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Ancient Binding Materiais, Mortars and Concrete Technoiogy: History and Durability Aspects

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Ancient Binding Materiais, Mortars and Concrete Technoiogy: History and Durability Aspects Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions - Modena, Lourenço & Roca (eds) © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1536 379 9 Ancient binding materiaIs, mortars and concrete technoIogy: history and durability aspects 6. Klrca ÇimSA Cement Produclion and Trading Company. Mersin, Turkey ABSTRACT: This paper deals with the history of technology related with binding materiais. Lime, gypsum, and hydraulic binders, i.e. lime-pozzolan mixture have been the major types of binding materiais survived in different regions ofthe world for 8000 years. Whatever type ofbinding materiais the ancient civilizations used, it can be seen that those structures built by ancient binders, particularly !ime-pozzolan mixture have survived for several hundred years. It can be claimed that even at that time architects were aware of the importance of the durability of binding materiais. However, those structures belonging to modem civilizations and made by using modem binders, i.e. portland cement have experienced significant deterioration throughout their service life, generally lesser than 100 years. In this research, the object of the study is to investigate the historical time!ine of binding materiais and to focus on their durability aspects by comparing the traditional technologies with modem ones. rNTRODUCTION to make hydraulic binder, i.e. lime-pozzolan cement by adding materiais, such as volcanic ash or powdered Binding material or cementing material in the gen­ bricks, tiles and pottery to lime. eral sense of the world can be described as a material The modem cement, i.e. portland cement was with adhesive and cohesive properties, which make it invented by Joseph Aspdin in England in 1824. Afier capable ofbonding mineral fragments into a compact that time, modem Portland cement and concrete tech­ whole. For constructional purposes, the meaning of nology has proceeded till today by invention of new the term "cement" is restricted to the bonding materi­ chemical and mineral admixtures and additions. ais used with stones, sand, building blocks, etc (Neville Although radical advances in cement and concrete 1989). technology have been observed for two centuries, The use of cementing materiais is very old. The there are still problems related with lhe endurance of first evidence of its existence dates back to 12000 cement and concrete. Many modem structures expe­ BC in Israel. Reactions between limestone and oil rienced significant deterioration within their service shale during spontaneous combustion occurred in !ife, which is generally lesser than 100 years. Yet, many Israel to form a natural deposit of cement compounds. ancient Roman concrete buildings or slructures are still Another example of ancient binder from the history in use afier more than 2000 years. According to the of the human being is the use of naturally occurring Vitruvius's book De Architectura, the magnificent bitumen by the Babylonians and Assyrians in their quality of Roman concrete resulted from the exten­ brick and gypsum plaster construction. The Egyplians sive use of artificial pozzolanic mortars and concretes improved the technology of lime and gypsum mortar (Vitruvius 1960). In addition, placement, compaction, and builded the pyramids by the use of such mortars. workability properties of ancient Roman concrete The Greeks made furlher improvements and finally the contributed to its magnificent survivability. Romans developed a cement lhat produced structures of remarkable durability and that can sei and harden even under waler. 2 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF Lime was known to the Greeks and was widely used BINDING MATERIALS AND MORTARS by the Romans. The Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius published the first specification for the use The nature and usefulness of cement as a kind of of lime in building in his celebrated work De Archi­ artificial stone was probably first understood by the tectura (Vitruvius 1960). The Romans also knew how Romans; but it seems likely that they copied the 87 technology from Etruscans and Greeks and improved in order to be used in construction it must be mixed it drastically. with water to form a lime paste, which is defined as Concrete and/or cement itself is actually a phe­ "hydration" or "slaki ng". nomenon of nature, with the first evidence of its To produce dry powdered hydrated lime just suf­ existence in Israel dating back to 12 000 BC, when nat­ ficient water is added for the quicklime lumps to ural deposits of cement compounds were said to have break down to a fine powder. This material would formed due to reactions between limestone and oi l have a "shelflife" of only a number ofweeks, depend­ shale, employing spontaneous combustion. However, ing on storage conditions. "Old" hydrated lime would the earliest known concrete produced intentionally by have partially carbonated and become a less effective human beings was discovered in th e fl oor of a crude binder. Iftoo little or toa much water is added, the prop­ shelter built about 5600 BC on the banks of the river erties ofthe slaked lime will be spoil ed; the slaked lime Donube in Yugoslavia. The floor was made from mix­ will not harden and the paste will not be as plastic as ture of sand, gravei and red lime. That concrete was it should be (Erdogan 2002). manufactured deliberately, rather than w1intentionally However, if qui cklime is hydrated with a proper by util izing the red lime from a site 320 km away. For amount of water and well agitated, it forms a milky some reason, it appears that the technique for using suspension known as milk oflime, which can be easily lime-based cements was lost for at least 2500 years, used in building applications. until indications of use by the ancient Assyrians and Limestone containing a proportion of clay is Babylonian civilizations around 3000 BC. They used ofien seen as an advantage in building as they pro­ bitumen to bind stones and bricks. About the same duce hydraulic limes. In fact, limes do not possess time Egyptians used mud bricks mixed wi th straw to hydraulicity, si nce it needs carbon dioxide for its hard­ bind dried bricks and also th is phenomenon furthered ening reaction (Erdogan 2002). However, in the case the discovery oflime and gypsum mortars as a binding of hydraulic limes, as the name implies, they can set agent for building the pyramids. Even at that time, th e and harden even under water and will produce stronger ancient Chinese people used cementitious materiais to mortars. hold bamboo together in their boats and in the Great In the construction industry, usually lime, in its Wall, one of the Wonders of the world. By 500 BC hydrated or putty fo rm, is mixed with aggregate and the art of making concrete had spread to the Mediter­ water to produce concrete or mortar for different ranean island of Crete, and from there to the ancient purposes such as plastering sand-lime brick produc­ Etruscans and Greeks. tion etc. Plai n lime-sand mortars are quite weak; Yet, it was the Romans who brought the manufacture any early adhesive strength results from drying out and use of li me-based cement to an art form o 300 BC whereas longer-term hardening occurs as a result of saw the Romans employing slaked lime and volcanic carbonation ofthe lime. ash called pozzolan, named afier the town of Pozzuoli, Traditionallime plasters were ofien mixed with ani­ near Mt Vesuvius. This was a hydrauli c cement that mal hair to improve cohesion and adhesion. Today can set harden when mixed with water in ai r as well addition of gypsum or portland cement and/or poz­ as under the water. Moreover, some natural additions zolans to increase durability and give faster setting such as animal fats, milk, and blood were also used times is more common. throughout this era. Afier the fali of the Roman Empire, knowledge of cement was lost till the 18th century. 3.2 Ancient lime technology The whole historical timeline of cement and con­ Quarrying: The first step of lime production required crete is summarised in Table I, where the develop­ finding a suitable raw material which was generally ments in modem era are also outlined. calcium carbonate based stones such as limestone and marble. Quarrying techniques had become well advanced during construction of the great Egypti an 3 TECHNOLOGY OF ANCIENT LIME pyramids and further advanced during the Roman AND LIME MORTARS building era. The determination of raw material involved trial and error, as well as ages of experi­ 3. 1 Properties o.flime mentai attempts. Once workable quarries and materiais There are two forms of lime: quicklime and hydrated were located, workmen acquired skills for identifying lime. and extracting suitable calcium carbonate raw mate­ Quicklime is produced by heating rock or stone con­ riais. Then such materiais had to be transported to taining calcium carbonate (limestone, marble, chalk, sites where they were prepared for calcination. The shell s, etc.) to a temperature of around 900°C for sev­ major technological factors surrounding acquisition eral hours in a process known as ' calcining'. It is an of the raw carbonate material, therefore, involved, unstable and slightly hazardous product. Therefore, identifi cation of suitable stone, workable extraction, 88 Table I. Historical timeline of binding materiaIs. 12000 BC Reactions between limestone and oil shale during spontaneous combustion occurred in Israel to form a natural deposit of cement compounds. 5600 BC Intentionally production of concrete from sand, graveI, and lime a natural concrete in Yugoslavia. 3000 BC Bitumen to bind bricks and stones was used by Babylonians and Assyrians. 3000 BC Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to bind dried bricks. They also used lime and gypsum mortars in the pyramids. 3000 BC Chinese used cementitious material to hold bamboo together in their boats and in the Great Wall.
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