Introduction: the Origins
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Notes Introduction: The Origins 1. Virginia Woolf, ‘On Not Knowing Greek’, The Essays of Virginia Woolf, ed. Andrew McNeillie, 4 vols (Hogarth Press, London: 1986–94), vol. 4, 38–53, p. 38. The essay was originally published in the fi rst edition of The Common Reader (1925). For a detailed study of the cultural implications of ‘knowing Greek’ from the Renaissance to modernism see Simon Goldhill, Who Needs Greek? Contests in the Cultural History of Hellenism (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002). 2. Walter Pater, ‘Poems by William Morris’, Westminster Review 34 (October 1868), 300–12, p. 307. 3. Pater, The Renaissance, in The New Library Edition of the Works of Walter Pater, 10 vols (London: Macmillan, 1910), vol. 1, p. 125. Unless specifi ed, all references to Pater will be to this edition and will be made by volume and page number in the body of the text. 4. Pater, ‘Æsthetic Poetry’, in Appreciations (London and New York: Macmillan, 1889), 213–27. The essay is not included in the Library Edition. 5. Vernon Lee, ‘Orpheus and Eurydice (The Lesson of a Bas-Relief)’, in Belcaro: Essays on Sundry Æsthetical Questions (London: W. Satchell & Co., 1881), pp. 61 and 62. 6. Cf. Humphry Trevelyan, Goethe and the Greeks (Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 152. 7. For a full account see Joseph Mordaunt Crook, The Greek Revival: Neo-Classical Attitudes in British Architecture 1760–1870 (London: John Murray, 1972). 8. See especially William St. Clair, Lord Elgin and the Marbles (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1967). 9. Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘Preface’ to Hellas (1822), in The Complete Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, eds Roger Ingpen and Walter E. Peck, 10 vols (London: Julian Editions & New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926–30), vol. 3, p. 8. 10. For a sourcebook of English Romantic Hellenism see Timothy Webb, English Romantic Hellenism 1700–1824 (Manchester: Manchester University Press & New York: Barnes and Noble, 1982); for criticism see Martin Aske, Keats and Hellenism (Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Buxton, The Grecian Taste: Literature in the Age of Neoclassicism 1740–1820 (London: Macmillan, 1978); David S. Ferris, Silent Urns: Romanticism, Hellenism, Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000); Harry Levin, The Broken Column: A Study in Romantic Hellenism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1931); Elizabeth Longford, Byron’s Greece (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975); T. J. B. Spencer, Fair Greece Sad Relic: Literary Philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1954); and Jennifer Wallace, Shelley and Greece: Rethinking Romantic Hellenism (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997). 11. Ayumi Mizukoshi, Keats, Hunt and the Aesthetics of Pleasure (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), pp. 80–1. 166 Notes 167 12. Thomas Arnold, ‘Rugby School’, Quarterly Journal of Education 7 (1834), 234–49, p. 240. 13. Frank M. Turner, The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981), respectively pp. 15 and 17. 14. Turner, Greek Heritage, pp. 10–11. For a different view see Richard Jenkyns, The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980) and Dignity and Decadence (London: Fontana, 1991). Jenkyns draws attention to the Victorians’ anti-classicism manifested in the widespread taste for the gothic. 15. Christopher Stray, Classics Transformed: Schools, Universities, and Societies in England, 1830–1960 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), p. 29. See also Goldhill, Who Needs Greek? 16. See M. L. Clarke, Classical Education in Britain 1500–1900 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1959); and Christopher Stray, Classics in 19th and 20th Century Cambridge: Curriculum, Culture, Community (Cambridge: Cambridge Philological Society, 1999). On the erosion of classical authority in the late century see Stray, Classics Transformed, pp. 83–113. 17. Quoted in Stray, Classics Transformed, p. 81. 18. Isobel Hurst provides a thorough discussion of the gender politics of Victorian classicism and classical studies in Victorian Women Writers and the Classics: The Feminine of Homer (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). 19. Martin Bernal, Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization. Volume 1: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece 1785–1985 (London: Free Association Press, 1987). 20. Turner, Greek Heritage, p. 448. 21. Respectively, Stray, Classics Transformed, p. 11; and James Bowen, ‘Education, Ideology and the Ruling Class: Hellenism and English Public Schools in the Nineteenth Century’, in Rediscovering Hellenism: The Hellenic Inheritance and the English Imagination, ed. G. W. Clarke (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 161–80, p. 162. 22. I borrow the concepts of cultural capital and social distinction (and their interconnection) from Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (London and Melbourne: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984). 23. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy: The Revival of Learning (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1877), p. 112. 24. John Grote, ‘Old Studies and New’, in Cambridge Essays: 1856 (London: John W. Parker and Son, 1856), 74–114. 25. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 146. 26. See Crook, Greek Revival, p. 10. 27. Symonds, A Problem in Greek Ethics (London: [privately printed], 1901). For modern studies of homosexuality in ancient Greece see Kenneth J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality (London: Duckworth, 1978); Michel Foucault, The Use of Pleasure: The History of Sexuality, Volume 2 (London: Penguin, 1992); and John Davidson, The Greeks and Greek Love: A Radical Reappraisal of Homosexuality in Ancient Greece (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2007). 28. Havelock Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, 6 vols (London: University Press & Philadelphia: Davis, 1897–1911), vol. 1, pp. 17–18. 168 Notes 29. The Memoirs of John Addington Symonds, ed. Phyllis Grosskurth (New York: Random House, 1984), p. 99. 30. Richard St. John Tyrwhitt, ‘The Greek Spirit in Modern Literature’, Contemporary Review 29 (March 1877), 552–66, pp. 557 and 562. 31. W. F. Barry (anon.), ‘Neo-paganism’, Quarterly Review 344 (April 1891), 273–304. 32. Dennis Denisoff, Aestheticism and Sexual Parody 1840–1940 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 33. See, amongst others, James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Masculinity (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1995); Joseph Bristow, Effeminate England: Homoerotic Writing after 1885 (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1995); Vineta Colby, Vernon Lee: A Literary Biography (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2003); Richard Dellamora, Masculine Desire: The Sexual Politics of Victorian Aestheticism (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Herbert Sussman, Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 34. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction (London and New York: Penguin, 1990), p. 43. 35. Linda Dowling, Hellenism and Homosexuality in Victorian Oxford (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1994). 1 Pater, ‘Winckelmann’, and the Aesthetic Life 1. Before ‘Winckelmann’, Pater had published his essay on Coleridge, exactly one year earlier, in the January issue of the Westminster Review, in 1866. Richard Dellamora has also noted the ‘depth of affi nity’ between Winckelmann and Pater; Dellamora, ‘The Androgynous Body in Pater’s “Winckelmann”’, Browning Institute Studies 11 (1983), 51–68, p. 51. See also Kenneth Clark, ‘Introduction’ to The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry (London and Glasgow: Fontana/ Collins, 1961), p. 13; and Donald L. Hill, ed., The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980), p. 412. 2. For a full account of the blackmailing episode, in which Pater’s relationship with the undergraduate William Money Hardinge was disclosed to Benjamin Jowett, Master of Balliol College, see Billie Andrew Inman, ‘Estrangement and Connection: Walter Pater, Benjamin Jowett, and William Money Hardinge’, in Pater in the 1990s, eds Laurel Brake and Ian Small (Greensboro, NC: ELT Press, 1991), 1–20. 3. See Dowling, Hellenism and Homosexuality, pp. 95–8. 4. On Pater’s use of the fi gure of the relic, see Kevin Ohi’s evocative analysis in Innocence and Rapture: The Erotic Child in Pater, Wilde, James, and Nabokov (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 36–7. 5. William F. Shuter, Rereading Walter Pater (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 6. Francis X. Roellinger, in his comparative study of the two pieces, interprets these correspondences as a proof of the fact that Pater might have had Winckelmann in mind when he wrote ‘Diaphaneitè’. This hypothesis is Notes 169 intriguing, as it suggests that Winckelmann could be the unmentioned subject of the very earliest of Pater’s writings. See Roellinger, ‘Intimations of Winckelmann in Pater’s ‘Diaphaneitè’, English Language Notes 2:4 (1965), 277–82, p. 279. 7. For an account of the reception of Winckelmann in Europe see Alex Potts, Flesh and the Ideal: Winckelmann and the Origins of Art History (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 256–7. 8. For Winckelmann’s infl uence on German letters and