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The Anthropological Quest hominid ancestors, as well as ideas about the emer- gence of social organizations and cultural adaptations. Anthropology is the study of humankind in terms of As a result of both research over scores of decades and scientific inquiry and logical presentation. It strives for the convergence of facts and concepts, anthropologists a comprehensive and coherent view of our own species now offer a clearer picture of humankind’s natural within dynamic nature, organic evolution, and socio- history and global dominance. cultural development. The discipline consists of five With the human being as its focus, the discipline major, interrelated areas: physical/biological anthro- of anthropology mediates between the natural and pology, archaeology, cultural/social anthropology, social sciences while incorporating the humanities. Its linguistics, and applied anthropology. The anthropo- acceptance and use of discoveries in biology, for logical quest aims for a better understanding of and example, the DNA molecule, and its attention to rele- proper appreciation for the evolutionary history, vant ideas in the history of philosophy, such as the sociocultural diversity, and biological unity of concepts presented in the writings of Marx and humankind. Anthropologists see the human being as Nietzsche, make anthropology a unique field of study a dynamic and complex product of both inherited and a rich source for the relevant application of facts, genetic information and learned social behavior within a cultural milieu; symbolic language as articu- late speech distinguishes our species from the great apes. Genes, fossils, artifacts, monuments, languages, and societies and their cultures are the subject matter of anthropology. The holistic approach is both intradisci- plinary and interdisciplinary. It incorporates evidence from geology, paleontology, psy- chology, and history, among other special sciences. Anthropologists strive to pre- sent generalizations about the origin and evolution of our own species from remote H. James Birx, Uluru (Ayers Rock), Australia

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concepts, methods, theories, and perspectives. civilizations. Moving images on the silver screen left Forensic anthropology, medical anthropology, busi- indelible impressions on my curious imagination. ness anthropology, and advocacy anthropology have In secondary school, Charles Darwin’s scientific emerged as significant areas of applied anthropology theory of organic evolution was added to my interest in the changing modern human world. in natural history. Then, as a college student at SUNY Growing fossil evidence reveals that our remote Geneseo, I took my first courses in anthropology and beginnings started in a very diversified group of evolution. On my own, I also discovered the history hominid species that had, in turn, emerged from ear- of philosophy and was fascinated with the ideas of lier fossil apelike forms living in Africa. Over several Aristotle and Nietzsche. Since childhood, I have had millions of years, some hominid forms evolved while a philosophical orientation that, as a college student, others became extinct. Clearly, hominid evolution has found delight in reading about the great thinkers in been an extraordinarily long and incredibly complex Western culture. process, with only our own species having survived During my 5 years at Geneseo, one highlight was human evolution to the present time. How dearly meeting Margaret Mead, complete with her large would one love to have seen our earliest hominid walking stick, which she no doubt brought with her ancestors of the deep, prehistoric past as they strug- from some Pacific island. At that time, neither she nor gled to adapt and survive in those precarious I could have imagined that her inspiring auditorium environments of the open woodlands and grassy presentation would contribute, four decades later, to savannahs! Indeed, it is intriguing to speculate on my editing this encyclopedia. Over the years, I have both the overt and covert behavior of these primitive also met Donald C. Johanson, Richard E. F. Leakey, hominids: They gazed at the same stars, experienced and Jeffrey H. Schwartz, as well as numerous scien- drastic habitat changes, and were no doubt perplexed tists and philosophers. Each of them has played a role by birth and disease and death. in the materialization of this work. As with most species, past civilizations—including As a graduate student in anthropology at SUNY their languages—have emerged, evolved, flourished, University at Buffalo, I did research in human cran- and vanished. The anthropologist is challenged to iometry and enjoyed reading the cultural theorists, reconstruct both the material cultures of these particularly the writings of Leslie A. White. The societies and the social behaviors of their inhabitants. framework of evolution gave meaning and purpose to Anthropologists also compare and contrast the my many interests, which ranged from astronomy to human animal with the other primates, especially theology. Again on my own, I discovered that several the four great apes: orangutans, gorillas, chim- significant thinkers had been influenced by the writ- panzees, and bonobos. One consequence of this ings of Charles Darwin, including the early anthro- research is that we have found our own species to dif- pologists. fer from these pongids more in degree than in kind. During my graduate studies in philosophy, distin- With fossil evidence that apes, monkeys, and prosimi- guished professor Marvin Farber (l901–1980) under- ans are our evolutionary kin, human beings may stood, encouraged, and appreciated my desire to be closer to the four great apes than Huxley, Haeckel, integrate anthropology, philosophy, and evolutionary or even Darwin himself could have imagined in the thought. Under his guidance, I wrote a dissertation 19th century. on Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. This study prepared Ongoing advances in science and technology me for critically analyzing interpretations of evolu- enhance the anthropological quest, particularly in tion in the world literature. I am forever grateful for terms of more precise dating techniques, DNA analy- Farber’s insights, help and wisdom. ses, and computers for cross-cultural studies and My interests in anthropology and related fields linguistic research. have taken me to numerous zoos, museums, insti- As a youngster growing up on a farm in New York, tutes, universities, and historic sites from Australia to I developed a lasting love for movies. Films such as Russia. My own anthropological quest has been fasci- King Kong (l933), Mighty Joe Young (1949), The Ten nating and enriching: I have walked among the Commandments (1956), The Thief of Baghdad (1940), ancient ruins of Egypt, Greece, and Rome; visited Quo Vadis (1951), and Unknown Island (1948) intro- Stonehenge, Teotihuacan, and Machu Picchu; min- duced me to apes, prehistoric life forms, and ancient gled with the Inuits of Kotzebue, Maasai of Kenya, Volume 1.qxd 9/13/2005 3:29 PM Page xlix

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and Aborigines of the Karunga Rain Forest of that it gives to science and philosophy but also in the Australia. In 2003, my discovery of the first fossil tolerance that it instills in and the relevance that it has bone of an Allosaurus at the Wyoming Dinosaur for our converging global species. Center was a particularly exciting experience for me. Although anthropologists are still interested in Twice I visited the Galapagos Islands to experience— the biocultural evolution of humankind, some have to some degree—the wonderment that Darwin must turned their attention to solving problems in the have felt when he first walked among the strange modern world. Future anthropologists will likely animals that had adapted to this unique archipelago study human adaptations to living in outer space and that is seemingly detached from, but actually demon- perhaps on other worlds. strates the consequences of, organic evolution. As I was, millions of people have been introduced to The year 1959 had been a pivotal point in the evolution through the 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. history of anthropology. In July, prehistoric archaeolo- Its engaging story of transition from ape through gist Mary D. Leakey had discovered the “Zinj” skull in human to star child contains ideas and symbols from the lower rock strata of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, the writings of Darwin, Freud, and Nietzsche, among central East Africa. It was the first hominid specimen to others. Stanley Kubrick and Sir Arthur C. Clarke pre- be found in this part of the world. Zinjanthropus boisei sented both the cosmic perspective and an evolution- was 1.75 million years old. Even though this species ary framework in a stunning visual manner that represented a side branch in hominid evolution that remains compelling and plausible. It is now crucial that became extinct, this remarkable specimen inspired our species has the will to evolve, as well as the desire to other anthropologists to search for hominid fossils and learn from the wisdom of evolution. paleolithic artifacts in central East Africa. Since l959, From time to time, I have fantasized how it would scientists and researchers have made other incredible be to direct epic films such as Quo Vadis. As the editor discoveries that shed significant light on the origin, of the Encyclopedia of Anthropology, I come as close as evolution, and diversity of early hominids in Africa. I ever will to directing such a motion picture. This In l985, I was fortunate to participate in field “film” is the human story of our epic journey that has research at Koobi Fora in Kenya, Africa. I quickly been over five million years in the making. The developed a great respect for the paleoanthropologists authors are its actors, and the entries are scene-like and prehistoric archaeologists who spend months or contributions that fill these five colorful volumes. years searching for those fossils and artifacts that offer Numerous individuals at SAGE have worked on the more and more insights on hominid biocultural evo- editing, production, and marketing aspects of this lution. It’s not surprising that some anthropologists project. I now hope that these pages will result in are very protective of their rare discoveries. many readers having a deeper understanding of and Another major advance in the middle of the 20th appreciation for the biological and cultural aspects of century was the beginning of close-range, long-term our species. And as films introduced me to anthropol- studies of the wild apes in their natural habitats. ogy, perhaps this encyclopedia will inspire readers to Primate behavior research benefited greatly from become a part of the future anthropological quest. such rigorous studies, supplemented by comparative primate genetics research. I have met the three major — H. James Birx primatologists of our time: Dian Fossey, Jane Goodall, Distinguished Research Scholar and Biruté Mary F. Galdikas. Their pioneering field Department of Anthropology, SUNY Geneseo work has made substantial contributions to biological June 1, 2005 anthropology and pongid psychology. Planet earth is both a graveyard and museum. The more anthropologists search, the more they find. Further Readings Surely, there are other fossil hominids to be unearthed Barnard, A. (2000). History and theory in anthropology. and other artifacts to be discovered. Even unknown New York: Cambridge University Press. species of primates and lost civilizations may yet be Bass, B., & Jefferson, J. (2003). Death’s acre: Inside the found in dense jungles. legendary forensic lab— The Body Farm—where the The value of anthropology lies not only in the dead do tell tales. New York: Putnam. indispensable knowledge and sweeping perspective Volume 1.qxd 9/13/2005 3:29 PM Page l

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Benedict, R. (1934/1959). Patterns of culture. Harris, M. (1968). The rise of anthropological theory: New York: Mentor Books. A history of theories of culture. New York: Thomas Birx, H. J. (1984). Theories of evolution. Springfield, Y. Crowell. IL: Charles C Thomas. Harris, M. (1980). Cultural materialism: The struggle Birx, H. J. (1988). Human evolution. Springfield, IL: for a science of culture. New York: Random House. Charles C Thomas. Langness, L. L. (2005). The study of culture, 3rd ed. Birx, H. J. (1991). Craniometry of the Orchid Site Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp. Ossuary, Fort Erie, Ontario. Buffalo, NY: Larson, E. J. (2004). Evolution: The remarkable Persimmon Press. history of a scientific theory.NewYork:Modern Birx, H. J. (1991). Interpreting evolution: Darwin & Library. Teilhard de Chardin. Amherst, MA: Prometheus Leakey, M. D. (1984). Disclosing the past: An Books. autobiography. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday. Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (2005). The origin and Leakey, R.E.F. (1984). One life: An autobiography. evolution of cultures. New York: Oxford University Salem, MA: Salem House. Press. Leakey, R.E.F. (1994). The origin of humankind. Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on language. New York: BasicBooks/HarperCollins. New York: Pantheon. Malinowski, B. (1954). Magic, science and religion, Corbey, R. (2005). The metaphysics of apes: and other essays. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday. Negotiating the animal-human boundary. Malinowski, B. (1961). Argonauts of the western Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pacific. Bergenfield, NJ: E. P. Dutton. Darwin, C. (1887/1958/2000). Autobiography. Manhein, M.H. (1999). The bone lady: Life as a Amherst, MA: Prometheus Books. forensic anthropologist. New York: Penguin. de Waal, F. B. M. (2005). Our inner ape: A leading Mayr, E. (1991). One long argument: Charles Darwin primatologist explains why we are who we are. and the genesis of modern evolutionary thought. New York: Riverhead Books. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. de Waal, F. B. M., & Lanting, F. (1997). Bonobo: The McGee, J., & Warms, R. L. (Eds.). (2000). forgotten ape. Berkeley: University of California Anthropological theory: An introduction, 2nd ed. Press. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Diamond, J. (1992). The third chimpanzee: The Mead, M. (1928/1961). Coming of age in Samoa. evolution and future of the human animal. New York: Morrow. New York: HarperCollins. Montgomery, S. (1991). Walking with the great apes: Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How societies choose to Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, Biruté Galdikas. Boston: fail or succeed. New York: Viking. Houghton Mifflin. Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940). The Nuer: A description Moore, J. D. (2004). Visions of culture: An introduction of the modes of livelihood and political institutions of to anthropological theories and theorists, 2nd ed. a Nilotic people. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira. Fagan, B. M. (2005). World prehistory: A brief Perry, R. J. (2003). Five key concepts in anthropological introduction, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson thinking. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Prentice Hall. Hall/Pearson Education. Foley, W. A. (1997). Anthropological linguistics: An Powell, J. F. (2005). First Americans: Race, evolution introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell. and the origin of native Americans. Cambridge: Fortey, R. (1998). Life: A natural history of the first Cambridge University Press. four billion years of life on earth. New York: Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1922). The Andaman A. Knopf. Islanders: A study in social anthropology. Fossey, D. (1983). Gorillas in the mist. Boston: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Houghton Mifflin. Richardson, J. (2004). Nietzsche’s new Darwinism. Galdikas, B. M. F. (1995). Reflections of Eden: My years Oxford: Oxford University Press. with the orangutans of Borneo. Boston: Little Sapir, E. (1921/1949). Language: An introduction to the Brown. study of speech. New York: Harcourt Brace Galdikas, B. M. F. (2005). Great ape odyssey. Jovanovich. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Service, E. R. (1975). Origins of the state and Goodall, J. (1986). In the shadow of man. Boston: civilization: The process of cultural evolution. Houghton Mifflin. New York: Norton. Volume 1.qxd 9/13/2005 3:29 PM Page li

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Tattersall, I., & Schwartz, J. H. (2000). Extinct humans. Watson, J. D. (2003). DNA: The secret of life. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1975). The phenomenon of Wells, S. (2002). The journey of man: A genetic man, 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row. odyssey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Thomas, E. M. (1989). The harmless people.NewYork: Press. Random House. White, L. A. (1959). The evolution of culture: The Turnbull, C. M. (1983). Mbuti pigmies: Change and development of civilization to the fall of Rome. adaptation. New York: Harcourt Brace. New York: McGraw-Hill. Turnbull, C. M. (1987). The forest people.NewYork: Whorf, B. (1956). Language, thought, and reality. Simon & Schuster. New York: Wiley. Turnbull, C. M. (1987). The mountain people. Wilson, E. O. (1992). The diversity of life. Cambridge: Riverside, NJ: Touchstone Books. Harvard University Press.