Airplane takeoff speeds are designed to ensure the liftoff speed does not exceed the tire speed rating.

14 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Exceeding Tire Speed Rating During Takeoff

Airplane tires are designed to withstand a wide range of operating conditions, including carrying very high loads and operating at very high speeds. It is common for a jet airplane tire to carry loads as heavy as 60,000 pounds while operating at ground speeds up to 235 miles per hour. To accommodate these operational conditions, each tire has specific load and speed ratings. Tires are carefully designed and tested to withstand operation up to, but not necessarily beyond, these ratings.

By Ingrid Wakefield, Flight Operations Engineer; and Chris Dubuque, Service Engineer, Landing Gear Systems

It is uncommon to exceed the load rating Introduction heat, combined with extreme centrifugal of tires during normal airline operation forces from high rotational speeds, creates because the weight and center-of-gravity Boeing is receiving an increasing number the potential for tread loss. Ensuring that position of the airplane are well controlled of operator inquiries about tire speed limits tires are operated within their speed ratings and well understood. However, on being exceeded during takeoff. This does will help prevent possible tread losses and occasion the speed rating of tires can be not appear to be a new issue. Rather, the potential for airplane damage. inadvertently exceeded during takeoff. advanced data acquisition tools on modern This article discusses factors that can airplanes have made operators more aware Conditions That Can Lead to lead to a tire speed exceedance during of tire speed exceedance events. Exceeding the Tire Speed Rating take­off, provides guidance to help prevent In most cases, the speed exceedance During Takeoff such tire overspeed events, and points is small, only a few knots. Boeing is not out that there are no standardized industry aware of any of these overspeed events When dispatching an airplane in compliance maintenance guidelines if an overspeed resulting in thrown treads, which suggests with the certified Airplane Flight Manual, event occurs. that airplane tires in good condition can the airplane takeoff speeds are designed withstand these small speed exceedances to ensure that the liftoff speed does not without damage. However, it is important exceed the tire speed rating. While rotation to remember that at high speeds, heat is and liftoff speeds are generally expressed generated within the tire structure. This in knots indicated airspeed, the tire speed 15 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine limit is the ground speed, which is usually Recommended Takeoff Wind Accountability expressed in statute miles per hour. This Procedures for all Boeing means that a tire rated at 235 miles per Airplane Models The certified tire-speed-limit weight does hour is designed for a maximum ground not contain any margin for wind account­ Boeing publishes a recommended all- speed at liftoff of 204 knots. ability. For instance, the FAA-certified engine normal takeoff procedure in the A number of factors can lead to a tire- takeoff field-length-limit weight typically Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) for speed-limit exceedance during takeoff. contains a conservative factor for wind 727, 737 Classic, and Next-Generation Typically, this occurs when an airplane is accountability of 1.5 times the tailwind and 737, 747, 757, 767 and 777 models and in dispatched at or near the tire-speed-limit 0.5 times the headwind. In comparison, the Flight Crew Operations Manual for 717, weight and: the tire-speed-limit weight lacks any such MD, and DC models. In order to avoid tire- conservative wind factor. Because of this, n The airplane rotation rate is slower than speed-limit exceedance during takeoff, an unexpected tailwind component not the Boeing-recommended rotation rate, Boeing stresses adhering to the recom­ accounted for in the takeoff analysis, and/or mended average all-engine takeoff rotation occur­ring during a takeoff at or near n There is a late rotation, and/or rate of 2 to 3 degrees per second, which the tire-speed-limit weight, may increase the n The tailwind is higher than anticipated. provides adequate tail clearance margins true ground speed at liftoff beyond the tire with a target liftoff attitude reached after Dispatch at or near the airplane’s tire speed rating. approximately 3 to 4 seconds (see fig. 1). speed limit is most likely to occur during To avoid a tire-speed-limit exceedance, Tail clearance margins for all 7-series takeoffs from airports at high altitudes on Boeing recommends to conservatively models except the 717 are also outlined in warm days, because these conditions tend account for the tailwind component when the FCTM. Tail clearance and tail strike to drive the ground speed at liftoff of the dispatching at or near the tire-speed-limit concerns are often the reason flight crews airplane closer to the tire speed limit. How­ weight in a crosswind situation. General give for opting to use a slower rotation rate ever, tire speed limits can be encountered guidelines for crosswind takeoffs are out­ than recommended by Boeing. (More during takeoff in less severe environmental lined in the FCTM. These guidelines include information about tail strike prevention can conditions, such as when scheduling an the recommendation to use a higher thrust be found in AERO first-quarter 2007.) improved climb takeoff. setting than the minimum required in order When dispatching at or near the tire- Crosswinds can aggravate the situation to minimize airplane expo­sure to gusty speed-limit weight, which is most likely by unexpectedly shifting into a tailwind, conditions during rotation, liftoff, and to occur at hot temperatures and high which may further increase the ground initial climb. elevations, a slower rotation than the speed at liftoff. An unexpected (and there­ Boeing-recommended 2- to 3-degrees-per- fore unaccounted for) tailwind component second average may increase the actual 747-400 Case Study will directly add to the ground speed at liftoff. groundspeed at liftoff beyond the certified tire speed limit. In addition, a slow rotation A case study of the 747-400 helps illustrate or under-rotation could significantly this point. The operator sporadically increase the runway distance required to exceeded the tire speed limit even though reach the 35-foot point, which is another the takeoff analyses showed a notable important reason for adhering to the buffer between the tire-speed-limit weight Boeing-recommended rotation procedure. 16 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 1: Typical rotation, all engines 777-200 – 777-300ER The recommended rotation rate of 2 to 3 degrees per second provides adequate tail clearance margins with a target liftoff attitude reached after VR Liftoff V2 + 15 approximately 3 to 4 seconds.

14°

7–9° 35 ft

0 4 6.5

Time (Seconds)

737-300/-400/-500 717

VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10

16–18° 20° max. 35 ft 35 ft 8–10° 7–10° V2 + 10, not to 0 3 6.5 0 3–4 5–7 exceed 20° Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

737-600 – 737-900ER MD-80

VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10

20° 15–16° max. 35 ft 35 ft 7–9° 8° V2 + 10, not to 0 3 6.5 0 2.5 5–6 exceed 20° Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

747-400 MD-90

VR Liftoff V2 + 10 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10

15° 20° max. 35 ft 35 ft 10° 8° V2 + 10, not to 0 4 6.5 0 2.5 5–7 exceed 20°

Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

757-200 – 767-400 MD-11

VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 + 10

25° 15° max. 35 ft 35 ft 7–11° 7–10° V2 + 10, not to 0 4 6.5 0 3–4 5–7 exceed 25° Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

17 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Figure 2: 747 Case study summary Relatively large weight margins did not result in corresponding speed margins.

Takeoff I Takeoff II

Dispatch Weight: 805,000 pounds Dispatch Weight: 825,000 pounds

Tire-Speed-Limit Weight: 845,000 pounds Tire-Speed-Limit Weight: 855,000 pounds

Weight Margin: 40,000 pounds Weight Margin: 30,000 pounds

Scheduled Ground Speed at Liftoff: 196 knots Scheduled Ground Speed at Liftoff: 199 knots

Rated Tire Speed: 204 knots (235 miles per hour) Rated Tire Speed: 204 knots (235 miles per hour)

Speed Margin: 8 knots Speed Margin: 5 knots

Figure 3: Effect of slow or under-rotation on all-engine takeoff distance A 747-400 taking off with a rotation rate that is 1 degree per second slower than normal can result in a 4- to 5-knot liftoff speed increase.

VR Liftoff 35 ft

Normal rotation

VR Liftoff 35 ft

Up to 700 ft

Slow rotation (1 deg per sec slower than normal)

VR Liftoff 35 ft

Under-rotation Up to 700 ft (Rotate to 5 deg less than target)

18 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 and the actual dispatch weight. The airline instructions following a tire-speed-limit n Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Tire Care, approached Boeing for assistance. exceedance event during takeoff. and Maintenance, http://ap.bridgestone. The study was performed at two differ­ One maintenance suggestion would be co.jp/pdf/Care_and_Maintenance.pdf. ent dispatch weights: 805,000 pounds that all wheel/tire assemblies be removed n Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Examination, and 825,000 pounds. There was a from the airplane before further flight after and Recommended Action, 40,000‑pound and a 30,000-pound margin such an event occurs. In practice, however, http://ap.bridgestone.co.jp/candm/ between sched­uled dispatch weight and replacing all of the wheel/tire assemblies recommendedaction.html. the tire-speed-limit weight. These weight on an airplane represents a major logistical n Aircraft Tire Care & Service Manual, margins, which appear relatively large, only problem and likely results in flight cancel­ Michelin, www.airmichelin.com/pdfs/ resulted in speed margins of 8 knots and lations and/or dispatch delays. It would be Care_and_Service_manual.pdf. 5 knots between the asso­ciated ground difficult to locate and ship 18 wheel/tire n General practices manual for aircraft speeds at liftoff and the tire speed rating assemblies to a 747 at a remote location tyres and tubes, Dunlop Aircraft Tyres (see fig. 2). following one of these events! Additionally, Limited, 01/08, www.dunlopaircrafttyres. This case study shows the relationship of if the overspeed was very small (say, 2 to com/tech_support/dm1172/DM1172.pdf. a tire-speed-weight margin to the associated 3 knots over the tires’ speed limit), it is speed margin for a four-engine airplane. unlikely that the tires would have suffered Summary Under similar dispatch conditions on a any damage. two-engine airplane, a similarly large weight Some operators have elected to simply Although it is uncommon to exceed the margin can be expected to result in an examine the tires after an overspeed takeoff load rating of tires during normal airline even lower speed margin, due to the higher event using the normal tire inspection criteria opera­tion, Boeing is receiving an increasing all-engine acceleration. in Chapter 32 of the Airplane Maintenance number of operator inquiries about tire The same case study showed that a Manual. If no damage is found, the air­planes speed limits being exceeded during takeoff. rotation rate that is 1 degree per second are dispatched normally and no further There is no industry consensus on the slower than normal can result in a 4- to maintenance actions are performed. Based maintenance actions that should be taken 5-knot liftoff speed increase. This is in on many years of service experience, this following tire-speed-limit exceedance addition to the increase in all-engine approach seems to have worked well during takeoff. At this time, operators, in takeoff distance associated with the because very few, if any, tire tread losses conjunction with their regulatory agency, slow takeoff rotation (see fig. 3). have been attributed to an overspeed must determine the most appropriate This illustrates how a slower-than- event. Based on this service experience, maintenance action based on the tire- normal rotation rate can easily use up Boeing has typically not objected to this speed-limit exceedance event. what may seem like a large tire-speed-limit practice even though there is no overspeed The best approach is to try to avoid margin, especially if paired with a higher takeoff capability specifically designed into overspeed takeoffs altogether. By taking tailwind component than accounted for in the tire. the following steps, flight operations the takeoff analysis used for dispatch. If an operator has any questions about personnel can reduce the possibility of tire- the integrity of the tires, the wheel/tire speed-limit exceedance during takeoff: assemblies should be replaced before Maintenance Actions after n Exceeding the Tire Speed Limit further flight. Follow the Boeing-recommended During Takeoff Additional information on tire mainte­ rotation procedure. nance procedures can be found in the n When dispatching at or near the tire- Although tire-speed-limit exceedance airplane maintenance manuals and in speed-limit weight in a crosswind events during takeoff are not a new phe­ the following documents: situation, consider conservatively, nomenon, widespread recognition of these accounting for the tailwind component. n FAA Advisory Circular 20-97B, “Aircraft overspeed events is relatively new because n When dispatching at or near the tire Tire Maintenance and Operational of advances in flight data recorder tech­ speed limit in gusty wind and strong Practices,” April 18, 2005, U.S. nology that enables easier data acquisition. crosswind conditions, use a higher thrust Department of Transportation. Airplane manufac­turers, tire suppliers, and setting than the minimum required. n “Aircraft Tire Care And Maintenance,” regulators have not yet developed an Goodyear Aviation, 10/04, www. For more information, contact Boeing industry-accepted set of maintenance goodyearaviation.com/img/pdf/ Flight Operations Engineering at flightops. aircraftmanual.pdf. [email protected]. 19 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine