to December and the number of rainy days was 120 and NE monsoon was of 90 days. In 2004 it was in November-December. Same trend was in 2014 and number of rainy days are 30, in which the north east monsoon is for 15 days. In future it is expected to be for 15 days only. The village also has Social capital. SHG are there and bore well water sharing concept is also prevalent among the people who do not have bore wells. Farmers get supply of seeds from agriculture extension department. Subsidy for black gram is also available. Earlier villagers used to select one family to take care of agriculture and farms, which is not there now. The big farmers are getting more benefits from subsidy. Black gram subsidy is not available on time. In 1984 fog and mist used to be for four months (Nov to March). While in 2004 it has reduced to three months (Nov-Feb). In 2014 it was two and a half months (Nov-Jan). In future, it will reduce to two months only.

15 Adisayaponni is Tamil for Magic Paddy

113 Can Farmers Adapt to Climate Change?

Table 31 : Table highlighting 30 year trend (1984 - 2014) in Oourodeyanatham Factors 30 years before (1984) 10 years before Present (2014) (2004) Rainfall • The north east • The north • The month of monsoon started east monsoon May and June in September and started from (Summer) lasted for two October and (vaikasi) receives months continued till rain (Ippasi and Karthigai) December. • Nowadays, there • There was a uniform • Continuous is a delay in distribution of rains rains were there the north east in these two months In November monsoon, which and the season was • There was is erratic called ‘adaimalai’ an increase • The number of • In the same period in Summer rainy days has cyclone and low showers also decreased pressure brought There is an heavy rains. increase in unseasonal occurrence of cyclones and low pressure, especially during January to May Temperature • Summers were • Summer season • Currently, experienced between extended till the summer season April to middle of end of June extends from June March to July • The increase in temperature is felt by the community which has resulted in decrease of water

114 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

• There is a change in the wind pattern

Fog/mist • The period between • Mist was • Currently, the December to formed during period of mist February was the winter season formation has peak winter season beginning from shifted with the which resulted in January and the winter season mist lasted till mid of which extends March from January to the end of March Crop • The crops grown • The crops • Currently, two Change were paddy, black cultivated were crops of paddy (Variety ) gram, cotton, and paddy, cotton, are grown banana and brinjal followed by, black gram and/or vegetables Labour • The labour available • Labourers from • Currently, most within the village outside the of the labourers was sufficient even village were come from though, the wages also hired in outside the for labourers were addition to the village low local labour Cultivation • Bullocks were used • Mechanisation • Currently, seeds practices for leveling of the started with the are bought Land use of Tractors from shops or • The seeds used for cultivation government for cultivation • Seeds used were society (mostly were stored by the collected from from traders) households the previous • There is a • The crop yield for crop rampant use paddy was 18 bags • Newer variety of chemical (60kg/ bag) per acre of Paddy, pesticide and in 1984 ADT 38 was fertilizer cultivated

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• There was • Manual labour is a slow shift still the preferred to chemical method for fertilizers weeding • Manual labour • The crop yield was still used for paddy has for weeding reduced to 18 • The crop yield bags (60kg/ bag) for paddy was 24 bags (60kg/ bag) Water • The main source of • Due to the • Currently, sources for water for agriculture delay in release cultivation is agriculture was Cauvery River, of water in completely through its canals the canals, the dependent on • Water was released groundwater groundwater from dams situated was used for upstream in the cultivation month of June • The distribution of rainfall was uniform throughout the year Market • Agriculture produce • The produce • Currently, the was sold to private was sold by produce is sold traders farmers at at Government Government regulated markets market

116 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

SERVICE AND OPPORTUNITY ANALYSIS

Table 32: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Oourodeyanatham Sl. Services Performance Use No. 1. Agriculture • Officer’s visits to village • Mostly farmers depend officer are limited and services on the agriculture officer are reaching all section for technical advice and of people to learn new approaches and methods of farming • The officer plays an important role in procuring subsidies from the department

2 Public Works • There has been a lack • Channels are very Department of maintenance of important for getting irrigation channels water for cultivation • The department does • The channels help in not co-operate with recharge of ground local farmers on the water and drain the maintenance of water water during the seasons distribution system of heavy rainfall

3 Primary • There is no new member • Agriculture loan is Agriculture enrolment in PACS provided at low rates of Cooperative • Only existing members interest Society are availing loans 4 Commercial • The procedure of • Agriculture loan can Banks obtaining loans is be availed and Kissan lengthy credit card can be made • The response to the use of marginal and small farmers is abject

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5 Insurance • Crop insurance is done • Helps farmers fight only for crop loans against frequent crop received from banks— losses due to the natural PACS and Nationalised disasters which make banks poor farmers’ lives still more miserable 6 Soil test • Though, soil samples • Increased use of ground laboratory are taken from the water and its effect on field and analysed the soil needs to be analysed recommendations or for future action results are delayed which are thus not followed by the farmers 7 Agro centre • They are easily • Most of the inputs for accessible and give a agricultural needs are good response available and purchased • Even the purchase of from these centres agricultural material is available on credit basis 8 Early Warning • Warning is available • Weather forecasting, Systems on television and in mainly about rainfall, is newspapers useful for deciding the time of harvest and/or drying to save produce from damage 9 Kisan call centre • The response of call • Useful for agricultural centres is good. But only practices a few farmers are using • Call centres this service provide site specific recommendations free of cost

10 Panchayat Office • The Panchayat does • Land records, land tax, not involve itself in documents for crop water distribution and loan are collected from agricultural activities. Panchayat office

118 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

11 Farmers’ • There is no Farmers’ • Farmers’ issues could be association association in the village addressed collectively but leadership is very much required in this village 12 Storage centres • There are no storage • Storage areas provide facilities in the village farmers the flexibility to sell the produce as and when the demand is there. 13 Regulated market • The government • Its presence increases procurement agency the price of products TNCSC procures paddy which, otherwise are crop at village level reduced by private purchasers 14 Village • It Maintains land • Very important for Administration records and cultivation getting agriculture and Office of crops every income certificate, for year. It is the basic obtaining compensation document for any crop in case of crop damage loss compensation to be given by the government.

FORCE FIELD ANANLYSIS Table 33: Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Oourodeyanatham to continue farming Capital Motivating or Pull Inhibiting/Push factors(Encouraging) factors(Discouraging) Human • During harvest, machines are • There is a scarcity of labour. capital available. Wage rate is Rs.100 Earlier people were working for women and Rs.250 for for grains but now they ask men. People have sufficient money knowledge of cultivation and agriculture

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Natural • During rainy season water is • Cauvery canal water is not Capital easily absorbed as drainage available. People face water channels are cleaned and scarcity in summer. The maintained efficiently sub channels are not being renovated • Using weedicides, pesticides and chemical fertilizers affect the fertility of the soil Physical • Enough bore wells are there • No transport facility towards capital for irrigation. the city is available for poor • Water sharing is there for people. Small farmers are farmers who don’t have bore dependent, only on buses for wells. purchasing agriculture inputs. • Ground water level is 35-40 • During harvesting season feet. there is a scarcity of tractors • Regulated market by the andharvesters. government procures farmer’s • They have to hire harvester produce on the spot. They give from outside at high costs. immediate cash payment. Financial • Loans on jewels, for • PACS loan is only for old Capital agriculture, is available from members. They are not the main stream banks. encouraging new membership • Subsidy is available for black • Bank loan is not provided to gram cultivation. real farmers who are doing agriculture on leased land • Local financial interest rate is very high • Crop insurance scheme is not practiced • The black gram subsidy is not timely available to all the farmers. Big farmers are more benefited by subsidies rather than marginal farmers.

120 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

Social • Twolocal self help groups Now there is no concept of capital (SHGs) and twogovernment selecting one person to look SHGs are there after agriculture • Earlier, farmers used to select one person from the village to look after land, crop etc. • Supply of seeds and fertilizers by agriculture extension centre

Scoring of Vulnerability The scoring of indicator and scenario mapping process was done with the participation of 17 farmers. The facilitator explained the 10 indicators and theireffects on cropping. The scores and the reasons for their scoring are explained below. The result of the Scoring exercise is as shown in the table 34. The vulnerability of individual livelihood capitals is found to be Natural (0.28), Physical (0.39), Financial (0.65) resulting in an overall vulnerability of the village to be 0.36. It can be inferredthatthe village of Oourodeyanatham is highly vulnerable in terms of financial capital. Itisobserved in the resource plot that most of the agriculture land in the village belongs to the temple and farmers. Theylease it on a regular basis for cultivation. The lack of land holding by real farmers has led to a non-extension of credit frombanks, resulting in non-accessibility of credit required for cultivation, rendering the agriculture practitioners vulnerable to the increasing variations in climate and its after effects. The Figure and Table 33. provide the detailed scores and the graphical representation as provided by farmers of Oourodeyanatham

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Role of Livelihood Capitals on Agriculture in Oourodeyanatham

Rainfall 4 Asset Base 3.5 Temperature 3 2.5 2 1.5 Accessibility to Credit Soil Characteristics 1 Cropping Pattern 0.5 Crop Production 0 Crop Intensity Crop Infestation Market Groundwater

Farm Machinery River / Canal Water

Irrigation System (Bore well)

Figure : 7 Role of Livelihood Capitals on Agriculture in Oourodeyanatham

Table 34: Scores of Oourodeyanatham by Community Representatives Scores Cropping Crop Crop Crop Indicators Pattern Production Intensity Infestation Rainfall 3.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 Temperature 2.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 Soil Characteristics 0.00 3.00 0.00 0.00 Groundwater 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 River / Canal Water 2.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 Irrigation System 1.50 3.00 1.00 0.00 (Bore well) Farm Machinery 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Market 2.00 2.00 0.00 0.00 Accessibility to Credit 0.00 2.00 0.00 1.00 Asset Base 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.00

122 Village Profiles 4 – Oourodeyanatham

Table 35: Vulnerability Index for Oourodeyanatham Study Villages Livelihood Capitals Vulnerability Natural Physical Financial Index Oourodeyanatham 0.28 0.39 0.65 0.36

Scenario Plan

Good

Bad - Good Good -Good Prioritised Issues Credit for agriculture from PACS Service area bank (nationalised banks) Crop Insurance

Bad Good Physical Capital

Bad - Bad Good - Bad

Bad

Figure : 8 Scenario planning with prioritised issues – Oourodeyanatham

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Pathways for moving to a better scenario Table 36: Options/Pathways to move to a better scenario – Oourodeyanatham Key Options/ Governance Contact Issues Pathways Panchayat District State persons Credit for Demanding Panchayat Complaint Co- agri- through president to district operative culture Farmers’ collector secretary from association and PACS Attending minister Gram Sabha to pass resolution. Service Attending Lead Panchayat Lead bank area bank bank monthly president meeting and (nationa meeting. manager lised banks) Crop Awareness Agriculture Insurance needs to be department spreadthrough AEO and ADA office. Cooperation among the farmers and farmers’ organization has to be promoted.

124 Village Profiles 5 – Sathangudi

Village Profiles 5 – Sathangudi

Introduction Sathangudi village comes under Agarathur Panchayat of Kumbakonam block and is located north of Kumbakonam town towardsAnaikarai. The village is irrigated by Palavaru branch of Maniyar river of Cauvery River. Agriculture is the predominant occupation of the village with paddy and black gram cultivated as the main crops. PRA methods were used for assessing people’s perception on climate change and its effects on agriculture livelihood. Prior to the PRA exercises, the team made two visits to establisha rapport with the villagers. A total of 10 community members participated in the exercises. The following PRA exercises were conducted in the village  Social and Resource Mapping  Service and opportunity mapping  Trend and seasonality analysis  Force field analysis Findings from PRA Exercises Social and Resource Mapping

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Social and resource mapping exercises were conducted in the village to understand the socio economic status, settlement of the village and the availability of natural resources. The village has a population of 643 (307 Men and 327 Women) with a total of 162 households. It has an agriculture land area of 216 acres and slopes from west to east and majorly consists of heavy clayey soil. It has a total of 158 livestock (51 Cows and 107 Goats). It is fed by the Maniyar river and has an effective network of fourcanals (Kollam, Melavathi, Sathru and Chawadi) and channels which used to irrigate the agriculture lands until 1995. Presently, the main canals are silted and are not functioning. The village has a total of 30 bore wells ranging from a depth of 40 feet to 160 feet. The resource plot also highlighted the number and types of houses in the village with the main occupation of the villagers. Table 37: Types and number of houses in Sathangudi Types of houses Number of houses Government Assisted Housing 69 Reinforce cement concrete House 14 Thatched House 62 Tiled House 17 Total houses 162 Table 38: Main occupations in Sathangudi and the number of households involved Occupation Number of Households Agriculture with Agriculture Labourer 21 Agriculture Labourer 104 Agriculture + Other activities 24 Petty shops 1 Private jobs 12 Total Families 162 Table 39: Land Holding in Sathangudi Land holding size in acre Number of Households < 5 (Big farmers) 11 2 – 5 (Small farmers) 07 >2 (Marginal farmers) 27 Land less 117

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Trend analysis of village agriculture Table 40: Table highlighting 30 year trend (1984 - 2014) in Sathangudi Factors 30 years before (1984) 10 years before Present (2014) (2004) Rainfall • The northeast • There was a • Currently, rainfall monsoon was shift in the is received in uniform throughout distribution of the months of the two months of rainfall, though May and June aadimalai, and began the months (vaikasi),which in September (Ippasi remained same was not the case and Karthigai) 30 years ago • The same period • There is a delay saw the occurrance in northeast of cyclone and low monsoon pressure, which • The northeast brought heavy monsoonis erratic rainfall and unevenly distributed • There is an increase in the occurrence of unseasonal cyclones and low essureduring January to May . Temperature • Summers, with high • Summer season • Currently, the tmperatures lasted with high summer season for two months temperature with increasing (April 15 to June 15) hasextended temperature from March to begins in March May and lasts till June • There is a change in thewind pattern and a delay in the seasonal winds

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• The increase intemperature leads to pest and diseases in cotton and other crops Crop • The major crops • The crops • Presently, two Change cultivated were cultivated were crops of paddy paddy, black gram, paddy, cotton, are grown and sugarcane and sugarcane followed by black gram, and sugarcane Labour • The labouravailable • Labourers from • Currently, most within the village outside the of the labourers was sufficient, even village were come from though, the wages also hired in outside the for labourers were addition to village low Local labour Cultivation • The seeds used • Mechanization • Currently, seven practices for cultivation started with the tractors and six were stored by the use of Tractor power tillers households for cultivation are used for • The process of • Seeds used were cultivation in the weeding usedmanual collected from village labour the previous • Seeds are crop presently, • Newer variety purchased of Paddy, ADT fromprivate and 38 and 36 were government cultivated traders • There was • Use of chemical a slow shift fertilizer is to chemical rampant fertilizer • Newer varieties • The process of paddy, BPT, of weeding ADT 38, 43, 44, usedmanual CR 1009 are used labour

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and an improved variety of black gram is used • Manual labour is still used for weeding, with minimum use of machinery Water • The main source of Groundwater Currently, sources for water for agriculture was used for cultivation is agriculture was Cauvery River, cultivation due completely through its canals to the delay in dependent on • Water was release of water groundwater released,in the in the canals month of June, from the dams situated upstream Market The produce was sold The produce was Currently, the to the private buyers sold by farmers produce is sold at Government at Government market market

SERVICE AND OPPORTUNITIES MAP Table 41: Table representing the performance and use of various services and opportunities for agriculture in Sathangudi Sl. Services Performance Use No. 1 Agriculture • Agriculture officers • The department is extension centre/ seldom visit the village very much required Assistant Director • There is no transfer for getting subsidized of Agriculture of knowledge and inputs, and quality seeds technology between the farmers and agriculture department

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• The community feels the need for a strong, transparent department with benefits reaching to all sections of the farmers 2 Private Agro • These centers promote • Farmers arecompletely centre timely availability of dependent on chemical inputs,sometimes given fertilizer and pesticide to farmers on credit for crop production. basis • There is low availability of farm yard manure and other organic manure • Hence, farmers are solely dependent on agro service centers for nutrient supply and pest & disease control 3 Primary • Existing members get • There are few Agriculture the credit facility. It is formalities to receive Cooperative useful for their farming loans and the rate of Society operations. interest is low 4 Crop Insurance • Crop insurance is • Frequent crop losses done only for crop due to natural disaster loans received from make poor farmers’ lives Nationalized banks miserable • The claim process is • Crop insurance provides tedious a simple and cost effective cover for products mainly from the point of increasing risk posed by climate change. 5 Self Help Groups • Four SHGs in the • Financial assistance (SHGs) village are active from SHG is available with a low rate of

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• SHGs help in obtaining interest, and is used for timely loans to pursue purchase of livestock and farming and dairy agriculture inputs activities • Timely support is received from groups without any lengthy procedures 6 Regulated market • Bold variety of paddy is • TNCSC procures paddy not procured by private at village level and traders cotton is procured at • TNCSC procures all government regulated varieties of paddy and and private markets makes a good payment located at Kumbakonam for it. 7 Soil testing • Only a few farmers use • Soil testing is the need Centre the services of the soil of the hour. Excessive testing centre use of fertilizer and the • There is a delay in use of ground water providing the results to and its effect on the soil the farmers should be studied for • Recommendations planning future action provided are not for conserving the soil practical to implement health at the individual farm level

8 Public Works • There is lack of • PWD is an important Department maintenance of all organisation to maintain (PWD) channels and shutters and manage channels. • The canal system is very important to get water from the river. It serves to recharge the ground water. It also acts as a drainage channel during flood and saves the loss of crops.

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9 Electricity Board • At present power supply • Irrigation purely is good during crisis depends on electricity; period and it helps the there is no alternative farmers get successful energy available at crop present. 10 Panchayat office • Work under MNREGA • MNREGA works are scheme is available for allotted by Panchayat poor farmers during the and payment is also lean (non-agricultural) made by them. season • Panchayat and • Deepening of ponds gramsabha resolution under this program is a is important for beneficial activity solving problems with agricultural department

FORCE FIELD ANANLYSIS Table 42 : Table highlighting the factors that motivate and restrain farmers of Sathangudi to continue farming Capital Motivating factor Inhibiting factor Human • Various machines are available • The return on agriculture capital for agriculture operations is low, resulting in loss • People have enough of opportunities for the knowledge of cultivation, agricultural labour force practices and agriculture crops Natural • The high quality of the soil • Less water is available in the Capital • Availability of groundwater is river also a motivating factor Physical • The communication • The lack of transportation Capital networks such as roads, facilities inhibit small telecommunications help and marginalized farmers the farming community to from timely procuring and enhance their knowledge purchasing ofinputs for agriculture

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Financial • Loans for agriculture,are • Though informal sources of Capital available from the nationalized credit are available, the rate of banks. interest is high

Social • The Self Help Groups in • There are no inhibiting factors Capital the village are functioning in this capital efficiently and meet the requirements

Scoring of Vulnerability Scoring of indicators and scenario mapping process was done with the participation of 10 farmers. The facilitator explained the 10 indicators and its effects on cropping. The scores and the reasons for their scoring are explained below. The result of the scoring exercise is as shown in the Table 42. The vulnerability of individual livelihood capitals is found to be Natural (0.41), Physical (0.83), Financial (0.75) resulting in an overall vulnerability of the village to be 0.53. It can be concluded that the village of Sathangudi is highly vulnerable in terms of Physical capital. As is seen from the resource plot, the village is low lying and is composed of clayey soil. It is also seen from the exercise that the canal system in the village is not functioning. This non-functioning of the canals has led the farmers in the village, to extract groundwater using bore wells. The rate at whichgroundwater is being extracted is a threat to the livelihoods in the present scenario of changing climate. Increase in the number of bore wells coupled with variations in precipitation will result in increasing the vulnerability of the village in the near future. The Figure and Table 41 show the detailed scores by local communities on the livelihood capitals (Natural, Physical and Financial).

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Role of Livelihood Capitals on Agriculture in Sathangudi

Rainfall 4

Asset Base 3.5 Temperature 3 2.5 2 1.5 Accessibility to Credit Soil Characteristics 1 Cropping Pattern 0.5 Crop Production 0 Crop Intensity Crop Infestation Market Groundwater

Farm Machinery River / Canal Water

Irrigation System (Bore well)

Figure 9 : Role of Livelihood Capitals on Agriculture in Sathangudi

Table 43: The scores of Sathangudi by Community Representatives Scores Cropping Crop Crop Crop Indicators Pattern Production Intensity Infestation Rainfall 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 Temperature 2.00 2.00 0.00 2.00 Soil Characteristics 4.00 3.00 1.00 0.00 Groundwater 3.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 River / Canal Water 2.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 Irrigation System 4.00 3.00 3.00 0.00 (Bore well) Farm Machinery 2.00 4.00 1.00 2.00 Market 3.00 4.00 1.00 3.00 Accessibility to Credit 3.00 1.00 2.00 0.00 Asset Base 2.00 0.00 1.00 0.00

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Table 44: Vulnerability Index for Sathangudi Study Villages Livelihood Capitals Vulnerability Natural Physical Financial Index Sathangudi 0.41 0.83 0.75 0.53

Scenario Plan

Good

Bad - Good Good -Good Prioritised Issues Decreasing ground water level Deep clay soil and water stagnation, water logging Canal siltation and water distribution Change in rainfall and distribution Bad Good Physical Capital

Bad - Bad Good - Bad

Bad Figure 10 : Scenario planning with prioritised issues – Sathangudi

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Recent Releases PUBLIC AFFAIRS INDEX Governance in the States of India 2016 Dr. C.K.Mathew, AthreyaMukunthan and VivekDivekar Can governance be measured in an objective manner using data available in the public domain so as to capture the essence of this quality of governance? Can we identify the critical aspects of governance and use the same for comparison between the States? Can we assign scores and ranks to the States based on the aggregation of the data in various key areas of governance? These were the issues that attracted the curiosity of Public Affairs Centre and prompted it to undertake the study. The Public Affairs Index (PAI) is an attempt to bring together the states of the country which are culturally, economically and socially diverse, into a common data-driven framework, to facilitate an interstate comparison. A well-framed methodology backed by statistical data from government sources, has been included in the study to provide insights into the subject. CLOSING THE LOOP Inclusion of the Urban Poor in Maternal Health Service Delivery in Bangalore Prarthana Rao, Meena Nair, Poornima G.R. and K. Prabhakar The community participation model—‘Maternity Home Monitoring Committees’ (MHMCs)—where common users of Maternity Homes come together to advocate for improved maternal health services offered by the city municipality was one of the outcomes of a two-phased study carried out by Public Affairs Centre (PAC) in Bangalore. The model has been successfully implemented in five Maternity Homes and one Referral Hospital. The process of putting these MHMCs in place came through a three-and-half-year study done in partnership with three local NGOs in Bangalore with funding and support from the International Budget Partnership (IBP). This report demonstrates a successful example of ‘Closing the loop’— with evidence based research and concerted advocacy efforts, it is possible to empower communities who then can stand up and demand for better services by putting pressure on the system. Climate Change Score Card (CCSC) An Implementation Guide Climate Change Score Card (CCSC) is an adaptation of the Community Score Cards (CSC), a well-known social accountability tool. CCSC consolidates people’s opinion and facilitates an informed dialogue between communities and the local governance structures. There are three important dimensions in a CCSC; the people, the state and the environment. To account for this, systematic integration of information on local governance and local climate science and livelihoods is made in the CCSC. CCSC process supports governance structures and communities with evidence and rationale to prioritize climate change adaptation issues and provides a platform for dialogue between vulnerable communities and relevant decision makers. For more visit www.pacindia.org

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