Edith Cowan University Research Online Theses: Doctorates and Masters Theses 2004 Kimberley Women : Their Experiences of Making a Remote Locality Home Elaine Rabbitt Edith Cowan University Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses Part of the Family, Life Course, and Society Commons, Place and Environment Commons, Rural Sociology Commons, and the Social and Cultural Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Rabbitt, E. (2004). Kimberley Women : Their Experiences of Making a Remote Locality Home. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1677 This Thesis is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/1677 Edith Cowan University Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorize you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: Copyright owners are entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. A reproduction of material that is protected by copyright may be a copyright infringement. Where the reproduction of such material is done without attribution of authorship, with false attribution of authorship or the authorship is treated in a derogatory manner, this may be a breach of the author’s moral rights contained in Part IX of the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Courts have the power to impose a wide range of civil and criminal sanctions for infringement of copyright, infringement of moral rights and other offences under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Higher penalties may apply, and higher damages may be awarded, for offences and infringements involving the conversion of material into digital or electronic form. "I found it lonely because the north is a man's place or was. I don't think so much now. But it certainly was then and I had no contacts" (Merle, personal communication, June 20, 1998). Kimberley Women: Their experiences of making a remote locality home. Elaine Rabbitt Doctor of Philosophy Aboriginal and Intercultural Studies at Edith Cowan University, Mt Lawley, Western Australia. USE OF THESIS The Use of Thesis statement is not included in this version of the thesis. I certify that this thesis does not, to the best of my knowledge and belief: (i) incorporate without knowledge any material previously submitted for a degree of diploma in any institution of higher education; (ii) contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference; is made in the text; or (iii) contain any defamatory material. iii Abstract In previous histories of Western Australia, pre-dominantly written from a male Eurocentric viewpoint, scant attention has been drawn to the everyday lives of country women. The study described in this dissertation explores the responses of women to the challenges of relocation and settlement within a remote locality in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. This thesis is an interdisciplinary study. The theoretical framework investigates the notion that the Kimberley was a man's domain and historically women's contribution and experience has been discounted. Within the research area of feminist social history the study explores national and international migration and residency in a remote locality after World War II. It is asserted that women played an integral role in the development of the Kimberley region and their presence impacted upon the ever-changing social, economic and political climate of the area. Primary and secondary sources were used to gather the data. A broad spectrum of women, of various ages, cultural backgrounds and length of residency in the Kimberley were interviewed. This study includes Indigenous women from other parts of Australia, Anglo Australia women and migrant women of non-English and English-speaking background. iv Acknowledgements Thank you to the women of Broome who have made this study possible. Thank you also to my supervisors Associate Professor Gary Partington and Dr Pat Baines and the staff of Kurongkurl Katiljin School of Indigenous Australian Studies, Edith Cowan University. I would also like to acknowledge the ongoing encouragement and support I received from my colleagues at ECU's Broome Regional Centre, and the assistance received from the staff at the Broome Shire Library and at ECU's external library, particularly Hazel Radcliffe for ensuring a prompt and efficient service. This study would not have been possible without the friendship, support and advice of many women and men in the Broome community. I would like to thank my family and friends and in particular Alison Spencer and my sister Marie Wood for their expertise and patience. v Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents iii List of Tables xiii Kimberley Map xiv Chapter One: Preamble Rationale of the Study Genesis of the Thesis 2 Clarification of Key Terms Terms Used by the Project Participants :l Government terms 4 Terms Used by the Researcher 5 The Aim of the Study 7 The Structure of the Thesis 7 The Context of the Thesis 9 Physical Features of the Kimberley 9 Topography 10 Locality 11 Demographic Context 11 Isolation: Myth or Reality? 15 vi Historical Sources 16 The Traditional Owners 20 Exploration and Exploitation 21 The Colonial Enterprise 24 Women in the Broome Area 26 Indigenous women 26 Anglo Australian women (national migrants) 27 Overseas migrant women (international migrants) 28 The White Australia Policy 29 The White Experiment 30 A Class Conscious Society 31 Race Relations 33 The Old Days Pass 35 Impact of World War II 35 Post War to 1998 36 Tourism 38 Conclusion 39 vii Chapter Two: Literature Review Introduction 40 Colonial Assumptions 42 The Concept of the Frontier 43 Christianity 44 Social Darwinism 45 Myth of the Male Frontier 48 Women on the Frontier 52 Women on the Kimberley Frontier 53 Feminist Social History 56 Women's Standpoint 57 Marginalised by Feminism 59 Bush Feminism 61 The Politics of Representation 62 Balance of Voice and Power 63 Social Relationships 64 Being Known and Belonging 65 Women and Work 71 Conclusion 77 viii Chapter Three: Methodology Introduction 80 Oral History 83 Oral History as a Feminist Tool 84 Critique of Oral History 84 Memories 86 Memory and Gender 89 Silences 90 Ethical Considerations 91 Collaborative Process 92 Role Management 95 Cultural Sensitivity 96 Relationships- politics of prior knowledge 96 Issues of Confidentiality and Ownership 97 The Interviews 98 Selection of Participants 98 Initiating the Interviews 101 The Interview Process 102 Transcribing the Interviews 103 Trustworthiness 104 Conclusion 104 ix Chapter Four: First Impressions Introduction 106 Living Conditions and Lifestyle 111 Health 129 Race Relations and Socialising 133 Isolation 144 Employment 146 The Hospitality Industry 148 The Meatworks 150 The Pearling Industry 151 Support Structures 155 Conclusion 159 Chapter Five: Belonging Introduction 161 Women and their Associations 163 The Country Women's Association 164 The Role of Sport 168 The Broome Netball Association 169 Netball Volunteers 170 Cultural Uncertainties 174 Migrant Services 177 The North West Women's Association 179 X The Broome Multicultural Association 181 Socialising in the Hotels 184 Family Support 188 Circle House 189 Day Care Facilities 190 Other Associations 193 Maintaining Home Links 195 Conclusion 197 Chapter Six: Changing Times Introduction 200 On the Road of Change 204 The McAlpine Era 206 Into the 1990s 210 Talking about development 210 Shopping 212 Residential Subdivisions 215 External Influences 217 Employment opportunities 219 Quality of Life 222 Friendships 225 Reasons for Staying 227 xi Reasons for leaving 231 Conclusion 234 Chapter Seven: Conclusion 236 limitations of the Study 237 Collecting History 239 New Frontiers 243 Notions of Distance 244 Settling In 245 Accommodating their Needs 247 Close-Knit 248 Being Known 249 Not Quite A local 251 Further Considerations 257 xii List of Tables Table 1: Estimated Population of Broome 1947-2001 14 Table 2: Estimated Population of Broome 2001 Indigenous and 15 Non-Indigenous Table 3: Women Arriving in Broome 1950s, 1960s 107 Table 4: Women Arriving in Broome 1970s 108 Table 5: Women Arriving in Broome 1980s 109 Table 6: Women Arriving in Broome 1990s 110 Table 7: The Women's Circumstances in 1998 202 Appendices Appendix 1: EOWAAnnual Report2000-2001 Media Kit 260 Appendix 2: Consent Form 262 Appendix 3: Interview Questions 262 Bibliography 266 xiii Timor Sea ~ " " Map of the Kimberley Western Australia The data for this map was selected from datasets: AUSLIG 250K Geodata, Wacoast, LOCWA1M and VLG. xiv Chapter One: Preamble Rationale of the Study The north of Western Australia is a vast area divided into two regions, the Pilbara and the Kimberley. Diverse in physical features and opportunities, it is home to a multiracial resident population who live in towns, communities, stations and outstations. This dissertation focuses on a group of women residing in the Kimberley region. It is based on the stories of 24 Indigenous and non-Indigenous women who relocated to Broome from other parts of Australia and overseas. The lifestyles of the women and their experiences of settling in an area, considered by some to be isolated and remote, are investigated. The differences among these women, and the circumstances underlying their relocation, are many and varied. They shared in common a process of resettlement and adjustment. Factors such as ethnicity, class, age, family circumstances, education, economic and marital status and religion, are considered. The Indigenous women of the Kimberley, the largest group of women in the region, are not the focus of this study. Rather, the emphasis is upon the recorded personal histories of a group of women who have relocated to the Broome area. The women's experiences of settlement on the Kimberley frontier, post World War II until 1998, have been analysed. It is recognised that popular histories of Broome tend to focus on and romanticise the 'heydays' of the pearling industry in the early 20th Century.