Ethical Issues in African Great Ape Field Studies
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Ethical Issues in African Great Ape Field Studies Lori Gruen, Amy Fultz, and Jill Pruetz Abstract lenging ethical issues. There has been some discussion of the ethics of field research with great apes specifically, and Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/54/1/24/670008 by guest on 24 March 2020 Great apes have been systematically studied in the wild for primates more generally (Mackinnon and Riley 2010). Given over half a century. Great apes are now critically endangered the challenges that such work raises, it is surprising that spe- and this raises significant ethical issues for field primatolo- cific ethical guidelines for field research have not yet gists who study and work to conserve these primates and emerged (Fedigan 2010; ASP 2000). This essay will discuss their habitats. The most immediate ethical concerns involve some of the ethical issues raised by African great ape re- the well-being of the subjects, but there are also important search in the hopes of generating a greater dialogue about ethical considerations involved in researchers’ interactions best practices. The issues with the even more seriously en- with local human populations and extracting industry repre- dangered orangutans in Indonesia and Malaysia are crucially sentatives. This essay will discuss some of the ethical issues important given the rapid destruction of their habitat for the raised by African great ape research, with the hope of gener- development of palm oil plantations (Sharma et al. 2012). ating greater dialogue about best practices. After brieflypre- But the focus of this paper will be on gorillas, chimpanzees, senting the history of great ape fieldwork, the ethical issues and bonobos, otherwise known as the African great apes. associated with habituation, intervention, and conservation This focus comes from the authors’ experience with these will be discussed. This text will end with specific proposals apes in captivity and in the wild. After briefly presenting the that focus on the ethical concerns in great ape field studies. history of great ape fieldwork, a discussion about the ethical issues associated with habituation, intervention, and conser- Key Words: bonobo; chimpanzee; conservation; conserva- vation will be presented. The essay will end with specific tion ethics; field studies; gorilla; habituation; intervention; proposals for addressing ethical considerations in great ape orangutan field research. There are two sets of ethical issues associated with great fi Introduction ape eldwork. The most immediate ethical issues have to do with the well-being of the subjects: how primatologists’ reat apes, including gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), chim- work affects the apes and their habitats for good or for ill; panzees (Pan troglodytes), bonobos (Pan panis- whether and under what conditions researchers should seek G cus), and orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo to intervene to prevent injury or death; and the longer term abelii) are critically endangered. The African apes, chimpan- impact of human activity on their survival. There are also ’ zees, gorillas, and bonobos are all endangered in their native ethical issues that primarily have to do with the researchers countries and their populations are declining, even within interactions with other humans. An exploration of these rela- protected areas. Orangutans will reportedly become extinct tionships raises questions about the role of the primatologist within the next decade, and all three species of African apes as educator, employer, conservationist, and diplomat. These are in danger of becoming extinct in our lifetimes. Studying two sets of issues are not entirely distinct and raise overlap- endangered great apes in their range countries provides valu- ping, sometimes competing, always complex, sets of ethical able knowledge about their natural behavior and life histo- questions. ries, their complex cognitive and social experiences, and the nature of the threats they face. It also raises a number of chal- Brief History of Great Ape Field Work Lori Gruen, PhD, is Professor of Philosophy at Wesleyan University, in Mid- The study of wild great apes began in earnest during the sec- dletown, Connecticut. Amy Fultz is Director of Animal Behavior and Edu- ondhalfofthe20th century. One of the earliest systematic cation at Chimp Haven, Inc., in Keithville, Louisiana. Jill Pruetz, PhD, is studies began in 1959 when George Schaller spent a little Professor of Anthropology at Iowa State University, in Ames, Iowa. Address correspondence and reprint requests to Lori Gruen, Department over a year studying the mountain gorillas in the Virunga of Philosophy, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT 06371 or email at Mountains of East Africa. Mountain gorillas became well [email protected]. known through the work of Dian Fossey who observed them ILAR Journal, Volume 54, Number 1, doi: 10.1093/ilar/ilt016 © The Author 2013. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Institute for Laboratory Animal Research. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: [email protected] 24 for eighteen years, from 1967 until her murder in 1985. In make use of the food provided. Most researchers recognize 1960, Jane Goodall began her groundbreaking study of the that provisioning presents more problems than it solves: it in- chimpanzees of Gombe, which has been a continuous re- terferes in substantive ways with natural behavior, it may search site ever since. In 1962, Japanese primatologist, Tosh- impact the growth and development of the apes, and it ulti- isada Nishida, began studying chimpanzees in Mahale at mately poses unnecessary risks to both the subjects and what is now a productive long-term field site. In 1973, Ta- those studying them. kayoshi Kano established a field site at Wamba in what is Habituation, even without provisioning, also poses risks. now the Democratic Republic of the Congo to study bono- The initial presence of humans causes animals stress and bos. In 1971, Birute Galdikas began her work in Indonesia fear; the most common reaction is for the animals to flee, re- studying the now critically endangered orangutans. spond defensively, and alarm call. Stress not only affects ani- Over 50 years later, there have been about a dozen long- mals physically, but also can destabilize social hierarchies term field sites for chimpanzees and a number of both long- and increase aggression. Ultimately, the goal of habituation Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ilarjournal/article-abstract/54/1/24/670008 by guest on 24 March 2020 term and short-term sites for the study of chimpanzees, go- is to achieve a state of indifference in the apes being ob- rillas, and bonobos have been established (Kappeler and served; the animal should thus be relatively stress free and Watts 2012). The primary goal of the early studies was to unafraid. However, teaching animals to no longer fear what learn about the other great apes as a way to help us under- may be a primary predator—humans—poses additional stand our own evolutionary past. However, in recent years risks, particularly for great apes whose populations are dwin- research goals have broadened to include understanding dling and habitats are declining because of human develop- great apes in their own right, learning more about their ment and poaching. The bushmeat and pet trade are among unique social and behavioral histories, and observing di- the greatest factors impacting the continued survival of verse behavioral repertoires in ape communities in different chimpanzees, and to a lesser extent, other African apes. habitats. Because great apes have a long life span, some of Proximitytohumansalsoincreases disease risks, as many the apes that were born in the early days of field research are infectious and deadly diseases are transmittable across the still alive. Long-term field sites have allowed for a rich un- species barrier. derstanding of intergenerational learning, multigenerational Increased vulnerability to human predation is, in many sociality, the aging process, and how endangered popula- ways, countered by the long-term presence of established re- tions adapt to human threats. search sites. Ongoing field sites experience less habitat dis- turbance (Wrangham and Ross 2008) and an increased presence of threatened and over-hunted species (Campbell Habituation et al. 2011). There are multiple reasons for this: researchers report illegal poaching and other activities, most field sites In order to accurately identify individuals, field researchers hire local people who are committed to the success of the must be able to get close enough to the apes regularly, with project, and the local employees will explicitly or implicitly minimal disruption, in order to observe natural behaviors. discourage encroachment. Some researchers are actively en- This closeness allows for the observation of facial expres- gaged in conservation and seek not only to actively protect sions and vocalizations, as well as observation of behavior natural habitat but also to increase the areas that are being and subtle social interactions. The process, known as habitu- protected, as Crickette Sanz and David Morgan did in their ation, allows researchers to observe from fairly close distanc- work expanding the Goualougo Triangle in Nouabalé-Ndoki es while the apes engage in typical behaviors, seemingly National Park. indifferent to the presence of the human observer. The pro- When human conflicts occur, the fact that a field site exists cess of habituation involves being seen daily by the ape in a can also heighten the vulnerability of the habituated apes non-threatening way until the researcher becomes an “innoc- and the local populations around the site. Boesch reports on uous part of the surroundings” (Schaller 1965). Habituation the death of a habituated chimpanzee in his study group that is a slow process that may take many years with great apes. did nothing as a poacher approached, shot, and killed him Habituation requires commitment and patience on the part of (Robbins and Boesch 2011). As an example, Malone et al. those doing the research, as well as tolerance on the part of (2010) note, “During the great wars that engulfed the Congo the ape subjects.