THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIALIZED EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

The uzbek state world languages university

II ENGLISH PHILOLOGY FACULTY

“ENGLISH APLIED SCIENCES” DEPARTMENT

QUALIFICATION PAPER on “The symbolism of colour in English language”

Written by the student of the 4 course Group 427 B Abdukarimona N.A ______Scientific supervisor PhD Atahanova G.Sh. ______

This qualification paper is considered and admitted to defense Protocol №___9______of ”_27_”___aprel____2011

TASHKENT 2011

Contents

Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 3

Chapter I THE MAIN ASPECTS OF 1.1 Development of theories of color……………………………..……….6 1.2 Color naming and associations……………………………...……..…10 1.3 ………………………………………………..…….…..…12

Chapter II THE ANALYSIS OF COLOR TERMS

2.1 Semantics of Symbol …………………………………………....……..18 2.2 Structural Features of Symbol…………………………….……..…….22 2.3 Comparative Analysis of Semantics and main tropes – metaphor and metonymy………………………………………………………….…..27 2.4 Semantic and Stylistic Analysis of Color Terms…………………..…51

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….…63

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………..…65

INTRODUCTION

It is probably useless to prove that vocabulary is an important part of language and hence its importance for any student of English Our work deals with words and expressions denominating colours, therefore the term colour words is used. Due to their nature knowledge of such words and some stores to look for them are essential for advertising, art students and other. Nowadays more and more people get access to different types of texts written in English. Understanding of fiction of different types, advertisements, names of food-stuffs and other goods, appearing both in typographic print and in the Internet become a professional and everyday need of more and more people. While reading a text in English readers face a certain number of problems. One of such problems is to understand and to translation/interpret colour words. To interpret here means not only to translate orally, but to reveal the underlying meaning. Colour words are freely used by the authors to describe different things, such as features of the characters faces, clothes, jewellery, make-up, cars, landscapes and seascape, pieces of art etc. Look at the sky in Eys by T.Hardy: the sky gray of the purest melancholy; a - hued expanse of western sky; the pale glow of the sky; it was a familiar September , dark-blue fragments of cloud upon an - sky; a sky; rich of a midnight sky; a rosy sky; in a sky of ashen hue. In eager wish to express their thoughts and ideas most precisely, authors hunt for more suitable and most unusual words.

W. Somerset Maugham in Theatre describing Julias bedroom uses Nattier blue, the colour that connects Julia with the world of arts and artists, hints at her French origin and reveals her bright vivid nature.

Oscar Wilde in Portrait of Dorian Gray wishing to express the brightness of the June day and of Dorians beauty, uses , , , , , yellow, and coal-. He paints the portraits of his characters with ivory, , rose-, rose-, white and olive; he finds pink and scarlet on their lips, and blue, black, amethyst in their eyes. Sometimes colour words become main characteristics of a famous character, we find such characters in Grimms Fairy Tales: Little Red Riding-Hood, Bluebeard, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Goldilocks and the Three Bears. And the Fairy with blue hair proves it.

Colours are widely used to describe clothes. J.K.Rowling clothes her superficial character Gilderoy Lockhart in robes in forget-me-not-blue, aquamarine, turquoise, deep, , jade-green, lilac and , demonstrating his love for outstanding looks. Her characters also wear green, purple and black robes. To give more examples of such words in clothes, lets recall of Robin Hood and his merry men, clad in Lincoln green, Black Cloak and Little Red Riding Hood.

Colour and words of colour became the moving power of stories. In Rouge we learn about a servant, whose deadly paleness so much disturbed her mistress, that the latter ordered the poor maid put some rouge on her cheeks. The colour words used to subscribe the shades of skin and complexion are really diverse. Characters blush, grow red, go scarlet and pink, glow and even get black eyes! A yellow face was not only the title but also the starter of a story by A.C.Doyle.

The descriptions of pieces of art require accuracy as well as poetical way of thinking. Such descriptions are generously used by different authors Maugham (The Moon and the Sixpence), Wilde (Picture of Dorian Gray), Priestly (Jenny Willers) and many more.

The actuality of the qualification paper is determined by increased interest of linguistic in studying the origin of words of colour. Still much is left to investigate. The purpose of the qualification paper is determine the words of colour in English language. The tasks of the investigation include: • to study color naming and associations. • to find out semantics of symbol and structural features of symbol • to investigate semantic and stylistic analysis of Color Terms.

The novelty of this work consists in revealing essence, in the description and detailed, complex analysis of Color Terms in the English language. In this work we attempt to give out and classify the linguistic aspects of Color Terms. The problem under consideration in the qualification paper possesses definite theoretical value, for, fist of all, it is based on the principles of approach, which is revealed on all the stage of investigation. The results of the investigation present interest for a number of fields of contemporary linguistics: linguistic typology, theory of translation, stylistics, lexicology, theoretical grammar, lexicography. Practical significance of the results of investigation consists in the fact they can be used in: 1. in teaching English for Uzbek and Russian students. 2. in compiling practical courses of English. 3. in compiling bilingual dictionaries. 4. in writing lectures on lexicology, stylistics and theory of translation. Investigations have been carried out on a vast language material, based on lexicographic sources. We used mainly monolingual, bilingual and encyclopedic dictionaries. The structure of the qualification paper. It includes introduction, chapters, conclusion, list of used literature. Chapter I is dedicated to the study of theories of color, color naming and associations , color term In the 2 nd Chapter semantics of symbol, structural features of symbol, comparative analysis of semantics and main tropes – metaphor and metonymy, semantic and stylistic analysis of Color Terms has been discussed. CHAPTER 1 THE MAIN ASPECTS OF COLOR

1.1 Development of theories of color

Color or colour is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, green, blue and others 1. Color derives from the spectrum of (distribution of light energy versus wavelength ) interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors . Color categories and physical specifications of color are also associated with objects, materials, light sources, etc., based on their physical properties such as light absorption, reflection, or emission spectra. By defining a , can be identified numerically by their coordinates. Because of color stems from the varying of different types of cone cells in the retina to different parts of the spectrum, colors may be defined and quantified by the degree to which they stimulate these cells. These physical or physiological quantifications of color, however, do not fully explain the psychophysical perception of color appearance. The science of color is sometimes called chromatics. It includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, in art , and the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range (that is, what we commonly refer to simply as light ). Spectral colors The familiar colors of the in the spectrum – named using the Latin word for appearance or apparition by Isaac Newton in 1671 – include all those colors that can be produced by visible light of a single wavelength only, the pure spectral or monochromatic colors . The table at right shows approximate frequencies (in terahertz ) and wavelengths (in nanometers ) for various pure spectral colors. The wavelengths are measured in air or vacuum (see refraction ). The color table should not be interpreted as a definitive list – the pure spectral colors form a continuous spectrum , and how it is divided into distinct colors

1 Berlin, Brent; Kay, Paul; Merrifield, William R. The world colour survey. Dallas: Academic Publications of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. - 1991. linguistically is a matter of culture and historical contingency (although people everywhere have been shown to perceive colors in the same way). A common list identifies six main bands: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Newton's conception included a seventh color, indigo , between blue and violet. Optical scientists Hardy and Perrin list indigo as between 446 and 464 nm wavelength. The intensity of a spectral color, relative to the context in which it is viewed, may alter its perception considerably; for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is , and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive-green. Although Aristotle and other ancient scientists had already written on the nature of light and , it was not until Newton that light was identified as the source of the color sensation. In 1810, Goethe published his comprehensive Theory of Colors . In 1801 Thomas Young proposed his trichromatic theory , based on the observation that any color could be matched with a combination of three . This theory was later refined by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz . As Helmholtz puts it, "the principles of Newton's law of mixture were experimentally confirmed by Maxwell in 1856. Young's theory of color sensations, like so much else that this marvellous investigator achieved in advance of his time, remained unnoticed until Maxwell directed attention to it." At the same time as Helmholtz, Ewald Hering developed the opponent process theory of color, noting that and afterimages typically come in opponent pairs (red-green, blue-orange, yellow-purple, and black-white). Ultimately these two theories were synthesized in 1957 by Hurvich and Jameson, who showed that retinal processing corresponds to the trichromatic theory, while processing at the level of the lateral geniculate nucleus corresponds to the opponent theory. In 1931, an international group of experts known as the Commission internationale de l'éclairage (CIE ) developed a mathematical , which mapped out the space of observable colors and assigned a set of three numbers to each.

The human eye can distinguish about 10 million different colors 2. The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells in the retina to light of different wavelengths. The retina contains three types of color receptor cells, or cones . One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that we perceive as violet, with wavelengths around 420 nm ; cones of this type are sometimes called short- wavelength cones , S cones , or blue cones . The other two types are closely related genetically and chemically. One of them, sometimes called long-wavelength cones , L cones , or red cones , is most sensitive to light we perceive as greenish yellow, with wavelengths around 564 nm; the other type, known as middle-wavelength cones , M cones , or green cones is most sensitive to light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 534 nm. Light, no matter how complex its composition of wavelengths, is reduced to three color components by the eye. For each location in the visual field, the three types of cones yield three signals based on the extent to which each is stimulated. These amounts of stimulation are sometimes called tristimulus values . The response curve as a function of wavelength for each type of cone is illustrated above. Because the curves overlap, some tristimulus values do not occur for any incoming light combination. For example, it is not possible to stimulate only the mid-wavelength (so-called "green") cones; the other cones will inevitably be stimulated to some degree at the same time. The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human color space . It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different colors. The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod , has a different response curve. In normal situations, when light is bright enough to strongly stimulate the cones, rods play virtually no role in vision at all. On the other hand, in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response. (Furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive to light

2 Chapanis A. Color names for color space // American Scientist. – Vol. 53. - №3. – P. 327-346. in the "red" range.) In certain conditions of intermediate illumination, the rod response and a weak cone response can together result in color discriminations not accounted for by cone responses alone. These effects, combined, are summarized also in the Kruithof curve , that describes the change of color perception and pleasingness of light as function of temperature and intensity.

1.2 Color naming and associations

Colors vary in several different ways, including hue (red vs. orange vs. blue), saturation , brightness , and gloss . Some color words are derived from the name of an object of that color, such as " orange " or " ", while others are abstract, like "red". Different cultures have different terms for colors, and may also assign some color names to slightly different parts of the spectrum: for instance, the Chinese character 青 (rendered as qīng in Mandarin and ao in Japanese ) has a meaning that covers both blue and green ; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of

"青." South Korea , on the other hand, differentiates between blue and green by using " 綠 (ᰮ)" for green and " 靑 (㝢)" for blue.

In the 1969 study : Their Universality and Evolution, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay 3 describe a pattern in naming "basic" colors (like "red" but not "red-orange" or "dark red" or "blood red", which are "shades" of red). All languages that have two "basic" color names distinguish dark/cool colors from bright/warm colors. The next colors to be distinguished are usually red and then yellow or green. All languages with six "basic" colors include black, white, red, green, blue and yellow. The pattern holds up to a set of twelve: black, , white, pink, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, and (distinct from blue in Russian and Italian but not English).

Associations Individual colors have a variety of cultural associations such as national colors (in general described in individual color articles and ). The field of attempts to identify the effects of color on human emotion and activity. is a form of alternative medicine attributed to various Eastern traditions. Colors have different associations in different countries and cultures.

3 Berlin, Brent; Kay, Paul. Basic colour terms: their universality and evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. –1969.

Different colors have been demonstrated to have affects on cognition. For example, researchers at the University of Linz in Austria demonstrated that the color red significantly decreases cognitive functioning in men.

1.3 Color term

A color term , also known as a color name, is a word or phrase that refers to a specific color . The color term may refer to human perception of that color (which is affected by visual context), or to an underlying physical property (such as a specific wavelength of visible light ). There are also numerical systems of color specification, referred to as color spaces .

In natural languages Monolexemic color words are composed of individual lexemes , such as "red", "brown", or " olive ". Compound color words make use of adjectives (e.g. "light brown", "sea green") or multiple basic color words (e.g. "yellow-green"). Color dimensions There are many different dimensions by which color varies. For example, hue (red vs. orange vs. blue), saturation ("deep" vs. " pale "), and brightness or intensity make up the HSI color space . The adjective "fluorescent" in English refers to moderately high brightness with strong color saturation. refers to colors with high brightness and low saturation. Some phenomena are due to related optical effects, but may or may not be described separately from the color name. These include gloss (high-gloss shades are sometimes described as "metallic"; this is also a distinguishing feature of and ), iridescence or goniochromism (angle-dependent color), dichroism (two-color surfaces), and opacity (solid vs. translucent).

Basic color terms However, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay, in a classic study (1969) of worldwide color naming 4, argued that these differences can be organized into a coherent hierarchy, and that there are a limited number of universal "basic color terms" which begin to be used by individual cultures in a relatively fixed order. Berlin and Kay based

4 Berlin, Brent; Kay, Paul. Basic colour terms: their universality and evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. –1969. their analysis on a comparison of color words in 20 languages from around the world. To be considered a basic color term, the words had to be monolexemic ("green", but not "light green" or "forest green"), high-frequency, and agreed upon by speakers of that language. (This last point, however, can be ambiguous, as native speakers may not always agree with each other.) Their analysis showed that, in a culture with only two terms, the two terms would mean roughly 'dark' (covering black , dark colors and cold colors such as blue) and 'bright' (covering white , light colors and warm colors such as red). All languages with three colors terms would add red to this distinction. Thus, the three most basic colors are black, white, and red. Additional color terms are added in a fixed order as a language evolves: first green and/or yellow (first one, and then the other); then blue . All languages distinguishing six colors contain terms for black, white, red, green, blue and yellow. These colors roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells, leading Berlin and Kay to argue that color naming is not merely a cultural phenomenon, but is one that is also constrained by biology—that is, language is shaped by perception. As languages develop, they next adopt a term for brown ; then terms for orange , pink , purple and/or gray , in any order. [3] Finally, a basic term for light blue appears. The proposed evolutionary trajectories as of 1999 is as follows. 80% of sampled languages lie along the central path. [4] I II III IV V

white white light–warm white white red red (white/yellow/red) red yellow yellow red/yellow yellow green green dark–cool black/blue/green black/blue blue (black/blue/green) black/blue/green white white black red/yellow red blue/green yellow black blue/green black white white red red yellow/green yellow/green/blue blue black black

Today every natural language that has words for colors is considered to have from two to twelve basic color terms. All other colors are considered by most speakers of that language to be variants of these basic color terms. English contains the eleven basic color terms "black," "white," "red," "green," "yellow," "blue," "brown," "orange," "pink," "purple" and "gray." Italian and Russian have twelve, distinguishing blue and azure . That doesn't mean English speakers cannot describe the difference of the two colors, of course; however, in English, azure is not a basic color term because one can say bright instead, while pink is basic because speakers do not say light red .

Color words in a language can also be divided into abstract color words and descriptive color words , though the distinction is blurry in many cases. Abstract color words are words that only refer to a color. In English white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, brown, and gray are definitely abstract color words. These words also happen to be 'basic color terms' in English as described above, but colors like and are also abstract though they may not be considered 'basic color terms' either because they are considered by native speakers to be too rare, too specific, or to be subordinate to a higher 'basic color term', in this case red (or maybe purple). Descriptive color words are words that are secondarily used to describe a color but primarily used to refer to an object or phenomenon that has that color. " Salmon ", " rose ", " saffron ", and " lilac " are descriptive color words in English because their use as color words is derived in reference to natural colors of salmon flesh, rose flowers, infusions of saffron pistils, and lilac blossoms respectively. Often a descriptive color word will be a subordinate hyponym of a 'basic color term' (salmon and rose [descriptive] are both hues of pink). In some languages colors may be denoted by descriptive color words even though English may use an abstract color word for the same color; for example in Japanese pink is " momoiro " ( 桃色, lit. "-color") and gray is either

"haiiro " or " nezumiiro " ( 灰色, 鼠色, lit. "ash-color" for light grays and "mouse- color" for dark grays respectively), nevertheless, as languages change they may adopt or invent new abstract color terms, as Japanese has adopted " pinku (ピンク) for pink and " guree " ( グレー) for gray from English.

The status of some color words as abstract or descriptive is debatable. The color " pink " was originally a descriptive color word derived from the name of a flower called a "pink" (see dianthus ); however, because the word "pink" (flower) has become very rare whereas "pink" (color) has become very common, many native speakers of English use "pink" as an abstract color word alone and furthermore consider it to be one of the 'basic color terms' of English. " purple " is another example of this, as it was originally a word that referred to a dye (see Tyrian purple ). The word " orange " is also difficult to categorize as abstract or descriptive because both its use as a color word and as a word for an object are very common and it is difficult to distinguish which is the primary and which is the secondary use of the word. As a basic color term it became established in the early to mid 20th century; before that time artist's palettes called it "yellow-red". On the one hand the fruit "orange" has the color "orange," and etymologically the word "orange" as a fruit (from the Sanskrit "narang" or Tamil "naraththai" via the Portuguese "laranja") preceded the use of "orange" as a color word in English. On the other hand "orange" (color) is usually given equal status to red, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, pink, gray, white and black (all abstract colors) in membership to the 'basic color terms' of English; the derived form orangish is attested from the late 19th century. Based solely on current usages of the word it would be impossible to distinguish if an orange is called an orange because the fruit is orange, or if the color orange is called orange because oranges are orange (other examples of this problem are the colors " violet " and " indigo "). Recently, a researcher at Hewlett-Packard, Nathan Moroney, has been performing an online experiment in unconstrained color naming in English and 21 other languages. He has published ] some of the results of this work and the experiment is ongoing. Standardized systems Some examples of color naming systems are CNS and ISCC–NBS lexicon of color terms. The disadvantage of these systems, however, is that they only specify specific color samples, so while it is possible to, by interpolating, convert any color to or from one of these systems, a lookup table is required. In other words, no simple invertible equation can convert between CIE XYZ and one of these systems. Philatelists traditionally use names to identify postage stamp colors . While the names are largely standardized within each country, there is no broader agreement, and so for instance the US-published Scott catalog will use different names than the British Stanley Gibbons catalogue. On modern computer systems a standard set of basic color terms is now used across the web color names (SVG 1.0/CSS3), HTML color names , X11 color names and the .NET Framework color names, with only a few minor differences. The Crayola company is famous for its many crayon colors , often creatively named. Color names, paint stores, and fashion Color naming in fashion and paint exploits the subjectiveness and emotional context of words and their associations. This is particularly seen in the naming of paint chips and samples where paint is sold. This may in fact be an aid to moving a customer through the store more rapidly, as closely similar shades may be equally valid in a specific application, with selection being determined by individual preference, colors of furnishings and artwork, and the quality and character of light, both artificial and natural. The attachment of an emotional context to a color sample by choice of name may enhance the rapidity of selection. In fashion and automotive colors the objective of naming is to enhance the perception of color through appropriate naming to fit the emotional context desired. Thus the same "poppy yellow" can become either the hot blooded and active " rage", the cozy and peaceful "late afternoon sunshine", or the wealth evoking "sierra gold". The divisions of General Motors often give different names to the same colors. Names given to the most vivid colors often often include the word neon , alluding to the bright glow of neon . Dyes and inks producing these colors are often fluorescent , producing a luminous glow when viewed under a black light .

Chapter II THE ANALYSIS OF COLOR TERMS

2.1 Semantics of Symbol

The present paper is the summary of my views on imaginative symbols in the aspects of their semantic structure and conceptual transpositions in them. Symbol is a multi-notion conventional sign which represents, apart from its inherent and immediate designatum, an essentially different, usually more abstract designatum, connected with the former by a logical link. 5 In semantic terms, in symbols we deal with a hierarchy of meanings, where the direct meaning constitutes the first layer of sense and serves as a basis for the indirect (secondary) meaning - the second layer of sense, both of them united under the same designator (a name, a visual image, a significant object or person, etc.) Indispensable characteristics of symbols, which are, in fact, the complex structure of a symbol and the equally important status of meanings in it. Other important, if not indispensable, features of symbols are: imaginativeness; motivation; immanent polysemy; archetypal nature; integration into the structure of secondary semiotic systems and universality in various cultures. There may be more than one secondary concept associated with the immediate designatum in symbol. This feature is termed immanent polysemy in; Philip Wheelwright 6 seems to mean the same when he speaks of ambiguity and vagueness of symbols. Immanent polysemy of a symbol means its innumerable implications: a cluster of conceptually disparate meanings related to a symbol (for example, fire – hearth and home ; masculine principle ; passion ; the sun ; purification ); a circle of equonymous meanings (fire – purification – funeral pyre, purgatory, Gehenna ); or a sense perspective - a chain of meanings, where, as the thought moves away from the direct meaning, links of abstract metaphors / metonymies may be followed by links of their concrete realization in other

5 Shelestiuk, Helen V. (1997). O lingvisticheskom izuchenii simvola (= On the Linguistic Study of the Symbol). In Voprosy yazikoznaniya (= Questions of Linguistics). Journal of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 6 Wheelwright, Philip (1968). The archetypal symbol. In Perspectives in Literary Symbolism . University Park; London: The Pennsylvania State University Press. V.I. domains (fire - vigor - masculine principle - fertilization ; fire – passion - heart; fire - the sun – God - spirit ). Among symbols we specify language and speech symbols. Language symbols are fixed in people’s mind as stable associative complexes, existing in the lexical meaning of a word as ‘a symbolic aura’, i. e. a number of semes of cultural- stereotype and archetypal or mythological character. Cultural-stereotype symbols are contemporary and comprehensible for all the representatives of a culture, with a transparent logical connection between a direct and a secondary meaning, the latter being easily deducible. Archetypal symbols, consistent with K. G. Jung’s archetypes, are symbols based on the most ancient or primary ideas of the ambient world. In archetypes the connection between the direct and secondary meaning is often darkened. Examples of cultural stereotypes: e.g. rose – beauty, love; wall – obstacle, restriction of freedom, estrangement; mountain – spiritual elevation, also courage associated with overcoming difficulties; way – movement in time, progress, course of life. Examples of archetypes: the sky – father; the earth – mother; egg - primordial embryo, out of which the world developed; snake - god of the underground world, of the dead; bird – mediator between the earth and the heaven, this world and the other world; tree (of life), mountain (of life) – the world itself. Unlike language symbols, speech symbols are variables, rather than constants. Here the direct meaning of a word is used to denote the author’s subjective, individual ideas. Thus, in literature the cultural-stereotype and archetypal contents of a word are specifically interpreted. For example, the archetypal meaning of the river is linear time of human life, where the source is the world of souls, the middle part is the course of earthly life, and the lower reaches are the world of the dead. The archetypal meaning of the sea is primordial chaos, the world before creation, the abode of the creator or many deities, the eternal cycle of birth and death (interpretations from the second volume of (Tokarev 1988: 374, 249). These archetypal meanings are originally transformed by T. S. Eliot in ‘The Dry Salvages’ to elaborate on his idea of time, measured by human life, and the infinity, and on the dialectic of human ‘microcosm’ and ‘macrocosm’ around him (‘the river is within us, the sea is all about us’). (Arinstein 1984: 268) Another example: the cultural-stereotype meaning of wall - obstacle, restriction of freedom, barrier, estrangement - in ‘Mending Wall’ by Robert Frost is transformed into prejudices based on the primitive instinct of self-preservation. The most interesting cases in literature are conceptual (metaphysical) symbols, arbitrary (hypothetical) symbols and hermetic (esoteric) symbols, specific to the literary current of symbolism. Conceptual symbols are recurrent images of an individual author embodying certain philosophic ideas, which build up his picture of the world, such as T. S. Eliot’s the waste land, the hollow men , W. B. Yeats’ Byzantium , Wallace Stevens’ cry , E. E. Cummings’ now and others. Arbitrary symbols are those which admit of numerous interpretations owing to too broad a context or to a high stochasticity factor in a text. i For example, the symbol of a blackbird from Wallace Stevens’ ‘Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird’ admits of at least 13 interpretations, and even so, the context of each of the thirteen stanzas is insufficient for its unambiguous treatment. Hermetic (esoteric) symbols are conventional signs, understood only by the few with pertinent knowledge of a code. Such symbols were characteristic, for instance, of medieval alchemy. With respect to literature they are part and parcel of symbolism – the literary trend which sought to evoke through symbols, understood by the initiated, subtle relations and affinities between the material and spiritual worlds. Many symbols of W. B. Yeats are hermetic, as in ‘The Second Coming’, where hawks and falcons (primitive instincts) hide the moon (ancient civilization, intellect) and herald the rise of a new civilization (the interpretation is from (Brooks 1977)). To understand the three above-mentioned types of symbols to the fullest one must look into the correlation of the author’s individual thesaurus with his world outlook, in other words, call into play what was termed ‘paradigmatic context’ by Tzvetan Todorov (1982).

2.2 Structural Features of Symbol

As a specific sign symbol implies the combination of structural-semantic and dynamic (nominative) features, the latter referring to the process of symbolization. Structurally, symbol is a multi-notional complex sign. There is a minimum of two equally important kernels in it. The direct meaning is the image of a symbol. It denotes a concrete notion, which is nevertheless generalized to provide a basis for further abstractions. The figurative meaning is the idea of a symbol. It is different from the direct meaning in quality and may be archetypal, cultural-stereotype or individual and subjective. The dynamic (nominative) aspect in a symbol – symbolization - may be defined as semantic transposition, which implies the transfer from a sign in praesentia to a sign in absentia. In other words, the name of an object is transposed onto an absent sign denoting a qualitatively different notion. This transposition is due to the fact that the immediate designatum itself induces the secondary designatum on the basis of apparent or conventional associations between notions. In original symbols, however, the secondary designatum is implied by the immediate designatum as seen through the prism of the context , whereby some features of the immediate designatum are ascribed to the secondary designatum. From the perspective of symbolization as a process I specify metaphor and metonymy as the fundamental mechanisms of transposition. If symbol is viewed as a static sign, metonymy and metaphor reveal themselves as the fundamental types of logical connections between meanings by their obligate or potential characteristics. Metaphor suggests similarity of meanings. Metonymy, as I broadly see it, embraces all types of logical connections except similarity . It includes, among others, synecdoche and hypo-hyperonymic transposition. Metaphor and metonymy form up peculiar associative rows of meanings, which possess certain logic, so the resultant symbols are semantically and conceptually consistent. Metaphoric and metonymic connections in symbols will be discussed at length in the parts of this paper where the distinction is drawn between symbols and tropes and where the classification of symbols is presented. Below I will dwell on some other important types of interaction between meanings or between form and meanings in symbol, or mechanisms of symbolization for that matter. Irrational Symbols Based on Synaesthesia and Primitive Syncretism of Meanings, on Connections between Form and Meaning and on Accidental Coincidence of Forms of Words

Some symbols have no logical links between their designata. They may result from synaesthesia, from primitive syncretism of notions , from connections between form and meaning (sound symbolism ) and from erroneous association of notions owing to accidental coincidence of forms of words (paronymous, homonymous or polysemous symbols). Synaesthesia is association of primary of different modalities (hearing, sight, sense of touch, sense of smell and sense of taste) on the basis of their intensity, emotional coloring and evaluation. In terms of traditional linguistics synaesthesia is transposition of a name of a characteristic to another characteristic on the basis of similar connotations - intensity, emotional coloring and evaluation (e.g. mild cheese, mild light, mild voice; loud voice, loud color; rough food, rough country, rough sound; a rotten egg, apple, rotten weather, he is a rotten driver, to feel rotten etc.). Besides, there often occurs synaesthesic transposition of physical perceptions to mental and emotional phenomena (loose hair, loose behavior; strong man, strong criticism; an open house, open contempt, an open man; to seize a hand, to seize an idea, to seize power). In symbols synaesthesia appears as a transposition of a name of an object onto a concept on the basis of similarity or contiguity of connotations of the immediate and secondary designata. A few examples of synaesthesic symbols: ‘rose – love, happiness’; ‘day – life, joy, God’; ‘night – mystery, death, danger, evil’. Synaesthesia is seldom the only link between meanings in symbols, more often, it co-occurs with other connections. Synaesthesia may be metaphoric, based on similarity of connotations of notions, which do not directly imply each other , e.g. in the symbols ‘the rose- garden – love; paradise’ (similarity of evaluation), ‘the rising lotos – growth of spirit’ (similarity of evaluation) from ‘Burnt Norton’ by T. S. Eliot, ‘night – death’ (similarity of emotion) from ‘Ode to the Confederate Dead’ by Allen Tate and ‘Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night’ by Dylan Thomas. Synaesthesia may also be metonymic, based on contiguity of notions, which means that notions actually imply each other . In this case connotations (emotion, evaluation and intensiveness of some property) are also implied by the immediate designatum, and either constitute the secondary designatum itself or are attendant to it. For example, in the symbol ‘the valleys – passiveness, inertia, stagnation’ from ‘Paysage Moralise’ by W. H. Auden there is an implication of emotional states from some features of a locality, viz. steadiness, evenness, immutability. In the symbol ‘the mountains – mystery, a promise of a better life, a hope’ from the same poem emotional states are implied by some characteristics of mountains, viz. remoteness, height, obstruction of perspective, difficulty of access, beauty. Sound symbolism is association of a sound cluster with sensuous phenomena of modalities other than aural perception (e.g. fl utter, fl icker, shimmer , glimmer , glitter , gl oat, gl ow, tw inkle, tw ist, sna tch, sna p, bl oody, bl ithering, fidget , fumble , dilly -dally , shilly -shally , etc.). Sound symbolism was especially important at the earliest stages of language development and, alongside with sound imitation, was the basis for primary nomination. According to Edward Tylor a word in a primitive society is a totem substituting various notions. So alongside with mythical ideas, in which speech followed imagination, there were cases where speech preceded and imagination followed it.7 In primitive societies the multivalent symbolism of a sound form was combined with its semantic development in the framework of mythological thinking, so that all the designata of one and the same word were symbols of each other. This process was called bricolage by Claude Lévi-Strauss (1994); the resulting phenomenon may be termed syncretism of meanings .

7 Tylor, Edward B. (1989). Pervobytnaya kultura (= Primitive culture) . Moscow: Progress Publishers.

According to Mark M. Makovsky (1996), the first words in human language were the words based on the proto-Indo-European stem *uer- (*er-), also with preflexes - *ker-,*mer-,*qer-, *ser-, etc. Thus, I.-E. *uer- (*er-) ‘make sounds, speak’ is due to sound imitation , cf. Engl. word, Rus. урчать . On the other hand, I.-E. *uer- (*er-) ‘turn, tie up’ is probably due to sound symbolism 8: cf. Goth. waúrms ‘snake’, Engl. worm, whirl, wriggle, wring, wry, wrong - ‘twisting the mouth’, Rus. вертеть , вернуть , вращать , веревка , врать . Owing to bricolage there arose other incompatible meanings of this stem: *uer- ‘wet, water’ (the sound imitation of purling; also the metaphor ‘twisting - braiding of waters’); *uer-men ‘time’ (metaphor with a multiple ground, cf. Rus. время ; also *ar-, *uer - ‘fire, burn’); *uer- ‘have, take’, and others. In our time, one of the chief domains of sound symbolism is poetry, especially, modernistic poetry, where words are separated from, or have a weakened referential meaning. A poet uses them in the same way as an artist uses paints and a musician uses notes, i. e. to create a certain emotional state, a mood. To illustrate this idea let me cite a few lines from “ The Preludes” by Conrad Aiken: What is the flower? It is not a sigh of color, Suspiration of purple, sibilation of saffr on, Nor aureate exhalation from the tomb. 9 Symbols based on accidental coincidence of word forms are termed ‘erroneous’, because they usually emerge as a result of confusion. Such kind of symbolism is due to language polysemy, homonymy and paronymy, when two meanings are bound in a complex because of the identity or similarity of their designators. Symbols of this kind mostly belong to the domain of the subconscious, of dreams and deliriums. The famous example of paronymic symbolization is in the legend about Alexander of Macedonia, who dreamt about a satyr dancing on his shield on the night before the seizure of Tyros. An ancient

8 However, we cannot exclude metaphors here based on similarity of manner (‘twist something like twisting the mouth when speaking’ and ‘tie things together like words’). 9 Matthiessen, F.O. (selected by) (1950). The Oxford Book of American Verse . New York: Oxford University Press Greek interpreter explained it as a transformation of the sentence ‘Sa Tyros’ (Tyros is yours) into the image of a satyr (satyros ). Hypothetically, wordplay or calembour symbols may also occur in admass culture and some forms of art. Symbols Based on Logical Connections Between Meanings – Metaphor and Metonymy

2.3 Comparative Analysis of Semantics and main tropes – metaphor and metonymy

In this part of the study attention will be focused on the mainstream symbols, i.e. ‘logical’ symbols based on similarity and contiguity of meanings. I choose the principle of comparison of ‘logical’ symbols with the main tropes, metaphor and metonymy, as the optimum solution for the demonstration of structural and nominative patterns in symbols. The following essential features of symbol determine its resemblance to the main tropes – metaphor and metonymy. the transposition of the name of the immediate designatum to the implied secondary designatum and the transfer of some semantic features of the former to the latter; the resultant complex in the plane of content; the uniformity of the mechanisms of transfer – on the ground of similar features or by contiguity; motivation of the transferred meanings by metaphoric or metonymic associations; the immediate designatum being predominantly, if not exclusively, a concrete image, subject to actual or potential visualization. This feature holds for identifying tropes (names of substances) with the patterns of transposition CONCRETE VEHICLE -> ABSTRACT TENOR and CONCRETE VEHICLE -> CONCRETE TENOR and for most symbols. The differences between symbols and tropes lie: in their functions - representation for symbols vs. description (characterization) and aesthetic impact for tropes; in the realistic and objective character of vehicle in symbolic contexts vs. imaginary character of vehicle in metaphoric contexts; in a high degree of abstraction of tenor from vehicle in metonymic symbols vs. tenor’s being an immediate logical predicate of vehicle in metonymic tropes; in the permanent pattern of transposition ‘concrete -> abstract’ for symbols vs. various patterns ( с -> a, c -> c, a -> c, a -> a) for tropes. The differences between symbols and tropes need some clarification, therefore we shall dwell on each of them. Firstly, symbol and trope are different in the functions they perform, the main function of symbols being representational, and the main functions of tropes – descriptive (characterizing) and aesthetic. The main function of all symbols, including symbols of art and literature, is that of representation. Other functions of symbol are: epistemic, inasmuch as through symbols one cognizes the essence and the ideal meaning of material things; communicative, inasmuch as a symbol communicates an implicit fact or ideal sense; magical, inasmuch as a symbol substitutes the esoteric and the tabooed. The aesthetic function, meaning expressiveness and satisfying the sense of the beautiful, is less prominent with symbols than with tropes. For example, the symbols of three trees and a white horse with Christian semantics from ‘Journey of the Magi’ by T. S. Eliot do not themselves impart any artistic ornamentalism to the text. The same is true for the symbols ‘greenhouse – the Universe, paradise on earth’ by Theodore Roethke, ‘wall – estrangement and hostility’ from ‘Mending Wall’ by Robert Frost, ‘golden bough – happiness and immortality’ from ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ by W. B. Yeats, ‘woods – non-existence, death’ from ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ by Robert Frost and for the majority of other symbols from Anglo-American poetry of the XX century taken ad arbitrium, unless they are combined with tropes or used in an imaginative context. One may assume from the above that the connotative component of meaning in symbols plays a less important role than its signification (sense). The main function of original tropes is to describe or characterize the tenor through the vehicle, rather than represent it. Then, as a special type of imagery, which is ‘the language and speech’ of such secondary semiotic systems as art and literature, tropes invariably fulfil the communicative function. Finally, the aesthetic function is of primary importance in the case of original tropes, since their aim is to make an aesthetic impact on the reader through artistic comparison of different objects and phenomena, properties or actions. The connotative component of meaning is strongly pronounced in tropes. The descriptive and aesthetic functions are all-important in expressive (‘ornamental’) and significative (‘conceptual’, ‘meaningful’) tropes. These functions are quite obvious for expressive tropes, e.g. ‘you…would like to sleep on a mattress of easy profits ’ ( Louis McNeice, from (Roberts 1964: 46)), ‘snail, snail, glister me forward’ (Theodore Roethke, from (Roberts 1970: 211)), ‘O small dust of the earth that walks so arrogantly’ (Marianne Moore, from (Matthiessen 1950: 774)), ‘the circuit calm of one vast coil’, 10 her smile...is all that our haggard folly thinks untrue’ (John Masefield) 11 etc. In the case of significative tropes the vehicle is prominent in the text as a unit of philosophical or allegorical discourse, wherefore significative tropes are often confused with symbols. Yet, the vehicle in them fulfils a descriptive (characterizing), rather than representational function. For example, in Ted Hughes’ ‘The Thought-Fox’, where throughout the poem the actions of a fox figuratively describe the movement of creative thought, we identify an extended simile or, perhaps, an allegory, but hardly a symbol. With regard to their main function – representational – symbols bear more similarity to linguistic, etymological metaphors and metonymies and set phrases, which are fixed in the linguistic system, rather than to original tropes. In linguistic tropes and set phrases, as well as in symbols, the sign together with the etymon (‘the inner form’) represents the figurative meaning. Secondly, the direct meaning of a symbol is realistic in the context of a piece of poetry, it actually exists, and it is not simply like something else, but it actually means something else. In other words, there are no semantic markers of an imaginary or assumed character of the immediate designatum of a symbol. In this respect compare the fictional ‘woods’ in the metaphor ‘He stepped into the dark woods of death’ and the realistic woods as the symbol of death in ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ by Robert Frost.

10 Jimbinov, Stanislav B. (selected by) (1983). Amerikanskaya poeziya v russkikh perevodakh (= American Poetry in Russian Translations) . Moscow: Raduga Publishers 11 Arinstein, Leonid M (selected by) (1984). Angliyskaya poeziya v russkikh perevodakh (= English Poetry in Russian Translations) . Moscow: Raduga Publishers The direct context, which corresponds to the source domain in terms of cognitive linguistics (as in (Lakoff 1992)), is realistic and as important for the cognition of a symbol as the indirect context (the target domain ). So immediate designata make up the material world in a symbolic work and secondary designata represent its ideal meaning. For example, the blackbird in Wallace Stevens’ ‘Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird’ has the markers of the realistic character of its immediate designatum in the direct context: ‘the only moving thing was the eye of the blackbird’, ‘the blackbird flew out of sight’. Parallel to this there is a polyvalent indirect context (target domain), where this image is unrealistic, metaphorical, for example ‘I was of three minds, like a tree in which there are three blackbirds’. The poetic lines are quoted from (Jimbinov 1983: 268). The two contexts, one of which emphasizes the reality of the blackbird and the other actualizes its abstract sense, make it possible to treat this image as a symbol. The blackbird – a bird of a conspicuous color - symbolizes here the revealed, the outward, nature mysteriously related to the covert, the human, consciousness. The immediate designatum of a symbol is realistic even in a fantastic poetic picture. For example, in the description of a trip to the unrealized past from ‘Burnt Norton’ (‘Four Quartets’) by T. S. Eliot the images of the rose-garden, the pool ‘filled with water out of ’ and the lotos have no markers of fiction or illusion. This imagery is realistic in a fantastic context, in the dimension of ‘another world’. It is precisely as realistic and referential images that they become symbols: the rose-garden - of love and happiness, the pool – of vivifying divine power, the lotos – of purity and spiritual growth. Since they are not metaphors, but symbols, their immediate designata are not mere vehicles of some abstract meaning, but have an equally important status for the general grasp of sense as their secondary designata. In poetic metaphors the immediate designatum of an image is unrealistic, and so is the direct context itself. It serves as a vehicle to carry the actual sense (the figurative meaning, the tenor). This feature is evident, first of all, in ‘ornamental’ metaphors, where the vehicle characterizes the tenor or specifies some of its features, like ‘the burning of his wreathed bays’ (Ted Hughes), ‘the vast walls of night stand erect to the stars’ (Robinson Jeffers) or ‘the craggy presence of a peasant king ’ (Brynlyn Griffiths). However, it is also true for significative (conceptual, meaningful) images of philosophical and allegorical poetry, which appear as specific units of thinking and are apt to be confused with symbols. As with symbols, the tenor of such a metaphor is an abstract notion, and the vehicle is realistic, tangible. Moreover, it may be the only image in a poetic picture. Even so, we are well aware of the fact that that image is unrealistic, imaginary, and it is proper to call it a metaphor, rather than a symbol. For example, in the proem to Theodore Roethke’s ‘Open House’ we find the conceptually fraught notion of an ‘open house’ 12 Let us ascertain whether it is a symbol or a metaphor in that particular case. The contexts: ‘my secrets cry aloud’, ‘my heart keeps open house, my doors are widely swung’, ‘an epic of my eyes - my love, with no disguise’ describe the tenors – ‘secrets’, ‘heart’, ‘eyes’, ‘love’, and more generally, the referent - the poetic hero. The implicit personified vehicles who cry aloud, keep an open house with widely swung doors and relate an epic are clearly imaginary, while the hero, his body and his emotions are realistic. Since the ‘open house’ is one of the unrealistic images, though the central one in the proem, it follows that it is a metaphor rather than a symbol. It should be pointed out, however, that as the poem develops, this image already occurs in the capacity of symbol. One more example. In the above-mentioned poem ‘The Thought-Fox’ by Ted Hughes, the fox and a number of subsidiary images (‘this midnight moment's forest, something else is alive, a fox's nose touches twig, leaf’, etc.) form a poetic picture. Their figurative meanings with abstract designata – creative thought,

12 Ellmann, Richard, O’Clair, Robert (eds.) (1973). The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry . New York: W. W. Norton & Company. approach of inspiration - are not explicit, but implied. Yet, inspiration here is realistic, and the image of the fox is unrealistic, imaginary: note the lexical marker ‘I imagined’ and the lexico-semantic marker, the binary metaphor ‘(it enters) the dark hole of the head’. Inasmuch as the image of the fox is unrealistic, we recognize it as an extended metaphor, rather than a symbol. For the full text of this poem see (Arinstein 1984: 550). Thirdly, in metonymic symbols designata do not usually imply each other directly, i.e. they are not immediate logical predicates of each other. On the other hand, in metonymies as tropes designata are immediate logical predicates of each other. Before comparing metonymic symbols with metonymies, let me dwell on two general subtypes within metonymy and related tropes. ii The first subtype includes metonymies with the connections ‘part-whole’, ‘whole-part’, ‘characteristic-object characterized’, ‘container-object contained’, ‘instrument- doer’, etc. which have a substance or a concrete notion for their tenor. For example: ‘the arrogance of blood and bone’ (Ted Hughes) -> ‘human beings’, ‘the untarnishable features of Charlemagne bestride the progress of the little horse’ (Freda Downie) -> ‘Charlemagne himself’, ‘the little horse itself’, ‘old age should burn and rave at close of day’ (Dylan Thomas) -> ‘old people’. Examples from (Hughes 1977: 33; Poetry Review 1969: 256; Arinstein 1984: 426). The second subtype embraces metonymies with connections ‘object-its characteristic’, ‘cause-effect’, ‘effect-cause’, ‘attendant circumstance- phenomenon’ which have an abstract notion for their tenor. For example: ‘power is built on fear and empty bellies ’ (Michael Roberts)->‘hunger’, ‘and over smaller things, too, the splinter he got chopping wood, … the sore on his mouth repelling the mistletoe kiss’ -> ‘ill fortune’, ‘all his efforts to concoct the old heroic bang from their money and praise , from the parent's pointing finger and the child's amaze … have left him wrecked’ (Ted Hughes) -> ‘recognition and fame’. The latter subtype of metonymies, those with a characterizing or abstract tenor, may be mistakenly identified as symbols. But unlike in symbols, the tenor in them is an immediate logical predicate of the vehicle, the source domain and the target domain practically coincide. The contexts actualize the meanings of the same order and do not point to the plane of abstraction or generalization, i. e., to a meaning, which is qualitatively different from the vehicle. Besides, the tenor (for example, ‘recognition and fame’) does not generate still more abstract and generalized symbolic meanings, it does not create new levels of meaning, as it is often the case with metonymic symbols. For that matter compare the metonymic symbol ‘hand’ in the poem ‘The Hand that Signed the Paper Felled a City...’ by Dylan Thomas. (Arinstein 1984: 422-424) In general terms, the notion ‘hand’, as well as the corresponding etymons in various languages, has stable archetypal associations with God, the demiurge. 13 The hand is the main image of the poem under consideration, the part of body, representing an anonymous ruler (synecdoche). This image is particularized - ‘five fingers’, ‘a goose's quill’, ‘the mighty hand leads to a sloping shoulder’, ‘the finger joints are cramped with chalk’, ‘a scribbled name’. As the poem progresses, the image of hand becomes more complicated: the hand does not only fell cities, kill, sign treaties, but breeds fever, famine, locusts and even ‘rules pity’. The figurative meaning of the synecdoche ‘the hand — a ruler’ becomes more and more generalized and mythologized. In the context of the last stanza the initial synecdoche may be already treated as a metonymic symbol: the hand - a ruler (synecdoche: ‘part-whole’) – the rulers (synecdoche: ‘one of the group – the group’) - power (metonymy: ‘people – the related abstract notion’) -> supreme (demonic) evil power (metonymy: abstract notion - supernatural concept). As we may see, the final meaning of ‘hand’ - supreme evil power - is not initially implied by the vehicle, but deduced from a number of its metonymic

13 Makovsky, Mark M. (1996). Introduction. In Sravnitelniy slovar mifologicheskoi simvoliki v indoevropeyskikh yazikakh (= Comparative Dictionary of Mythological Symbols in Indo-European Languages. Moscow: VLADOS Publishing Center. predicates through a number of contexts. This leads us to the conclusion that the ‘hand’ in the poem is a metonymic symbol, rather than mere synecdoche. Note that the direct meaning of the ‘hand’, though included in the figurative meanings, is not dissolved in them and has an equal status of importance. Fourthly, the general rule for symbols is that direct meanings in them are concrete (denotative) and indirect symbolic meanings are abstract (significative), while the two main tropes – metaphor and metonymy - are characterized by variability of concepts and diversity of transposition patterns as to the criterion of concreteness / abstractness . In other words, symbols generally have the only conceptual structure ‘concrete -> abstract’, whereas tropes have various structures (с -> a, c -> c, a -> c, a -> a). Let me dwell on some specifics of transpositions in symbols and tropes. The general pattern of transposition in symbols, c -> a (from a concrete immediate to an abstract secondary designatum), is quite evident and finds ample proof in any kind of symbolism. However, one should also bear in mind its two modifications, viz.: a) The transpositions c -> c and a -> c, with a concrete secondary designatum. The pattern c -> c is typical of archetypal symbols – associative fusions of two concrete, substantial notions. The secondary designatum in such symbols is either fictional (mythological), or real, but connected with the immediate designatum by fictional (mythological) relations or similar to it in fictional (mythological) characteristics. For example, according to Hans Biedermann (1989: 309), the egg symbolizes: a) the primordial embryo, out of which the world evolved (metonymy: ‘concrete notion -> concrete notion, fictional’); b) risen Christ, i.e. the nestling who breaks through an egg-shell (metaphor: ‘concrete notion – fictional ground - > concrete notion’); c) in alchemy - silver and gold, i.e. the white and the yolk (metaphor: ‘concrete notion – fictional ground - > concrete notion’). It should be noted, that the symbol of the egg developed in the direction of abstractness, too: fertility, spring, life energy (the yolk), purity and piety (the white, the whiteness of an egg- shell). Other archetypal symbols with substance designata are ‘gold – the sun’, ‘well – the entrance to the other world’, ‘shadow – a person’s double, a materialized soul’, etc. Symbolic representation of concrete individuals and geographical places also conforms to the patterns c -> c and a -> c, because the secondary designata in such symbols can be regarded as concrete notions. Such symbols often occur in poetry, for instance, in the poem ‘Spain’ by W. H. Auden (Skelton 1964: 133) we encounter the symbolic representation of Spain. Here individual images (e.g. the fortress like a motionless eagle eyeing the valley; the chapel built in the forest) symbolize, first, generalized notions, viz. vigilance and deep religiousness, and through these notions the ultimate concrete designatum – Spain. b) The transposition a -> a (abstract vehicle -> abstract tenor) — the transfer of a name of an abstract designatum to an abstract secondary designatum. Symbols of this kind are abstract and belong to metaphysical poetry. Their immediate designata tend to have no image, but may potentially relate to a variety of images, being generalized notions common for all of them. The secondary designata of such symbols are always abstract. Symbols a -> a are characteristic of poetry, for instance, by E. E. Cummings and Wallace Stevens. Cummings’ symbolism is peculiar, in that he discovered the symbolic potential of adverbial, pronominal and modal words. For example, the word ‘now’ is so often reiterated in Cummings’ poetry as a central unit of sense, that it becomes an abstract symbol in its own right. It means the transcendental, the timeless, the eternal in contrast to destructive time and paltry human fuss. This symbol occurs, for example, in Cummings’ ‘the busy the people…’ ‘SONG’, ‘what time is it?’. 14

14 Cummings, Edward Estlin (1963). 73 Poems . London: Faber & Faber. We can also identify a lot of abstract symbols in W. Stevens’ poetry. It is acknowledged by critics, for example, 15 that the notions ‘cry’, ‘nothingness’, ‘desire’, ‘adventure’, ‘invention’, ‘discovery’ are Stevens’ abstract symbols and simultaneously the terms of his philosophic discourse. Despite the existing deviations from the rule, we emphatically assert that the basic transposition pattern in symbols is c -> a , i.e. ‘concrete designatum -> abstract designatum’, rather than c -> с and a -> a. It is so because: 1) the patterns a -> a and c -> с are comparatively rare; 2) the concrete secondary designatum in symbols with the pattern c -> c tends to be perceived as more abstract than its immediate designatum; 3) the abstract immediate designatum in symbols with the pattern a -> a tends to be perceived as more concrete than its secondary designatum.

In the main tropes (metaphor and metonymy) and the figures of co- occurrence based on them (simile, quasi-identity (A is B), periphrasis, personification) the patterns of semantic transfer vary. For metaphors and metaphoric figures the predominant patterns are c -> a (‘we’ve been drinking stagnant water for some twenty years or more’ (Louis MacNeice) -> ‘were passive, sluggish’) and c -> c (‘we are… ribless polyps’ (Edgar Foxall): ribless polyps -> ‘we’). However, the patterns a -> a (‘stupor of life’ (Ted Hughes): stupor -> life) and a -> c (‘the flower is a sigh of color’ (Conrad Aiken): a sigh of color -> flower) are also found in plenty.

For metonymies and metonymic figures the predominant patterns are also c - > c (the arrogance of blood and bone (Ted Hughes): blood and bone -> living beings) and c -> a (power is built on fear and empty bellies (Michael Roberts): empty bellies -> hunger), a slightly less frequent pattern is a -> c (she is all youth, all beauty, all delight (John Masefield): youth, beauty, delight - > she).

15 Shaviro, Steven (1988). ‘That Which Is Always Beginning’: Stevens’ Poetry of Affirmation. In Critical Essays on Wallace Stevens . Steven G. Axelrod and Helen Deese (eds.), 191-212. Boston (Mass.): G. K. Hall.

So, in principle, tropes are characterized by variability of concepts as to the criterion of concreteness and abstractness and diversity of transposition patterns (с -> a, c -> c, a -> c, a -> a). These features of tropes are due to their main function – to describe and characterize one concept by means of another without regard to their concreteness / abstractness. The symbol, which serves to represent a concept, an abstract notion, must invariably have a concrete substance for its immediate designatum (c -> a).

Detailed Typology of Metaphoric and Metonymic Symbols The typology presented here is based on the microsemantic structure of symbols and the types of logical connections between their meanings. We have begun to compile a table of symbols of the XX. century Anglo-American poetry, based on associations between their direct and transferred meanings. To check the data for validity I made use of a variety of dictionaries of symbols (see in References). So far we can only present the preliminary results of my research, which I am planning to complete in the future. The main types of symbols are metaphoric and metonymic. Many symbols are complex metaphoro-metonymic or metonymo-metaphoric. Complex symbols will not be regarded here as a whole, but analyzed into semantic chains to illustrate the subtypes of metaphoric and metonymic connections. The main subtypes of metaphoric symbols are as follows. 1. Stereotype metaphoric symbols with the transposition of the name of an object (action, process, property) onto a concept on the basis of similarity of their essential characteristics. Among stereotype symbols I specify the following. a) Functional transfers . For example, in W. B. Yeats’ ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ we come across the stereotype symbol of a bird as a singer, poet, orator; and bird’s singing as the art of singing, poetry, or oratory. The poet is beseeching the sages on the icons of St. Sofia’s Cathedral to take him to the paradisiac ‘holy city of Byzantium’, where he would never more take his bodily form from nature, ‘but such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make of hammered gold and gold enameling’. As a gold bird he would sing to the drowsy Emperor, lords and ladies of Byzantium ‘of what is past, or passing, or to come’. 16 The transposition in this case is based on the analogy of a bird’s action to human activity and may be defined as a functional transfer, where the immediate designatum is the bird’s singing, the ground is emitting harmonious sounds (of birds) = emitting harmonious sounds (of humans) and the secondary designatum is song, poetry, oratory. Another example of a functional transfer in a stereotype symbol is found in Robert Frost’s ‘Mending Wall’ (Jimbinov 1983: 216-218), where the wall symbolizes prejudice and hostility caused by the primitive instinct of self- preservation. The scheme of transposition in it may be presented as follows: ‘wall - dividing (physically) = estranging (morally) – prejudice, hostility’. Also note the stereotype symbol of sunlight as spiritual revelation from T. S. Eliot’s ‘Burnt Norton’ (Arinstein 1984: 256-258) with the transposition ‘sunlight – God illuminating the earth, letting one see = letting one realize, understand – spiritual revelation’. b) Chronotopic (space-time) transfers . A stereotype symbol with such a type of transfer is found in Louis MacNeice’s ‘Train to Dublin’ and ‘Trains in the Distance’ (Prikhodko 1973: 171), where the train symbolizes time. The transposition in this case is based on the analogy of the onward movement in space with the forward course of time: train - progresses in space = goes forward - time. Other stereotype chronotopic symbols identified by me are ‘road – course of life’ in Robert Frost’s ‘The Road Not Taken’, ‘faring (journey) – course of life’ in E. A. Robinson’s ‘The Wilderness’, valleys – steadiness, immutability, immobility, stagnation in W. H. Auden’s ‘Paysage Moralise’. c) Synaesthesic transfers , based on associating perceptions of a particular modality (hearing, vision, etc.) with abstract notions, in some way connected with these sensations. In linguistic terms, synaesthesic metaphor is based on similarity

16 Ellmann, Richard, O’Clair, Robert (eds.) (1973). The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry . New York: W. W. Norton & Company. of connotations (emotion, evaluation and intensity) in the two meanings within a symbol. Note should be taken of the fact, that synaesthesia is seldom the only link between meanings in symbols, more often it co-occurs with other connections. Metaphoric synaesthesia is the basis for such stereotype symbols as, for example, ‘the rose-garden – love, paradise’ from T. S. Eliot’s ‘Burnt Norton’ (similarity of evaluation) and ‘night – death’ from Allen Tate’s ‘Ode to the Confederate Dead’ and Dylan Thomas’s ‘Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night’ (similarity of emotion). The grounds for transposition in these symbols are ‘beauty and fragrance, bliss = good’; ‘fear of darkness = fear of the unknown’. It should be noted, that in the symbol ‘night – death’ synaesthesia is subordinate to metaphoric symbolism based on similarity of properties: ‘darkness, inability to see = darkness, the unknown’. 2. Archetypal metaphoric symbols, based on syncretism of primary ideas, i.e. on identification of widely different notions with each other by similarity of some of their characteristics. These symbols may be based on similarity of assumed (fictional) characteristics of notions, or on similarity of notions, one of which pertains to ancient myths, i.e. is fictional itself. Therefore archetypal metaphoric symbols may also be termed mytho-metaphoric symbols. To treat archetypal symbols I have largely drawn upon the data from the dictionaries of symbols (Bauer 1987; Biedermann 1996; Cirlot 1971; Cooper 1978; Garai 1973; Lurker 1983; Vries 1976). It should be stressed that in literature archetypal symbols often serve to convey abstract ideas, so that the primary content of an archetypal symbol, passing through certain stages of abstraction – intermediate designata - is correlated with an abstract notion. A necessary context is provided by the author in such cases to help the reader bring out the abstract sense of an archetypal symbol. a) Functional transfers . For example, in Howard Nemerov’s ‘Brainstorm’ we come across an archetypal symbol of crows as mediators between heaven and earth or between this world and the other world. iii The text of the poem may be found in (Roberts 1970: 347). The transposition in this symbol is based the analogy of the crows’ actual actions and their assumed function as rational beings: croaking = talking; flying in heaven, landing on earth = communicating with the other world and man. Note should be taken of other symbolic meanings of the multivalent symbol of crows in the poem - storm, death, destruction, ruin. b) Transfers by similarity of form and appearance. For example gold (golden bough, gold bird) as the archetypal symbol of the sun, God, the beautiful and the immortal is one of the symbols of the above-mentioned ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ by W. B. Yeats. The transposition here is twofold, but in both cases it is based on the analogy of properties of a substance and phenomena: 1) bright, luminous = bright as the sun, pertaining to God; 2) hard, durable = ageless, immortal. To this group I also refer the archetypal symbols of a sunflower in T. S. Eliot’s ‘Burnt Norton’ and marigolds in W. C. Williams’ ‘A Negro Woman’ meaning the sun, and further - life and joy. The texts of these poems may be found, for instance, in (Arinstein 1984: 262) and (Roberts 1970: 287). Apart from being alike in appearance, sunflowers and marigolds are related to the sun as capable of turning their faces with the course of the sun. These symbols are associated with the myths of ancient Greece in which the corresponding flowers fall in love with the sun-god Apollo (see archetypal metonymic symbols). c) Transfers by similarity of properties. For example the archetypal symbol of the woods as death is found in Robert Frost’s ‘Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening’ and ‘Come In’ .iv The texts of the poems can be found in 17 The transposition in this symbol is based on the analogy of the properties of woods and death: the woods are a strange world, inhabited by dangerous creatures; the dark abode of nature, of spirits; the path to the realm of the dead; thus, they are mysterious, dangerous, connected with the other world and death. d) Chronotopic (space-time) transfers. The archetypal symbols ‘river – linear time, a course of human life’, ‘the sea – cyclic time, recurrence of birth and death,

17 Jimbinov, Stanislav B. (selected by) (1983). Amerikanskaya poeziya v russkikh perevodakh (= American Poetry in Russian Translations) . Moscow: Raduga Publishers infinity’ are found in ‘The Dry Salvages’ by T. S. Eliot; the sea with the same meaning is also found in Michael Hamburger’s ‘Tides’. The texts of these poems may be found in (Arinstein 1984: 270, 516). The transposition here is based on the analogy of the forward flow of the river with linear time and the rhythmic repetition of the motion of sea waves, tides and ebbs, with cyclic time. By extension, we can deduce two related meanings of these symbols: the river means a course of an individual life 18 and the sea is an eternal cycle of life, production and destruction of living creatures. As we reflect on the poems further, we may also divine the symbolic meaning of the river as the world path, the cosmic order, the rational law, and the sea as primordial chaos, the mysterious abode of deity, the irrational and subconscious. e) Transfers of spatial characteristics up/down to abstract concepts . The symbol ‘lotos – spiritual growth’ from T. S. Eliot’s ‘Burnt Norton’ (Arinstein 1984: 258) serves as a good example of this type (‘And the pool was filled with water out of sunlight, and the lotos rose, quietly, quietly…’). The transposition here is based on the comparison of a rising lotos to man’s rising spirit: the lotos is growing, raising its flower = man is holding his head up towards heaven – his spirit grows. f) Transfers of colors and numbers to abstract concepts . For example, in T. S. Eliot’s ‘Journey of the Magi’ we come across ‘an old white horse’ as a symbol of chastity, the Holy Spirit; and three trees as a multivalent symbol with Christian semantics. The text of the poem can be found in (Jimbinov 1983: 298). Transpositions: a) white horse – brightness and purity of color = clarity of mind, imperturbability, purity of deed - chastity, the Holy Spirit; b) three trees - threefold sacrifice practiced in the ancient times; a portent of the three crosses on the Golgotha -> Holy Father, Holy Spirit, Christ. Here we also observe the phenomenon of ancient symbolism of animals as chthonic or heavenly creatures. The horse is an ancient chthonic symbol, primarily associated with evil powers because of its strength and violence (‘wild army’

(Biedermann 1996: 153)); after domestication it becomes associated with powers of good. 3. Individual metaphoric symbols, based on similarity of characteristics which are not essential either for the immediate designatum, or for the secondary designatum, or for both of them. Transposition in such symbols often goes through a series of intermediate links, or intermediate designata, which provide a gradual passage from the direct to the transferred meaning. a) Functional transfers . For example, in the ‘The Course of a Particular’ and ‘Not Ideas About the Thing but the Thing Itself’ by Wallace Stevens we encounter his individual symbol of cry as the sign of a driving force present in the outer world and in the mind. The poems concerned may be found in 19 ‘Cry’ is but one of many conceptual symbols of Stevens’ philosophical poetry, reflecting his individual outlook. The transposition in this symbol is based on the analogy of a cry of a strange creature with some ideal driving force revealing itself in the outer world and in the mind. The symbol has a more complex structure, possessing more intermediate designata than hitherto was the case: cry – a call of some strange creature – arouses, perturbs the mind = makes the mind respond, give an inside ‘cry’ - a force revealing itself in the outer world and in the mind. b) Transfers by similarity of properties . In the above-mentioned ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ the holy city of Byzantium is W.B. Yeats’s individual symbol of paradise, one of the principal conceptual symbols in his mythology. The transposition here is based on the analogy of properties of the real Byzantine Empire and its capital Byzantium with the assumed properties of the paradise: Byzantium – flourishing of art, poetry and philosophy = the realm of beauty, intellect, lofty spirit – paradise. Other individual symbols of this kind are found in Theodore Roethke’s ‘The Lost Son’ (Roberts 1970: 211-215), for example, the hothouse, which, according to Roethke himself, is ‘a symbol for the whole of life, a womb and heaven-on-

19 Roberts, Michael (ed.) (1970). The Faber Book of Modern Verse . London : Faber and Faber. earth’, ‘a universe, several worlds, which even as a child one worried about, and struggled to keep alive’ 20 The ground in this symbol is ‘holding a great variety of creatures, providing good conditions for their growth’. Another important symbol in the poem, the open house, stands for human soul; the ground here is, on the one hand, ‘hearty, hospitable’ and on the other hand – ‘desolate, lonely’. c) Transfers of spatial characteristics up/down to abstract concepts . In Robert Frost’s ‘Birches’ swinging birches appears as his individual symbol of harmony of spirit and body (the text of the poem is in (Jimbinov 1983: 232-234)). The transposition in this case is based on the analogy of the properties of a physical action with those of a mental action. Through the link of the mental action the name of the physical action itself is transposed to an abstract notion: swinging the birches – unity of rise and fall, going up and down = changing orientation from material to spiritual life and vice versa – harmony of spirit and body. d) Chronotopic (space-time) transfers. In Thom Gunn’s ‘The Nature of Action’ (Roberts 1970: 392-393) we come across the individual symbols of a room as rest, stagnation and a corridor as movement, progress. The transposition in this case is based on the analogy of a room as a confined space, which restricts movement, with rest in time, and of a corridor as a narrow passage, leading from one place to another, with movement. Schematically: room - immutability, restriction of movement = immobility - stagnation of a man, corridor - motion, instability = movement - progress of a man.

The main subtypes of metonymic symbols are as follows. 1. Stereotype metonymic symbols with the transposition of the name of an object (action, process, property) to a concept on the basis of their immediate and generally acknowledged contiguity. The name of an object is transposed to either a characteristic apparently implied by it or to a notion connected with it by an

20 Roethke, Theodore (1965). On the poet and his craft . Ralph J. Mills, Jr Seattle (eds.). WA: University of Washington Press. essential relation. The immediate and secondary designata are close logical predicates of each other. Among stereotype metonymic symbols I specify the following. a) Transfers ‘object – its characteristic / property’ and ‘object – its function’. For example, in W. C. Williams’ ‘The Thousand Things’ (Roberts 1970: 289) a green vine and a dry vine are the symbols of life and death, while the fire is a symbol of purification. Transpositions: dry vine leaves -> death (object - characteristic); a green vine -> life (object - characteristic); fire -> purification, clearing the way for new life (object – its function, cf. the ritual funeral pyre). b) Transfer ‘object as a cause – notion as an effect’ . For example in T. S. Eliot’s ‘The Fire Sermon’ (‘The Waste Land’, from (Roberts 1970: 97)) occurs the stereotype symbol of a rat as decay, ruin and death. The transposition here is based on the fact that the rat lives in dilapidated places, damages foodstuffs, feeds on carrion, etc., bringing about decay, ruin, and death (cause - effect). In this symbol metonymy is combined with synaesthesia (rat – repugnance, fear). One more example: in the stereotype symbol of yew as death from T. S. Eliot’s ‘Burnt Norton’ there are at least four types of metonymic connections. Yew – a) the tree with poisonous berries, b) the tree of death whose branches were used as wreaths for the sacrificial bulls, c) material used for long-bows, deadly weapons, d) an evergreen often planted in churchyards. The secondary designatum of this symbol is ‘death’ no matter what type of connection one has in mind, viz.: а) cause-effect, b) object-function, c) object-function d) contiguity in space. 2. Archetypal metonymic symbols, based on syncretism of primary ideas, on identifying different notions with each other by their assumed properties. Sometimes the secondary designatum of these symbols is fictional (e.g. mountain – abode of gods), less frequently the immediate designatum is fictional (e.g. the golden bough – happiness, immortality; unicorn – purity, strength). Archetypal metonymic symbols can also be called mytho-metonymic. The logical links between notions in these symbols follow the plot of a related myth. a) Transfer ‘object – its function’. In W. B. Yeats’s ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ the golden bough is the symbol of immortality and happiness. It should be noted, that the myth about the golden bough is attendant to the myth about the Tree of Life: broken off the Tree of Life it gives immortality to its owner, cf. Aeneas travelling with it to the realm of the dead. The transposition here is: golden bough - > immortality (mytho-metonymy: object – its function). Alongside with metonymy we identify here synaesthesia based on positive evaluation: gold – beautiful –> good. b) Synecdoche (part – whole). In Dylan Thomas’ ‘The Hand That Signed the Paper Felled a City...’ we find the archetypal symbol of the hand, meaning God, the supreme power. Transposition: the hand – a ruler (synecdoche: part-whole) – rulers (synecdoche: one of the group – the group) - power in the abstract sense (metonymy: people-their abstract characteristic) -> supreme (evil) power (metonymy: abstract characteristic- supernatural concept). c) Simultaneity (involvement in a common situation). The archetypal symbols of sunflower and marigolds as love in T. S. Eliot’s ‘Burnt Norton’ and W. C. Williams’ ‘A Negro Woman’ may serve as examples of this type. The transpositions here are ‘flowers turning their faces with the sun -> love for the sun- god -> love’ (mytho-metonymy, involvement in a common situation). 3. Individual metonymic symbols, based on an uncommon type of contiguity of notions. More often than not, in this case there are intermediate designata between the immediate designatum and the secondary one, which provide a gradual passage from the direct to the transferred meaning. a) Hypo-hyperonymic symbols, for example, mowing as the symbol of work in Robert Frost’s ‘Mowing’. 21 Highlighted in the title, the main symbol is sustained throughout the poem. The transposition in it is directed from the hyponym to the implied hyperonym: mowing -> any kind of labor (hyperonymy: species - genus). However, as we proceed in our reflection on the poem, we may also narrow the

21 Matthiessen, F.O. (selected by) (1950). The Oxford Book of American Verse . New York: Oxford University Press. hyperonym, modifying it in a new way: any kind of labor -> labor of the mind, e.g. poetry (hyponymy: genus-species). b) Synecdochal (part-whole) , for example the fortress in the valley and the chapel in the forest in W. H. Auden’s ‘Spain’. (Skelton 1964: 133) The direct meanings of these symbols become generalized and serve to characterize ‘the whole’ – Spain: fortress -> strength, vigilance, militancy (object - characteristic) -> Spain (synecdoche: part-whole), chapel in the forest -> inherent religiousness (metonymy object-characteristic) -> Spain (synecdoche: part-whole). c) Simultaneity (involvement in a common situation ), as in Carl Sandburg’s ‘Population Drifts’ (Matthiessen 1950: 300), where we find the symbol of new- mown hay smell as full-blooded life, ‘passion for life’. Transposition: new-mown hay smell - mowing – farmer’s work -> strength, vigor - full-blooded life in the country (attendant circumstances – action -> concept as characteristic of this action).

We will close my exposition with Table 1 and Table 2 representing the identified types of metaphoric and metonymic symbols.

Table 1. Types of metaphoric symbols METAPHORIC Stereotype Archetypal (mytho- Individual LINKS metaphoric, mytho – metonymic) by similarity of bird – singer, crow – mediator cry – an disturbing function poet, orator; between this world driving force wall – prejudice, and the other world present in the outer hostility, causing world and the division, mind estrangement; sunlight – revelation of the spirit by similarity of gold – the sun; form and sunflower, appearance – the sun by similarity of night - death woods – death the holy city of properties (darkness, (something strange, Byzantium – inability to see, unknown, paradise; the unknown) mysterious, hothouse – the dangerous); Universe, the gold – immortality womb, paradise on of humans (durable, earth; house – ageless) human soul by affinity of train – time; river – linear time, a room – rest, space – time road – course of course of human stagnation; characteristics – life; life; corridor – chronotopic faring (journey) – sea – cyclic time, movement, symbols course of life the eternity progress by affinity of lotos – spiritual swinging birches – spatial growth harmony of spirit characteristics ‘up and body and down’ with certain abstract concepts by similarity of rose-garden – connotations love, paradise; (emotion, night – death; evaluation, light – life intensity) – synaesthesic metaphoric symbols by affinity of white horse - colors with certain chastity, the Holy notions – a Spirit subtype of synaesthesic metaphoric symbols by affinity of three (trees) - numbers with threefold sacrifice certain notions practiced in the (primary ancient times – three mythological crosses on the syncretism) Golgotha -> Holy Father, Holy Spirit, Christ Table 2. Types of metonymic symbols METONYMIC LINKS by the contiguity a dry vine – ‘object – its death; characteristic/prop a green vine – life erty’ by the contiguity fire – purification golden bough – ‘object – its immortality and function’ happiness (mytho- metonymy) by synecdochal hand – God, the a fortress in the (part-whole) demiurge valley – Spain, contiguity a chapel in the forest – Spain by hypo- mowing – work as hyperonymic such (species – genus) contiguity by contiguity rat – ruin, decay, ‘object as a cause death; – notion as an yew – death effect’ by simultaneity or sunflower, marigold new-mown hay involvement in a -> love for the sun- smell – full- common situation god (Apollo) – the blooded life in the (mythological sun, love country syncretism, based on false understanding of cause and effect) by contiguity of valleys – connotations of passiveness, objects with inertia, abstract concepts stagnation; mountains – mystery, a promise of a better life, a hope

2.4 Semantic and Stylistic Analysis of Color Terms

The principles of integral perception of speech literary work do not exclude the necessity of a most intent attention to its constituting elements. So far as the basic unit of the language is a word, it is necessary to linger at the notion of the word and its meaning. A word is the language is as a rule polysemantic i.e. it is a multitude of lexico-semantic variants by which there understands a word in one of its meaning. The lexical meaning of each separate lexico-semantic variant is a complex unity. It consists of the word, naming the nation and forming the subject of the utterance and connotative meaning connected with the circumstances and the participants of the communication and consisting of the emotional evaluative, expressive and stylistic components. The denotation is an optional one of the four components of which can act together or in various combinations or they can be absent at all. In analyzing the polysemy of a word we have to take into consideration that the meaning is the content of a two face at linguistic sign existing in unity with the second form of the sign and its distribution, its syntagmatic relations depending on the position in the spoken chain. The semantic structure of a word is a set of interrelation lexical variants with different meaning. These variants belong to the same set because they are expresses by the same combination of morphemes although in different conditions of distribution. These elements are interrelated die to some common semantic component though they can be no single semantic components has something in common with at least one of the others. Polysemy is characteristic of most words on English. In particular, the color terms are also polysemantic. Now we shall go through each color terms with its various meanings. In component analysis we understand the difference of colour terms in English and the Uzbek languages.

Semantico-Stylistic features of Phraseological Units Denoting “colour”

According to the diversion of phraseological unit into stylistically coloured and neutral, it is necessary to point that among more than two hundred phraseological units, including the name of colour.(out of A.V.Koonin phraseological dictionary), there stylistically coloured phraseological units and neutral phraseological units. Some phrasems are stylistically neutral and in this respect are very much like the so-called “used phrases”. However, the difference between a usual “phrase” and a “phraseme” remains even when the latter is stylistically neutral. It is a contextual difference. Here is an example of a neutral phraseme: ”grey goose”-“wild goose”.it is not mainly a matter of colours; the main thing is that it is a wild, not a domestic bird.at the same time it is a matter of colour,but colour characterizing wild geese. Below on attempt is made to distinguish neutral and stylistically coloured phraseological units, by the stylistic device, which motivates their meaning. As a starting point, we have taken the following approach; in many cases the meaning of its components. So it follows that some stylistic device lies at the bases of its we attempted to define the basic stylistic devices, which motivated the existing meaning of the phraseological unit and to classify them accordingly phrasemes and idioms were treated separately. 1 It turned out that the most frequent stylistic devices motivating the meaning of the whole are: metonymy, epithet , metaphor, simile and oxymoron in phrasemes; and metonymy, epithet , metaphor and oxymoron in idioms. Below the list of phrasemes and idioms built on the bases of these stylistic devices is given. And we have tried to analyze the semantic usage of them.

The analysis of Phraseological Unit denoting colour according to the Semantic and Stylistic Usage.

There some ways of translating the Phraseological Units from English into Uzbek and while translating we should pay the synonymic raw of Phraseological Units denoting colour. Ex; as white as chalk (as driven snow, as milk, as snow, as wool)-qordek oppoq, белый как мел . Here in Uzbek other variants are not taken when it denotes colour. But we can take the variant “sutdek oppoq” and this phrase is used to show the sincere character and appearance of a person. The phrase “qordek oq” is more often used to denote the colour of things. We must pay attention to the notional realize, geographical position, customs and traditions of one country while translating the work of this country or language another one. Ex: as red as lobster-lavlagidek qip-qizil-красныйкаккровь . Here English and American people more often eat lobster and lobster is translated into Uzbek and Russian as “qisqichbaqa” and “ рак ” but we never used in Russian “ красныйкакрак ” and “qisqichbaqadek qizil” in Uzbek.

Instead of this we take the components of this phrase in other languages as “красныйкаккровь ” and “lavlagidek qip-qizil”.

We can take the phrase as white as sheet(as aches, as death). This phrase used to explain appearance of person, how this person looked. This phrase translated into Uzbek and Russian as “bo’zdek oppoq” and “белыйкакполотно ”. Phraseme Simile 1.(as) white as chalk (as driven snow, as milk, as snow, as wool)-qordek oppoq ( белыйкакмел ) 2.(as) red as labsters (as a turkey cockl)-lavlagidek qip- qizil( красныйкаккровь ) 3.(as)green as grass (as a gooseberry)-maysadek yam-yashil ( зеныйкактрава )

4.( as) white as a sheet (as driven snow, as milk, as snow, as wool)-qordek oppoq ( белыйкакмел ) 5.(as) black as hell (as my or your hat at night)-tundek zimiston ( чернееночи ) 6.(as)black as sin (as thunder, as thunder cloud)-bulutdek qora (черныйкактуга ) 7.(as) red as blood (as fire)-lavlagidek qip-qizil(красныйкаккровь ) 8.(as) brown as barriers-to’q jigarrang ( темнокоричневый ) 9.(as) black as ink (as a crow, as jet or soot)-qaldirg’och qanotidek qora (черныйкаквороногокрыло ) 10.(as) yellw as acow’s foot (as gold)-somondek sariq ( желтыйкаксимон )

Oxymoron 1.Lily-white-faqat ow tanlilar uchun ( толькодлябелых ) 2. white lie-kechirimli yolg’on ( святоеложь ) 3.black ingratition-o’ta noxushlik ( чернаянеблогадарность ) 4. blue fear (funk)-vaxshiy ( поническыйстрах ) 5. black prince-“qora shaxzoda (qirol eduardning o’gli) ( черныйпринц ) 6.the black pope-katolik chrekovining boshlig’I (главакотолическойцеркви ) 7.black magic-yovuz jodugarlik ( чернаямагия ) 8.white magic-yaxshilik kuchlari ( белаямагия ) 9.black art-yovuz kuchlar ( чернаямагия ) 10.the golden mean-gapning po’st kallasi ( золотаясерединка ) 11.the great white way-Бродвей 12.the blue grass state-кентукки 13. the blue-Hen state-Деоавер 14.the blue low state-Конетикут 15.Evergreen state-Ващингтон 16.The green Mountain state-Вермонт 17.the golden state-Миннесота

Metaphor 1.black literature-jijimador yozuvli kitoblar (литературасготическомщрифтом ) 2.black letter-jimjimador xarflar ( готическойалфавит ) 3.green wound-yangi yara 4.the Black Country-Buyuk Britaniyaning metallurgiya rayonlari (металлургическиерайоныВеликобритании ) 5.white fuel-suv energiyasi ( гидроэнергия ) 6.black diamond-toshko’mir ( каманныйугом ) 7.black gold-neft 8.mark with a white stone-kunni alohida ahamiyat bilan o’tkazmoq (нолитиькакой -либоденькакособенный ) 9.white trash-oq tanli ablax ( кличкабелыхбедиеков ) 10.in the green-qirchillama davr ( врасцветесил ) 11.black flag-qaroqchilar bayrog’I ( ператическийфлаг ) 12.black market-chayqov bozori ( черныйринок ) 13.the black Death-o’lat ( чума ) 14.white letter-lotin alfaviti ( латинскийалфавит ) 15.white slave (slavery, white slavery traffic, slaver)-oqsoch (foxishabozlik), ( белаярабыняторговлябелымтоваромпроститутция ) Metonymy 1.a blue-stocking-erkak sabzi ( синийчулок ) 2.the green man-the man in green-o’rmonning afsonaviy yashovchilari 3.black Monday-Dushanba og’ir kun ( первыйденьзанятйпослеканикул ) 4.red-letter day-bayram kuni ( праздниквоскрисенье ) 5.blackFriday-baxtsixkun (день когда случилось какое -либо несчаты ) 6.brownbread-zog’oranon (хлебь из непросеянной муки ) 7.city of the golden gate-сфнФрансиско 8.the golden Empire-Калифорния 9. the golden Mountain state-Вермонт 10.grey hair-qarilik ( старость ) 11.to go to green wood-qonundan tashaqri deb e’lon qilingan (бытьобьявленным 12go red-qizillardan bo’lmoq ( статькрасным ) 13. blue bonnet-shotlandiyalik-(щатландиц ) 14.the light -Kembridge talabalari ( Кембриджескиестуденты ) 15.the dark blues-Oksford talabalari ( Оксфордскиестуденты ) 16.whitecolourjob-idoradagiish (работа в учреждение , контора ) 17.the boys in blue-hjlitsiyachilar dengizchilar ( полицейскиморяки ) 18.black coat-ruhoniy ( священник ) 19.red coat-ingliz askari ( английскийсолдать ) 20.white-collar worker-xizmatchi ( служащий ) 21.the black coated proletariat-mehnat ziyolisi ( трудоваяинтелпиченция ) 22.black cap-судья 23.blank gang-o’t yoquvchilar ( кочегары ) 24.blue coat-ko’k liboslilar ( носящийголубуюформу ) 25.be (look) blue (green, white, yellow) about the gills-kasalga o’xshamoq ( быть , выглядетьбольным ) 26.(be) look rosy (red) about the gills-sog’lom bo’lmoq ( быть , выглядетьздорогым ) 27.black (blue, red) in the face-qizarib ketmoq (изменитьсявищепокрасить ) 28.see through green glasses-xasad qilmoq ( забидоватьревновать ) 29.see through the blue glasses-sog’inmoq, bezbetlik qilmoq ( тоскавать ) 30.see through rose-coloured glasseyaxshi ko’z bilan qaramoq (смотретьвсквозьрозовыеочки ) 31.the red book-Angliya boshqaruv sinfihaqidagi ma’lumotnoma (книгассвидениямиоправлящихкругахАнглии ) 32.the Orange Book-dehqonchilik vazirligining hisoboti (отчетминистрствоземледения ) 33.the black book-jazoga tortilganlar ro’yhati (списоктехподлежащыхнаказанию ) 34.the Blue Book-Angliya parlamentining hisoboti (отчетьАнглискойпарламетскойкомисии ) 35.black (brown) shirt-qora (jigarrang) ko’ylaklilar ( чернорубащечники ) 36. the black book of the admirality-moliya vazirligining “qora daftari” (чернаякнигаминистрствофинансов ) 37.say black in smb’s eye-kimnidir ayblamoq ( обвинятького -либо ) 38.see a (the) red light-xavfni ko’rmoq ( видетьопастность ) 39.red hot-kordinallik qapqog’I ( кординальскаящляпа ) 40.the green clothe-bilyard stoli ( бильярдныйстоль ) 41.paint smth red (black)-lol qolarli darajada namoyon bo’lmoq ( подать что -либо в яркой сенсационный обложк ) 42.be in (red)-kamyob bo’lmoq ( быть дефицитным ) 43.yellow (fever)-sariq bezgak ( золотая лихорадка ) 44.blue ribbon-oliy mukofot ( выщая награда ) 45.black friar-Dominikalik ruhoniy ( монах доминиканец ) 46.gray (grey) frair-fransiyalik ruhoniy ( монах фрацуз ) 47.drink till all’s blue-o’lgudek ichmoq 48.the red white,and blue-Buyuk britaniyaning davlat bayrog’I (госедарственныйфлагВеликобритвнии ) 49.the blue blanket-osmon ( небо ) 50.the red tape-qog’ozbozlik ( бюкракратизм , волокита )

Neutral 1.white light-kunduzgi ( деневнойсвет ) 2.swear black is white-qorani oq deb ishontirmoq ( уверять , чточерное - белое ,) 3.call (make) white black-qorani oq demoq ( называтьчерноебелым ) 4.prove that black is white and white black-qorani oq, oqni esa qora deb ishontirmoq ( уверять, чточерное -белое , белое -черное ) 5.thing look black-ishlar yomon ( делаплохи ) 6.blue print-bosma nusxa ( светописнаякопия ) 7.grey goose-yovvoyi goz ( дикийгусь ) 8.black bottle-zahar 9.to be not so black as one is painted-tasvirlangandek yomon bo’lmaslik (бытьнетакимужплохим ) 10.green with envy-xasad qilmoq ( ревновать ) 11.whitepaper-Angliyahikumatiningnashriyoti (официальные издания английского правительстово ) 12.the green light-ochiq ko’cha ( зеленая улица ) 13.Put down in -ipidan ignasigachaa tasvirlamoq (издожитьчернымпобеломи ) 14.golden age-oltin davr ( золотойвек ) 15.true blue will never stain-oltin zanglamas (настоящизолотаникогданепотускнит ) 16.every bean has its black-yoda ham dog’ bor ( инасолнцеестьпятно )

Idioms Metaphor 1.yellow boy-tilla bola () 2.buy a white horse-pulning kulini ko’kka sovurmoq (трвнжиритьденьги ) 3.whited sepulcher-k’oz bo’yamachi ( лицимер ) 4.white liver-qo’rqoqlik ( трусость , молодущие ) 5.the black dog-qo’rqinch ( уныние ) 6.be in the blues-bezbetlik qilmoq ( хандрить ) 7.give smb the blues-sog’inch ( надовитьтоску ) 8.fly (show) the white feather-qo’rqoqlik 9.the green eyed minster-rashk ( ревность ) 10.very the blues-o’zoni kamsitmoq ( прибеться ) 11.at a white heat-jaxl otiga chiqqanda ( ввещенства , иярости ) 12.red rag-1)jaxlga sabab bo’ladigan ( то , чтоприводитьвярость ) 2)til (язык ) 13.yellow dog-qo’rqoq ( трусливый ) 14.the grey mare-erini qo’lga olgan xotin (жена ,руководящасвоиммужен ) 15.a white man-odobli, ta’lim-tarbiyali odam ( порядочныйчеловек ) 16.ride the black donkey-kayfiyati chatoq ( бытьвплохомнастроение ) 17.keep the bones green-sog’lig’ini yaxshi saqlamoq (сохрянятьхорощиездоровье ) 18.a red tab-shtab ofitseri ( офичерщтаб ) 19.a bit of blue sky-umid uchqinlari ( лучьнадежды ) 20.green goods man-qallob ( фальщиво -монетчик ) 21.knight of the green cloth-qimorboz ( картежник ) 22.The Black Maria-turma malikasi ( тюремнаякарета ) 23.Red-dog-kredit qog’ozi, banknot ( кредитныйбилеть , банкнота ) 24.the yellow feaf-qarilik ( старость ) 25.a black jack-1)pivo krujkasi ( пивнаякружка ) 2)to’qmoq (дубинка ) 26.blue beans-o’qlar ( пули ) 27.cry blue murder-yordamga chaqirmoq ( кричатькараул ) 28.like blue murder-shoshib-pishib ( сломьелолову ) 29.yellow jack-bezgak ( лилорадка ) 30.black wax-botqoq yer (земля ,котораяпоследождьяставновитьсялипкой ) 31.white caps (horses)-“jingalak” (“ барашки ”) 32.red lane-tomoq ( горло ) 33.the Blue Petter-jo’nat ketish belgisi ( флаготллытие ) 34.yellow man-sariq ipak dastro’mpolcha (желтыйщельковыйносовойплаток ) 35.the Black Jack-qaroqchilar bayrog’I ( пиратскийфлаг ) 36.white wings-farroshlar ( дворники )

Metonymy 1.catch (take) smb red handed-jinoyat ustida qo’lga olmoq ( застатького - либонаместапреступление ) 2.draw a red herring across the path-to’ldan urushga qodir (намеренноводитького -либовзаблуждение ) 3.a yellow streak-ustabuzarmon ( склонностькверооиству ) 4.turn yellow-qo’rqoqlik qilmoq ( струсить ) 5.priest of the blue bag-oqlivchi ( адвокат ) 6.make (turn) the air blue-urushmoq ( ругаться ) 7.green room-artistlar kiyinadigan xona ( артистическая ) 8.find a white feather in the smb’s tail-qo’rqoqlik alomatini sezmoq (уличитького -либовтрусости ) 9.out of the blue-tasodifan ( совершеннонеожиденно )

Epithets 1.the black foot-sovchi ( сват , свха ) 2.blue laws-jinnilar qonuni ( пуритаческийзаконы ) 3.black hole-zindon ( всевпорядки ) 4.blue-eyed boy-sevimli ( любимчик ) 5.blue norther-shimoliy shamol 6.white night-uyqusiz tun ( бессоннаяночь )

Oxymoron 1.once in a blue moon-bir shamol uchurib ( вкомтовеки )

Neutral 1.do brown-oxiriga yetkazmoq , aldamoq ( доводитьдоконца , обмвнывать ) 2.rosy in the garden-ishlar besh ( всевпорядки ) 3. Blue Hen’s children-Delovar shtati yashovchisi (жительштатаДеловер ) 4. Brown bill-omborda 5. White scourage-sil ( туберкульез ) 6. Red liquor-o’tkir ichimlik ( крепкийнапиток ) 7. Black strap-arzon ichimlik ( дещевыйпротвейнилиром ) 8. White satin-ichimlik ( джин ) 9. Blue ruin-1) yomon sifatli ichimlik ( джинскверногокачество ) 2)butunlay inqiroz ( польнаякризись ) 10. Gretna Green Marriage-sevishganlar o’rtasidagi nikoh (бракмеждуубужещимывлюбленными ) 11. The blue sky law-qimmatli qog’ozlar chiaqrish va sotishni boshqaradigan qonun ( законрегулираюшийвыпускипродажуакций ) 12. black frost-shamol bo’lmasa daraxtning uchi qimirlamaydi ( безмороз ) 13. Admiral of the red-aroqxo’r ( пьянича ) The stylistic values of the phrase logical units are built on the bases of stylistic devices such as: metonymy, metaphor, simile, epithet, oxymoron, which fact in itself presupposes their stylistic possibilities. Character of their semantic motivation is mainly conditioned by such stylistic devices of metaphor and metonymy. The classification of phrase logical units presented in the paper do not at all possible approaches to phrase logical units chosen by a component presenting a certain semantic class of this theme is expected to be continued.

Conclusion

The wide range of colour words causes a certain difficulty in finding them in dictionaries and glossaries. Most of them can be found in some dictionaries, but not all. We should also bear in mind that writers and advertisement designers invent their own colour words, Some of them can be understood easily (forget-me- not-blue, Nattier blue, robins egg blue). Some are really difficult to understand or translate. What colour are such nail varnish colours: Rambling Rose, Country Rose, Porcelain Pink or In the Pink? The present research is characterized by a great interest towards the problem connected with the study of colour terms in phraseological units and their translation into Uzbek language. This Qualification paper is devoted to the study of colour terms in phraseological units, their translation into Uzbek language, which presents the interest both for practical language use. The novelty of the given research is determined by the fact that although colour terms as a specific gropu of words were repeatedly subject to investigation in different aspects mainly there were worked out the specifity of colour terms in different languages of colour, certain colour terms in separate languages, component analyses of colour terms. In the capacity of directly object of research are closed Englished and Uzbek phraseological units with components of colour terms. White, black, red, blue, brown, pink, searlet, yellow, grey in English languages and their equivalents: Oq, qora, qizil, ko’k, jigarrang, pushti, alvon, sariq, kulrang in the Uzbek language. So the object of research is an engkish uzbek phraseological unit denoting colour terms. The aim of the research is comprehensive description of colour terms and their functions. The aim of the research purses the following concrete tasks of the research: 1) Rendering of colours into Uzbek 2) Revealing and describing semantico-stylistic types of colour terms 3) Revealing the semantic field of colour notions 4) Showing the symbolism of colour terms from different points of view 5) Analyzing the functions of the colour terms in the context The methods used in the research represent the complex approach to the study of colour terms including structure, lexicographic, comparative, stylistic, contextual and cognitive ways of the language units. Structurally the qualification paper is to work on translation of colour terms in phraseological units of points out their semantic, stylistic effect in language.

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Word Definition aeneous shining colour albicant whitish; becoming white albugineous like the white of an eye or an egg; white-coloured amaranthine immortal; undying; deep purple-red colour argent the heraldic colour silver or white atrous jet black aubergine ; a dark purple colour aurulent gold-coloured azuline blue azure light or sky blue; the heraldic colour blue badious -coloured light creamy white-brown brunneous dark brown burnet dark brown; dark woollen cloth caesious bluish or greyish green cardinal deep scarlet red colour castaneous chestnut-coloured castory brown colour; brown dye derived from beaver pelts celadon pale green; pale green glazed pottery celeste sky blue sky-blue; dark blue; sea-green cesious bluish-grey yellow-green colour chlorochrous green-coloured chrysochlorous greenish-gold cinerious ashen; ash-grey red crystalline mercuric sulfide pigment; deep red or scarlet cinnabar colour citreous lemon-coloured; lemony citrine dark greenish-yellow claret dark red-purple colour; a dark-red wine coccineous bright red columbine of or like a dove; dove-coloured coquelicot brilliant red; poppy red corbeau blackish green cramoisy cretaceous of or resembling chalk; of a whitish colour croceate saffron-coloured cyaneous sky blue eau-de-nil pale green colour eburnean of or like ivory; ivory-coloured erythraean reddish colour ferruginous of the colour of rust; impregnated with iron filemot dead-leaf colour; dull brown flammeous flame-coloured flavescent yellowish or turning yellow fuliginous sooty; dusky; soot-coloured; of or pertaining to soot fulvous dull yellow; tawny fuscous brown; tawny; dingy gamboge reddish-yellow colour glaucous sea-green; greyish-blue goldenrod dark golden yellow greige of a grey-beige colour gridelin violet-grey griseous pearl-grey or blue-grey; grizzled haematic blood-coloured purplish hue; purplish-flowered plant; ancient sundial; heliotrope signalling mirror hoary pale silver-grey colour; grey with age hyacinthine of a blue or purple colour ianthine violet-coloured ibis large stork-like bird; a pale colour icterine yellowish or marked with yellow icteritious jaun diced; yellow incarnadine carnation-coloured; blood-red indigo deep blue-violet colour; a blue-violet dye infuscate clouded or tinged with brown; obscured; cloudy brown colour isabelline greyish yellow jacinthe orange colour jessamy yellow like a jasmine kermes brilliant red colour; a red dye derived from insects khaki light brown or tan lateritious brick-red leucochroic white or pale-coloured liard grey; dapple-grey lovat grey-green; blue-green lurid red-yellow; yellow-brown luteolous yellowish luteous golden-yellow lutescent yellowish madder red dye made from brazil wood; a reddish or red-orange colour magenta reddish purple maroon brownish crimson mauve light bluish purple mazarine rich blue or reddish-blue colour melanic black; very dark melichrous having a honey-like colour meline canary-yellow miniaceous colour of reddish lead minium vermilion; red lead modena crimson morel dark-coloured horse; blackish colour nacarat bright orange-red nankeen buff-coloured; durable buff-coloured cotton nigricant of a blackish colour nigrine black niveous snowy; white ochre yellowish or yellow-brown colour ochroleucous yellowish white olivaceous olive-coloured or heraldic colour gold or yellow pavonated peacock-blue periwinkle a bluish or azure colour; a plant with bluish flowers perse dark blue or bluish-grey; cloth of such a colour phoeniceous bright scarlet-red colour piceous like pitch; inflammable; reddish black plumbeous leaden; lead-coloured ponceau poppy red porphyrous purple porraceous leek-green prasinous leek-green colour primrose pale yellow puccoon blood-root; dark red colour puce brownish-purple; purplish-pink puniceous bright or purplish red purpure heraldic colour purple purpureal purple pyrrhous reddish; ruddy rhodopsin visual purple rubiginous rusty-coloured rubious red; rusty rufous reddish or brownish-red russet reddish brown sable black; dark; of a black colour in heraldry saffron orange-yellow sage grey-green colour sanguineous bloody; of, like or pertaining to blood; blood-red sapphire deep pure blue sarcoline flesh-coloured sepia fine brown sinopia preparatory drawing for a fresco; reddish-brown colour slate dull dark blue-grey smalt deep blue smaragdine emerald green solferino purplish red sorrel reddish-brown; light chestnut spadiceous chestnut-coloured stammel coarse woollen fabric, usually dyed red; bright red colour stramineous strawy; light; worthless; straw-coloured suede light beige sulphureous bright yellow tan tawny brown taupe brownish-grey tawny brownish-yellow greenish-blue terracotta reddish-brown testaceous of or having a hard shell; brick-red tilleul pale yellowish-green titian red-gold or reddish-brown topaz dark yellow turquoise blue-green ultramarine deep blue umber brownish red vermeil bright red or vermilion colour; gilded silver vermilion bright red vinaceous wine-coloured vinous deep red; burgundy violaceous violet-coloured violet bluish purple virescent becoming green or greenish; of a greenish colour virid green viridian chrome green vitellary bright yellow wallflower yellowish-red watchet pale blue wheaten the golden colour of ripe wheat whey off-white willowish of the colour of willow leaves