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Sodium Cooled Nuclear Reactors Couv_mono7GB2:Couv_mono7FR_BàT 10/06/16 10:47 Page 1 Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives e-den A Nuclear Energy Division Monograph e-den Even as civil nuclear energy is experiencing a real resurgence in interest, there is a need also to know pre- A Nuclear Energy Division cisely what is involved in the issue, whether it be nuclear energy itself, or the associated science and tech- Monograph nology. And yet, overviews evidencing a good scientific level, as regards this type of energy, are scarce… To make good this virtual absence, and highlight its own work in due manner, the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA: Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alter- natives) is setting out, in the form of short monographs, a comprehensive overview of its own ongoing research, in the area of civil nuclear energy. Such research being diverse, and multidisciplinary, this series of CEA monographs explores, and surveys topics as varied, if complementary, as the reactors of the future, nuclear fuel, materials under irradiation, or nuclear waste… Sodium-Cooled Aimed both at scientists hailing from other areas of expertise, wishing to appraise themselves of the issues at hand, and a wider public, interested in learning about the present and future technological envi- ronment, these CEA monographs set out the recent findings from research, together with their context Nuclear Reactors and the related stakes. Sodium-Cooled Nuclear Reactors Sodium-Cooled Nuclear Reactors The first nuclear reactor that generated electric power, in 1951, was a liquid metal-cooled fast neutron reactor. In the following years nineteen fast neutron reactors using sodium as coolant were constructed, first as research nuclear reac- tors, and then as power reactors.This Monograph describes that history as well as the operating experience feedback gained with those reactors, among which the three French reactors RAPSODIE, PHÉNIX and SUPERPHÉNIX: design, materials, measurements, instrumentation, in-service ins- pection, components, operating experience reviews, etc. The design principles of this reactor type are also detailed, highlighting their significant potential assets: the ability to burn all of the uranium fed to it, which would ensure world power supply for thousands of years; the ability to recycle all of the plutonium and uranium arising from spent fuel treatment, thereby closing the cycle, which would minimize ultimate waste. Today two high-power sodium-cooled fast reactors are being constructed, one in India, and the other one in Russia, and a number of projects are under study, among which the ASTRID project in France. This Monograph reviews the status of these developments in 2013. 22 ISBN 978-2-281-14055-2 ISSN 1950-2672 The deployment of this promising technology is slowed down, especially due to overcost in constructing these reac- tors in contrast with the water reactor type.The perspectives of this deployment are analyzed in a technico-economic chapter, in relation to the uranium resource evolution. DEN Monographs A Nuclear Energy Division Monograph Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex (France) Tel: +33 (0)1 64 50 10 00 Scientific Committee Georges Berthoud, Gérard Ducros, Damien Féron, Yannick Guérin, Christian Latgé, Yves Limoge, Gérard Santarini, Jean-Marie Seiler, Étienne Vernaz (Research Directors). Topic Editor: Joël Guidez. Contributors to this Monograph: Catherine Andrieux, François Baqué, Bern ard Bonin, Bernard Boullis, Céline Cabet, Frank Carré, Philippe Dufour , François Gauché, Jean-Paul Grouiller, Joël Guidez (Topic Editor), Jean-Philippe Jeannot, Christian Latgé, Marion Le Flem, Pierre Le Coz, Laurent Martin, Michel Masson, Gilles Mathonnière, Jean-Guy Nokhamzon, Michel Pelletier, Gilles Rodriguez, Manuel Saez, Jean-Louis Séran, Frédéric Varaine, Alain Zaetta. Editorial Director: François Gauché. Editorial Board: Bernard Bonin (Editor in chief), Olivier Provitina, Michaël Lecomte, Alain Forestier. Administrator: Alexandra Bender. Editor: Jean-François Parisot. Graphic concept: Pierre Finot. Translation of the 2014 French Edition: Catherine Andrieux-Martinet and Revision: Topic Editor and Authors. Correspondence: all correspondence should be addressed to the Editor or to CEA/DEN Direction scientifique, CEA Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex (France). Tel: +33 (0)1 69 08 16 75 © CEA Saclay et Groupe Moniteur (Éditions du Moniteur), Paris, 2016. ISBN 978-2-281-14055-2 ISSN 1950-2672 The information contained in this document may be freely reproduced, subject to agreement by the Editorial Board and due acknowledgement of the source. Front cover: photograph taken during the sodium filling of the SUPERPHÉNIX reactor. The fuel sub-assembly lattice is about to be immersed in sodium. Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives e-den A Nuclear Energy Division Monograph Sodium-Cooled Nuclear Reactors Foreword After a dazzling start in the 1950’s when, for many, it stood as the hope of an inexhaus- tible, economically competitive energy source, nuclear energy experienced in the 1980’s and 1990’s a rejection by majority public opinion in several Western countries, which sud- denly brought its development to a halt. Although the 1973 and 1979 oil crises marked the launch of massive equipment programs in a few countries heavily penalized by oil imports, in particular France and Japan, they were paradoxically followed by a gap in nuclear investments, first, in the United States, and then in Western Europe. However, repeated oil market tensions and emerging concerns over the possible depletion of natural resources, as well as expectable effects on climate and the environment due to their large-scale burning should have, by contrast, enhanced such investments. There are surely many reasons for this pause, which can in part be explained by the acci- dents at Three Mile Island in 1979, and Chernobyl in 1986, deeply impacting public opi- nion. Fukushima recent accident legitimately raises again the same questions, although the context is quite different.The pending issue is not so much whether reactors are tech- nically able to withstand the most improbable events: Fukushima focuses renewed atten- tion, indeed, on how to train operators and members of the decision-making line in charge of tackling a severe dysfunction of engineered safety systems in the case of equipment failure. In France, whereas the siting of nuclear power plants had never - except for one case - aroused a true debate in the population, a negative attitude emerged in the late 1980’s concerning the nuclear waste issue. Given the growing difficulties of the French national agency for radioactive waste management (ANDRA) in its search for an underground labo- ratory site, the Government of the time decided to suspend work, set a one-year morato- rium, and submitted the issue to the French parliamentary office for evaluation of scientific and technological options (OPECST). By adopting most of the OPECST’s recommendations, in particular its definition of a diver- sified research program, and also the basis for a democratic debate with the populations concerned, the French Act of December 30, 1991 on radioactive waste management thus greatly contributed to calm the debate. Following a fifteen-year period, in which various options for long-term radioactive waste management were investigated, the French Act of June 28, 2006 made it possible to set out the basic framework for this management, to be recognized as a necessity from now on. In addition, the starting century is marked by collective awareness that our generation’s energy needs cannot be met without concern for the environment, and without preserving future generations’ right to satisfy these same needs. This is the concept of sustainable development which our society will inevitably face, indeed. Today, it goes unquestioned that global warming due to increasing greenhouse gas emis- sions is a human-caused problem. Only the extent and consequences of this warming are still debated. Sodium-Cooled Nuclear Reactors 5 Industrialized countries, who are for the most part the origin of the current situation, hold a particular responsibility, which should induce them to voluntarily reduce emissions of these gases. By its very nature, nuclear energy is not concerned by this type of emissions, while being able to produce a relatively abundant, reliable, and economically competitive energy source. Quite naturally, it is therefore expected to be the predominant energy source. Even if the worldwide situation is still contrasted, more especially in Europe, several coun- tries (China, South Korea, Finland, India, South Africa, Poland, the United Arab Emirates…) have already decided to make huge investments in developing this energy, and do keep this option after Fukushima accident. Others are very close to taking this step, in particular Great Britain and the United States, who seem to be determined to launch programs for the construction of new nuclear power plants by the end of the decade, picking up a process that had been on hold for thirty years. Following France’s national energy debate that took place in the first half of 2003, the French Strategic Orientation Act on energy passed in June 2005 established the decision to build an EPR demonstrator reactor, to pave the way for the replacement of currently operating power plants. A number of signs thus lead us to believe that a worldwide revival of nuclear energy is taking place.Nevertheless, the future of nuclear energy in our country, as in many others, will lar- gely depend on its capacity to properly address the following two concerns: - The first concern has to do with its social acceptability, for it is crucial that nuclear energy be deployed under optimum safety and security conditions, generating a minimum amount of ultimate waste, and the latter be fully controlled with regard to its possible impact on health and the environment.The shock caused by Fukushima accident can but enhance this safety requirement as an absolute priority.
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