Ars Judaica Volume 12 2016 Ars Judaica 2016 23 aska): ˛ ˛ 1 l King John John King in aska),” l ´ S ´ roda S ´ roda roda S ´ of Luxembourg (1296–1346) and the Art of His Era: Proceedings of the of Luxembourg (1296–1346) and the Art of His Era: Proceedings of the International Conference, Prague 1996, ed. Klára Benesovská (Prague, moon crescent a with decorated ring was One 190–91. 1998), in Jewish contexts, a symbol appearing on other rings found and a star, silver with A similar ring made of -plated implying a Jewish owner. 5071/98): Maria enamel was part of the Erfurt treasure trove (TLDA, inv. “Der Schatzfund aus der Michaelisstraße in Erfurt,” in Die Stürzebecher, mittelalterliche jüdische Kultur in Erfurt, 1: Der Schatzfund: Archäologie, 2010), Kunstgeschichte, Siedlungsgeschichte, ed. Sven Ostritz (Weimar, Goldschatz von Neumarkt in Schlesien (S Schlesien in Neumarkt von Goldschatz included gold and silver coins and some unique gold gold unique some and coins silver and gold included a two pairs of earrings, a brooch, jewelry: two rings, 1). bracelet, and various other objects (fig.

Ido Noy ˛ aska aska l ´ S roda ´ S skiego St. in the heart of what skiego St. in the heart ´n The National Museum in Wrocław The National century. mid-14th Jewish quarter, in the , found of Neumarkt The treasure 1. Fig. Christian MaterialContext a Jewish in Culture The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron The 1988 treasure contained 3924 silver coins and 39 gold coins 39 gold coins and contained 3924 silver coins The 1988 treasure from the first half of the fourteenth century: see Jerzy Pietrusi´nski, “Herrscherschmuck aus der Schatzkammer der Luxemburger im

in Poland (medieval Neumarkt in Silesia). The trove trove The Silesia). in Neumarkt (medieval Poland in 1 In my research for this article I was fortunate to have the advice of several of several advice the articlethis wasfor I fortunate to have research In my Baumgarten, Elisheva Prof. and Dr Sarit Shalom Sabar, Prof. leading scholars: and I am deeply indebted to all of them. Special thanksShalev-Eyni, also to Art Jewish University at the Hebrew and the Center for Dr Vladimir Levin and for me with unlimited access to the archives providing of Jerusalem for supporting this research. of a building at 14 Daszy of a building at 14 In 1988, a treasure was discovered during the demolition was discovered during the demolition In 1988, a treasure had been the medieval Jewish quarter of had been the medieval Jewish quarter 24 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy different sizesandshapes(fig.2). tourmalines, ,rubies,sapphires,andemeraldsof with morethanahundredpreciousstones,including first quarterofthefourteenthcentury. Itisdecorated gold crownintendedforawoman,whichdatestothe years. family special permission to live in the city for several part oftheagreement,kinggrantedMuschoandhis Bohemian CharlesIV, thesonofJohnLuxemburg.As of Merklinassecurityforaloanmadein1348tothe of thesejewelsweregiventoaJewnamedMuschoson found inthetrove,researchershavesuggestedthatsome with catastrophe. of theseobjectscanbeattributedtotheirownersmeeting Neumarkt in1362andthatthehidingabandonment suggests aconnectionwiththeanti-Jewishviolencein been hidden in the mid-fourteenth century. This dating neighboring building,whichwasalsodeterminedtohave a cache of silver coins uncovered three years earlierin a gold ring setwith turquoise initsbeak. Thisfindrecalls Every panelistoppedbyasmallheraldiceagleholding perhaps BlanchedeValois ofSicily, CharlesIV’s firstwife, originally beenownedbyamemberoftheroyalfamily, fleuron, hinges. Atopeveryhingeisavinelikeornamentcalled the crownconsistsoftenplates,connectedbyhigh 4 3 2

For the history of the Jewish community in Neumarkt, see Leopold see below, n.8. Albert Museum(London,1992),121.Ontheorigin offleuroncrowns, European : With a Catalogue of the Collection in the Victoria & For thetermfleuroncrown,seeRonald W. Lightbown,Mediaeval Wrocław, TheNationalMuseum,inv. nos.V-2333, 2611,2612. 89, 95–96,98–99;foranotherfromFrance,100–101,no.39. no. 75;formanyfromRegensburg,192–94,198–99,200–201,nos.88– Seals fromEurope(Detroit,1987):forsealsSwitzerlandsee159–60, is alsofoundonJewishseals:seeDanielM.Friedenberg,Medieval Archäologische Korrespondenzblatt29(1999):583–91.Thisiconography Windauer andOleHarck,“EinjüdischerGoldringausRegensburg,” gold, wasfoundintheJewishquarterofRegensburg:SilviaCodreanu- Catherine Leroy(ParisandColmar, 1999),43,no.2;athirdone,alsoof (The Treasure ofColmar)[catalogue,UnterlindenMuseum],curator Musée national du Moyen Âge, inv. Cl 20670): see 221, no. 8. Another ring, made of gold, was found in Colmar (, The mostelaborate piece inthecollectionisamassive Regarding theoriginalownerofgoldjewelry 5 Ifthiswasindeedthecase,crownmighthave 3 consistingofclustersgrapesandvineleaves. 4

2 Theroundcircletof Le Trésor de Colmar property. items takenassecurityforloansandtheirownprivate these pawnbrokerspreservedlittledistinctionbetween pawnbrokers. Moreover, theircompositionimpliesthat Christian artifacts,suggestingthattheybelongedtoJewish They oftencontainamixofidentifiableJewishand found inareasassociatedwithmedievalJewishhabitation. two centuries, several other treasure troves have been disprove thisnotion. 8 Lightbown, 7 then focusonthevariouswaysinwhichfleuroncrowns Christian societyassymbolsofroyaltyandnobility. I I discuss the socio-economic role of fleuron crownsin define theirsocialstatus.Inthefirstpartofthisarticle royalty. Furthermore,someJewsutilizedsuchcrownsto especially with regard to the insignias of nobility and above andwerewellawareoftheirsymbolicmeaning, that Jewswereexposedtocrownssuchastheonedescribed consider themasbelongingtotheirownculturalmilieu? which theywere used byChristians? Finally, didtheJews Were theyabletounderstandtheoriginalcontextin Jews ofthetimeawaretruemeaningtheseobjects? Christian religiousiconographyorinscriptions.Were the liturgical practiceandthatdonotbearexplicitJewishor objects thathavelittleconnectiontoJewishorChristian regarding Jewishuseofpawnedobjects,especiallysecular who diedin1348, 6 5

Ellenblum, andJonathanRiley-Smith (Aldershot,2007),273–96. Culture inHonourofBenjaminZ. Kedar,eds.IrisShagrir, Ronnie Jews,” in treasures asJewish,seeMichaelToch, “MedievalTreasure Troves and problemfacingtheidentificationoftheseOn themethodological possible identifications,seePietrusi´nski, “Herrscherschmuck,”199–200. Sachs, “DerSchatzfundvonNeumarkt “Herrscherschmuck,” 198–99. Schlesien: Kunst,Wissenschaft, Volkskunde 36(1991):71–75;Pietrusi´nski, See also Rainer Sachs,“DerSchatzfund von Neumarkt/Schlesien,” Rechtsquellen (Breslau,1906),237–38,no.31;Moses“Neumarkt,”578. See OttoMeinardus,DasNeumarkterRechtsbuchundandere Mordechai Breuer, andYacov Guggenheim (Tübingen,1995),948–49. “Neumarkt,” inGermaniaJudaica,3/2:1350–1519eds.AryeMaimon, 14. Jahrhunderts,ed.ZviAvneri (Tübingen,1968),578;KlausHeller, Moses, “Neumarkt,”inGermaniaJudaica,2/2:Von 1238 biszurMittedes The Neumarkttreasureisnotunique.Overthepast Study ofthematerialculturetimedemonstrates 7 Thediscoveryofthesetreasuresraisesquestions In Laudem Hierosolymitani: Studies in Crusades and Medieval Mediaeval EuropeanJewellery,121–22. 6 butnorecordhassurvivedtoproveor

/

Schlesien,” 73–74.Formore Ars Judaica 2016 25

8, This 12

11

13 The role of The role of 10 aska): Christian Material Context in a Jewish Culture ˛ l S ´ Georg Simmel’s theory on also theory on fashion Georg Simmel’s 9 roda roda S ´ Acquiring material culture and adopting visual visual Acquiring material culture and adopting 14 The change in the nature of nobility also affected affected also nobility of nature the in change The The trickle-down of imperial and royal fashion to of imperial and royal fashion to The trickle-down (Heidelberg, Universitätsbibliothek, CPG. 848, fols. 355r–356r). (Heidelberg, Universitätsbibliothek, CPG. 848, fols. 355r–356r). the true nature of first poem (of six), which deals with Süßkind’s opens with these words: “Swer adellîchen tuot, den wil ich hân nobility, für edel, swie man sîns adels achtet nicht gen eime zedel” (Nobility is him will I account Who acts nobly, not dependent on a piece of paper. “Süßkind noble). For this English translation, see Sigmund Mannheimer, , 12 vols. (New in (Suezkint) of Trimberg,” poems, see Raphael 1901–6), 11:603–5; for more on Süßkind’s York, Zion Trimberg), of (Suesskind mi-Trimberg” “Ziskind Aronstein, F. no. 3 (1943):146–48 (Hebrew); for the dispute as to his Jewish identity, ein von Trimberg, “Süßkind see ibid., 139–41, 151–55; Edith Wenzel, deutsch-jüdischer Autor im europäischen Kontext,” in Interregionalität Kugler Hartmut ed. Mittelalter, Literatur im europäischen deutschen der (Berlin, 1995), 143–60. For some aspects of nobility in Jewish contexts, such as knighthood, etc., see Sarit Shalev-Eyni, falconry, courtly love, resort to lyrical poetry,

14 innovative terminology was used by the alleged Jewish the alleged Jewish innovative terminology was used by in Codex Manesse. poet Süßkind of Trimberg his model as a means the role of fashion also helps explain prestige and power, social status, manifesting of publicly periods.in earlier proves useful. In his perspective, never-ending changes changes never-ending perspective, In his useful. proves relationships, allowing individuals in taste enable social the of demand aesthetic the imitating by integrate to same time, fashion serves the opposite collective. At the the undesirable. function of excluding for regulating medieval social fashion as a mechanism by sumptuary laws intended to prevent status is suggested social classes to elite fashion. the access of lower Jewish society. Elements of fashion as well as etiquette and of fashion as well as etiquette and Elements Jewish society. elite were adopted manners associated with the Christian by Jews. the nonroyal elite and lower nobility must also be seen must also be seen the nonroyal elite and lower nobility European nobility in light of changes in the concept of fourteenth centuries. that occurred in the thirteenth and to be and genealogy, As well as depending on birthright including virtues, of set unique a acquiring meant noble courage, courtesy, philanthropy, acting with loyalty, the common terms are found in and moderation. Two nobility: adel contemporary literature to designate described nobility in the sense of noble birth as well as as as well birth described nobility in the sense of noble excellence, and edel described nobility acquired through its validity. virtue, which had no legal title to prove The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron The public wearing of crowns 8 ) produced in Zurich for the Manesse family in ca.1330 Minnelieder) produced family in ca.1330 in Zurich for the Manesse One might use Thorstein Veblen’s term “conspicuous One might use Thorstein Veblen’s For Veblen’s trickle-down theory, see Thorstein B. Veblen, The Theory see Thorstein B. Veblen, trickle-down theory, For Veblen’s 2007), 49–77. of the Leisure Class (New York, Georg Simmel, “Fashion,” American Journal of Sociology 62 (1957): 541–58. inter alia For medieval sumptuary laws regarding the use of jewelry, fleuron crowns, see Lightbown, Mediaeval European Jewellery, 79–90. Some sumptuary laws were also imposed on Jews: see Israel Abrahams, regulations (Spanish 277 1896), York, (New Ages Middle the in Life Jewish concerning the rich of the Jewess); 294–95 (Italian regulations against jewelry and pearls worn by men and women). Goetz, The Concept of Nobility in German Didactic Literature See Mary P. 1935), 39–42; Erwin G. Gudde, of the Thirteenth Century (New York, Modern Philology 18 “Social Conflicts in Medieval German Poetry,” (1934–36): 7–24. Codex Heidelberger Liederhandschrift) Manesse (known as Große is the great corpus of medieval German songs of love and chivalry (

9 10 11 12 13 Since the dawn of history crowns have been used to to history crowns have been used Since the dawn of The history of fleuron crowns symbolize supreme authority. the last quarter to back goes type European particular a as Ottonian and Carolingian when millennium, first the of By the sovereignty. emperors employed them as symbols of fleuron crowns had been third quarter of the tenth century, half of the twelfth adopted by kings as well. In the second nobility the of members female and male both century, military status, social convey to crowns fleuron brandished rank, and political power. The Mobility of Fleuron Crowns and of Social Fleuron Crowns and of Social The Mobility of Status could have been adopted in Jewish iconography and and in Jewish iconography been adopted could have in view of the contemporary were interpreted how they tradition. in light of Jewish context, as well as European with the appearance of fleuron I conclude by dealing context against the background of the crowns in a Jewish in Europe in the thirteenth and socio-economic changes fourteenth centuries. consumption” to describe this socio-economic phenomenon.consumption” to describe this socio-economic to the nonroyal Imperial and royal fashion seeped down deals work Veblen’s Although nobility. lower and elite riche during the with the emergence of the nouveau nineteenth century, second industrial revolution in the of different quality and ornateness conveyed hierarchical of different quality and ornateness conveyed of society. status that was recognizable to all strata 26 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy 16 such assigningofficialcontractsanddocuments. possess anddisplayheraldry, ifonlyforpracticalpurposes important roleinlocalcreditsystems,wereallowedto classes, Jews wereexcludedfromthehierarchyofurbansocial of social status and noble origins. Despite the fact that to usingcrowns,theyalsoeffectedcoatsofarms–marks culture wasalsoacrucialpartofthisprocess.Inaddition 15

Friedenberg, “Ueber eineninWeiß‎ Galerie Moritzburg,no.Mo-LMK-E-170): seeFriedrichWiggert, the figureofarampantlionfoundin Weißenfels (Halle/Salle,Staatliche in Jewishtreasuretroves,forexample, agold-platedsilverplatebearing fourteenth-century jewelryintheshapeofcoatsarmswasdiscovered Volume), eds.ShmuelEttingeretal.(Jerusalem,1960),112–24(Hebrew). (Turnhout, 2010),85–104;id.,“Ba’aleihonba-irha-noz Jews amongChristians:HebrewBookIlluminationfromLakeConstance in the Middle Ages), inSefer-yovel le-Yi beinayim” (PlenitudeofApostolicPowersandMedievalJewishSerfdom “Melo ha-ribbonut ha-apostolit ve-shibbud ha-yehudim bi-mei ha- Their LegalandSocialStatus(NewYork, 1949),143–45; SaloW. Baron, population: see Guido Kisch, Jews were officially designated (Jerusalem, 2007),115–20(Hebrew). (Image and Sound: Art, Music and History), ed. Richard I. Cohen and Textual Aspects),inTemunah u- ha- Fig. 2.Thefleuron crown of Neumarkt, early14th century.found in the Jewish quarter The National Museumin Wrocław, inv. nos.V–2333,2611, 2612 hazuti ve-ha-milluli”(JewsofMeansinaChristianCity:Artistic . 15 someofthem,especiallythosewhoplayedan Medieval JewishSeals,31–42.Somethirteenth-and enfels imJ.1826gemachtenFund goldner und The Jews in Medieval : A Study of The JewsinMedievalGermany:AStudyof servi camerae – a special class of the zlil: ommanut,muzikahve-historyah . . zhak Ber (Yitzhakzhak Baer Jubilee . rit: ha-mimz 16 One . a

a Jewcouldhavepubliclyusedsuchanexplicitroyal (fig.3).Itishard to fathomhowseals from this period does not appear anywhere else on any known Jewish device of a fleur-de-lis fleuroncrown on ashield,which royal insignia used in a Jewish context, it isthe unique named Jesse(Yesse). Anextraordinaryexampleofa Hanover innorthwestGermany, wasownedbyaJew such personalseal,fromMinden,asmallcitynear Jews or, rather, originallybelongedtoChristians. certainty regardingtheiroriginalowners, whethertheywereusedby Schatzfund ausderMichaelisstraße in Erfurt,”234,no.30.Thereisno them (TLDA,inv. 3060/98,5122–5135/98):seeStürzebecher, “Der contained 15silverbeltornamentswithredenamelcrabswithin and withoutregistrationnumbers).The1998findinthesamearea golden plateswerefoundinthe1876treasurefromErfurt(nowlost Zeitschrift fürArchäologiedesMittelalters30(2002):8,fig.1.Finally, 21 in derJudengassehinsichtlichHerstellungstechnikundGestaltung,” Vergleichende Untersuchung derSchmuckstückeausdemSchatzfund Ruth Tegethoff, “DerSchatzfundausdemStadtweinhausinMünster: Landesmuseum fürKunstund Kulturgeschichte, no.V-1112): see symbol: scissors,astar, andtwobranches(Münster, Westfälisches plated silverfibulafromtheMünstertreasuretroveboreaheraldic Âge, inv. Cl20681p):see LeTrésor deColmar,51,no.24E.Agold- bearing thefigureofaneagle(Paris,MuséenationalduMoyen no. 2(1844):91,pl.2,no.12.AnotherplatewasfoundinColmar Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete historisch-antiquarischer Forschungen silberner Schmucksachen aus Jahrhunderte,” dem vierzehnten Neue 7, 7,

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21 . hem, hem, rit,” 116–17 n. 34 and fig. 116–17 n. 34 and fig. rit,” . *. State Archives of Canton of Zurich, *. State Archives Given the fact that they were Given the fact that they were s on a shield with a bilingual a bilingual Judenhuts on a shield with בן מרדכי בן 20 * aska): Christian Material Context in a Jewish Culture ˛ l S ´ Document C I, No. 277 Document C I, No. מנחם Seal impression, dated January 31, 1329. dated January 5. Seal impression, Fig. 31, Three and in Hebrew: inscription in Latin S’GVMPRECHT roda roda S ´ Some of the heraldic symbols have Hebrew have symbols heraldic the of Some 19 24–25; Wild and Böhmer, “Die spätmittelalterlichen Wandmalereien,” “Die spätmittelalterlichen Wandmalereien,” Böhmer, and 24–25; Wild 28–29. “Die spätmittelalterlichen Wild and Böhmer, For their identification, see 24–28. Wandmalereien,” The familial of arms with the image of three Jewish joined at their pointed tops decorated the identical seals of family members. For those of Mordechai and Moses, see ibid., 156, nos. 69–70; for that Shalev- also see no.73; 158–59, ibid., see Moses, of son the Vivlin, of Eyni, “Ba’alei hon yehudiyyim ba-ir ha-noz southern from cup double a ca.1330 on appears also design This 5. Germany attributed to the family: ibid., 116–18, figs. 6–7 (New Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1983),125a, 125b. This motif York, was common in seals from southern German (see, e.g., Friedenberg, Medieval Jewish Seals, 166–68, nos. 76–77) as well as in Holland of the hats joined the style (ibid., 280–81, nos. 150–51). However, at their pointed tops in the center of the shield is unique to Minne’s family. Judenschicksale und Judenschicksale und Laufenburg; Florence: Guggenheim-Grünberg, Zürich (Zürich 1967), 7, Abb.2, ‘Judenschuol’ im mittelalterlichen

20 21 Her family was also very influential within the Jewish within the Jewish Her family was also very influential ben Mena community: one of her sons, R. Moses and Latin inscriptions underneath and above them, and above them, and Latin inscriptions underneath from the environs identifying their noble owners, mostly but also from places as of Zurich and southwest Germany, distant as Luxembourg. doing business with the Christian elite, it is not surprising doing business with the Christian elite, had a unique armes de famille (fig. 5). family that Minne’s arms (fig. 4). (fig. arms The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron Fragment of fresco in west wall of the wall of the in west of fresco 4. Fragment Fig. Jewish house in 8 Brunngasse, arms Coat of Zurich. an upright showing of Altenklingen, Barons of the black a on crown fleuron a with whitecrowned lion Stadtarchäologie Zurich field.

בן החר ]...[ is decorated with twenty-five of of is decorated with twenty-five coats 18 rit,” 108–15. . Nevertheless, its very existence demonstrates Nevertheless, its very existence demonstrates 17 The appropriation of elite Christian socio-economic socio-economic The appropriation of elite Christian For this crown and the suggestion that the unusual design might be design might be For this crown and the suggestion that the unusual of father the of name the was Jesse since name, owner’s the to related King David and that the royal crown thus symbolized the royal family of Judea, see Friedenberg, Medieval Jewish Seals, 264–65, and no. 141. contemporary some revealed Brunngasse 8 in No. works 1996 The frescos underneath layers of plaster on the walls of the guest hall. and These paintings depict courtly activities such as dancing, falconry, social interpreted as be can the paintings Some of nature. in lovers criticism by the artists against the bourgeoisie who wished to present The coat of arms is in a narrow frieze above the themselves as nobility. and narrative registers on the east, west, and south walls: Dölf Wild im Haus “Die spätmittelalterlichen Wandmalereien Roland Böhmer, ‘Zum Brunnenhof’ Zürcher in Zürich und ihre jüdischen Arbeitsgeber,” Denkmalpflege (1995/96): 17–24; Shalev-Eyni, “Ba’alei hon yehudiyyim ba-ir ha-noz The fresco was originally decorated with as many as eighty-four coats The fresco was originally decorated with as many as eighty-four coats some to credit providing wealthy, very was family Minne’s arms. of aristocratic houses of the area. See, for example, a document dated Johann of Habsburg- business with Count 1329 mentioning the family’s in Latin S.IESSE and in Hebrew נע [...]. Seal impression dated February 3. Seal impression Fig. 26, 1403. a bilingual inscription on shield with crown Fleuron Kommunalarchiv Minden, Stadt Minden, A I, Nr. Minden, StadtA I, Nr. Minden, Kommunalarchiv 28) 201 (1402 Febr. 17 18 19 insignia. symbols by Jews was intended to indicate to Christians that symbols by Jews was intended to indicate as well as to make these Jews were part of the urban elite, A community. their elite status known within the Jewish to a Jewess medieval fresco in a house in Zurich belonging named Minne that royal and noble iconography was indeed adopted by indeed adopted by that royal and noble iconography was Jews. 28 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy crowns. crowns alsofunctionedassocialorpoliticalcoronation both oftheprincipals.Duringsuchceremonies, occasioned a change in social status or rank for one or dual meaning inroyaland nobleweddings, since some art inthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies.Bothimages the coronationofVirgin, whichappearedinWestern medieval Europeaniconographywerethetriumphand 23 Lightbown, 22 over sexuallust. Christianity tosymbolizethecouple’s spiritualtriumph crowning thebridalcouplewasreinterpretedinearly their Romanoriginwascontroversial,thecustomof byboth and . Even though circlets, and wreaths – were donned during Christian economic status,fleuroncrowns–aswellcoronets, Apart fromtheirroleasasignofroyaltyandsocio- Brides, Queens,andCrowns and theauthorofSefermi was a“Schulmeister”(headofthesynagogue)inZurich the family’s allegednoblestatus. also seenbyJewishvisitors,whowouldbeimpressed leading families,theirguestroom,withitsnoblesigns,was Commandments) ofZurich.Asonethecommunity’s of royalty. holding weddingringsintheirbeaksservedasasymbol suggests that it played such a role: the heraldic eagles 25 24

Cicero totheTime ofUlpian(Oxford,1991),163–64. Roman custom,seeSusanTreggiari, “IustiConiuges”fromtheTime of Dumbarton OaksCollection,”DOP14(1960):3–16.Fortheancient H. Kantorowicz,“OntheGoldMarriageBeltandRingsof on the iconography of early Christian wedding coronations, see Ernst Karl Baus, Nussey (NewYork, 1958),254–58. Image: Religious Art in of the Thirteenth Century, trans. Dora Twelfth-Century France(Chicago,1987),51–68;ÉmileMâle, TheGothic Penny S.Gold,TheLady&theVirgin: Image,Attitude,andExperiencein 57, nos.62–63(TLDA,inv. 3039/98,3093/98). Stürzebecher, “DerSchatzfundausder Michaelisstraße inErfurt,”256– in theErfurttreasuretroveshapedaseaglesholdingaweddingring: Compare withtwogold-platedsilvergarmentadornmentsfound History oftheCrownJewelsEurope(London,1960),xxxi. The mostfamiliarweddingcoronationthemesin 23 TheiconographyoftheNeumarktcrown 24 Der Kranz in Antikeund Christentum (Bonn, 1940), 93–112; Mediaeval EuropeanJewellery,123–24;EdwardF. Twining, A 22 Wedding coronationsacquireda zvot katan(SmallBookof . and Israel, exegetes read it as an allegory for the love betweenGod this textasanallegoryofsacredlove.WhileJewish the SongofSongs.BothJewsandChristiansinterpreted of MaryandChristasloversoriginatesincommentariesto Mary. the biblicalbridehadalsomergedwithimageof or Christandanindividual’s soul.Bythetwelfthcentury, figures asrepresentingChristandEcclesia–theChurch being crowned by angels vino” (Lethimkissmewiththekissesofhismouth;for “ Latin word opening the second verse of Song of Songs: century. TheseimagesdecoratetheinitialletterOof couple appearediniconographyasearlytenth- for contemporarymortalbrides. ascension toheaven,andinstallationthereasitsqueen. resurrection, death asfallingasleep,followedbyherbodily her dormition, in whichsheexperienceda form ofmortal depict thelastphaseofMary’s lifestory, beginningwith wedding and courtly love scenes. on thesynthronos,asymbolofunionincontemporary crowned queenbutalsoasChrist’s .Theysittogether bears adoublemeaning:Maryisnotonlydescribedas companionably onabenchinheaven.Thisiconography In thefinalstageofthisprocess,ChristandMarysit crown; Mary isdepictedasalreadyenthronedwearingafleuron 31 30 29 28 27 26 Osculetur meosculoorissui quia meliora sunt ubera tua

crowned. Dame deParis,whichdatestoca.1210–20.HereChristisalready For example,thetympanuminwestfaçade,leftportal,atNotre- Gold, TheLady&theVirgin, 51–53. from theendoftwelfthorbeginningthirteenthcentury: This subject was later repeated in Mantes, Laon, and Chartres dating See thecentraltympanumatSenlisCathedral,datingfromca.1170. American JournalofArcheology57,no.2(1953):65–70. 159–67. Songs inWestern MedievalChristianity(Philadelphia,1990),123–51, 2009), 158–61; E. Ann Matter, The Voice of MyBeloved: The Song of Miri Rubin,MotherofGod:AHistorytheVirgin Mary(NewHaven, Midrash Rabbah,SongofSongs4:10. Cathedral. Here,too,Christisalreadycrowned. For example,onthedoubleportalsofsouthtranseptatStrasbourg On thesynthronos,seeErnstH.Kantorowicz,“ The visual formula of Christ and Ecclesia as a bridal 31 27 Theresultingcomplexfigurebecametheparadigm inlaterdepictionsofhercoronationsheisshown 30 theirChristiancounterpartsinterpretedits 28 orbyChristhimself. 26 In earlier images ΣΥΝΘΡΟΝΟΣ ΔΙΚΗΙ 29 Theidea 25 ,” ,”

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36 . Hasidim (Book

The Jews in Christian Art, Christian in Jews The (The Book of the Pious), ed. Judah ed. Pious), the of Book (The Jews were also exposed to to Jews were also exposed 37 asidim . One can only imagine the variety One can only imagine aska): Christian Material Context in a Jewish Culture ˛ 38 l S ´ Sefer H Sefer roda roda 39 . S ´ Hasid, the author of Sefer Hasid, the ” (facing the abomination) so that he would the abomination) ” (facing Christian iconography also influenced the illumi- Christian iconography also influenced The Jew, the Cathedral, the Cathedral, woe to us, for we have sinned” (5:16); see Rowe, The Jew, Schreckenberg, 47–78; City, Medieval the and 16–18, with many illustrations on 31–74. Shmuel, bar Yehudah H. Wistinetzki (Berlin, 1891), 333–34, nos. 1353, 1364 (Hebrew). (Berlin, H. Wistinetzki Ibid., 333, no. 1354. Ibid., 333, nos. 1357–58. For more examples, see Joseph Shatzmiller, Jews, Christians, and Art in the Medieval Marketplace (Princeton, 2013), 43–44. See, for example, the letters of Pope Nicholas I to Boris I, king of the Bulgarians, in 866 describing the customs of the Roman Church. Letter 99, which deals with wedding customs, notes that as soon as the nuptial ceremony is over the couple leaves the church with crowns upon their ed., Love, , and Family in the Middle heads: Jacqueline Murray, Ages: A Reader (Peterborough, Ont., 2001), 235–36.

כנגד התועבות 36 bar Shmuel he- he- bar Shmuel For the same reason, he suggested that someone passing he suggested that someone passing For the same reason, sculptures not bend down but rather through a gate with sideways. walk backward or not open it and seem to be prostrating before icons. before prostrating be to seem and it open not nation of Jewish manuscripts. On occasion, Jewish artists artists Jewish occasion, On manuscripts. Jewish of nation with, Christian artists. or in collaboration worked for, was done Sometimes, the whole process of illumination and supervision Jewish under workshop Christian a in reflects illumination Jewish result, a As instruction. Christian the iconography and style of contemporary in postures manuscripts. This resemblance is manifested as in representations and gestures of the figures, as well jewelry, fashion, tableware, furniture, architecture, of manuscripts etc. One of the first illuminated Ashkenazi to the Bible, which was copied commentary is ’s by Shelomo ben Shemuel (Solomon son of Samuel) of the Pious), who lived in Speyer and in Speyer and Regensburg who lived of the Pious), was Christian iconography illustrated how (1140–1217) he suggested that For example, city. widespread in the his house should not set the window a person building “ of crowns Jews saw in these instances. They would have of crowns Jews saw in these instances. Mary- of images in only not crowns wedding observed nuptial crowns Ecclesia but also on mortal brides wearing made their way in public wedding processions as they through the city. Christian iconography when they entered churches in in when they entered churches Christian iconography special circumstances. 37 38 39

33 This This 35

32 The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron it – ahavah shmeimit: ha-zug ha-mikra’i bi-r’i ha-zug ha-mikra’i bi-r’i ahavah shmeimit: – it . These formulas are compatible with Christian These formulas are compatible with Christian 34 The Jew, the Cathedral, and the Medieval City, 198–201, figs. 126– the Cathedral, The Jew, Portraying Ecclesia as a queen is often illustrated as a queen is often illustrated Portraying Ecclesia Ruth Bartal, Ahavah arz 1996), 50, fig. 28. Compare with the falling crown of (New York, Synagoga in the Notre Dame Cathedral of Reims, ibid., 48, fig. 24; see and the Medieval City: Synagoga the Cathedral, also Nina Rowe, The Jew, and Ecclesia in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge, 2011), 90–92, figs. 21–24. 29; compare with the Synagoga in the north portal (Fürstenportal) of Bamberg Cathedral, ibid., 144–46, figs. 77–80. This can be found, for example, in early Christian exegesis on Lamentations 1:1 and especially: “The Crown has fallen from our head, (Earthly Love – Divine Love: The Biblical ha-ommanut ha-ma’aravit (Earthly Love – Divine Love: The Biblical 2013), 116–19 Western Art) (Jerusalem, Couple as Reflected in (Hebrew). Heinz Schreckenberg, The Jews in Christian Art: An Illustrated History

In others, such as on the two sides of the double south on the two sides of the double south In others, such as Synagoga is transept portal in the Strasbourg Cathedral, crownless. 32 34 Rowe, 35 The level of exposure to this Christian iconography Christian iconography to this exposure of level The local circumstances. experienced by Jews depended on visual art displayed Urban Jews tended to be exposed to impossible for an in public. For instance, it was virtually which decorated urban Jew to avoid such representations, the façades of religious and secular buildings. R. Yehudah 33 The Introduction of Fleuron Crowns into The Introduction of Fleuron Crowns of Jewish Iconography and the Mechanism Pawnbroking thy breasts are better than wine). Like the formula of the Like the formula are better than wine). thy breasts together sits couple the too here Virgin, the of coronation show illustrations Some twelfth-century on a bench. wearing a fleuron crown. Ecclesia enthroned Christian practice of relating to the bride as a queen to the bride as a queen relating Christian practice of on the portrayal wearing a royal crown had an influence of some brides in Jewish iconography. iconography portraying Synagoga as a queen who loses her loses queen who Synagoga as a portraying iconography by Christ. crown after she rejects and is rejected together with and in contrast to her Jewish counterpart in contrast to her Jewish counterpart together with and them presented as young and beautiful Synagoga, both of queens both wear royal fleuron queens, and as befits representations, such as in the west crowns. In some fallen has crown Synagoga’s Cathedral, Trier of portal sovereignty. of her loss the symbolizing head, her off 30 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy earliest knownexamplesoffleuroncrownsinJewishart. golden fleuron crowns (fig. 7).Theseillustrationsarethe statue, showingbothNebuchadnezzarandhisstatuewith a furnaceforrefusingtobowNebuchadnezzar’s golden for theweeklyTorah portionof Mike fleuron crownsintoJewishiconography. Theillustration Two of of the illustrations shed light on the introduction illuminated in a Christian workshop in the same city. 40 in1233. of Würzburg which illustrates thestoryinBookofDaniel(3:13–25) second miniatureinthevolumeofthismanuscript is lyinginhisbedwearingagoldenfleuroncrown. A shows Pharaoh’s dreamaboutthecattle(fig.6).Pharaoh

198–202; Eva Frojmovic, “Jewish Scribes and Christian Illuminators: deutscher Herkunft in der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek (Wiesbaden, 1998), Elisabeth Klemm,DieilluminiertenHandschriftendes13. Jahrhunderts hebr.Munich, BayerischeStaatsbibliothek, Cod. 5.Onitsoriginsee Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah are thrown into . 40 Its style suggeststhatitwas style Its . z (Gen.41:1–4) 2009), 281–305. Revel-Neher, eds.KatrinKogman-Appeland Mati Meyer(Leiden, and Christianity:ArtHistoricalEssays inHonorofElisheva(Elisabeth) Interstitial EncountersandCultural Negotiation,”inBetweenJudaism fol. 209r Staatsbibliothek, Cod.hebr. 5,II, 1233. Munich, Bayerische commentary, Würzburg, Rashi’sgolden fleuron crown. with a and hiscolossalstatue Fig. 7. Nebuchadnezzar hebr. 5,Ifol. 37r Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Cod. 1233.Munich,Würzburg, crown. commentary, Rashi’s crowned with agoldenfleuron lyinginhisbed Fig. 6.Pharaoh Ars Judaica 2016 31

” ” מ . hat . hat hat . hatan hatan

. hag Sim . zar ha-shirah ve- ha-shirah zar , O , . hoshev: ha-tik le-sefer hoshev: ha-tik le-sefer מלך אמון מאמרך מרחוק מוצב Much later, we find we find Much later, מלך אזור גבורה גדול שמך בגבורה . 47 hzor (vol. 1, fol. 26v) for the the for 26v) fol. 1, (vol. hzor . hah, 2 vols. (Fürth, 1861–62), iyyudo le-fi kitvei ha-genizah” . . hat (Rejoicing of the (Rejoicing of the hat Torah . is the person called upon to read hatan Torah aska): Christian Material Context in a Jewish Culture ˛ l S . ´ hat Torah) (Jerusalem, 1964), 63–67, 119–37, 119–37, 63–67, (Jerusalem, 1964), hat Torah) . hatimat kitvei ha-kodesh ad reshit tekufat ha-haskalah ha-haskalah tekufat ad reshit ha-kodesh kitvei hatimat roda roda S ´ for the first day of Rosh Hashanah: “ Rosh Hashanah: the first day of for Two crowns of silver, one decorated with gold gold one decorated with crowns of silver, Two on the of Sim on the festival of 46 . hzor, vol. 1, fol. 54r). hzor, Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, 10 vols. (Berlin and New . Hai Gaon in the late tenth or early eleventh century Hai Gaon in the late (the Lord clothed with strength): Israel Davidson Israel strength): with clothed Lord (the 1924–33), (New York, (Thesaurus of Mediaeval Hebrew Poetry), 4 vols. the illustration for the 3:139, no. 1529 (Hebrew). The same applies to “ Hashanah Rosh of day second the for piyyut in the illustration panel in the Leipzig MaLeipzig the in panel illustration the in piyyut Shlomo D. Goitein, “Beit ha-keneset ve-z (The Synagogue Building and Its Furnishings according to the Records of the Cairo Genizah), Eretz Israel 7 (1964): 95–96, no. TS NS J 296 (Hebrew). None of the medieval crowns has survived. ” (History of Sim Torah 251–52, esp. 215–22 (Hebrew); on the various crowns and ornaments Ma’aseh Yaniv, used for this purpose, see Bracha Case: Its History and Design) (Jerusalem, ve-toledotav (The Torah Torah of Origin “The Landsberger, Franz also See (Hebrew). 28–30 1997), Decorations,” HUCA 24 (1952–53): 139–44; For other European Torah “Crown,” uses of crowns in Jewish literature and art, see Shalom Sabar, in 2009–15), 5:1–3. York, (King, Your promise stands fast from long ago they have stood): ibid. (King, Your is associated Hebrew word for king 3:140, no. 1543. Here the initial itself is decorated with with a rampant lion and two eagles. The crown and rhombus-shaped gemstones in blue and red (Leipzig marquise, pear- Ma Quoted by Isaac ibn Ghiyyat, Sha‘arei sim 1:117–18 (Hebrew). The Sim On the connection between last portion on this . the “Toledot and the bridal couple, see Abraham Yaari, Torah Handbook of Theory and Pierre Bourdieu, “The Forms of Capital,” in Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, ed. John G Richardson (New 1986), 241–58. York, ha-piyyut mi-zman mi-zman ha-piyyut the Duke of Sussex Pentateuch (fol. 1r). the Hebrew letter One example is a gold trefoil fleuron crown above

that Torah crowns in Europe were inspired by the design crowns in Europe were inspired by the that Torah Torah Torah Law). 47 45 46 to express the same ideas of royalty. Thus Ashkenazi Thus Ashkenazi of royalty. the same ideas to express were they which with crown royal only the used Jews passed, crown. As time European fleuron the familiar, Jewish into assimilated completely was crown fleuron the inspired the design of Jewish ritual material culture and scrolls. Adorning in regard to Torah objects, especially is mentioned by scroll with actual crowns a Torah R. when referring to the custom of crowning the when referring to and the other with niello, are noted in a document from niello, are noted in a document from and the other with the Cairo Genizah dating to 1159. 44 They They 45 The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron royal animals royal animals 42 . hzor, copied in Cologne in hzor, or as an illustration of of or as an illustration 43 . . hzor (fol. 103v). This illustration has hzor (fol. 103v). This illustration has hzor produced in in southern Germany Approaching this from the from the Approaching this 44 biblical leaders, 41 . hzor produced in Franconia in the mid-thirteenth . hzor produced in the Lake Constance area in 1320 (Budapest, HAS, Jews were well aware of the existence and meaning of of existence and meaning well aware of the Jews were See, for example, King David in the Duke of Sussex Pentateuch producedSee, for example, King David in the Duke of Sussex century fourteenth the of quarter first the in Germany southern in in the Tripartite (London, BL, Add 15282, fol. 302r); King Solomon Ma When depicting the Kaufmann, Collection, Ms. A 384, fol. 183v). and gentile kings. crowns, the artists did not distinguish between Jewish Queen Esther in the See, for example, The Persian King Ahasuerus and Archbishop Laüd Ma Ms. Laüd Or 321, fol. 48v). It goes century (Oxford, Bodleian Library, kings could have worn without saying that none of these ancient biblical crowned contemporary a of representation the For crowns. medieval of Friedrich “the king see, for example, the fleuron crown on the Ma handsome” in the Tripartite 1240 (Amsterdam, Joods Museum, Ms. B166, fol. 22v). The Historisch lion on folio 161r also wears a gold fleuron crown as he stands between the two Hebrew words: the name of God and his title “King.” For the representation of a crowned eagle see, for example, the heraldic eagle in been identified as a depiction of the Battle of Mühldorf on September been identified as a depiction of the Battle of Upper of Duke Ludwig, and of Friedrich between 28,1322, Die Haggadah von Schlosser, Bavaria: see David H. Müller and Julius V. (Vienna, Sarajevo: Eine spanisch-judische Bilderhandschrift des Mittelalters 1898), 114–15. On the custom of wearing a royal fleuron crown on A History of the Crown Jewels of Europe, of a battle helmet, see Twining, xxxvii. On the connection between this contemporary battle and the eschatological combat alluded to in the verses of the piyyut, see Sarit Shalev-Eyni, “Iconography of Love: Illustration of Bride and in Ashkenazi Prayerbooks of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century,” Studies in Iconography 26 (2005): 42–47. Examples are Joseph and Moses in the Second Nürnberg Haggadah, producedwas which Sofer David (London, 1470–1480 in Franconia in 37r, fols. Ms. 24087, Jerusalem, Schocken Library, Collection, prevously Leipzig Ma11r); Mordecai in the I, fol. 51v). 1102, vol. 1320 (Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek Ms. Vollers For example, the lions in the Amsterdam Ma

the Hebrew word king. the Hebrew word Bourdieuian perspective, we can relate to the fleuron we can relate to the fleuron Bourdieuian perspective, cultural capital” being converted crown as “objectified “embodiedby the Jews into cultural capital.” 41 such as lions and eagles, such as lions and probably used contemporary Christian crowns owing crowns owing probably used contemporary Christian Jewish image to the absence of a parallel, up-to-date fleuron crowns in European Christian culture. Numerous Numerous Christian culture. in European fleuron crowns leave manuscripts Hebrew illuminated in examples understanding of the Christian no doubt as to their of appear mostly in the context significance, as they as biblical and inter alia royal figures such royalty, contemporary kings, 42 43 32 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy some oftheseinstances. Jews could obtain as security. Archival documents reveal most valuableobjects(materiallyandsymbolically)that diamonds, andpearls. precious stones,includingrubies,sapphires,emeralds, a damagedfleuroncrownoriginallysetwithdozensof over toSimondoofStrasbourgin1381.Thelatterwas be soldatauction. the objectwouldremaininpossessionoflenderor repay theprincipaltogetherwithagreed-uponinterest, with anequivalentvalueormore.Iftheborrowerdidnot the secularelite.Assecurityforloantheytookobjects of all social classes, from farmers to church officials and through pawnedobjects.TheyloanedmoneytoChristians 51 50 49 48 a JewnamedAginin1346 mentioned intheSavoyarchivewasgivenassecurityto trefoil fleuroncrown(fig.8). the Torah inhisrighthand.Floating abovetheTorah isa Torah” showsMosesstandingonMount Sinaireceiving verse “andbroughtusbeforeMountSinai,andgavethe the fifteenthcentury. The illuminationthatillustratesthe innorthernItalythesecondhalfof Haggadah produced can be found in an illustration in the Second Darmstadt of Europeanfleuroncrowns.Onetheearliestexamples royal background.Forinstance,in1346Pfefferkornand

Savoy; seeRenataSegre,“Testimonianze DocumentariesugliEbrei Some of these pawned crowns are documented in the city archive of Princely Pledges,”45–58. Christians, and Art . See in particular chap. 3: “High Finance: Urban and These examplesandmanyothersaredocumentedinShatzmiller, Jews, Shatzmiller, Jews,Christians,andArt,10–13. 28. ForChristianlegislationonmoneylendersandpawnbrokers,see 1332),” unbeachteten hebräischenSchuldenregisterausNiederbayern(1329– “Geld undKreditineinerspätmittelalterlichenLandschaft:Zueinem (Florence, 1999),221–43.Onpracticalaspectsofmoneylending,seeid., economici epoteripoliticisecc.XIII–XVIII,ed.SimonettaCavaciocchi The JewsintheEconomyandPolityofMedievalEurope,”Poteri century Germany, seeMichael Toch, “BetweenImpotenceandPower: For theroleofJewsineconomythirteenth-andfourteenth- 92–93. see Yael Zirlin, “Discovering the Floersheim Haggadah,” north-Italian traditionverysimilartothatoftheFloersheimHaggadah; Yael ZirlinhassuggestedthattheHaggadahreflectsanAshkenazi Jews alsobecamefamiliarwithChristianiconography Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters 38 (1982): 506– 49 Goldfleuroncrownswereamongthe 52 50 Otherpawnedcrownshada Onegoldcrownsetwithpearls 51 48 ; anothercrownwashanded AJ 1 (2005): as security. loan totheDuchessofBergandwasgivenherroyalcrown 1400, Vivus ofBrühl,aJewfromCologne,madelarge and onlythenwasthecrownsentbacktoEngland. of Luxembourg.Somefiveyearslatertheloanwasrepaid it waskeptinTrier, inthehandsofArchbishopBaldwin a loanof340,000florins.Thiscrownwassopreciousthat (coronam dictidominiregisacregniAngliaehaereditariam),for Edward pawnedhiscrown,theroyalcrownofEngland money topayforamilitarycampaignagainstFrance.King personally metKingEdwardIIIofEngland,whoneeded in 1339,when the Jew, Vivelin “theRed” of Strasbourg, The brother asked the pawnbroker to get permission in use apawnedchariotthathadbelongedtoChristian. ben Meir(RabbeinuTam) relatesthataJewlethisbrother A questionsenttothetwelfth-centuryFrenchrabbiJacob believed that they were permitted to use pawned objects. safekeeping, andifnot,howdidtheyusethem? with thesepawnedobjects.Didtheyonlystorethemfor by Jews,whichraisesthequestionofwhatJewsdid the onefromtreasuretroveinNeumarkt,werekept we haveseen,someofthesepawnedcrowns,including 55 54 53 52 belonging toDukeStephanofLowerBavaria. near Aalen in Württemberg, obtained a gold-plated crown Brünin, JewishpartnersfromthesmallvillageofBaldern 79–89. Friedhelm Burgard, Alfred Haverkamp, and Franz Irsigler (Trier, 1996), Straßburg,” in Gerd Mentgen,“Herausragendejüdische Finanziersimmittelalterlichen Kölns imMittelalter(Hannover, 2002),261–63,no.74(III). Matthias Schmandt,Judei,civesetincole:StudienzurjüdischenGeschichte “Beit ha-kenesetve-z des 14.Jahrhunderts,ed.ZviAvneri (Tübingen, 1968),48;Goitein, Toni Oelsner, “Baldern,”inGermaniaJudaica,2/1:Von 1238biszurMitte ibid., no.124. Konrad ofBickenbach,whogavehiscrowntoaJew–JosebsEidam: jewelry, includingagold crown:ibid.,no.46;anotherregistermentions der Alte depositedwitha Jewess,Zorlin,andher son,Wolf, much 1914), 162–78.Theregisterof1391mentionsthatHelmutCornberg der JudeninFrankfurtamMainvon1150–1400(FrankfurtMain, of FrankfurtamMain,seeIsidorKracauer, UrkundenbuchzurGeschichte Ibid., 359–60,no.286.Forotherpawnedcrownsfromthecityarchive the Diaspora4(1976):308,no.77. negli StatiSabaudi(1297–1398),”Michael:OntheHistoryofJewsin Some HebrewtextsindicatethatJewishpawnbrokers 54 Butthemostastonishinginstanceoccurred Hochfinanz im Westen desReiches,1150–1500 , eds. . iyyudo.” 53 InAugust 55 As

Ars Judaica 2016 33 aska): Christian Material Context in a Jewish Culture ˛ l S ´ Moses receiving the Torah. Floating above Floating above Torah. the 8. Moses receiving Fig. The Second crown. fleuron is a trefoil Torah the Darmstadt second half Haggadah, northern , Darmstadt, fifteenthof the century. Hessische Cod. Or 28, 9v. Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek, Photograph courtesy Jewish Art, Center of The for University Hebrew roda roda S ´ , ed. Shraga Rosenthal , ed. Shraga Rosenthal Sefer ha-yashar le-Rabbenu Tam ben Meir, (Berlin, 1898), 61– 68, nos. 36–37 (Hebrew). Jacob ben Moses ha-Levi Moellin, Sefer Maharil, minhagim, ed. Shlomo Spitzer (Jerusalem, 1989), 23, no. 15 (Hebrew). Ibid., 88, no. 4.

56 57 58 foreclosure, he ruled that Jews must request the consent foreclosure, he ruled that Jews must request the consent of the owner who had pawned them. It is possible that discussion indicates the currency of the opposite Maharil’s own their of objects pawned used Jews which in practice, pawnbroker Jewish the Did permission. without accord so, if And crown? fleuron Neumarkt the use similarly might this have been at a Jewish wedding?

57 A 56 Prior to to Prior 58 The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron However, the Maharil emphasized that this was only the Maharil emphasized that this was only However, objects had the when after foreclosure, truly permissible property. legal full pawnbroker’s the become advance from the owners, but his brother lied in telling advance from the owners, but his brother lied in telling When the chariot permission. obtained had that he him was returned, the gold leaf that had decorated the wooden predicament. a creating off, peeled had carvings more careful use of pawned objects is described by the more careful use of pawned objects is described by the Maharil (R. Jacob ben Moses ha-Levi Moellin of Mainz, was it eve Passover on that ruled who 1360–1427), permissible use silver and gold tableware that was pawned by Christians. He added that this was the custom of his who displayed such objects on a special desk. father, 34 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy on theMishnahandBabylonianTalmud fromthe like acity(Jerusalem). wreaths weremoreprecious,madeofgoldandevenshaped wreaths aswellmineralsandgemstones.Thebridal described asmadeofawidevarietyvegetalorfloral Jerusalem . Thebridegroom’s headpieceis were clarifiedinthe Tosefta and intheBabylonianand Mishnah describestheheadgearofbrideandgroom, Hebrew termsateretkalahand 64 63 62 61 60 59 of crowning. us withapoorperspectiveontheirdesignandtheact weddings isrecordedintheBible,butdescriptionsleave The donningofdecorativeheaddressesatJewish and Innovations Ancient Traditions, MedievalInterpretations, mourning the destruction of the Second Temple. prohibited intheMishnah,theirabsencebeingasignof desire tocontinuethepractice. as beingoflittleimportance,therewasclearlyanongoing whereas such occasionswouldsuggestthelossofTemple. But that crownsweresosignificantprohibitingthemon enough tobeomitted.Ontheotherhand,itcouldimply implies thatinthis era itwas perceivedasinsignificant to prohibitthecustomofcrowningbridalcouple

Three other figures of (New York, 1915),2:359(Hebrew). Judah D. Eisenstein,O 2:21)butalsotothemidrash;see“Moses,” in the biblicaltext(Exod. Second NürnbergHaggadah,fol.12v. Thisscenedoesnotreferonlyto R. Ashi(BTGittin7a). See, forexample,thewearingofawreathbydaughterMarben also M.Shabbat6:1;BT57a;JT34a. Tosefta Sotah15:4;BT49b;JT46b.Forthecityofgold,see between wreathsandtheheadgearofhighpriests. in BTGittin7aandbasedontheconnectionmadeEzekiel21:31 M. Sotah9:15; the reasonforbanning use ofbridal wreathsisgiven wedding day. wedding wreathwithwhichSolomon’s mothercrownedhimonhis is wellrecordedinIsaiah61:10,andSongofSongs3:11mentionsthe Ontheotherhand,groom’sallegoric brideofGod. headpiece(pe’er) 16:12 liststhewreathamongotheradornmentsofJerusalem, but theydonotexplicitlymentionabridalwreath.However, Ezekiel Jeremiah 2:32andIsaiah49:18mentionbridaljewelryornaments, Medieval Hebrew literature, especially commentaries halakhah lookeduponcrowningthebridalcouple 59 Thecustomofcrowningthecouplewas zar midrashim (A Treasury of Midrashim), 2vols. . Zipporah appear in the Haggadah: standing by . 61 Thefactthatthesagesdecided 62 ateret

hatan, whichinthe . 60 The

in theSecondNürnbergHaggadah,(fig.9). in adepictionoftheweddingMosesand Z wearing somesortofheadgear. Oneofthemcanbeseen Hebrew manuscriptsshowthatnearlyallbrideswere that theywerenotinuse. Jewish medievalliteraturedoesnotnecessarilyindicate in particular, buttheabsenceofanyreferencetothemin them mentionsbridalcrownsingeneralorfleuron wedding customs in particular. Oddly enough, none of describing customsingeneralandJewishmedieval arerichtextualsourcesfilledwithdetails in thisperiod Books ofcustoms(minhagim)thatbegantobecompiled was actuallyperformedduringcontemporaryweddings. does notprovewhetherorcrowningthebridalcouple while employingcontemporaryterms.Nevertheless,this eleventh centuryon,discussesthesemishnaicheadpieces flowers. made up of a fillet set with round gold medallions or Z (“‘take thisbetrothal.’Andwebetrothwitharing”). the Hebrewinscription:“ hand andplacesiton and amusician.Moseshasmassivegoldringinhisright canopy. With themstandtherabbi, Z illustration showsthecouplestandingunderneathablue . ipporah haslongblondhair, ontopofwhichliesawreath 2 (Jerusalem,1994),25–32. Congress ofJewishStudiesHeldinJerusalem,June1993,SectionD,vol. They MadebytheSameArtist?”inProceedingsofEleventhWorld “The Second Nuremberg Haggadah and the Yahuda Haggadah: Were connection betweenthesetwomanuscripts,seeKatrinKogman-Appel, about thesametime(Jerusalem,IMMs.180/50,fol.11v).Onclose the sistermanuscriptYahuda in Franconiaat Haggadahalsoproduced on fols. 12r–v). None of the three iswearing acrown. Compare with the well,withherfather, andnexttoMoseslockedinatower(all fine examplecanbeseenintheDouble Ma formation d’unprogrammeiconographique (Leiden,1983),fig.79.Another fols. 84r, 347v);seeGabrielleSed-Rajna, Le Mahzorenluminé:lesvoiesde Or.(Darmstadt, HessischeLandes-undHochschulbibliothek,Cod. 13, wreath consistingofabandwithfour flowerlikemedallions(Dresden, Germany inthefourteenthcentury. Hereoneofthevirgins wearsa type of floral wreath as the DarmstadtMa of Virgo, aspartofthetwopiyyutimforrainanddew. One virginin crownsillustratingthemonthofElulandastrologicalsign Illustrations ofweddingscenesinmedievalAshkenazi 64 Herwreathisuniqueincomparisontothe hzor produced inHammelburg in 1348hasthesame hzor produced .

Zipporah. The other virgin wears no crown at all .

Zipporah’s indexfinger, illustrating .

Zipporah’s crowncanbecomparedtosome . מקדשין ובטבע]ת[ האירוסין לך הא לך האירוסין ובטבע]ת[ מקדשין hzor produced insouthern hzor produced . . ipporah’s mother, . ipporah 63 The ”

Ars Judaica 2016 35

. zar אשרי העם . hzor (vol. “ . hzor (fol. 65v). that opens the piyyut . hzor, produced in Germany in the hzor, אשרי . hzor, this one for the morning prayer this one for the morning prayer hzor, . hzor (fol. 34v); the Leipzig Ma aska): Christian Material Context in a Jewish Culture ˛ l S ´ . hzor (fol. 48v); the Darmstadt Ma roda roda S ´ , 1:403, no. 8891. For the the no. 8891. For ha-shirah ve-ha-piyyut, 1:403, zar . O . ” (Blessed Is the Nation of Whom this Is True): Davidson, O Is True): this of Whom Is the Nation (Blessed ” hat Torah (fol. 349v) presents a second couple sitting on two two on sitting couple second a presents 349v) (fol. Torah hat However, most of these illustrations do not of these illustrations do not most However, 65 illustrations see the Worms Ma illustrations see the Worms a Cosmological Calendar: The Zodiac Signs in Medieval Ashkenazi Ashkenazi Medieval Zodiac in The Signs Calendar: Cosmological a Context,” AJ 10 (2014): 7–13. 1, fol. 64r); the Levy (Hamburg) Ma the 37, fol. 169v); mid-fourteenth century (Hamburg, SUB, Cod. Levy. Archbishop Laud Ma of Sim of sides of the initial Hebrew word Another illustration in this Ma , 1:283, no. 8400. On the identification of this ha-shirah ve-ha-piyyut, 1:283, no. 8400. On the identification of this couple and its connection to the content of the piyyut, see Sarit Shalev- yemei ha- ve-ommanut Eyni, “Panehah ha-enoshiyyot shel ha-Torah Medieval Art), Zion 73 and beinayim” (The Human Face of the Torah (2008): 153–54 (Hebrew). שלו ככה Davidson, 65 with Me from Lebanon, My Bride,” which is recited which is recited with Me from Lebanon, My Bride,” before Passover. during the “great ,” the Sabbath is based mainly This eleventh-century liturgical poem 4:8, correlating on the love story in Song of Songs the heroes of the piyyut with the biblical groom and bride.

. hzor as hzor as The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron . hzor produced in hzor produced in . hzor wears a red band (vol. 1, hzor wears a red band (vol. 1, . Zipporah, Second Nürnberg Haggadah, Franconia, 1470–80. London, David Sofer collection, fol. 12v. Photograph courtesy of 12v. collection, fol. Sofer Zipporah, 1470–80. London, David Second Nürnberg Haggadah, Franconia, . hzor wears a red fleuron crown (Wrocław, State hzor wears a red fleuron crown (Wrocław, . hzorim was based on Latin liturgical calendars in hzorim was based on Latin liturgical calendars in . hzor (Worms?) dating from 1258 wears a gold fleuron dating from 1258 wears a gold fleuron hzor (Worms?) . Zipporah’s wreath in fact serves as bridal fact serves as bridal wreath in Zipporah’s

: “Come (with me) that begins the piyyut: “Come

אתי A different type of wedding illustrates the initial the initial A different type of wedding illustrates Christian ritual books: see ibid., 32–37; Bezalel Narkiss, “Description Christian ritual books: see ibid., 32–37; Bezalel Narkiss, “Description Jewish National Ms Mahzor: in The Worms and Iconographical Study,” Malachi ed. , and University Library Heb. 4°781/1, Introductory Volume 1985), 84–87; Sarit Shalev-Eyni, “The Ma Beit-Arié (Vaduz, Würzburg (?) in 1272 wears a fillet and barbette (Jerusalem, NLI Würzburg (?) in 1272 wears a fillet and barbette (Jerusalem, NLI noteworthy that the 4°781/1, fol. 96v): ibid., fig. 76. It is Ms. Hebr. zodiacthe containing medallions the of program decoration signs and (sometimes together with the labors of the months) in the Worms other Ashkenazi Ma crown (Oxford, Bodleian Library Ms. Michael 617, fol. 50v; ibid., crown (Oxford, Bodleian Ms. Michael 617, fol. 50v; ibid., Library and University Library, Ms. Or. I, vol. 1, 265v): ibid., fig. 75; the virgin Ms. Or. and University Library, in the Michael Ma fig. 72); the virgin in the Leipzig Ma Ma fol. 86r); the virgin depicted in the Worms Landesbibliothek, Ms. A46a, fol. 133v): ibid., fig. 74. The virgin in the second volume of the Ma nineteen fleuron crowns worn by other figures in this this in figures by other worn crowns fleuron nineteen kings or leaders, Haggadah, most of whom are biblical suggesting that The wedding of Moses and 9. The wedding Fig. word panel wear. Prof. Shalom Sabar Prof. 36 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy this asapolemicalsuggestionthattheJewishbride(the and thefigureof Virgin Mary).Itispossibletoread bride (i.e., with the bride from Song of Songs, Ecclesia, crown, correspondingtothecoronationofChristian Jewish brideasQueenSynagogawearingagoldfleuron and the other in the Leipzig Ma illustrations, oneintheLevy(Hamburg)Ma 67 66 both religiousandseculariconography. rather they are based on Christian weddings with match what we know of contemporary Jewish weddings; fol. 169v century. Universitätsbibliothek, Hamburg,Staats-und Cod.Levy. 37, LevyFig. andbride, Ma 10.Bridegroom by applyingChristianiconography, theartistofLevi Ma asbeinganti-Semitic,butrathertheopposite: necessarily beunderstood image ofSynagoga.Shalev-Eynisuggested thatherimageshouldnot The blindfoldedbrideintheLevi Ma Levi (Hamburg)Ma id., Ahavaharz Christian Perspective,”Assaph:StudiesinArtHistory2(1996):93–110; 27–57; RuthBartal,“MedievalImagesof‘SacredLove’:Jewishand Bride,” Naomi Feuchtwanger-Sarig, “TheCoronationoftheVirgin andofthe JA 12–13 (1987):213–24; Shalev-Eyni, “Iconography of Love,” . it –ahavahshmeimit. hzor (fol.169r);LeipzigMa . hzor, Germany, mid-14th . hzor (fig. 11) present the the present hzor (fig. 11) . hzor alludestotheanti-Jewish . hzor (vol.1,fol.64v). . 66 Two of the hzor (fig.10) . hzor . Fig. 11. LeipzigMa andbride, Bridegroom Universitätsbibliothek, Cod.V. 1102/I,fol. 64v illustrates aketubbahdatedtotheJewishyear5152 understanding of fleuron crowns in Jewish contexts, significance. Christian crown into a Jewish framework subverts its as anactofculturalresistancewhereinassimilatingthe influence andJewish acculturation,but atthe sametime fleuron crownsbyJewishbridesasreflectingChristian real queen. bride from Song of Songs and Synagoga) is in fact the 68 ed. DavidBiale(NewYork, 2002),461–63. The CultureofEarlyAshkenaz,”inCulturestheJews:ANewHistory , Europe (NewHaven,1996),11–13;id.,“A Jewish-ChristianSymbiosis: See IvanG.Marcus,RitualsofChildhood:JewishAcculturation inMedieval Medieval Germany(Jerusalem,1999),51. Mellinkoff, The Jews in Christian Art, 16–18, with many illustrations on 31–74; Ruth The Jew, The Cathedral, and the Medieval City , 40–78; Schreckenberg, Song ofSongs:Shalev-Eyni,“IconographyLove,”39.SeealsoRowe, presented theJewishbrideasaqueenandthereforetrueof Another weddingscene,whichisimportantforour 67 Antisemitic HateSignsinHebrewIlluminatedManuscriptsfrom 68 Inthissenseweshouldconsidertheuseof hzor, Germany, southern 1320.Leipzig, . Ars Judaica 2016 37

. h is imaged .

Zema . hem of Tröstl: see Arthur Z. Z. Arthur see Tröstl: hem of . h’s father was Aaron of Krems and father was Aaron of Krems and h’s and the massive gold ring, as 72 . Zema Vienna, 1925), 237, no. 202. Vienna, ( aska): Christian Material Context in a Jewish Culture ˛ l S ´ roda roda S ´ ub.uni-heidelberg.de/Englisch/allg/benutzung/bereichehands

chriften/codexmanesse.html. Focusing on R. Shalom’s fur , we see chriften/codexmanesse.html. on R. Shalom’s Focusing Compare, for example, with fourteenth-century fashion of the nobility depicted in Codexdigitized codex Manesse. The can be found online: www. Ketubbah: Jewish Marriage Contracts of the (1986/87): 101 n. 41; id., Ketubbah: Jewish Marriage Contracts of the Hebrew Union College Skirball Museum and Klau Library (Philadelphia, 1990), 8–9, 289–91. It has been suggested that that the groom was Shalom son of Mena son of Shalom was groom that the Schwarz, 1392,” Jahre dem aus Kethubah Kremser illuminierte “Eine Museumswesen und Kunstgeschichte Familienforschung, Jüdische für Archiv 1, nos. 4–6 (1913), 23–25; id., Die hebräischen Handschriften der Nationalbibliothek in Wien

72 massive gold ring set with a red gemstone. massive gold ring set with a red gemstone. a blue flower in heron the other side of the text holding ring.the take to right her with out reaching and hand left a massive gold trefoilAtop her long, braided blond hair is gemstones. fleuron crown, set with some rhombus-shaped I suggest that the use of the fleuron crown here, in addition to the other indications of wealth such as the contemporary fashion of their garments 71

70 . . h, h daughter of R. Aaron. The Krems (?) Ketubbah (details), (?) Ketubbah h daughter The Krems of R. Aaron. 1391/2. . , which , Zema 12/13 12/13 JA . Zema רימש The Fleuron Crown from Neumarkt in Silesia ( in Silesia Neumarkt from Crown The Fleuron Centuries,” . hem and his bride Decoration in Italy: Venice Decoration in Italy: Venice Seventeenth . hem and his bride hem and Ketûbbah The illustration depicts their 71 In contrast to other Ashkenazi In contrast to other Ashkenazi 69 Beginning of Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Cod. hebr. 218 Cod. hebr. Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Österreichische Fig. 12. R. Shalom bar Mena Fig. Sixteenth to the Early the to Sixteenth has some impressive illustrations in its in its ketubbah has some impressive illustrations Vienna, ÖNb Cod. Hebr. 218. This wedding contract was found cut cut 218. This wedding contract was found ÖNb Cod. Hebr. Vienna, as such information the of some obscured which pieces, four into up All that remains the month of the wedding and the sum of the dowry. . . . letters Hebrew four is city the of name the of legible in the Late the in suggests that the wedding took place in the Austrian city of Krems. on the ketubbah value great The reason did not place ruling the with do to had undecorated) customarily was it why is (which me’or ha-golah (ca. 950–1028) of Ashkenazi R. Gershom ben Yehudah that forbade divorce without the consent of the woman. Furthermore, the Ashkenazi ruling for a fixed amount in the ketubbah decreased public interest in hearing the contract read aloud, so it had less importance. See “The Shalom Sabar,

wedding contracts, which were customarily unadorned, wedding contracts, which were customarily margins, showing the figures of the wedding couple, the wedding couple, the margins, showing the figures of the bar Mena Shalom groom R. this 69 (1391/2) (fig. 12). 70 : Shalom is wearing a Judenhut and a fur cloak. He is reaching out with his right hand to give his bride a the daughter of R. Aaron. 38 Ars Judaica 2016 Ido Noy Indeed, thecrownedimageof wedding. Unfortunately, lacking is, as a bridal crown in a Jewish original Christiancontext,that was used by its Jewish owner in its to askwhetherthisparticularcrown Jewish context,itisnownecessary meaning of fleuron crowns in a of afleuroncrown. Christian iconography in the form all ofthisarticulatedthrough flaunt theirsocio-economicstatus, some contemporaryurbanJewsto queen togetherwiththewishof between theconceptsofbrideand perspectives ontherelationship layered images. They portray Jewish above, shouldbeseenascomplex, wearing fleuroncrownsmentioned Z both brideandqueen: on theallegoricalviewthatSabbathshouldbeseenas of precedentsinancientJewishtradition.Thisisbased celebrating brides andgrooms as royalty, in partbecause economic elite. were all intended to image the couple as part of the socio- well as the effort invested in illuminating the ketubbah 73 . ema BT Shabbat119a.Thetraditionthat sawthegroomasaleader( Süßkind vonTrimberg (seefig.13),alsodepictedinthismanuscript(355r). (e.g., fol14v),clergy(fol.355r),andotherlowstrataofnobility, interalia 8r, 10r),aswelldukes(e.g.,fol.11v),counts24r),margraves that similarcloaks were also worn by emperors (fol.6r)and kings (fols. aggadic midrashapparentlycomposed intheLandofIsraelaround groom as an actual king can be seen in Pirkei de-Rabbi Eli’ezer, an emerged at about the same time (JT Bikkurim 3:3). Illustrating the After examiningtheuseand exclaimed, “Come,Obride,Come,bride!” Yannai donnedhisrobesonSabbatheveand go forthtowelcomethequeenSabbath.”Rabbi of Sabbatheveandexclaimed,“Comeletus Rabbi Medieval JewseasilyassimilatedChristiancustoms h, aswellalltheotherbrides .

Haninah robed himself at andsunset stood .

Codex Manesse.Heidelberg,Universitätsbibliothek,Codex Fig. 13.Miniature for SüßkindofTrimberg, 73

נשיא CPG. 848,fol. 355r ) , day –thatsheshouldbetreatedasaqueen. attention aJewishbrideshouldreceiveonherwedding crown inJewishweddingswouldcallforththespecial or imagined.Onethingiscertain:theuseoffleuron conveying herelitesocio-economicstatus,whetherreal used todepictitsfemaleownerasabridewhilealso apparently had amultiple purpose: it might have been prove. However, ifindeeditwasusedassuch,thecrown further information this assumption is impossible to of urban German Jews. Through moneylending as well as of urban German Jews. Through moneylending as well as centuries providednewopportunitiestoenhancethestatus The circumstancesofthethirteenthandfourteenth 75 74

regulations were drawn up to deal with this phenomenon; see above, n. 11. of afeweyebrows,notonlybyChristians butalsobyJews.Sumptuary present atJewishweddings.Presumably thiscouldhavecausedtheraising crown wouldhavebeeninterpreted byChristianneighborsorguests One mustaskhowthepresentationofaJewishbridewearingfleuron Toch, “BetweenImpotenceandPower,” 229–30. (1944): 118–19(Hebrew). eighth century: see Michael Higger, “Pirkei de-Rabbi Eli’ezer,” Jews, whocouldnothavebeen Thus bourgeois,interaliaalsorich, served asameansofsocialmobility. and honorablepersonalbehavior, contemporary notionofexcellent visual culture,togetherwitha The acquisitionofmaterialand but also socio-economic merit. symbols –notonlyculturalvalue, because theybore–asobjectsand especially influentialinthismatter well astheirsumptuousattirewere objects as seals and heraldic signs as use offleuroncrownsandsuchother importance oftheirposition.Their lived inamannerbefittingthe the localeconomy. Wealthy Jews social significance and power in Jews wereabletoenhance their other economic activities, these present themselvesassuch. born intonobility, wereableto 74 75 Horev 9