Undergraduate Physical Education Programs: Issues and Approaches. INSTITUTION American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Reston; VA

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 220 457 SP 020 844

AUTHOR Lawson, Hal A., Ed.

. TITLE Undergraduate Physical Education Programs: Issues and Approaches. INSTITUTION American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Reston; VA. National Assotiation for Sport and Physical Education. PUB DATE 81 NOTE 102p.; Based on the proceedings af the National Professional Preparation Conferente in Physical Education, 7_Progress through Diversity" (Chicago, IL, November 5-8, 1980). AVAILALE FROMAAHPERD Publications, P. 0. Box_704, 44 Industrial Park Cr., Waldorf, MD 20601 (Stock Number: 245-26906, $11.95).

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *Academic Standards; *Accreditation (Institutions); Competency Based Teacher Education; Educatienal Trends; nitures (of Society); Interdisciplinary Approach; *Physical Education; *Physical Education Teachers; *Preservice Teacher Education; *Teacher Education Programsp Undergraduate Students ABSTRACT Papers;presented at the Natioaal Professional Preparation Conference in Physical Education were revised And expanded for Publication in thi-s.monograph. In part I, two papers, "Professional Preparation Conferences: One More Time" (W. Gi Anderson) and "Current Context and Future Curriculum" (M. J. Ellis), set the stage for a.presentation of alternatives. Both papers raise questions which are helpful in assessing the approaches to the education of physical education teachers presented in the papers in part II:(1) "Competency-Based Teacher Preparation in Physical Education at Washington State University" (M. L. Enberg, W. Harrington, and L. V. Cady); (2) "The Preparation of Physical Education Teachers: A Sub3ect-Matter-Centered Model" (L. F.,Lpcke, C. L. Mand, and D. Siedentop); (3)"A Disciplinary Model for -a Curriculum in Kinesiological Sciences" (B. F. Husman, D. H. Clarke, and-D. LKelley); and C4) "Undergraduate Physical Education: A. Crosi-Disciplinary Model" (W. R. MOrford, H. A. Lawson, and R.S. Hutton). Papers in parts III, IV, and V, which deal with the topics of program accreditation, analysis and synthesis, and viewpoints toward the future, include: (1) "Accreditation: Is the Horse Already. Out of the Barn?" (P.S. Brassie); (2) Professional Preparation': Quality and Diversity" (L. L. Bain);(3) "Textures" (W. Harper); (4) "Issues-as Reflections" (M. E. Kneer); and (5) "Undergraduate Preparation: Marching to Different Drummers" (A. A. Annarino). (JD)

*********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that tan be madt from the original document. *********************************************************************** UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS: [sags AND APPROACHES

Hal A..Lawson, Editor College and University Physical Education Council

Sponsored by the "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS National Association for Sport and MATERIAL INMICROFICHE ONLY PhYSiódf Educalibn -HAS-BEEN GRANTED BY t-.CoolDer°

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) This document has been reproduced as f rom the person or organization j14r eived riginatmg it. . Minor changes have been made to improve i . reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocuii ment do not necessarily representofficial NIE position or policy, Copyright 0 1981 Published by the .American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 1900 Association Drive,Reston, Virginia 22091 Stock Number: 245-26906 Foreword The National Association for Sport ancl Physical sional- preparation. The well-conceivedapproaches Education's publication, Undergraduate PhysicalEduca- will be of interest not only to physicaleducators and tion Palgrams: Issues and ApproacheS is based on the department administrators but to graduatestudents proceedings of the National ProfessionalPreparation alike. Conference in Physical Education, "Progress Thro ugh The NASPE College and University PhysicalEduca- Diversity", held November 5-8, 1980 in Chicago,.II- tion Council wishes toexpress its gratitude to the linois. Consistent i:Vith the philosophy of providing authors, conference presenters, andcon fere,...nce partic- quality leadership to physical', education professional ipants whose quest for exemplaryprograms is never- preparation programs, NASPE's College and Univer- ending. sity Physical Education Council has madea significant contribution to the profession by examining fourdif- Roswell D. Merrick ferent (proposed) program models in phySical(id uca: Executive Director(NASPE) tion. . The American Alliance, The papers prese-nted providean excellent overview for Health, Physical Education of contemporary trends and timely issuesin profes- - Recreation and Dance / Table of Contents-

Preface. vii

PART I: Issues and Challenges in Undergraduate Education Professional Preparation Conferences: One More Time William G. Anderson 3.. Current Context and Future Curriculum M. J. Ellis 9 PART II:, FourModel Approachei to Undergraduate Education CompeCency-Based Teacher Preparation in Physical Education at Washington State University Mary Lou Enberg, Wilma Harrington, Lillian V. Cady 19 The Preparation of Physical Education Teachers: A.Subject-Matter-Centered Model 4.) Lawrence F, Locke, CharlesL.Mand, Daryl Siedentop 33 A Disciplinary Model for a.Curriculum in Kinesiological Sciences Burris F. Husman, David H.,Cfarke, David L: Kelley 55 Undergraduate Physical Education: A Cross-Disciplinary Model W. Robert Morford, Hal A. Lawson, Robert S. Hutton 63

PART HI: Accreditation crf Programs? Accreditation: Is the Horse Already Out of the Barn? P. Stanky Brassie 75

PART IV: Analysis and Synthesis Professional Preparation: Quality and Diversity Linda L. Bain 81 Textures 87

PART V: Responses with a View to the Future. Issues as Reflections Marian E. Kneer 97 Undergraduate Preparation: Marching to Different Drummers An thom/ A. Annarino 99

t, Preface

Every profession seeks consensus among its mem- counter-balanCed by the pulls attributable _to institu- bers. Consensus is the target on fundamental issues tihnal uniqueness and to members who wish to adopt such asthe centralmission(s) of the group, the amount a new platform. En short, the question regarding the and kind bf professional education, 5nd-t1e standards amount and kind of professional education in physical which define good work. Without such consensus, education occbpies center stage in the internal con.- there is little basis for defining and uniting the profes- tests of this profession. sion. With consensus, the profession is provided with If there are indeed differences in What members a platform which guides the thoughts and actions of view as the most appropriate amount and kind of members and helps to create a favorable impression in professional education in physical education, and if the minds of outsiders. The achievement of consensus professional education provides a logical springboard is; thus, a vital element in the professionalikation of fromyhich to launch into questions surrounding mis- physical educators. On the other hand, the platform of sions and standards of good wbrk:then it follows that a profession, around which consensus is framed, can there ought to be a forum for the identification and be expected to change over the decades. With this discussion of issues and approaches. Such a forum platform, research on the professions has revealed should not be viewed as a temporary measure. To thee that the process of consensus-seeking is continuous contrary, it has been suggested here that there is good (Bucher and Strauss, 1961). In fact, this process takes reason to argue for sustained efforts in the ,area of the form of a contest among groups of members in the profe'ssional education. The forum so provided rnust profession. These groups are formed on the basis of give ample recognition to this fact and onether. This differing views on fundamental issues stich as those latter fact is that profe.I.sions have as one their lif- of missiori,=appropriate-education, and standards of" Jines, rational discourse via the writtennd spoken good work. Each has its own platform, and each en- word. When the target is a balance betweekconsensus dea vnrs to persuade the majority of the members in and adaptability, an understanding of the alternatives the' professionthat its own platform serves best the recedes informed decision-making. needs of thA professión and satiety. As long as this In an effort to provide a.Suitable forum within which contest does not cause the profession to disintegrate, it professional education could be -discussed and the al- must be Viewed as a healthy sign. After all, the compe- ternatives better understood, tWo related measures ,ting views of these groups are among the internal were planned. Tbe 'one .called for a conference, the checks and balances which make the profession re- other for a publication of the fruits of the conference sponsive to change. and more. There is, then, a balance which must be reached in a The conference was held in Chicago, Illinois from profession like physical education between the need November 5-8, 1980. It included a different, although for consensus.and the need for adaptability. While this appropriate, format. Study papers, which were pre- balance applies to all of the- operation of this profes- pared around four model approaches, to under- sion, the difficulty in maintaining it can be witnessed graduate 'education, were distributed to conferees to while the focus is on just one of them, professional allow informed discussion during the conference in education. lieu of the more usual pattern of merely listening to: Professional education is the major point of entry lectures. In this fashion, confereeswere able to ad- into the ranks of phySicat education. Enibrated-Within- dress in detail issues which ranged from assumptions, it, by definition, are the field'S missions, its body of to theoretical or empirical support, to issues surround- skills and knowledge,-and an implicit set of standards ing implementation and institutional change. Authors regarding good work. The task of striking the of the four papers were asked to frame their discussion aforementioned balance in professional education is around a common list of questionS. These questions, no mean task, and it becomes increasingly difficult which were developed by W. R. Morford and myself, when the diversity which characterizes North Ameri- appear on the following page. They give clues to some can institutions of higher education is considered. of the important issues surrounding professional edu- ugs toward consensus attributable to members of the cation and will help the reader to better understand profession and its association, AAHPERD, are the four model approaches.

vii Format for Convention Papers

.1,` Introduction e.g., disciplinary, professional, performance, A. What is your definition of the, field currently field experiences; and entry-exit requireMents, called Physical Education? (If you pick discuss the relative weighings which are as- another title, or set of dupplementary titles, signed to each in the program. That is, what is the :introduce them and define them accord- relationship of the components in your profes- ingly.) sional preparation to.the whole? How are they B.Are there any special assumptionc which sequenced? Why are they so sequenced? What must be identified so that readers may under- problems are associated with implementation? stand your model of professional prepara- Provide a di'agram of content and structure if tion, e.g., questions of the 'nature and scope possible, in addition to your discussion of these ,Of our professional ''inission, institution- questions. specific faCtors, etc.? V. What is the relationship of your program to other ft: What specialized body of knowledge and/or skills profeSsiOnal fields, e.g., health, recreation, et. are imparted to students in the professional al., and to other departMents, e.g., education, preparation program? history, business? Are there problems of overlap? A. Is there a disciplinary component, i.e., where VI. Flow have:you evaluated this program? By job knowledge and-Pr skills are disseminated placement? Bs empirical investigations of stu- without an eye toward application? dent's characteristics? By feedback received from If so employers and graduates? What research is 1. What is the label- for the discipline and needed? what is its focus? VII. What.do you perceive to be the implications of 2. What is (are) its method(s) of inquiry? your approach to professional preparation fdr the -3. What are the different orientations (or problems and prospects of the field? paradigms) which are involved in such a After the conference, authors of the four model ap- study? proaches were asked to revise where necessary, their 4. What body of knowledge resuRs? papers with an eye toward communicating to a much B.Is there a profesSional component, i.e., where wider ,audience. 'pis publication is directed toward applied knowledge and/or skills are dissemi- this latter end, and it is offered to the profession as a : nated with an eye toward a professional mis- means of helping us to understand one another better, sion? while we try to strike a balance between consensus If so and adaptability. I. What career or vocational streams are in- The initial papers by Anderson and Ellis set the cluded? stage for a presentation of alternatives. Anderson 2.Is the orientation theoretical-or technical? - traces our history in fhe area of professional prepara- 3,Is there a- provision for field experience? If tion to the .present and makes it clear that.diversity and so, explain its role in the professional dissension are newcomers to the formal conferences preparation program. and publications on profesional education. Ellis sig- C. What is (are) the role(s) of movement perfor- nals major challenges facing higher education and mance in your professional preparation pfo- places faith in scientific inquiry as one means for ad- grams? dressing these challenges. Both papers raise questions I.Is performance skill in an activity seen as a "which are helpful in assessing the four model ap- nocessary p:rerequisite to teaching the proaches preSented in the following pages. same skill? If not, what is the purpose of Enberg, Harrington, and Cady present one suclit performance? model, an example of a competency-based approach 2.Is performance seen as an end in itself, or a to teacher education. Since the competency-based ap- means to other ends, or both? Explain. proach was the only approach presented at the profes- 3. What emphasis, if any, is accorded the sional preparation conference of 1973, this provided a analysis of performance? necessary and valuable link with the past. 4.Is perfoimance viewed as the subject mat- Sieden top, Locke, and Mand also provide a model ter of physical education? Part of the sub- for teacher education, one which they have called a ject matter? What? subject-centered approach. They proceed beyond the III.Are there entry and!or exit requirements (com- call of duty in their 'paper by presenting an invaluable petencies) for students? How wiRdoes your pro- list of problems and concerns associated with all gram accommodate students who transfer from teacher education programs. community colleges? Explain, Husman, Kelley, and Clarke present one of the IV. Now that the components in your program of newer models for the field. This is a model of under- professional preparation have been identified, graduate education .which is non-professional in na-

404 viii 4 ture. Refleeted iithis paper and the one vhich follOws Harper and Blain respond much more generically to ar/ it are recent developments in the field with regard to of the previous papers. They have done their best to do disciplinary inquiry and non-professional degree pro- some hlending and raise 'pertinent issues. Their task grams. Since there are a ntipnber of such programs was the most difficult of all, and it would seem that we springing up across North America, and since they are owe them a debt for their exceptional efforts. The \vOrk spaned in what were once departments of physical of Harper and Bain is supplemented by reactions with education, there would seem to be little question a's to a sample of colleagues to the conference proper, with whether faculty who have developed these programs' an eye toward the future of the field. Their reactions remain our colle.gues. What they are asking us to do is constitute good reading because they both signal to adapt our definition of the field and its missions. common ground and identify the concerns to be raised They are suggesting that we consider the generation next in an appropriate forum. and dissemination of knOwledge about sport and Acknowledgement for the conference and the pub- physical activity in undergraduate education' apart licatiort.rn ust include Roswell D. Merrick, the mem- from teacher education. The .q uestion which theV raise bers of the College and University Physical Education__ implicitly is whether the profession is now ready to Council of NASPE from 1978-80, my colleagues on the accept the label undergraduate or gradimto education as a original planning committee (Linda Bain, Claire substitute for "professional preparation". Teufel, and Kate Barrett), and the thirty colleagues Morford, Lawson, and Hutton present a cross- across the United States who took the time to suggest disciplinary model w.hich includes the potential for a exemplary approaches and names of presO'ntors. Last, variety of career streams, including teacher education, and far from_ least, Dr. Tom Loughrey accepted the as well zts n6n-profesSional degrec, Options. Like weighty responsibility as convention manager, a job Husman, Kelle`y, and Clarke, these authors introduce which he performed effectively and enthusiastically. the need for terms other than physical education to 'To all of these people and more, all of us in the profes- describe important facets of their work and model's. sion owe a debt which we can repay by addressing the The reader should' feel compelled to ask after read- major issues which they worked so hard to raise for us. ing the first six papers whether common ground in the

name of consensus can be reached, and ftirther, 40* H.A.L. whether any or all of the models altat the .profession December 15, 1980 to adapt to meet the challenges which confront it. The Vancouver, B.C., Canada next three papers focus on these very concerns. Bras- sie takes on the thorny problem of accreditation and shows how ou'r diversity clouds efforts toward qualitY Reference control through the accreditation process. Consensus, Bucher, R.; and Strauss, A. "Professions in process." Ameri- he emphasizes, is a prerequisite to acicredita Hon. can Journal of Sociology 66. 325-334.

ix Sr; Issues and Challenges in Undergraduate Education .00

, Professional Preparation Conferences: One More Time

William G. Anderson Teachers College, Columbia University

Introduction new future. For the sake of brevity historical refer- ences have been limited to the 1962 Professional Prep- The 1980 conference is one in a distinguished series aration Conference and the 1973 New Orleans Conf,er- of .national professiorial preparation conferencesin, ence. physical education, most notably the Jackson's Mill Conference of 1948, ' the 1950 Graduate Study Confer- ence in Pere Marquette,2 the 1962 Professional Prepa- Conference Participants ration Conference,3 the elementary school specialist conference in 1972,4 and the New Orleans Conference The 1962 Professional Preparation Conference "of 1973.5 In some ways this conference follows was a in the joint conferenCe with representative groups in Health tradition of its predecessors. In a number of othervery and Safety Education, Physical Education, and Recre- important ways, however, it departs from tradition. In ation Education. Even though each group workedon fact, it may be different enough to constitute thestart m its own distinct program standards and the majorpro- of a new.tradition, or it mayeven be the professional tion Of the conference was devoted fb group meetings, preparation conference that .ends all professional nevertheless, there were joint planning committees, preparation conferences. It is, therefore, appropriate joint meetings, and even joint statements of philoso- to eXamine sonie of the substantive, and procedural phy, objectives, and strategies that represented characteristics of the 1980 5onfeTence in relation com- to monalities across,these allied fields. Health educators, characteristics of past conferences. Hopefully, this physical educators, and recreation specialists actually exercise will provide some historical perspective for agreed on such things as the percentage of the under- our deliberations and will provide a useful way of graduate program that should be devoted to general thinking about what we may be dealing with in the , education, and that the basic professional preparation ,program in all fields should be five years. IS In 1973, the conference was once againa joint opera- tion, but by this time the grOups had proliferated. . The National Conference on .Undergraduate Profes- sional Preparation ih Health Education, Physical Education, and There were now separate divisions of dance, and Recreation.Held at Jackson's Mill, West Virginia in 1948. safety edUcatiOn, in addition to the health educators, phygrcal educators, and recreation specialists. Of Chicago: The Athletic Institute, 1948. = 2 Graduate Study in Health Education, Physical course, at this point in time the aSsociation of profes- Education and Recreation.A Reportofthe National Confer- sional gioups was moving toward a more loosely knit ence on Graduate Study in Health Education, Physical Edu- Alliance, and the conference reflected this movement. Cation and Recreation held at Pere Marquette State Park, Joint meetings, committees, and statements of posi- Illinois in 1950. Chicago: The Athletic Institute, 1950. tion were more limited. It seemed apparent that the 3 Professional Preparation in, Health Education, main reason for holding the conference for all the PhysicalEdiwationmid Recreation Education, Report of a National groups at one time and in one place was logistical Conference,Washington, DC: American Alliance for efficiency. And yet, the effort to retain Health, Physical Education and Recreafion, 1962. some 4 semblance of unity persisted. The theme of the confer- Preparing the Elementary Specialist.Proceedings of the National Conference at LakeOzark, Missouri in 1972. ence, interestingly enough, was "Unity Through Di- Washington, DC: American Allianee for Health; Physical versity". \ Education and Recreation, 1973. In 1980, theonference brought together a single Professional Preparation in Dance, Physical Educa-group of physical educators, unencumbered by these tion, Recreation Education, Safety Education, and School Health allied' fields, free to focus exclusivelyon more nar- Education.A Report of the National Conference held in New rowly circumscribed concerns, andIna favotable posi- Orleans in 1973. Washington, DC: American Alliancefor tion, therefore, to make genuine progress through Heakth, Physical Education and Recreation, 1974. unity, or so it might seem to an outsider. 1 3 0 - But is today's group of physical educators, really less justly represent the best interests of undergraduate diverse than .the ones that gathered at those earlier students be they prospective teachers, aspiring exer- joint conferences? There is no small amount of irony in cise scientists, future sports administrators, or liberal the fact that this apparently singular group had in 1980 arts majors. There iS also the possibility of losing sight as its conference theme "progttss through diversity". of the on-the-job requirements that face students as Meanwhile, there may be sopething distinctly in- they enter the professional world, requirements that 9pportune about the fact that conferences do not now, can best be represented by practicingprofessionAs. In and. may 9ever again ,in the future, bring, together addition, it may be difficult for professors to accurately dance educator's, itcrepors-,- physical educators, and account for the employers' needs, i.e., the people who health educators. This development arises- at a tiwte will be hieing the students. Indeed, it does seem possi- when school physical education prpgrams are finally ble, however unwittingly, that professors create pro- developing serious fitness kograms closely tied to' fessiona l'preparation programs which, first and relatec,1 health concepts, expanding the sctipe of their .foremost,,representtheirA (1.::r best interests, i.e., pi-6- activities.to include a much M6resubstantial emphasis- ,grams-whi-I reflect the tale*s, research interests, lim- . o'n what were previousl y. thought. to. b,e recrv.atio;nal1L- itations, and iltihately-oursurvival needs, asprofes- activitis, .anci .extending the tmphasis on treative -'\-sionals. A casezin pant is that enormous list of corn- movement as 1 fundamental feature of.the elementary petencies tle+ied frOm the 1973 conferehce, a list sehool offering-. Brconveningat'separate,conietences, thaVsatisfic special interests of all the different a serious side-effect snurtured, namely the isolatitii47; speclplists gathered at the coiVerenceand, at the same of allied professionals from one another at the very:`-';.. tie a list.that would frighteAanyisensible person time when their commonsubkt matter is ,beginning rzicAwith having to meet the- requjrements o.f all the to flourish in school programs. Furthermore, the body c6mpetcncies Oie 'nigh talso point tsicertain aspects of knowledge in physical education is sci' much more of some of the.four program,ri-tddels which follow In generic-than it onee WaS in its applicability across pro; this book and ask: In whok best intexcst kvis this fessionat specializations (at. least two of the`ensuing program feature developed? The, point is, then, that Model approaches provide vNic-1 illustrations of this professors need to remain mindfill of:the ,fitct-that development). Yet, strangely enough, by convOningat there are other clienteles to servi-2,, and Ihat4m,Ost of separate conferences the walls are built between phys- these clienteles are not in attendance.at confe;ences on ical educators and other professionals who should be professional preparrion to represent the'rnselves: involved in both the utilization and.development of the body of knowledge. Another dimension of the concern for "who. partici- pate's" ill: these professional preparation conferences Conferencebbjectives; Goals; and relates to the coristituencies within physical education ' Outcomes represented by confetence,.plai)ners, presenters, and paiticib,ants. To a certai,n exteht, teacher educators 1 It is appropriate tO turn 'nOw to another set of vital .-have always .been the:ddmi:nant fgrce in all of the features of these Trofessional preparation confer- conferences. In' past Coll ferences, particularly in 1962, ences: objectives; goals; outcomes. The termobjectives attempts were made tinvolve representatives of refers tO the rriore immediate aims of the conference,,, other constituencies such E.is public school teachers, while goals refer to the longer range purposes, and prospective employers, state education department outcomes refer to whethei or not the objectives and officers-, j_'oaches, and so on. These efforts mA with goals were accomplished. only modest success as reflected in the rosters of past The overriding goals of the last two conferences steering committees, task forces, and conference par- were essentiallyJhe same, tdiMprove thestandards licipants; the overwhelming majority of those in- (and consequently the conduct) of profession-al prepa- , k olved were teacher educators. Thisconference, too, ration prograps in physical educzition. To achieve\ is dominated by teacher educators: 100% of the plan- these goal's, the more imMediate con ference (ejectives ning committee, most of the presenters, and virtually were to bring \together leaders within the profession, all of the parfticipants are ei.ther teacher educators or have them disckuss and reach agreement on stiindards, are engaged in the preparation of alliedprofessionals. put those standards in writing, and publish and dis- On one hand, this is as it should be. Persons In tribute a report that was to be used directly by physical higher education run the professional preparation education departments and others as a basis for up- programs and have the sustained commitment to,and grading what tl ey were dcing. Tor example, in -1962 expertise in, the business of professiOnal preparation. there were spe-ific guidelines for how department Why shouldn't these people be expected to coordinate chairmen were tf.) use the standards to evaluate their these conferences? On the other hand, there are some programs, and ir 1973 there was a clearly stated intent.. liabilities attached to this relatively exclusive reliance that the listed co npetencies should be used by state on teacher educators' (or, Wyou will,''preparers of education departi lents to review and revise tlwir cer- professionals"). It is possible that this gtoup might not tification requiret enfs.

I-t 4 in both conferences the "profession" referred to was axe still others who are not even concernedwith pro- "teaching physical education in schools". It is true that fessional preparation, but with a new form of liberal some peripheral attention was given to standards for arts program. coaches and athletic tMiners,...but aside from these brief With this sort of built-in flexibility it is not easN; to digressions, they were concerned with the profession envision what the ultimate goal of this conference and of teaching school. By implication, therefore, the ulti- its'attendant publication might be. For some, it will be mate goal of these conferences was to improve the to have a favorable impact on the practice of physical

practice of physical education in the schools, although education in schools (as was the case in previous con- .1 curiously enough, this ultimate goal k vas left unstated. ferences), Others are apparently interested in improv- In retrospect, these goals, objectives, and proce- ing the preparation of a variety of professionals, e.g., dures seem quite logical. They certainly reSemble teachers, sports managers, exercise therapists, and so time-honored paths to improvegient used by other on. Others are 'clearly interested in improving the distinguished pro fe'ssiOns throughout the world. structure and utility of a discipline called Kinisiology, And what about the outcomes? Well, the immediate or Sports Studies, or Human Movement. objectives were apparently achieved. Uaders were At this point it seems reasonable to ask: Why have involved,'Thgreements (of a sort) were reached, and the time-honored goals, objectives, and procedures of standa`rds were promulgated. As for the longer range physical education been forsaken? Why was this con- goals, iVs probably safe to Suggest that the standards ference so different from past con ferences?At the risk did haye substantial influence\ on the destgn of profes- of oversimplification, it is suggested that the overrid- sional preparation programs,\g. .e., many institutions ihg reason for change is that the real world of profes- changed their programs tp brin them more closely in sional.pri2paration programs in physical education has line with the standards. WI-i.ther these design changed and-a responsible professional preparation changes resulted in program improtlements is more dif- conference must reflectIlOse changes. College.physi- ficult to assess. At the k Try least, hOweyer, itcan be cal education departments in this 'Country and qated that programs were changed .in a direction elsewhere are traMing people for alternate careers,. judged to be desirable on the basis of professional and the modes of training differ substantially both consensus. , i. within and across career specializations. As the reader .. As for the ultimate gozil of improving the conduct of should well know, many of these departments have elementary and secondary school physical education changed their names to suit their new mission. hi the programs, it would appear that the impact was very face of this diversity in the real world, how could a modest: After all, there is an extraordinary array of _conference possibly b.e held with the expectation of powerful factors influencing school programs,'anda reaching consensus on a uniform setpf standards or a substantial number of variables that stand between the single program model? . design of professional pr4a'ration programs and the Next, iris appropriate to ask a related question: on-the-job behavior of teachers in schools. A profes- What are the possible outcomes of a conference in sional preparation conference is not likely to havea 1980, in view of the diversity in the field? A few conjec- marked effect on what goes on in the gym unless it tures are in order. makes a very'special effort to do so. First, the immediate objective will certainly be The immediate objective of this publication and the achieved. Readers will encounter alternative ap- I980 con ference was to present'and discuss alternative proaches to professional preparation, and .will have appronclws to professional preparation in physical edu- the-chance to dissect them, challenge them, and hope- cation so that readers win be better informed profes- fully better understand them. In fact, readers should sionals, i.e., their perspective of what's going on in the come apay from this experience as better informed field will be broadened. The longer range goal is im- professionals. The same can b.e said for the thousands- plied in the conference theme "Progress Through Di- of other professionals around the world who will care- versity", which suggests that they hope to improve fully study the conference report. In- itself, this can be professional preparation,. So, as in past conferences, viewed as a very worthwhile outcome..All who come improvement is sought..But this time, inslead of striv- in contact with the materials win have been educated. ing for agreement and issuing uniform standards, al- Furthermore, they will have a dearer sense of the ternativesampre,sted. Furthermore, this time there options available to us as we develop professional IA?is amore open-e d conception of the profession, or preparation programs in the future. professions for which students are being prepared. But vc;hat about our longer range goal, "progress"? While some persons continue to .think in terms of Will progress occur? Well, if one thinks of "progress".as preparing people to teach physical education in not having a positive valence, but merely denotinr a schools, othersj-ia ve a much broader no-tion of the movement on to the next stage, then it is this author's professions encompassed by "physical education". judgment that the conference and the publication will indeed, there are some who prefer to abandon the definitely yield progress by accelerating the already term physical education in favor of a more accurate established mmiemeht in the direction of diversity. description of the professions represented here; there Put simply, there will be witnessed progp'ss toward

1 1) 4 greater diversity within physical education. Why will arts and sciences that have become too narrowly frag- these twin efforts produce greater diversity?,They are mented to wield .any influence in the Teal world. going to make people more aware of the options avail- On the other hand, there are manyr5rsons in phys- able to them,, and given no professiona,l consensus ical education who regard this increasing diversity as regarding which option to pursue, some will follow both a natural and healthy developmental stage. They one option, others will take up other alternatives: view the incorporation of more professional spe-.. Moreover, many will follo IX. the path of intelligent eclec- cializations within 'our sphere as a way of enhancing ticism, choosing the best features from the variouS the quality of preparation in already existing profes- alternatives and putting them together to form a' sions and of creating appropriately specialiZed train- unique program that suits the needs of their clienteles ing programs where none 'existed before. Besides, and their institutional resources. And tliien there will they point out, the need for school teachers in general be the 'devious eclectics .vvilb choose the wrOng program and for physical education teachers in particular has feattires for the wrong reasons. All in all, this a,dds up fallen to zero and below. (In some states the number of to the potential for abundant d iversity.. (An alteisiative teachers released or excessed surpasses the number of hypothesis is- that one.of these models or proposals new job Openings.) Under this sort of market condi- will be viewed as so supeFior to the dthers and its tion they suggest that professors in teacher edacation proponents will be so persuasi,ve in their discussions bett6r darn well train people for alternate careers or that eyerYone in physical education will rally to its searclfor alternate careers themselves. support and completely abandon those blatantly in- Then. \are those who view the growth in the body.of ,knowle4 in human movement, including. the sev- 'ferior alternatives. Frankly, in the author's eyes, this is - , not a very plausible hypothesis.) .eral neW Sätdivisions# of knowledge that are. emerg- Now, if the reader accepts this controversial predic- ing, as adding'peeded depth and brea-cithid-the1317" tion about progress toward greater diversity, then the ration of physical education teachers, and at thee same next relevant question is: Will greater diversity yield time serving the needs of other allied professional improvement? preparations programs; understandably, there ore .For sure, there are those who Mil answer with a others who argue that this growth in the body of resounding "NO!" They foresee irripending disaster in knowledge is self-justifying and parallels"the de- this inexorable drift toward diyersity. They see exces- velopment of other disciplines and fields of profes- sive fragmentatidn, increasingly narrow specializa- sional knowledge. tion, disunity and distrust, con fuSion, powerlessness, In addition, there are those who see great virtue in and eve'ntually extinction. providing an array of alternate training models, mod- They may be.right. The next round of professional els that are perhaps competency basedor humanistic, preparation chnferences may be held separately 'and or problem-centered; or modularized, or indi- titled: Professional Preparation in Movement Sci- vidualized, or field-based, or behavioristic, or cdm- ences; Professional Preparation 'in Movement Arts; puterized, or accountability-based, or some combina- Professional Preparation in Sports Studies; Profes- tion of the above. These models provide the raw mate- sional Preparation in-Teaching Physical Education; rial for making intelligent decisiOns in designing prep- Movement Studies in the Liberal Arts Curriculum. Of aration programs. Further, they argue, alternate mocIT course', within each of these conferences there will be, els focus attention on a long-neglected dimension of sub-groups which eventually blossom into new, au- professional education, .the methods ofdeliveni, instead tonomous areas of specialization, which in subsequent of permitting professors to .persist with an exclusive years hold their own separate conferences. Imagine, -concerntfor the,subject matter of professional prepara- for the sake.of example, a conference in 1995 on "Pro- tion. in 'fact, authors of one of the models presented in fessional Preparation in Therapeutic Movement. for this book .argue very convincingly for making the Handicapped Spo'rts Managers of Aquatic Facilities!" mode of delivery our principal concern in designing This conference will be sponsored by the appropriate professional preparation programs... sub-division of our ,national organization, now re- So, there are professionals Who regard this move- ferred to as the A.A.H.P.E.R.D.C.S.K.T.F.N.O.L. rnent toward increased diversity wi-th considerable Thirteen people will attend the conference represent= foreboding and-other .who greet it with enthusiastic ing. the three existing professional preparation pro- approbation. Where do you stand with respect to this grams which have a total enrollment of 11" students issue? who are destined to coMpete for the two jobs available Before reading all of the papers in this book, it- is' in this specialization world-ride. The conference will suggested that the ,reader engage in self-examination split on the issue of whether Or not "therapeutic on the issue.of diversity. Feelings uncovered in the moverrient for handicapped sports managers" is a dis- .prdcess will influence your perception of the forthcom- :cipline or a pro fession. The conference reportand the ing Models as well as your reactions-to them, .specializatiomitself will bp totally disregarded by the' If the reader yearns fOr unity in this profession, powers that be and by society at large, will simply fade, ikepare to be disappointed: there are some deeP and away as will the hundreds Of other diverse movement pervasive differences to be found. Th-ey are apparent

AL t.1 in the program proposals whiCh reflect not only differ- While the two sets of recommendations had much in 'ences in format and substance, but differences in the 'common, there had been considerable change be- way people view the world. Further, it is suggested tween 1962 and 1973. Some of the changes were that the reader resist the temptation to try to create a semantic. A sizeable number were legitimate altera- false, vision of unity by pretending that all these di- tions in substance. For example, several new areas verse points of viewcan be neatly fit together in some appeared within the science foundations, including grand design. Instead, it is better to assume a lack of perceptual-motor learning, sport psychology, and unity within the Profession', and seek unity within sport sociology. What was once the history of physical yourself through intelligent eclecticism, i.e., pick and education as a profession and a school subject, had choose what makes most sense to you and ascertain- become the history of "play, games, dance, and sport". ing that what you do choose fits together. The profes- Where once there was a specification of each sport sion can tolerate extensive diversity, but you, as indi- area, the second conference made only generic refer- viduals, will need personal integrity and cohesiveness ences to "motor activities" or "motor patterns1". in your views if you expect to effectively carry on. "Growth and Development" had emerged as a mailor component of the program. There was, of course, te dramatic shift from courSes to competencies with allf Substance of the Proposed Programs the attendant change's that accompany that kind of Certainly the most important Characteristic of a pro- shift. The enumeration of teaching and program de- fessional preparation conference of this sort-i the sub- velopinent skills (in 1973) reflected the increasing at- stance of the preparation programs (or standards) that tention being given to _pedagogical skills and the are proposed. Here, the reference is to the recom- knowledge base which underlies them; as a conse- mendations for precisely what...people should study or quence the nature of the field-based experience was experience in their professional training and'how their much more explicit. In general, the differences be- professional training experiences should be arranged. tween the program recommendations of the 1962 and These substantive recommendations, if followed, dic- 1973 conferences signalled a discernible shift in em- tate how thousands of people spend millions ofshours phasis from developing the technical skills and knowl- during their collegiate years and, quite literally, shape ,edge required to teach sports and games, and produce the kinclof professionals they becorhe. , physical fitness,to studying the ever-broadening En the 1962 conference ;eport, the areas of study to body of knowledge in Nyman movement and applying be inCluded in the programs were listed in a form that knowledge in an instructional setting. roughly equivalent to courses that might be taken. The Now, at the 1980 conference and in this publication, _listings were grouped under "general education", four separate program proPOsals, each with its own "general professional education", and "specialized very distinct substantive features, are presented. The professional education". The latter group contained principal business at hand is to present, examine, and some familiar entrieS: introduction and orientation to discuss these substantive features. A preliminary the profession; administration and supervision; cur- analysis of the substance of the proposals is inappro- riculum.and instruction; history, philosophy, and prin- priate at this time. It is suggested, however, that as ciples; measurement and evaluation; personal acquisi- these substantive features are probed, give some at- tion orskills to be taught; skills for teaching and coach- tention to the manner in which authors relate to what ing; foundational sciences (which included kinesiol- has previously occurred. In this author's judgment, ogy and physiology of activity); adaPted physical edu- each proposal, in its own way, departs significantly cation; health and safety education; recreation. In ad- from the programs outlined in 1962 and 1973, and yet, dition, a two-page list of the specific sports, games, each one manages to conserve important substantive conditioning activities, and dance activities to be cov- features from the past. In this sense none of the propo- ered, was appended. Finally, special emphasis was sals preaches total revolution (although when com- given to carefully describing the nature of the profes- pared in particular to the 1962 recommendations, all of sional laboratory experiences (including but not lim- the current proposals represent a radical departure o ited to studeht teaching) which were intended to be a from an earlier tradition): Interestingly, the proposals dominant feature of the program. differ substantially from one another with respect to In 1973, the conference identified the program's the features they have chosen to retain and to discard. substance by describing ."competencies" to be No doubt much time can be spent debating which achieved using "performance-based" terminology. proposals reflect the "right" choices. The cornpetencies were grouped under broad areas: In closing, two suggestions are offered to readers, in socio-cultural; philosophical; historical; growth and the interest of enhancing the fruitfulness of the discus- development; physical and biological sciences; behav- sions and in the hope of maintaining a relatively con- ioral science; research foundations; personal perfor-. genial atmosphere in the profession, in what might o mance competencies; modes facilitate learning; cur- otherwise become a somewhat contentious encounter. riculum planning and organization; administration; Readers should recognize that ih most instances the Intramurals. proposed programs reflect the very deep commit-

7 I 4 ments of the authors. These authors have worked for- education devote much of our effort to becoming a years developing the kind of programs they are pres- viable part of the liberal arts curriculum? And what enting: at the very least, they avidly support the ideas reasonsare offered -for moving in one. direction or embedded in the proposal as a consequence of their another? The author contends that these questions own eXperiences. In a very real sense, these proposals relating toendsare the more important issues facing are .the expressions of the "selves" of those who pros- this conference and con frenting our field. Readers . ent theM. should feel free to explore these issues and not restrict It is suggested that the proposals differ not only in themselves to a more narrowly circumsCribed discus- terms of the means they proffer, but in terms of theends sion of means; so, don't be afraid to probe for.a clarifi- they seek. Readers face questions not only of which cation of the program's goals and the rationales sup-. course or field experience to include and how to pack- porting the goals. To be sure, the discussions which age that experience, but which, if any, professionals ensue from reading are not likely to proceed witho'ut shall be prepared. Shall physical educators continue to some serious controversy, nor do they hold the prom- concentrate primarily on preparing school teachers? If ise of prompt reSolution of the issues. Nevertheless, it so, what is the nature of the subject-they are expected is important that physical educators address these to teach . . . or shall physical educatoys continue to._ questions because they are the ones that will most embrace 'more career alternatives within our 'field? If decisively influence the future. so, which ones . . . or, should professors in higher

4

8 Current Context and Future Curriculum

M. J. Ellis University of Oregon

Introduction The complementarity of scholarly research and practice resides in their two functions. Physical educa- tion practice is involved in managing the activity of a The preparation of this presentation revealed, to my chagrin, that I am not a scholar of the curriculum: client and a setting so that the probability of desired Instead of concealing that or engaging in a massive outcomes is increased. This function clearly rests on an re-education process, I decided to integrate and ex- understanding of the network of relationships that press some ideas about the phy.sical education field exist between the manageable elements of the client's today that have implications for. the way the curricula activity and the setting. When these interrelationships is conducted. are understood, then the physical educator can ar- Caveat emptor. Some of the ideas are expressed range matters so that goals are reached. Clients are forcefully rather than tentatively. Deliberations will served by manipulating their activity and influential temper and refine these ideas given the nature of the features of the environment. complementary purposes, mine as a scene-setter and The more reliably the practitioner can move clients yours as a delegate. Because of this, forcefulness toward their goals, the more potent is their contribu- seems appropriate. tion and more highly valued will be their services. This reliability derives from understanding cause-effect re- lationships that exist between clients, activities, and settings. 55, practice, in the sense developed above, Pressures from the Two Meanings of requires a body of knowledge th'at empowers the prac- Physical Education titioner to reach the clients' objectives. It seems clear that much of what is known by anyone comes about Physical edu,:ation has come to acquire two mean- by consequences of unique .events. Some of those ings. The fifst implies the delivery of activity services eventS involve formal attempts to learn and some are to a client with developmental intent. This is merely a the results of the consequences of personal experi- restatement of an old and well-understood purpose: ences in specific settings. Both formal and informal HoweVer, it avoids a traditional association with knowledges are important. schools, and thus, permits the contemplation of a mul- Informal knowledge is often subjective, intuitive, or titude of settings where there ig a guide or leader, a non-communicable and accumulates from the conse- client, arid a developmental movement activity. quences of a practitioner's actions over time. These The second meaning is even looser and implies the unique learnings contribute to a practitioner's success body of knowledge, and the procedures that contrib- or, failure. We recognize this by providing hands-on uted to it, about the interaction of moving humans and experience in our curricula and delaying final ac- their environment: This aspect of physical education ceptance until after a period of successful practice. implies questions about the impact of human move- Nevertheless, despite its value, informal knowledge ment on some aspect of humariexperience, and formal suffers the major disadvantage of being essentially and informal attempts to answer those questions by an subjective. Knowledge can be subjectiVe and correct, individual. but there is the possibility that it is wrong and it is less These two aspects of the field are the .potentially amenable to automatic self-correction. This kind of complementary processes'of practice and scholarship. learning by experience,only increases a pracfitioner's Sinco Henry's proclamation that physical education reliability if it is systematized by questioning and ob- could be an academic discipline (1964), the field has servation, by rendering it scientific. Practitioners need been divided intotwo camps. Recently, the polemic to know how to turn their streams of experiences into has intensified (Lawson, 1978; Broekhoff, 1978; Locke verified generalizations. & Sieden top, 1980) and one purpose of this address is Formal knowledge is learned as the result,of a con- to terminatethe battle and to obtain a solution to this scious effort by teachers and/or learners. Experiences problem rather than to joust it. are'created with the expectation that the learner will

9 4. rb0 acquire truths and incorporate them into their method ically and objectively -question and refine what is of practice. Formal attempts to teach and learn must known about the interaction of moving humans and be based on more than idiosyncratic interpretations. their environment. The research can and should ask The skiff of the formal curriculum should have been infinitely varied questions concerning human move- successfully tested across many settings. rnent. /he methods must be those of science.' The deliberate generation of objective knowledge A dangerous trend has developed to constrain re- -about phenomena requires the processes of science, search to the exploration of questions immediately That does not preclude practitioners from being scien- relevant to current practice. There is less-tolerance of tific. The important feature about the asking and re- individuals who follow their noses. sponding that renders the process scholarly is the at- An obscure but significant document, Technology ini` tem'pt to create answers that are objective and Retrospect and Critical Events in Science (Falk, 1968) generalizable to a class of settings or events. prepared for the National Science Foundation argues When a generalizable answer is generated it be- vigorously for non-mission oriented research, the re- comes potentially useful to those who practice. The search cbnducted by someone playing with ideas and general statement of the relationship between features questions because they are there. Careful historical of a setting can be used by a practitioner to the advan- analysis of major technologies revealed the following tage of clients. Thus the bedrock of physical education important facts: practice is a body of objective knowledge about the 90% of key findings and scientific events necessary phenomena associated with physical activity and its for a technology were already known by the tirhe the effects. application was concehied; Each member of the field must have the.knowledge to support their practice, hut must also appreciate the the majority of the contributory findings occurred 'dynamic nature of knowing. Since the field of practice 20-30 years prior tO use; is emergent and the arenas in which services are deliv- 76.% of these critical findings were conducted in ered are many and changing, a practitioner must be universities; prepared in ways that reflect this dynamism; prac- the findings for any application or innovation oc- titioners must be prepared to change. To do this they curred across many disciplines and cross- must be able to generate knowledge and comprehend disciplinary communication was critically important new knowledge brought in to_the field by others using for the emergence of a technology. the formal processes of getting to know things These findings from the science of science point science. They must know how to learn. Faculty must dramatically, to the fact that innovations of the next now, more than ever, go beyond narrow technologies generation depend vitally on the non-mission tied to specific occupational niches and educate prac- oriented sesearch of today. We cannot predict which titioners so that they can define their own avenues to findings or events will prove critical. It is necessary to service. explore, play if you will, so that a body of ideas and To summarize, practitioners must be able to do findings await cross-disciplinary integration far in the things for clients. To do these they must know how to future; so, there must be carefully-planned efforts to learn the things they will need to know over a career hand-on the results of a plethora of exploratiOns .for that will be characterized by change. These assertions the future of health of physical education. A currently say much for\ the structuring of experiences for the bewildering body of knowledge is our bequest to fu-' entering as well as the continuing practitioner. ture practice. Next, the reader's attention is directed to the role of While planning the curriculum, reflect on the fact research. The Call for research has its roots in the belief that it must not squeeze out the non-mission'oriented that somewhere in the field there has fo be a rnecha- research by teachers and learners. Room must be nism for systematically questioning that which passes provided for both teaching and research. Further, for.knowledge and is transmitted through instruction. there must be provision for the preparation of future It is commonly believed that the closer this process is researchers in physical education, persons who are to the curriculum the simpler add befter itis, and ready to explore the unknown reaches of both the because of this members of the university' arc ex- curriculum and research to be prepared for the un- pected to engage in research besides acting as agents known ft', ture. of the curriculum. Now, before the reader's hackles rise, research is defined here as the activity whereby persons systemat- `Science in this context means disciplined enquiry in search of objective truth. It includes, to my mind, phenomenology. logic, historiography as welt as the more conVentional notions of Science 'Neophyte practitioneysrno,not always be prepared in universities. (physiology, anthropology, physics, kinesiology). The methods When other institutions engage in preparation I belieft it impor- vary operationally in each'of the areas, but they have in common tant that thcc agents of these other curricula also be expected to the press for objectivity. It is this essence that I mean to capture in engageln the agony of research. To excuse them of the responsibil- this sentence, and this footnote is added ,because several readers ity for questioning their tenets and the practices dependent on argued forcibly that most people- have a more restricted notion, them is to permit stasis. redolent of white coats, in.mind for the word "science='.

10 The university by tradition and by virtue of its spe- Clearly, those in practice should be capable of deliv- cial relation to the future must create new knowledge ering the goods. To that end, established programs of and new curricula. It iS enough to answer the question education exist which attempt to provide competence -Why did you ask that about human movement?" at entry int(P'areas of practice. These programs .are with the statement, "Because I _could". massive in one particular area of service, teaching. Thus, research and practice are intimately con- They are established in such areas as coaching, athletic nected, but different. Ideally, practice consumes or training, and exercise technology, and they are emerg- uses the output of scientific research in addition to the ing in a plethora of new fields of seryice in correctional fruits of experience. It uses the body of general theory and 24-hour institutions, community development, about a set of events to produce a specific outcome. activity business and retailing, risk management in the Science is conCerned with-going-beyond-the-specificity iitsuid-nce business, sport journaliSm, etc. The provi- of multiple observations in particitlar settings to sion of narrow technologies to deliver -high quality statements of relations between events that are gen- service in the short term only is myopic. Professional eral. Science is not involved with adding values into preparation must provide the necessary education to the statements. Its goal is understanding. recognize changing ,circumstances and modify prac- PractitidnerS 'are, however, concerned with value .tices over the long term. judgments: They are expected to produce outcomes History has shaped our thinking and program de- that are desirable. So practitioners selectively use sign in physical education to the extent that efforts are known connections between events to move toward concentrated on an extremely narrow range. The._ the goals of their client. To decide on a goal to be majority of effort is concentrated on developing reached requires valuing some outcomes over others. neophytes rather than on the continuing education of Ultimately those choices involve valu:ng outcomes, existing prac itioners, conducting the preparatory ex- and when that is done consistently and knowingly it periences inniversities rather than in a broad range implies following a philosophy. A practitioner ma9 of settings, firmly limiting those experiences to prepa- honor the philosophy of the client (Hey Coach! Can ration for teaching youngsters in schools, institutions, you help-me do . . .?), a guiding set of axioms set and universities rather than fOr a mUltiplicity of occu- down hy others -responsible for the client, e.g., a pational avenues for the delivery of activity services to statement of beliefs set down by a YMCA board, or in humans and animals, and placing very little emphasis the absence of clear axioms from such sources, im- on development al\cl enrichment of the body of com- poses a personal set of beliefs (I think it would be good municable theory.on which.good practice rests. for you if you did. . .). Thus scholars are value-free, objective, and responsible for simplifying the chaos of the intercOnnections in the world by creating general Pressures from Clients statements. On the advice of their experience, and guided by a set of values and beliefs, they alter out- Clearly, changes are a foot.. Clients seem to finally comes in specific settings in the service of particular have recognition of .PE as a process that extends over clients. their lifetimes. Many accept that they must continually prepare and maintain the state of being educated Pressures from Tradition about their changing body and itS dynamic constraints and potentials. Thus, physical education does not stop As an areal of practice, physical education involves but is an updating process in which individuals learn the organized transmittal of ideas from one to another how to deal with the impact of the biological and social until the recipient is enabled to become physically changes on their physical being. This involves all three educated:This enabling function is the central task of domains: motor; affective;' cognitive: It is. education declared physical educators who can practice wher, "of" and "through" the Physical throughout life. ever therc is someone requiring assistance in becom- Continued blindness to the fact that programs of ing physically educated. Clients are sending this mes- ,. preparation for service reach further than teaching the sage to physical educators. young in schools, but include a host of sew/ices in .a r.L7 This paints a new picture of the physical educator. It variety setting for peesbns somewhere between birth clearly includes face-to-face in addition tO a less re- and death, will end physical education as it currently mote impact, i.e., from the one,-on-one coaching or exists. Support for the field comes from myriad:deci- counselling setting to one in which the enabling effect sions to divert society§ 'surplus resources to ,people 'is transmitted via the media or indirectly via others delivering programs of activity services. DissatiSfied (Bryant, 1979; Considint, 1979). The picture stretches clients mean withdrawal of Support. Unless physical across ages, categories of clie-its, and settings in which educators learn to deliver prized services, exhortation clients are established anA activated. Our curricula is useless in the long run. must reflect these changes, and it iS the central task of Recently, collective action hasieffectively insulated the parent conference and this resultant publication to nearly all physical education teachers in schools and accelerate the process to accomodate new realities. many practitioners in university physical education

11 programs from any ongoing monitoring add correc- conservative and idealistic demands vying with a tion of performance once in practice. What is impor- press for a liberal experimentalistic structure. There tant for physical education as an area of practice is to are constraints here that have not been faced before,_ arrange for all of its areas of contribution to be respon- but there are also opportunities previously unavail- sive to the laws of the marketplace. There must be less able. dependence on decisions made based on conservative The constraints upon the actions of physical educa- views of 1: hat is right, the products Of adherence to a tors noted above present a choice between protec- static view, and recognize that, the client's views have tionism created by legislated constraints on Student merit. choice or encouraging a laissez-faire free market. Legis- Because of this, readers are urged-not to spend any lated protectionism may often be clothed in the tenets time debating the issues of whether physical educa- of essentialism. It argues for the status quo by pleading tion iS a profession. The clients could care less. They that there are constraints, eternal verities, triat must be want the service for which they have paid. The ques- communicated to our neophytes of any age.- frargues tion is irrelevant unless there issmaneuvering to create that it is merely convenient that the faculty engagell4n a monopoly over the delivery of services, as has been professional preparation is well versed in the eternal- done in accounting, teaching, medicine, law, plumb- verities of yesteryear. ing, etc. If the search for professionalism is motivated The opposition argues that there is a collective wis- by a desire to protect the.clients' interests, well and dom in the actions oftlients. They should choose from good; but, other restrictive professions have a poor among offerings as they:respond to their perceived record. The professions are replete with ineffective individual goals and circumstances. Thus individuals practirioners who are protected rather than elimi- have freedom to succeed and to fail. The benefits nated. Attempts to satisfy-the definitional criVria for a system-wide are presumed to outweigh the costs born profession ,are low on the author's priority list for by those who make poor,choices. physical educatipn these days. What is important is to In a democracy, as in nature, variability is a virtue. ensure that entering and continuing practitioners are The outcomse of variation in programming creates a subject to the evaluative decision-making by and on system which, under market pressures, pushes into the behalf of, their clients. the nooks and crannies of the unknown. An emergent field of practice, like a ,playful individual, receives .early warnings of onrushing change and may develop practices to deal with it. Pressure of Current Circumstance Homogenizing influences like dogma, au- thoritarianism, insensitive legislation, rigid standards, In the USA a major curriculum shift takes.about 7-10 accreditation systems, and even graduation require- years to work its way through a 'cycle.3 The :cycle ments, are dangerous. While they provide a skeletonic comprises: the original recognition of the lack of fit structure, their boney form is resistant to modification with circumstances; the garnering of support for by the exercise of judgment and the fine tuning of the change; the process of determining and choosing the market. desired change; the publication of the change to satisfy Oearly, adopting either the extreme/cOnservative legal constraints on relations with current and future position or the ultimately liberal position on this con- clients; implementation of a complete cycle (today tinuum is dangerous. For example, physical educators which is 4 years for a bachelors degree program but work with a basic biological system that is evolving may well be 5 before long); the evaluation of the effec- slowly, and one cannot argue that there are:no con- tiveness of the modified program. Now the dilemma is straints. Debates will rage over warm-up, transfer, clear. The existing curriculum -must be geared to a hyperplasia, and the role of exercise in mobility' five future that is alarmingly distant. To predict the cir- years from now. Even if there are startling changes in cumstances for 1990 should be worrisome to everyone. long-held scientific bases of the field, a long time will For example, could you, the reader; predict what this be spent determining how to alter practices to have year would be like back in the troubled years at the them considered. The important question concerns start of the 1970s? the relative rate at ,which change is occurring com- How can physical educators deal with the conflicting pared with The rate at which the field responds. demands of the eternal verities, a conservative posi- However, it is clear that it is not possible to confi- tion, with those of a rapidly changing set of circum- dently predict circumstances several years ahead. The stances and knowledges? The difficulties inherent in unknoigns of the middle-range future will demand resolving this conflict sustain the rest of this presenta- rapid-responses. Physical educators should be ready. tion. Identified for the reader are the problems in This will be a better-prepared field if strategies that planning for professional preparation where there are nature uses are adopted; then physical educators can prepare for rapid unknown changes that may present rrhebst major conference such as this that I am aware of waS. held at critical challenges. There is a need to explore, investi- New Orleans in 1972. gate, and Manipulate the settings in which physical

12 fi educators are located,here is a need to adopt a play- maintain, and operate both physical plants and pro- ful attitude to the ps st silities presented by the discon- grams. tinuities in the social fabric. Rather than scorning new Pessimism is hard to take Running through the ideas, they should be actively encouraged. If physical field are strong threads of optimism. As educators educators are not hnaginative enough to fail, and there is the obligation to lead people out from their thereby learn, then it may be concluded that the chal- present sta.te toward their potential. Things get better; lenges of-the future will prove too hard. The key then, what is known and done rests on making things better is to tread a precarious path between knee jerk op- for indiViduals. Physical educators are thoroughly Vic- timism and destructive pessimism. The two prevailing torian in their concept of emergence and progress. attitudes to the future, optimism and pessimism, must It is convenient to believe that'our technology will occupy our attention as we proceed beca tiVe they need somehow thwart the predictions of the pessimists. to be identified as influences on our thinking. (Law- There is some truth.to that. The challenge of capturing son, 1974) In -fact, the author would argue that physkal the sun's energy now rather than using the deposits of educators must be equally r:ttentive to the threads of the sunshine of the past have spawned a vast array of both attitudes in planning. technical possibilities. For example, catalytic hy- First there is the darker side. The field exists in a drolysis of water into the fuel mixture of hydrogen and society buffeted by political and economic turbulence oxygen is attractive; photovoltaism is possible. Re- that stems from world-wide storms. The beginnings of versed thermocline salt pools can capture massive a new industrial revolution are here. There are re- amounts of heat, and so on. For *optimists, the slide quirements for redesigning lifestyles to permit renew- 'to extinction is not begun, but the slipping and stum- able cycles rather than consumption. This will come bling through a period of adaptation to new circum- gradually and may take many generations, but clearly, stances is being witnessed today. challenges will surface again and again which require Nevertheless, even the optimists must be nervous an accomodation for the scarcity of onceplentiful re- about the immediate erosion of their personal share of sources. The responses- will vary between a mix of our finite resource. While all may turn out well in the learning to do without, substitution of other resources end, the learning phase during the next 20-30 years made possible by further application of technology, will be troubled and painful. and tailoring output to input. There is no question that Without doubt a period must be faced' in which the during this process there will be severe effects on the battle for the resources to lead people toward their lives and thoughts of eVeryone. potential in sport,. -dance,.-exercise, .a.nd play, wiltbe, Physical education drawS its sustenance as a .service intense. It takes seven years to seriously modify, to society funded from .taxed economic surpluses or plement, and assess a university curriculuni. The expenditure of discretionary monies by individuals. period,of upheaval wilHast for longer than the time it The pessimistic view is one that points to shrinking takes to redesign curricula. So there can be no hiding surpluses and discretionary income as more of the behind response latency. The time to respond-is-now. available economic energy diverted to realigning the What other challenges must be faced beyond the existing system to run with the narrower limits of a problems of expensive energy and resources? The first closed ecosystem. It is presumed there will be less is rapidly increasing atcumulations of regulations resources to fuel programs. .An example of this was governing student and faculty choice. These can be raised-by the ex-President of the University of Oregon seen in the curriculum, Title IX, affirmative action, and (Bill Boyd) when he recently publicly predicted the working contracts. Litigation besets the field on all end of varsity sports as we know it in 10-15 years. sides. While each starts with the ideEils of improving (Boyd,.1980) He predicated his statement not on a final existing affairs, the strategies in each case lay out thirst for 'reformation by a disgusted public, but on policies and procedures, actions rather than perfor- simple economics. He argued that there would not be mance criteria. Given the rigidity of decision-making the fuel to: jet hordes of athletes, officials, and bocl.s- structures the author fears that one such result will be ters hither and yon; to build, heat, and maintain an inability to respond adequately to changing circum- myriad vast sport arenas used a few times a year; to" stances. Failure is feared to the point where hands move thousands of tiny groups of people in autos, become tied and opportunities for success remain un- vans, and mobile homes to events; to energize the explored. . hype necessary .for continued addiction. His simple The next major challenge lies in the special problems Aka was that sport would become diseconomic and of an aging professoriate. None are,exempt. The pas- would change. sage of time robs all.persons of energy and jades appe- It is wise to 1:xtend that example to physical educa- tites. For example, as- a researcher the author was tion. This field is expensive at the mOment. Much of educated in the halcyon days of Analysis of Variance. the-imaginations of physical educatorsAre constrained Now he is ill-prepared for an era that now uses multi- by the past to a 'physical education taking place in ple regression analysis to dissect its problems with contrived si2ttings that depend on massive ecbnomic greater precision. Multiply that example many fold support from an affluent surplus economy to heat, throughout the professoriate, and it is a problem. Flow

13, (-1 1 can one CaptUre the declining energy of our aging deciding. Self-actualization is increasingly stemming professoriate and persuade theM to learn afresh, to from the mystical rather than rational, oriental rather risk, to change rather than enjoy the well-understood ;than occidental, from the gut rather than the mind. status quo? It is a complicated problem and it needs 'This runs counter to rationalistic-objective ways of to be Made an explicit problem of curriculum..reform. knowing that are the basis of physical education and The agents of the curriculum, the profeSsbriate, the!core of western universities. must at the same time be prepared. It can be acceptecj that things can bd known by A further reality:is that the interests of the areas individuals outside o science, i.e., personal knowl- formerly thought of as phy.sical education, health edu- edge. (Polanyi, 1958) Further, in physical education "cation, recreation and community development, and the disappointment elt by practitioners concerning others like music and dance, are moving back towards the progress made'science, can be accepted. We had each other. The movement is being slo;Ared because of high hopes, ,rrZ1 these are still largely unfulfilled. resistance to integration and presumed loss of iden- (Locke, 69; Campbell & Stanley, 1963) Problems in tity. In universities, where the majority of professional practice turned out to be far more complex than origi- preparation is taking place, departmentalized faculties nally thought. Maybe there is a need for a new science chafe under this and new non-departmental entities of personal knowledge; it is clear to the author that the are the bellwethers of reorganization, of the new con- processes of a science are the -basis for confidence cerns and the new content required by a changed when it comes to knowing things as a group. In short, world. Centers, institutes, and dangling inter- the trend to non-empirical ways of knowing stands as disciplinary programs .are proliferating and maybe a challenge to a field that must go beyond quackery to therein lies salvation. The words Women's, Black, become reliable and therefore desired. Hispanic, Indian, Asian, Environmental, Advanced Computation, Solar, Energy, Policy, Foreign Policy, Government, Neuro-science, Genetic, African, Ctiil- dren, Gerontology, all appear in the names of non-de- Preparing for the Future partmental entities created outside the petrified1 de- partmental structures of today's universities. Progressivism, the instrumental pragmatism which Perhaps the current departmental structures with is rooted in Dewey's works and thought that had al- their ,protectionist impact on the definition of majors ready bloomed among- intellectual educators and and the labels which are given to them, should be philosophers by the 1930's, was already being tem- downplay d. Conventional career structures are pered by a wary counterbalancing with essentialism changing t m fast, -For example, in the Fall of '79, just as by the 40s and 50s. Ironkally, but maybe typically, the physical edutors in Oregon were congratulating heavy pendulum of educational institutions was still themselves on reducing the number of teachers moving towards experimentalism as philOsophets headed for careers in elementary education, corn- began to argue that there were fixed standards and _plaintswere receivedthatthe employment higher ideals beyond the context. Now it appears that opportunity/teacher applicant ratio.in Oregon was too the pendulum is on its way back towards essentialism. low, a ratio of 1:1.75. Four months later the first signs The "back to the basics" move, the "hoopla" about of a new baby boom was apparent. By 1985, Orego- the Harvard curriculum, will influence everyone in nianS face a possible elementary telicher shortage. curriculum .planning. Existing academic, decision-. Another pressure which tends to maintain the making processes in universities render everyone sus- status quo are the rigidities in-our physical plant. To- ceptible to changes in the fashion of education.. For day's .physical plants were, in the majority of cases, example, persons at Oregon are at the mercy of any built for an era in which physical education was large voting block in the Assembly where every oriented toward .vouth and sports. By contrast, there academic has a vote. A few years ago this Assembly, in scan be now found a dramatic influx of life-long lear- response to a quite short-lived perturbation of its phi- rrq and an equally dramatic loss of interest among losophy, liberalized the university-wide curriculum. It yout'n team sports. Yet there are pressures from slashed away at language and math group require- mortgage: and the momentum of budgets to retard m,ents and clusters. Colleagues in physical educatien, neW develop lients. Yet these tendencies exhibited by being esscntialistically inclined, filled the spzice with clients, are laui:htle from -first principles. Having their own requirements. Now this same Assernbly is struggled to build'Ntke pool physical educators find restoting requirements, and electives are pinched out. now that aquatic progri z tks have broadened to include This tale is introduced because it is typical, -and non-self critical actiyitieSN'n natural waters. Who because it exemplifies another powerful pressure on knows what the next ten years'ill bring. It is clear that what will be permitted by University curricula. The physical plants built fin different p ograms in a differ- reality of the climate of opinion in the University ent time are part of the challenge. fr swinging rapidly in 'response to ,new forces and old Another challenge before us lies in awNincreasing positions must be reckoned with, yet one cannot easily popularity of non-rationalistic ways of kno,ing and look ahead. His the author's intent in thiSpaper, while

1-) 14: calling for diversity, judgment, and experiment, to be tI1ëbais o f acro mplishm en t-an d-potenl,--to meet_the part of the emergent co unterforce that decelerates the circumstances of our emergent world. The content of current swing of the pendulum. As to the role of har- this conference enshrines the concept; four different binger of the philosophy extant in the 1990's, it is safe approaches have been identified and maybe more will to say that nobody knows. surface. I hope so. The common thread uniting procedures fot dealing with all of these challenges involves questioning. Cur- rent arrangements must, as a matter of course, be questioned. Change itself is goocil It brings informa- tion. Failure can lead to further changeor changing References back. It can no longer be assumed that on the basis of personal experience alone that any way is best. These Boyd, W. "An address to parents of would-benew studenfs experiences were garnered in other times. Physical at the University of Oregon." University of Oregon, 1980. educators must continually explore and communicate Broekhoff, J. "Physical education as a profession." Paper read to WMPEA, Reno, Nevada, October 20, 1978 and the fruits of exploration by means of science. submitted to Quest. The author objects to the rising tide of essentialism. Bryant, J. "The year 2001 A.D. and future careers in PE." The There is a need for the systematic de-systematization Physical Educator 36: 197-220. of the field and the curriculum. There isa need for a Campbell, D. T.; Stanley, J. C. Experithental and Quasi- wave of deregulation to create the circumstances experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally, whereby new approaches, new careers,new struc- 1963. tures, and new curricula are tried. There is a need for Considine, W., ed. Alternative professional preparation in phys- the feedback from myriad individualprograms to ical education. Washington, DC: American Alliance for permit physical educators to chart acourse into the Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1979. unknown. So this paper makes explicit that the central Falk, C. E. Technologyin retrospect ani(critical events in science; challenge of the next decade is to diverge. Each act that a report prepared, for the N.S.F. Chicago: Illinois Institute for Research, 1968. constrains without a formal effort to judgea particular Henry, F. M. "Physical educationan academic discipline." proposal, an action, a curriculum, a way of deliveringa In 67th proceedings of NCPEAM. Washington, DC: service on its merits, retards the eventualemergence NCPEAM, 1964. of a field of practice ki raci uely in tune with changing Lawson, H. A. "Physical education and sport. Alternatiyes circumstances. for the future." Quest 21, 19-29. I hope that what was conceived in Chicago results in Lawson, H. A. "Paths toward professionalization." Keynote a pluralistic attempt to meet the future with widely address. WMPEA conference. Reno, Nevada, October 20, distributed philosophies and practices. Futurism, 1978. while important, is frail. We need checks and bal- Locke, L. F. Research in Physical Education. New York: Teachers College Press, 1969. ances. I fear the institution of any one system of doing 0 Locke, L. F.; and Siedentop; D. "Beyond arrogance and ad anything. I fear uniformity and prescription likea horninem: A reply to Hal Lawson.".Paper submittedto chicken farmer fears fowl pests. Our best bet is toen- Quest, 1980. courage heterogeneous solutions. We need to create Polanyi, M. Personal Knowledge; towardsa post critical ithilOso- the diversity that will permit us to pick and chooseon phy. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958. PART ill

Four Model Approaches to Undergraduate Education Competency-Based Teacher Preparation.in Physical Edudation aL Washington State tJnive,rsity

Mary Lou Enberg Washington State University Wilma Harrington University of Georgia Lillian V. Cady Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction Stater of Washington

Introduction known about learning and about individual differ- ences in learning styles and rate and characteristics. Special Assumptions 3. Preparation programs must be relevant to theac- For the past 10 years, the state of Washington has tual and current world of the teacher (the classroom been embarked on an adventurein competency-based and school setting), student populations,cur- teacher education (CBTE) and certification. The jour- riculurivorganizational patterns, etc. ., ney has been exciting, frustrating, rewarding, confus- Historically, six.assumptions underlie the stateap- ing, thought-provoking, the quest never dull and not proachto teacher education and certification: yet complete. The decision to move toward 1. The design of teacher education programs must be canpetency-based teacher education and certification based on a clear statement/concept of the role to be was made in the late 1960's. It grew out of national performed and, following therefrom, specific com- forces And conditions at that time as well as the milieu petenties (knowledges, skills, theoretical under- and idiosyncracies of Washington state in teacher edu- standings) needed to perform such role. cation and certification: It was coincidental that at the same time a thorough 2. Preparation and certification should be integrally review of program standards, certificatiOn require- related; that is, certification requirements should ments and structure, and program approval proce- provide the framework for the design of teacher dures and criteria was underway in the state. The education programs. objective of the review was to determine if new or 3. The education and certification of teachers isa pro- different standards/criteria/procedures could be iden- fessional endeavor necessitating diffenntiand/or tified which might increase the probability that those additional preParation from that for the degree. prepared would, in fact, be effective in the classroom. Degree and certificate are not viewed as synonym- Among the many ideas which emerged, three ous nor simultaneous achievements. In Washing- suggested a CB:TE framework and came to undergird ton state a degree is a requirement for certification. the standards subsequently adopted by the State However, in-and of itself it is not evidence of the Board of Education: degree holder's competency to teach. (It is interesting to note that many professional 1.If the.ultimate purpose of preparation and certifica- associations with special interest in teacher educa7 tion is to ensure effectiveness on-the-job, training fion, such as the National Education Association, programs should be designed to develop those American.Association of Colleges for Teacher Edu- knowledges, skills, theoretical bases, and attitudes cation, and Association for Teacher Educators,as deemed essential to effective performance in the well as higher education faculty and administrators specific professional role, e.g., teacher, principal, are suggesting that professional training in educa- etc. tion; as in other fields, should be distinct from and 2. Professional preparation programs for teachers subsequent to completion of a degree. The "Point should reflect and be consistent with what is of View" feature in the July 7, 1980 issue of The

.1 9 f)4 Chronicle of Higher Education addresses this posi- standards and certification requirements which iden- tion.) tified three components of professional training pro-. It. A fourth assumption posits the existence of some grams. These elements must be included in any pro- generic competencies in pedagogy and the disci- gram to be approved by the State Board of Education: a pline to be taught, e.g., physical education, which degree component; an experience component; a com- are believed to be essential to effective instruction. petency component (see Appendix A). A number of efforts have been undertake4,to deli- Although the 1978 StandardS provide more struc- neate the generic teaching competencies. Florida, ture and specify requirements ift the deg.ree, experi- Georgia, and Washington state serve as examples ence, and competency components, they retain some of such efforts. of the principles from the 1971* Standdrds. Chief 5. Professional organizations, e.g., unions, spe- among those notions is that of the consortiurn'and the cialization associations such as WAHPERD, and necessity for all who have special expertise and vested other agencies such as the employing school dis- interest in teacher education to also share the respon- tricts as well as colleges/universities, share the re- sibility and accountability for the design and im- sponsibility for and must be involved in identifying plementation of the program as'well as its outcomes competencies and designing the professional prep- (product). Figure 1 depicts the role of the consortium aration programs, i.e., the content, process, and in Washington state's CBTE programs. Outcomes of training. 6. The pre-service program cannot identify nor de- Definition velop all competencies needed for effective teach- Giv/en the preceding assumptions- and limitations, ing. Some competencies/needs can be identified our definition of a physical educator was arrived at by only after the individual has begun professional consiensus of the program unit, Teacher Education practice; they are unique to the person involved Standards in Physical Education, known by its ac- and to the milieu in which he/she is teaching. ronym, TESPE. The following member agencies pai- These factors and assumptions led tb the develop- ticipated in the development of definitions, role ment and adoption of Washington state's first statements, and performanCe indicators (see Appen- competency-based teacher education and certification dix B): Kennewick School District No. 17; Kennewick standards in 1971. The standards emphasized two key Education Association; Richland School District No. notions: first, preparation programs must be designed 400; Richland Education Association; Department of around competencies derived from a clear role Physical Education for Men, Washington State Uni- staternent/definition; second, competencies relevant versity; Department of Physical Education for Women, to the respective role, e.g., physical education teacher, Washington State University. The TESPE document must be identified by a "consortium" representing the describes a physical educator as a specialist in human various special interest groups, i.e.,a colleg:e/ movement and the play element in culture; therefore, university physical education faculty, school dis- the departments of physical education use the follow- trict(s), a teacher union, and the appropriate special- ing working definition for the body of knowledge: the ized professional association. The consortium was re- study of human movement phenomena, including the Asponsible for defining the professional role and essen- play element in our culture. tial competencies, since no generic or specific com- The TESPE document further delineates roles which petencies were set forth in the 1971 Standards. In 1978, 'a physical educator fulfills: teacher of phsical skills the State Board of Education adopted revised program and related activities; program planner; promoter of

The Consortium comrpised of: The Consortium responsible for: developing the role statement and defining 'college/university -subject-specific and role-specific competencies school districi(s) designing/recommending program content ,aryi collective bargaining unitunion process to address competencies professional association (e.w, WAHPERD) assessing student progress toward competencies ( and other program outcomes verifying ro state that students meet all certification requirements including cornpetencies periodically evaluating and, as necessary, recom- Mending program changes

Figure 1. The consortium function in CBTE programs in Washington State,

20 health and safety; requisitioner of equipment and . Professional Preparation maintenance thereof; public relations interpreter; ad- viser (cdunseling and guidance); member of school Secondary faculty-and professional organizations; member of a team (physicians, staff associates, special education, The curriculum foil professionar preparation 4t-u- other faculty). Although, the delinitions, roles, and' den ts in the secondary school program Washington. competency indicators were originally developed ire State Uniyersity\ (WSU) has the following cornpo-.' 1971, they appear to be consistent with the 19781stan7 nents: core (mostly what others would, tem "disci- dards of the state df WaShingt'on (WAC 180-79) inas- pline", some Professional, but regsiired of all.secondary much as the latter generic competencies required for preparation stucients); coursework or competency initial certification of teachers include: instructional (basically movement-orieneed); analySis of skill or, skill; classroom management techniques; subject mat- teaching of skill (moyement base with a high level of ter knowledge;.piipil-student personnel clompetencies cognitive and affective competency indicators that are (learning, growth) development); pupil discipline. professional in nature, i.e., indicative of' effective Arriving at a definition, or indeed at roles or compe- teachers). tency indicators, by the process of consensusis not'an Core component. While many of the courses in the easy task. That this 1971 definirion is still valid speaks' core could be considered as those where knowledge is to the foresight, and in some instances, fearlessness of disseminated 'without ap eye toward application, .in the participants. The public School people, for exam- - almost all cases, the instructors who appeared before ple, indicated that they could not corntIce teir audi- the Professional Preparation (P2) Committee (see Ap- ence that a study of play constituted an educational pendixB) have indicated that application to the experience. Conversely, some of the imiversity people teachingkarning situation is one portion of each had difficulty-acceptipg any of the 1316dy of, knowledge course. Therefore, within .our competency-based literature at that time. Thns, while the .definition may model, what is generally identified as .a study of the have imperfections, it has permitted us to collaborate discipline. by otl-rers is partially translate'd into compe- ., *with'the public schools, meet state Gertification stan- tency statements (outcomes) that are geared toward dards, survey our own curricula for omissions, and one or more of the eight roles for the Physical educator generally talk with each other about alternate means previously identifiki as part of the TESPE document. for achieving the agreed-upon cOmpetencies. The pre- There are two ways in which a curriculuna can be ceding rhetdric is another way of saying: "we know changed to a competency base. Alt courses could be that we are not perfect, but we do have a vehicle and a dropped, and new ones created to sPeak to the specific direction which allow us to move toward a solution of roles and ontconres. Two, competency iHdica tors some of the problems inhereritin teacher education". which have been.developed could be attached to exist2 A second definition should be included here, that Mg courses, cross-indexing until the stated outcomes \for curriculum. Within this program, curriculum is cap be accounted foi within the. curriculum. We ilave taken to include both the content (discipline elements, retained the traditional course structurvna have at- professional elements, movement elbments) and the tempted to match the competencies to course content, means of delivery, to students (competency base). As adding and dropping courses in the refining process. will be noted in the next section, although the curricu- Table 1 ipdicates the core courses in the WSU cur- lar changes have been occurring over a nearly 10-year riculum for the secondary school major. period, not every course in the physical education Some cautionary staterpents with regard to the link- curriculum has a complete competency base. Perhaps age of competency statements and discipline courses there are some which never will. are necessary here. Becanse of the changes within our

Table 1. Core courses in the secondary curriculum. Course Number Name Semester Credit Flours

MPE.WPE 104 - Art and Science of frlovient 1 (lab) PEP 199 Pisciplines of Human Movement 2 (lectOre) PEp 261 Human Ana'tomy '3 (2 lecture, 1 lab) !TY 313 Motor Skills Acquisition 2 (1 lecture, 1 lab) PEP 362 Kinesiology 3 (2 lecture, 1 lab) PEP 382* Secondary School PRCArams 4 (3 lecture, 1 lab) PEP 463* The Atypical Student.is Educ 2 (1 lec:tore, 1 lab) PEP 465 Physiology of Exercise', 3 (2 kcture, I lab) PEP 482 Psychological/ Sociological Principles 3 (3 lecture) PEP 494 , Evaluation in Physical Education 3 (2 lecture, I lab) 11Ed 363* First Aid 2 (I lecture, lab) 'Iota] 27-28 semester hours *professional, rather than disdpline

r.) r. A. 0 two departments, e.g., a mandate to- merge curricula, The modes of inquiry used in the core courses vary and those from the .Superintendent of Public Instruc- for each class. The paradigms \ employed exemplify tion, e.g., 1978 Standards, our work in revising com- those associated with the arew addressed: scientific petency statemenits in the disdpline area has not kept method, cinematographic analysis of movement, pace with the ctirriculurnivork in the professiodal and problem-solvings, and/or creptive expression, among movement-based sequences. Fiowever, in the last others. Ideally, the resultant body of knowledge at- year, the P2 Committee requested that the instructors tained from the core courses is seen as specific compe- .of the discipline core courses evaluate their course tency setS necessary to perform the roles identified by content in relation to existing competency indicators. the TESPE mbdel, that is, to make the Student a. spe- We are convinced at this time that, although revisions cialist in human mdvernent phenomena. are necessary, the courses offered still respond to the The professional component courses provide a zoles identIfied by TESPE. combination of theoretical ahd practical experiences to One further explanation is necessary. The format for support four areas of teacher preparation: the elemen- conference f44pers viewed the disciplinary component tary school physical educator (degree in education); as purely-knowledge-based, with no eye toward ap- the K-12 physical eduCation specialist (degree in phys- plication'. Ourconceptualization of the physical educa- ical education); the secondary school physical educa- tor as possessing specific competencies necessary to tor (degree in physical education); the coaching minor function in a variety of roles presupposes application (an approved teaching,minor offered through the de- of knowledge from the discipline of human move- partments of physical educatioh). In addition to these ment. This application is currently seenas occurring professional .areas, but not incliided in this paper are through laboratory experiences. The only course the health education teaching minor, the options in within the secondary curriculum which does not carry athletic training, aquatics, and dance, (and the recrea- a laboratorycrelated experience is in the psychological tion degree programs. Each of the areas of specializal and sociological area (WPE/MPE104 serves as the labo- tion, except coaching, requires students to take 1 ratory fOr PEP 199). All of the other courses provide for courses identified in the physical education theory some application and exploration Of the principles, core, but the professional core differs for each. In each 'theories, and concepts associated with that portion of case, there are theory-based courses which lead to the discipline of human movement. Ilowever, be- field experiences. Three of the courses for teacher cer- cause there has noebeen a'concerted effort to specify tification required By the department of education also the competen,cies for all courses, some classes are cur- provide field e*Perience. These are EDUC 300 (assist- rently concerned more.with transmissiOn of knowl- ing, at the student's local high school or junior high edge, in the traditional pattern of a university. school prior to She s'tart of the university academic

_X schematic of the roles, competencies, and specific year), EDUC 303 (observation and limited teaching in couises witt-be more help.ful, as seen in Table 2. The the Pullman schools), and EDUC 405/06 ,(student complete listing of competencies and courses will be teaching). These opportunities through the education available upon request. ft should be noted also that the department may or may not be in the pHysical educa- curriculum for the elementary school concentration tion setting, Within the physical education cur- .and .for the K-12 specialist elementary courses has riculum, students have a variety of field experiences been reviewed and keyed to the competency indi- related to their malor area (elementary, etc.). cators. Each course in that series carries primary and One of the,. major courses in the secondary cur- secondary responsibility toWard the attainment of a riculum is a theoretical-practical pne, Secondary specific listing cxf competencies, School Programs (PEP 328), which provides lecture,

Table 2. Example of roles, competencies, and courses.

!IDLE: Teacher,of Physical Skills and RelatedAc'tivities

Competenciq "Discipline"ourse - 1. 'Analyzes skills, rules; theory, and strategy of gen- Kinesiblogy (PEP 362) eral Firogram activities appropriate to all levels of Motor Skp.ls Acquisition (PEP 313) ability 2. an generalize mechanics of performance from one Kinesiology (PEP 362) dctivity-to-arro tire r when appropriate by-4p p lication -----Motor,-Skil1s-Acquisition-(PER-313) of: a'. Mechanical principles, b. movement principles c. time, spaee, force, and flow concepts 3. Evaluates pupil performance Evaluation in Physical Education (PEP 494)

22 laboratory, and practicum experiences. The course Therefore, it is impossible for departments to travel to content is organized to cover teaching strategies, some the 'various student teaching centers to supervise,their learning theory, class organization and conduct, -and own candidates'. The education department provides legal liability. The laboratory poition of the class fo- the 'supervisory work by hiring and placing individu- cuses on Mosston's (1972) spectrum of styles. Stu- alsin the communities surrounding the centers. These dents participate in a micro-teaching activity where individnals have the responsibility for stents from they choose a particular style, teaCh the lesson, are ali disciplines, with the master teaCher p evaluated, and reteach the lesson based on the major role model during this period. T e education changes suggested by the evaluation. departmerlt has riot yet employed the competency-_ As part of this course, each student is assigned to based, collaborativemodel apprbaCh to teacher assist an instructor in a uniyersity activity course. preparation; they must do so to comply vith,the 1978 These courses are part of the elective program offered Standards upon the next site visit by OSPI. by both departments of physical education. The PEP Professional componentprofessional mission. The 382 students are required to act as both aides and purpose of the professional .component of the an-- teachers. They assume organization duties and, when -riculurn is to help in the translation of theory into ready,gradually begin teaching: At first they teach a practice at some point before the student enters the portion of the class period then have full responsibility field as a certified professional. The courses discussed for at least two class periods. This segment 6f PEP 382 are seen ,as providing the knowledges and un51er- is not graded but is evaluated by the instructor of the, standings essential to planning, Organizing, and activity cla'ss. The evaluation is Conducted twice dur- executing learning experiences. The P2 Committee ing the semester. The forms used are those developed made a philosophical commitment, or acted upon the from the TESPE roles and competency statements and assamption that, the primary goal was to prepare pro- -become pah of the student's closed file retained by the fessionals, rather than technicians. By our definition, a academic adviser. professional teaches children and adolescents rather The newly established 300-series courses (analysis than content as the overriding goal: Therefore, it be- of sport or:teaching of dance or aquatics) also offer the came necessary to make hard decisions based on what seCondary preparation student an opportunity for Was required in the way of preparation for teaching. theory-into-practice work. An examination of some The assumptions under which curricular decisions Sample compOtencies from these courses (see Appen- were made- (ultimately accepted by the joint faculty) dix C and the next section of this paper) will illustrate were: how the student must translate knowledges into higher order cognitive activities in these .courses. 1. We cannot prepare every initial candidate in every Students at the secondary level have the responYbil- area of physical skills and related activities. ity for middle school, junior high, or high school 2. Either the 'Scientific base fiburses are important as classes during. the 8-week student teaching experi- leading to competent decision-making, ox anyone ence. They also have the option- at several of the stu- with knowledge of the specificIskill or sport can dent teachincenters to remain for afull semester and teach physical education. teach at-one level or, if they are K-12, at both elemen- 8. The ability to solve problems, read, and gain infor- tary and secondary *levels. If. the student is assigned to mation abbut subject matter not taken in under- one of the two student teaching centers associated graduate (initial) work is an important competency. with the TESPE unit, he*or she is supervised _by mem- 4. The courses should be taught in a manner "which bers of the consortium. Such tudents are evaluated by will permit transfer of learning"from one skill area to their supervisor and cooperating teacher with the another, from one teaching situatiqn' to another, TESPE-derived forrn. This senior ye.ar practicum is and from the scientific base to the practical situa- usually eight weeks in duration although more stu- tion. dents appear to remain for the fullsernester, and this additional time commitment may .soon become a re- Conversely, a technician was seen as an individual quirement. who has specialized competence in a limited range of In the student :teaching centers associated with activities and whose goal is to teach these activities. It TESPE, the evaluation forms are returned to the phys- has been our intention' to prepare professional indi- ical education departments for review and reference. viduals who fulfill the definition of physical educator 'Because only two" of the eight teaching centers are and can function in all eight specified roles. involved in the collaborative unit, other centers do not Movement performance. During the decade in _re_torn_the_ev.aluatidn_forms to_ the_p_hysical education which-Washington State-University-has been involved departments. The cooperation extended by the TESPE with an on-off -affair with CBTE, the curricula for the ,..membersis voluntary. two departments, at the undergraduate level, was A brief explanation is necessary here regarding.the formulated upon two separate modelS with two dis- 'student teaching experience. Much of Washington is tinct philosophies about the role of movement perfor- rural, Ath only four "densely populated". areas. mance. In March, 1980, following-a 3-year intensive

23 f.) c) study 15Y the P2 Committee, a combined under- The taxonomy for the psych-motor domain is based on graduate curriculum for the secondary school spe- Jewett and Mullan (1977) and earlier works from that cialist was approved by the two faculties. The previous group. work of the Department of Physical Education for In the 100-series skills classes, students are expected Women as reported by Hu lac, et al. (1975) was an to operate between 1.00 and 3.00 in Bloom's (1956) important underpinning for this project. However, taxonomy. General level statements were originally cons6nsus for the combined-curriculum is attributable attached to the competency indicators, but P2 deter- to P2 efforts to develop common competencies, in Mined that, with the bulk of information that our col- .three domains, for what would be, in the newcur- leagues had to consider, it was not necessary that they rieulurn, the PEP 100-level-skills co urseS and the PEP wrestle with the problem of levels at that point. The 300-level analysis courses (see Appendix C).. competency indicators were.arranged in hierarchical Performance: meaos, ends, or mean ing.Performance in order for consideration by the faculty, however. movement is important in the preparation of the sec- The work in the affective domain was patterned ondary school major. Of the 39-40 hours required for a after the efforts of the Department'of Physical Educa- major in -physical education, students must elect 8 tidn for Women (Hulac, et al, 1975) and generated hours of activity courses. The choices are somewhat many healthy discusSions within the P2 committee. controlled, but students select 5 to 8 hours from PEP For a.task which utilized so much committee tirrie, the 100-series courses, 0 to 3 units from amonga number number of competency indicators is relatively few. of MPE/WPE general activities, andlor pass compe- However, the faculty (followed by the University tency examinations in the three domains for each activ- Catalog Committee and the University Senate) agreed ity in which such coMpetency is to be deMonstrated. that the competency forMat -Was valid, understand- Performance in activity is seen both as an end;as able, and an adequatv Oasis for the generation of the indicated in the competencies below, and as a means .100- and 3004eVel CourSes. to advance to other stages of the professional cur- The third index of importance is sequencing. Within riculum. Thus, the value of movement performance in the new curriculum, the 100-level skills classesare the the WSU curriculun:i can be judged externally by three base of the professional preparation program. Figure 2 indices: proportion of the total hours; kinds ofcom- indicates the thinking of the P2 Committee for the petencies required in movement courses; the sequence sequencing from learning the skills of an activity to of courses. learning about teaching an activ4. As indicated, students spend approximafely 20% of Analysis. The new 300-series, analysis of sports their major course work in activity unless theypass performance of teaching of danceor aquatics, is ar- wpiver examinations. However, the generalcompe- ranged upon' the competency indicator base so that tency indicators for' the PEP 100-level courses pre- students must pass the exit competencies for the 100- pared by P2 and approved by the joint faculties level skills classes to be able to enter the 300-level number six in the cognitive domain, seven in the affec- analysis course. The emphasis_in these...courses is tkie, and four in the psycho-motdr. Therefore, ftmay mainly cognitive and affective. The3re is onlyone be said that, while movement performance is irnpor- psycho-mdtor objective: tant, the,performer is vieWed as a thinking, feeling, doing person. "The student will invent or construct uniqueor The current list of competency indicators for both novel options in motor performance. Thesemay be- the 100-level skills courses and the 300-lewl- analysis different, ways of performing the same skill, extern- courses is included in Appendix C. Some of the earlier , poraneous performances or combining of learned work at WSU was reported by Coleman (1972) and movements into unique motbr designs new to the Enberg (1974). In the psycho-motor domain, for gifforrner (varying, improvising, composing; the exarriple, the last of the four indicators states: creative processes)." "students (will execute a movement pattern with The assumption is that the disciplinecourse, kinesiol- finesse and with good form. There 'should be evi- ogy, gives the student tools for, analysis of human. dence .of mastery of movement pattern, a quality movement: In addition, four units- are required in performance (refining). Desirable, but-not required analysis of the chosen sports.activity or in the teaching to pass the course." of the selected dance or in water safety instruction.

PEP 100-series PEP 313 PEP 300-series PEP 382 (8 units) (2unitsj (4 units) (4-units)

analysis of the -Skills,drills, how learning teaching sirategies matched performance of and progressions ()CCU rs with learning theory: others Curriculum; liability

Figure2. Concept of progression in the "professional" sequence.

24 The evaluation course is also a requirement, so stu- schools for two afternoons or two mornings each week dents have the equivalent of 10 hours in analysis- for a full semester of observation and teaching. The oriented work: kinesiology, plus four special activities, experience is supervised by both a district and a uni- plus evaluation. versity specialist. Again, the evaluation is keyed to Summary. It would be a fair assumption that TESPE roles and competency indicators and parallels movement performance and analysis are yiewed as the form used for the secondary student on campus valid subject matter both by the scope of the cur- and in student.teaching..In addition to these experi- riculum and by.the definition of physical edtication as ences, the K-12 student has PEP 382, previously de- the study of human movement. Table 3 indicates the scribed. The culminating professional experience for pattern of clisses, placing their emphasis as theoretical the elementary school and K-12 major, as for all teach- (bodir. o 1.-nbwledge) or practical (professional). It will ing majors, is student teaching (EDUC 405-06). again: be noted that most ppre discipline classes are expected to emphasize application to movement events. Coaching Elementary In the coaching minor, the courses are labeled pro- The course work for the elementary specialist has a fessional, analysis, application, and movement. This similar distribution pattern, although the courses dif- teaching minor, unlike the parent, physical education, fer. There are two possible combinations; the elemen- lacks a true "discipline" componentand is thus more tary miijor, which is really housed in the Department professionally (practically)-oriented.. The theory- of Education, is "on loan" to physical education for 30 into-practice courses are Care and Prevention of Ath- hours of course work; the K-12 specialist is a secon- letic Injuries (PEP 266) and Administration (PEP 488) dary major who adds the elementary core courses to along with two to four courses in-the coaching of a hislher curriculum. Practicum experiences are offered given activity. There is also a practicum (PEP 390) these students in PEP 254, a creative dance class in which may be taken in the athletic programs of the which- ehildreirt are taught by the students at the uni- public schools or with one of the many youth sports versity or in another setting. Two courses in activity, programs in the local area. For the practicum, students PEP 379 (primary) and 380 (intermediate),.offer stu- must contract with both the coaching minor, adviser dents the opportunity to teach peers and use video and the agency involved. The student may choose replay as a device for identifying strengths and weak- more than one coaching practicum. Where possible, nesses. Students in these courses are urged to contract students in the coaching minor are given some coach- for additional wbrk in programs for handicapped chil- ing responsibilities in addition to their student teach- dren or In- the elementary.school program for an in- ing assignment. This experience is not related to the 'formal c ass day once a week. The praaicum, PEP 389, practicum just described :and is dependent on the places te shldent in one of the Pullman elementary needs of the school district.

Table 3. Emphasis of course work in secondary curriculum:

K Profes'sional WEL MPE 104 Art and Science of Movement

PEP 199 Disciplines of fluman Movement PEP 100-series skills classes PEP 261 Human Anatomy o .. PEP 313 Motor Skills Acquisition PEP 300-series analysis classes PEP 362 Kinesioloa

HEd 363'First Aid PEP 382 Secondary Programs PEP 463 Atypical in Phys Educ

PEP 465 Physiology of Exercise

PEP 482 . PsychologicaLSociological Principles

--PEP 494 E;aluation in Physical Education

25 e U Entry and Exit Requirements Forthosecourseswhich, arecompletely competency-based, e.g., PEP 383, the exit depends Entry and Exit upon meeting all of the criteria at the specified level. Such experiences are based on a TOTE (test-retest) -Entry maybe dealt with in two ways: entry into model (Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, 1965), and stu- courses; entry into, or acceptance into, the program. It dents may repeat evaluation experiences until satisfac- is assumed thatstudents admitted to the university are able to enter the 100-level courses in skills and any tory performance .is shown. Exit from other courses depends upon meeting the requirements stated with other university courses. Entry into other than an acceptable grade; students must repeat major freshman level course work may depend upon com- courses where the grade earned is a D or below. pleting prerequisites. For example, at least two of the A third means of exit-is the competency test. Early 100-level skills courses must precede the motor learn- on, the curriculum cornmittee of the women's depart- ing course; at least two of the 300-level courses must precede the secondary programs course, anatomy is a ment developed standardized competency examina- tions in the three domains for beginning skills classes prerequisite for kinesiology, and so on. (PEP 100-series). Waiver examinations in the men's Acceptance as a Z-..ertified major student is consid- ered- a serious professional commitment. University department were treated by individual instructors and policy states that students should declar'e a major be- at random times during the semester. For the new fore they have accumulated 60 semester credits. Stu- combined curriculum, competency examinations will dents interested in physical education, entering as be given during the first two weeks of class, but the freshmen, are assigned to advisers in the two depart- student must register to take the examination. A ments via the university CUrriculum Advisory Pro- waiver is given with a passing score. The student may gr* (CAP). Competency reporting forms are com- then elect other course(s). pleted for students in the 100-level activity courses, the 300-level analysis courses, and the secondary pro- Transfer Students grams course. These forms become part of the perma- If a transfer student has less than 45 hours, he or she nent.advising folder and are utilized to counsel stu- is normally assigned to a department adviser via CAP. dents regarding strengths, weaknesses, and potential Transcripts of students entering with mor.e hours are as maj6r students. When a'student requests to major. evaluated by the Department Chairpersons. In the former in physical education, this accumulation of reports is case, students may request to certify after a semes- considered bY the Advising and Scholarship Commit- ter of successful work if the proper requirements have tee which may vote tO accept a student or suggest that been fulfilled. In the latter case, once the Chair signs the student acquire more skill, higher grades, etc. the transcript, the student becomes a certified major. prior to becoming certified. The committee may also Currently there is negotiation with the Admissions suggest tha t the student seek another major. Twelve of Office to permit the departments to place these stu- the TESPE competencies are included on the reporting dents in a holding pattern for one semester so that the form for certification and serni-annual review of stu- same basic competencies can be checked for them as dents. Three sample competencies are: for the native students or for those who enter with A 11 b understands self and realizes possible be- fewer hours. In either case, transfer students are as- haviors that could occur while under stress; signed to one of two experienced advisers in the de- G l'a maintains rapport with peers; partments who further evaluate their course work and G 2 b completes class assignments. assist the students to project a two- or three-year plan Exit requirements are stipulated for all courses, but of study. Any errors irufirst semester pranning reduce not all courses are basecOsolely upon compekncies. the- degrees of freedom for future semesters. How- An example of exit competencies from the course, PEP ever, if the student has taken the proper sequence in 383, which is the development and learning class for community college, chooses an appropriate minor, the elementary school specialist, is given in the table and has no grade difficulties, it is possible for him/her below. to complete degree work within the normal time span.

Table 4.Sample indicators and experiences for PEP 383.

TESPE #Indicator Learning Experiences Evaluation

A 17a(3) Recognizes perceptualandmotor Viewing tapes, films; Performance on

development stages . reading; lectures film evaluation (TOTE model)

A I d Can make adjustment within Discussions; lecture; IF . . . THEN activities so that each pupil readings; role play paper (may be can participate a1 his/her level of ability co-authored)

26 r, k.4 Activity Courses Practicum Children's Activities Culminating Experiences

4 hours required PEP 254 Creative PEP 379 PEP 389 practicum in PEP 100-series )1.dance (practicum PEP 380 PEP 383 motor devel/learn with children) PEP 381 curriculum/evaluation

Figure 3.Sequencing of professionally-based courses for elementary.

Barriers to completion within this time frame are: selec- -school major isshown in Figure 3. The K-12 specialist, tion of multiple minors; need to repeat courses; previ- in addition to the secondary major, takes the following ous preparation which is inadequate, e.g., not having courses in the sequence: 254; 379; 380; 381; 383; ,389. completed GUR's; indecision concerning career goals. The concept of sequence, as shown is: activity; experi- A trend in recent years is that community college ence with children; experience with children's ac- transfers arrive with few science courses. Such prepa- tivities; teaching children in the public schools while ration places pressure on the student to complete a studying motor development, motor learning, cur- tight, laboratory-oriented curriculum within, the nor- riculum, and evaluation. , mal time span. A secondtrend is that students appear The balance of courses between body of knowledge to prefer a longer preparation period, and often avail and professional orientation in the elementary cur- themselves of other,teaching options to become more riculum can be explained, as was that for the,seCon- employable, e.g., selecting a K-12 specialiiation, ad- dary school major (see Table 5). ding coaching or a second minor, taking an aquatics The coaching minor has a base which is strongly specialty, etc. professional. For the physical educator, who has taken both kinesiology and physiology of exercise, the course PEP 330 is not required. Obviously, the physi- Relationships, Sequences, and cal educator who also takes the coaching minor has a more discipline-oriented approach than does the Problems coaching minor student from another discipline. General competencies for the coaching minor have Relationships and Sequencing been developed, but they have not yet been approved The relationship and sequencing of courses in the through TESPE. The prospective coach coula fulfill the secondary school major has already been explained. teaching minor requirements by taking as few as two Sequencing of professional courses for the elemen6ry movement (skills) courses. For this minor, courses are

Table5. Emphasis of course work in the elementary curriculum.

Body of Knowledge Professional Activity courses (4 hours of the PEP 100- series specifically required)

PEP 254 Creative Dance

-PEF 261 Human Anatomy

PEP 362 Kinesiology

HEd 363 First Aid PEP 379 Primary Activities PEP 380 Intermediate Activities

PEP 383 Perceptual-motor learning and development

PEP 389 Practicurn PEP 381 Curriculum and Evaluation

Note:5 additionaLhours are chosen. PEP 463, atypical physical education, is an unwritten requirement which has not yet been approved through channels as a major-change: The other 3 hours are usually taken in 100-level or 300-level skillsor analysis work. It should be remembered that these 30 hour students are not physical education majors but eduyMion majors.

27 9 Table 6. Emphasis of bourse work in the coaching minor.

Speech

PEP 220 Officiating

PEP 226 Care and Prevention of Athletic In- juries Biological and Mechanical Aspects of Sports (PEP 330)

PEP 488 Administration of Sport

Behavioral Aspects of Sport (PEP 489)

Advanced Skills (200-level) and Coaching-of (300-level) courses (Total of 6, at least 2 from each category)

Practicum (PEP 390) can satisfy one coaching credit

sequenced only by number and are identified With forms its program units, we may find ourselves in normal university progress, e.g., 200 = sophomore. other alignments.and with generic, rather than spe- cific, competencies. Problems in Implementation 3. Regular progress through the program should:be 1. Tirne is the most pressing of all problems. All of competency-based 'rather than time-based. Although the changes in curriculum haye been accomplished the 100-level skills, 300-level analysis, first aid, water without time compensation to the individuals in- safety instructor, physical education -for the handi- volved (committee chair now receives 10%). It is dif- capped courses, and the entire elementary school spe- ficult for busy people to .find enough time to think cialist curriculum.are established on,com petency indi- through whole problemS to whole sOlutions. Without cators, either from TESPE or other agencies, e.g., Red the efforts of colleagues who feel that curriculum is Cross, IRUC, not all courses are as yet so structured. A im'portant, the progress would be much Slower, and it true CBTE program would permit recycling as re- is difficult to sustain interest and drive over long .quired, until the candidate attained,all competencies at periods, e.g., 1971 on. Meetings with the other mem- specified levels. Practically speaking, those students bers of the consortium present time and travel 'prob- who fail to complete all competencies receive C *or lems. Public school people can participate only during lower grades. At present, a 2.00 (C) average is required school hours (negotiated), and their substitutes must to certify and remain in a major. The departments are be compensated out of the small fund froin OSPI attempting to raise this standard to 2.25 but will need which supports TESPE. to process that change through university channels. In 1978, the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- At any rate, it is still possible for a student to reach the tion (Supervisor of Physical Education) surveyed 10 student -teaching stage without having achieved cer- departments of physical education in higher educa- tain competencies. The education requirements for, tion. Seven were aware of the new teaching gtandards. student teaching are less well defined than are our Only two had identified competencies for teacher own, and occasionally we must remind that depart- preparation in physical education. All 10 were inter- ment that certain students are not yet eligible for the ested in working cooperatively with other preparatory practical experience. programs to develop the competencies. However, six 4. Legal implications can be a problem. Many of the said that their institutions could not provide even pre-certification competencies are in that all- minimum financial (travel) and support time for such important and ill-defined affective domain: The Ad- efforts. missions Office has advised that there could be diffi- 2. Governance is an issue which has never been culty denying certification to students who have an solved. Presumably the regulations are aimed at de- adequate GPA. Storage of competency information --partnientsol-eduta tion. Yet' staff aSsoeiate groups could be a probre-m. TheCollaborative unit would re- (counselors, school nurses, etc.) have established their quire access to such recOrds to grant a candidate con- own competency statements and collaborative units. tinuing certification. There may be problems in this We feel that our governance unit, TESPE, is opera- area that we have not even foreseen. For example, we tional. Yet, when our own department of education do not know if we could deny certification or gradua- 289. tion to students who cannot spellor construct gram- At the undergraduate level, the departments matically correct sentences. offer the B.S. degree in physical education andthe B.A. 5. Alternate learning experiences must be arranged degree in recreation. We also grant teachingminors in for students, according to CBTE practice. Only a few of coaching and health education and optionsin aqua- our courses presently contain such options. Although tics, dance, and athletic training. A few of benefit to the student, and ultimately tO courses are the pupils shared across majors and options. One healthcourse in the common schools, these extra asSignmentsare a is required of all teaching majors. Generally, terrific overload for instructors who have there is a excessive spirit of cooperation and commonpurpose between schedules in comparison with sister institutions. the two departments andamong the departmental 6. Not all instructors in the departMentsare aware programs. Also, other program units, e.g., recreation, of taxonomies; hierarchies, and task analysis. Further, are using competency reporting forms forcommon not all believe that CBTE is tire route for teacherprepa- courses and are adopting the advising procedures ration. Some even feel that current stateregulations which were developed for 'CBTE in are an infringement upon academic freedom. These a manner that would parallel the competency-basednotion. attitudes appear to be dissipating, however,and at the One aspect of the physical education curriculum meeting of the two faculties, during which has the com- not been mentioned in this paper, the i,4ork ofthe bined curriculum was accepted, most facultymembers Non-Teaching Committee (NT). This felt that their courses could be constructed paper is con- within the cerned with the competency-basedprogram inteacher framework offered by P2. One major problemwith preparation (CBTE). The NT committee, oPerating curricular change in any institution, however, in a must be parallel time frame with P2, has plannedfor cur- education of the faculty, and tinie-consuming,consen- riculum leading to careers not educationally-oriented sus sessions. Since this paper was prepared, two in- but consistent with a B.S. in physicaleducation. A service meetings for all REP 100-activity andPEP 300- report of that work and the planned outcomes analysis course instructors would were most beneficial. They require another paper, and the directionis not dissimi- precipitated exchange of cognitive strategies and pro- lar from other options offered at-thisconference. The moted positive feelings about curriculumand fellow process of developing such curricula has been similar instructors. to the work of P2 and is best describedthrough the 7. At WSU there is no provision fordepartments to verb forms: caring; studying; sharing; supervise their own student teachers. Program convincing. units The reader may, at this point,assume that the CBTE will need to be established at all Teaching CenterS for curriculum is founded solelyupon experiences in quality control of final performance evaluations. physical education and education. This 8. Evaluation remains degree, as an unsolved problem. To with all others in the University,contains a. 28-hour date., maximum effort hasgone to construction of a general university requirement (GUR), program. The next step is to develop more firm evalua- designed to help the student attaina significant general education. tion procedures for the total curriculum. Many of these courses complement both 9. All participants must cotinue to develop the CBTE trust, program and the "drawing board" NT options.Exam- as the feeling of autonomy can be.threatened, and the ples of GUR courses WOuld be !hose sharing of authority can become paramount. in psychology, . physiology, sociology, and communications.It is an- ticipated that the NT options would drawheavily from such courses at both lower- andupper-division (spe- Relationship to Other Fields cialized) levels.

The Departments of Physical Education forMen and for Women, The Department of ContinuingEduca- Evaluation tion, The Department of Industrial Education,and the Department of Education constitute the Collegeof Original validation of the roles and Education. There is an All University Teache'r competencies. Council came from statements of the teaehers inour collabora- on Education, composed of representatives of each tive unit about what they actually did discipline which offers teaching majors in fheir jobs. or. minors. Therefore, the program itself has face validity.The This council serves in advisory capacifyregarding is- roles of teachers may have changed in sues in teacher preparation. No other departments the int4rim, and the competencies themselves shouldbe evaluated and represented a ppear.to be concerned with CBTEat this weighted for importance. The recent OSPI time. site team . found the program to be in compliance with the 1978 Within the College there is overlap and some sense Standards, Includeci in this site visitwereinterviews tarritorialiraperative-:For-example-,--tdurationr with students and graduates, review ofprogram corn- quires all teacher preparation students totake a course ponen es, review of competency statements, review of in tests and measurenients. Otir departmentsalso re- the new curriculum and procedures quire the evaluation in physical .education leading to the course. We . change, etc. At the same time.;an NCATE team found have never resolved this duplication of work. , the physical education programs to be "exemplary".

29 Unfortu- One portion of the old curriculum which served an breaking each into its most minute parts. the evaluative purpose was the PEP 496 Senior Seminar in nately, analysis has mit helped us synthesize which Students assessed their preparation and the "teacher" nor the "teachering" act. Because CBTE student teaching' ex perience. Job placement indirectly emphasizes systematic and logical analysis and ex: supports the excellence of the programbecause feed- plicitness, it could actually lead to greater emphasis back from employers is positive. At present, our stu- on the analytic. dent evaluations can tell us whether the initial candi- dates have attained the cornpetencies; we .nped .to Finally, CBTE will not result in the "perfect"teacher evaluate the relevance of the competencies. Since this education program. paper was prepared, evaluationof the new PEP 100 CBTE should, however, provide a better, moreob- and 300 courses has been obtained from students and jective basis for us to evaluate the programbeing instructors. The-latter have attempted to evaluate the .offered, identify weaknesses, and make changes. roles of these courses within the scope of the cur- As indicated early in this paper, the questis not riculum. It would be fair to say that the stated out- complete for such a "perfect" program and probably comes are being achieved. Whether_these arethe best never should be. Change isessential in a dynamic outcomes is not known. organism. Teacher education (whether competency-based or not) must be dynamic if it is to Implications be reality-oriented, responsive, and relevant. Some educators have looked' to C.BTE to solvethe problems and resolve the criticisms of teacher educa- The effect of the CBTE standards in any state,in- tion. Obviously, they delude themselves-. cluding Washington, will depend on those whodesign CBTE will not in and of itself guaranteechange or im- and implement the programs. An exampleof im- provement in teacher education programs norpractitioners. plementation,has been discussed in the preceding sec- The quality and relevance of theprOgram and its,' tions of this presentation. The programdescribed has product will continue to be a fundion of thepersoris been approved by the State Board of Educationfor and resources involved, the way in which the pro- preparation of physical educators. It wasdeveloped gram is implemented, the processby which out- with involvement from the state professionalassocia- conies (including competencies) are identified, and tion, local school districts, a teacher'sassociation, and the validity of the program in preparing personsfor Washington State University. During a recent state the reSpectiVe role. review of the program, the visiting team suggested that the program could be a model for otherdepart- CBTE will not necessarily alter the deductive, a priori, ments as well as other institutions. and often-unilateral process by which preparation programs The factors, conditions, and assumptions extantin are determined.. Washington state during the past ten years have made A single individual or group representing asingle competency-based program standards and certifica- agency can identify in .a-rnichairfashion the inputs, tion requirements viable for us. They maynot/would learning experiences, and outputs of a CBTE pfo- not/should not work in other states. gram. Participatory decision-making,representa- tive.input, and inductive processing are neither en- References sured nor needed to design and implement CBTE Bloom, B. S., ed. Taxonomy of educational objectives,Himdbook programs. (Washington state hasbelieved that cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company,Inc., without such input and decision-making, com- 1956: petencies tend to be less relevant, less role-related, Coleman, D. A. "Development of a performance-basedteacher and less valid.) eacation program for physical education." Quest, 18: 20-25. CBTE need not be individualized nor personalized. Enberg, M. L. "Teacher corps/peace corpscompetency based elementary physical education project." InResearch Educa- ln fact, CBTE could result in more rigid and uniform tion. Washington, DC; ERIC, 1974. CBTE can programs than those that currently exist. Hulac; G. M.; Harrington, W. M.; Durrant, S.M.; Enberg; be as behavioristic and mechanistic or as humanistic M. L.; and Weaver, W. C. "Developing competencywaivers and existential as those responsible.for its design in the three educational domains." JOHPER,46(6): 20-21. make it. Not Only could CBTE be designed to mold Jewett, A. E.; and Mullan, M. R. Curriculumdesign; purposes and standard prOducts, but it could also ensure that only processes in physical educationteaching-learning. Washington, persons fitting a pre-conceived patternbe admitted DC: The American Alliance for Health,Physical Education' to the "production" process. -and -Recreation, -1977. Miller, G. A.; Galanter, R.; and Pribram, K. H.Plans and the CBTE will not cause educators to explore teaching/ structure pf behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart &Winston, learnhlg as &synthesizing raiher.than an analytic process. Inc., 1960. 'We have spent great quantities of time and money Mosston, M. Teaching: from thniniami to discovery.Belmont, CA: analyzing the teacher and the instructional process, Wadsworth Publishing Company, 197. 3 0 3 5 Appendix A Professional Preparation (P2) Program Elenients Required by the Committee State Board of Education Department of Physical Education for Men and Women 1. A "degree" component. A degree and/or certain Washington State University number of hours of training is set forth as a re- 9'quirement for each _type and level of ceitification. 1979-80 (In Washington state, all teachers are required to comPlete two levels of certification. The "initial" Dr. Samuel H. Adams Dr. Carol E-. Gordon certificate is granted on completion of the pre- Ms. Andrta Brown Ms. Jane Gutting service program; the "continuing" certificate, Dr. Jon Christopher Dr. Wilma Harrington which must be obtained within seven years after Mr. Rex Davis Dr. Mary Lou Enberg, Chair the initial certificate, is issued on verification of Dr. David Engerbretson competencies in the generic areas required at the continuing level, completion of three years of expe- rience, and completion of 45 quarter hours of Appendix C course work beyond the baccalaureate degree.) This component addresses the teacher's need for a PEP 100 Level Class sound general education and depth in a discipline. Competencies 2. An "experience" component. The individual must complete specified field experiences during the 'Cognitive Domaip training program; these include observation, micro-teaching, tutoring, student teaching, intern- Students will: ships, and/or other practica as required. Field expe- 1. lie able to define teriN related to the subject area. riences pr6vide the laboratory for one's developing 2. Understand and apply safety measures and princi- competencies as well as a clinic for demonstrating , ples appropriate to the activity. and testing oneself iri the role of teacher and one's 3. Know, understand, and apply rules and etiquette ability to apply competencies in real settings: appropriate to the activity. 3. A "competency" component. Three categories of 4. Know, understand,sand apply sound principle§ of competencies are set forth in the standards. A set of conditioning appropriate to the activity. generic competency areas is delineated in-which all 5. Know, understand, and apply sound mechanical programs must aadress- the development and as- principles appropriate to the activity. sessment of knowledges, skills, and theoretical un- 6. Know, .understand, and be able to apply correct derstanding relevant to those generic competency procedures for setting up, adjusting, and maintain- areas. A second constellation of competencies is ing equipment required by the activity. subject matter-specific. These are to be delineated by the appropriate specialized professional associa- Affective Domain tion in collaboration , with experts from college/ Students will: university faculties, the school 4istricts, and other 1. Adively participate in class. relevant groups. Finally, the conrtium responsi- 2. Accept, at least while participating, the persons, ble for program design may supple ent-this com- - rules, situations, events, etc. 'which occur during ponent with additional or unique com etencies it participation. deems important to the role as defined. 3. Ask others for additional aid or information. 4. Accept, consciously or unconsciously, the role (or Appendix B part) which is appropriate to the activity setting. 5. Accept that there are values inherent in the activity. Members of the TESPE Consortium 6: Show sensitivity toWard 1979-80 a. own responsibilities in carrying out the activity, b. helping others analyze their performance. Dr. Robert J. Valiant, Kennewick School District No. 7. Attempt 'to identify their own ideas, feelings, or 17 information concerning the activity. Ms. Billie Carlson, Kennewick Education Association Kenneth Olssen, Richland School District No. 400 Psychantotor Domain Ms. Cheryl Boatman, Richland Education Association For the 100-level skills courses, stUdents will: Dr. Wilma Harrington, Department of Physical 1. Imitate prescribed movement in a very basic man- Education for Women, WSU ner, but the,performance may be low (perceiving). Dr. Roger C. Wiley, Department of Physical Education 2. Execute the gross movement pattern which can be for Men, WSU repeated with s'Ome accuracy (patterning).

31 r.t *4 3. Utilize a movement pattern in a drill or practice 7. Be able to effectively, communicate principles, stituation (adapting). knowledges, analyses, syntheses, strategies, and 4. Not be required (but desired) to pass course; exe- critiques to others, e.g., teacher, peers. cute a movement Pattern with finesse and with good form. There should be evidnece of mastery of Affective Domain a moveynent pattern, a quality performance (refin- ing). Students should enter with appropriate competencies from PEP 100-level courses. Students will:- 1. Utilize self-analysis as a performance tool. PEP 300 Level Classes 2. Attempt to ;identify their own ideas, feelings, or information concerning the activity. Competencies 3. Accept the existence of a variety of a, philosophical approaches to the activity, Cognitive Domain b. mechanical approaches to the activity. Students should enter with appropriate competencies 4. Exhibit their values through their selection of (for from PEP 100-level cdurses. Students Will: example) texts and materials, methods, emphases, 1. Know, understand, and apply game strategy ap- etc. proPriate to the activity. 2. Be able to analyze an 7tivity or component of that Psychomotor Domain activity into sub-units. 3. Be able to make an adjustment within an activity so Students should enter with appropriate competencies each student can participate to his/her level of abil- from PEP 100-level cgurses. Students will: ity. Invent or construct unique or novel optjons in motor 4. Formulate a logical teaching progression for the performance. These may be different ways of perform- sub-units of that activity. ing the same skill, extemporaneous performances or 5. Be able to critique a performance of the activity. combining of learned movements into unique motor 6. Formulate a plan for the improvement of perfor designs new to the performer (varying, improvising, mance as in #5 above. composing; the creative processes).

1

3 2 The Preparation of Physical Education Teachers: A Subjecl-Matter-Centered Model

Lawrence F. Locke Department of Professional Preparation University of Massachusetts 14 Charles L. Mara Division of Physical Education The Ohio State University Daryl Siedentop Division of Physical Edubation The Ohio State University

Introduction This arrangement, though certainly wasteful" and probably dysfunctional, is not especially surprising. Webea41 work on fhis prioject with the:proposition Programs for the, preparation of physical education that there must be many different ways to help physi- iteachers are not 'designed with pirticular reference cal education teachers learn to teach. That observation either to the nature of pre-service students or to the is more ,than a platitude about possible alternatives specifications of the vocational' role which awaits and the powers of a pluralistic system. The proposi- them. Instead, preparation programs always -have tion is a fact of immense significance because it permits been more responsive to the interests and abilities of the exercise of special and compelling visions, the teacher educators and to the demands of the institu- utilization of unique constellations of resources, ancIP tions in which the.y serve: the development of educative processes which yield The perennial search for approval by academic col- special strengths in their teacher products. leagues, the pursuit of rewards in the university com- We also held, however, that certain problematic fac- munity, the insistent urge to conform to already estab- tors exist which are generic to all teacher education lished traditio)1 s, the enticements of new fashions in programs. These factors may be prioritized differ- the training o , classrcJm teachers, the attractive fan- ently, and certainly may be confronted through widely tasy of an idealized physical education conducted in different program provisions, but in the end most of the best of all possible gymnasia, a jaundiced and them must be accommodated in any system which is unreasonable pessiMism about what can be accohi- to effectively work in the context of higher education. plished to improve practice and program in the Teacherpreparation programs in physical education schools, a romantic vision of preparation mode's generally have been- a low impact enterprise. What based upon elegant exercises in abstract logic, and pre-service students learn while passing through even the personal convenience of faculty members them makes little evident difference in their daily be- all have shaped what is 'now done in the name of havior once employed as teachers. Other powerful pre-service teacher education. What real teachers ac- mechanisms not associated with formal preparation tually do and believe in their roles, what pre-service shape and maintain what physical education teachers students actually leain to do and believe in their roles, actually do. and what one set of role dimensions has to do with . others, are questions- which rarely intrude into the process of designing, operating, and evaluating prep- aration programs. Note: We wish to express our special appredation to Dolly Lambdin of St. Andrews School and the University of Texas at.Austin for hcr Fifty years ago, sociologist Willard Waller watched invaluabk assistonce in reviewing earlier drafts of this study paper. young teachers entering their school careers and Her dual rok as an active practitioner and_workingleachcLeducator found that2!-a-landmark-in-ones-assimilation-into the once again has proven to be a special strcngth: Where readers sense an optimism about who can be accomplished within the hard constraints profession is reached when itis decided that onlr of the real world, they have peiceived her.influence. We also wish to teacher% are iffiportant". Socialization into the role of thank Kaihlecn Higgins, now a Graduate Fellow at Yak University, teacher eduCator may involve a similar lesson, for for the application of her expert editorial skills and unending patience in translating our ideas into a readabk document. preparation programs often reflect greater concern for

33 A the designers and operators than the raw material and respective of its resources. We have included this products. To permit the nature of pre-sgrvice students material because all models, including the four pre- and the real nature of teaching to become fundamental sented at this conference, muSt confront these im- arbiters for decisions about pre-service education placable demons or exist only as playful abstrac- Vv* ould violate our sense of priorities in professorial tio4ns. life. It also would change beyond any recognition the 2. A brief list of-assumptions about teaching teachers way physical educators are prepared. , which we elected to hold in developing our propo- The substance of this paper, then, reflects our dual sal. This material is included because it gives some, concern for making undergraduate major§ and public insight into the problems which received our school teaching the facts of first importance in pro- closest attention. gram design, and for confronting some of the most 3. A present don of the subject-matter-centered pro- troublesome problems which have bedeviled the pro- gram, wit,brief explanations. cess of preparing teachers. The first step was to iden- 4.A short c girls discussion designed to draw the tify the primary 'factors which all teacher education attention of the .reader to particular aspects of the designs (including-dur own idealized model) have to proposal, and to anticipate some of the questions recognize. Then, given personal priorities as physical which will lie 'raised about its operation. educators and collective experiences in the operation of teacher education programs, a model wa-s designed which represents Ian alternative to the typical ap;, proach to preparing teachers. The product, a sub: ject-matter-centered preparation,program, is faithful both to what we regard as the proper cOntent of physi- The Problem Chart - cal education and a great deal that we know to be true about learning, teaching, and schools. Most impor- The chart which follows is not intended as a list of all tant, however, because it deals directly with the dual factors to be considered in the design of a preparation realities of- pre-service students and public school program. This is a list of problematic factors which in teaching, the program is designed to provide more our experience have been the least adequately re- powerful forces in shaping the behavior and commit- solved in most existing programs. In short, these are ments of graduates. the endemic difficulties of producing good physical Our sense of the constraints in higher education and education teachers. If the reader finds the table in- our personal histories as thoroughly socialized teacher complete, suggestions are welcomed for its expansion. educators have served, no dotibt, to deflect us from Because of the nature of the material and format holding perfectly true to all of our intentions, even in used for presentation, most readers will not wish to this idealized model of preparation. We hope, how- read through the chart from beginning to end. fristead, ever, that more daring and creative colleagues will find we suggest that you read the Index of Problems it possible to push beyond this,first step. provided below and then browse through the chart to The material to follow is divided into four sections: obtaip a general sense of the content. Subsequently, 1. A list of factors which constitute problematic ele- the chart can be used as a reference tool in considering ments within any teacher prepatation program, ir- particular program elements.

Index of Problems

Cluster Problem Number Page Bask Problems in Program Design

Definition of Subject Matter 1 36 I 'efinition Of Good Teaching 36 'tie of Knowledge in DCsign 3 36 F 1,se 4 36 It(tegra of Theory and Practice 5 36 ,rarn Sequence 6 37 Specialized Preparation 7 37 Problems in Entry; Progress, and Exit _EntryPoints 8 37 Progress and Completion 9 37 t Selective Retention 10 37 Interruptcd Prepat=ation 11 38 Placement' r.1 12 38 Follow-up and SupPort of Graduates 13 38

34 Cluster Pro-blem Number Paie Problems in Program Operation and Development Program Monitoring and Evaluation 14 38 Resource/Commitmeht Balance'. 15 38 Flexibility Vs. Orthodoxy ,16 39 Problems Involving Faculty

Faculty Consensus and Commitments 7.7\ 3.9- Models of Professional Behavior - 18 \ 39 Realistic Optimism 19 \ 39 Faculty Development 20 39 University Scholarship 21 40 Problems luvolving Pre-service Students Pre-socialization Effects t 22 40: Academic Ability . 23 40 ' Teaching/Coaching ComMitments 24 40 Socialization Effect of Student Culture 25 40 \ssivity Vs. Responsibility 26 41 g aes of Sfudent Concern 27 41 love.of Active Play 28 41 Personal Fitness . 29 41 Probleins Related,to Program Content: Motor and Analytic Skills Play Skills 30 41 Perception of Movement . 31 42 Problems Related to Program Content: Values Clarification of Values 32 4? Program Value Commitments 33 42 Problems Related to Program Content: Skills of Instructional Design Preparing Edusational Objectives ,34 42 Designing Instruction 35 42 Maintaining Congruence of Objectives and Methods 36' 43 Managing Instruction 37 43 Influencihg Learner Behavior 38 43 Recognrzing Learning Problems - 39 43 Evaluating Learning 40 43 Self-ewfluation 41 44 kills for Changing the School 42 44 Instructing Special Students 43 44 Probkms Related to Program Content: Knowledge Knowledge about Learners 44 44 Knowledge about Schools 45 44 Knowledge about Pedagogy 46 45 Knowledge from Social and Biological Sciences 47 - 45 Education in the Liberal Arts 48 45 Knordedge About Carers in Physical Education 45 45 ProbleMs Related to External Articulation of the Program Local Influence of the Program 50 45 Involvement of Significant Others 51 46 Institutional Complementarity 52 46 Problems Related to Practicum Experiences Practicurn Experiences: Logistics 53 46 Practicum Experiences: Quality Control 54 46 Practizum Experiences: Individualizing 55 46

0

IV Problem Chart for Professional Preparation Programs

WIP Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Idal CaAgequences of Deviation i3asic Problems in Program Design 1. Definition of Subject Matter Faculty do not have a wolking consen- Discrepant visions of the basic 'Subject Faculty members agree on a broad sus on what constituteh e subject matter of physical education produce definition of the subject matter matter of physical ectt Dis- unclear or inconsistent expectations for their graduates will teach. Expecta- agreement is so fundamental that stu- student behaVior, particularly in prac- tions for what pre-service students dents can not regard different visions ticum experiences. The consequence is must master themselves and learn simply as possible alternatives'. Sharp confusion and loss of rogram impact. how to teach to others are reason- differences in priorities and content in- ably consistent throughout the cluded or excluded are reflected in in- 0 :program. consistent and conflicting program ma- terial.

2. Definition of Gotia leaching NO--nous attempt is made to establishIndividual faculty work toward dis- Good teaching is defined in ex-- a definition of good teaching to which Crepant visions of effective teaching. plicit, unambiguous terms. The all faculty can subscribe. Statements This pioduces confusion and loss of definition is available to all, subject about teaching uged in the program are program impact. Some aspects of unclear, a mbiguOusunrealistic,_ and teachingieceive little or no emphasis. reference point for all decisions highly generalized. No single set of Because faculty do not agree in evaluat- about the program. qualitative/quantitativecriteriais ing student achievement of pedagogi- .shained widely enough to be usedin cal skill, students receive conflicting determining program contentor and ultimately destructive messages evaluating student progress. about their progress.

, 3. Usebf 'Knowledge in Design The literature on teacher edUcation is Practices known to be ineffective are Design and procedures for opera- ignored. Only tradition, personal inch; perpetuated. Produres with a high tion and evaluation-of the.prograrn nation, trial and error, and abstract probability of' success are not utilized. reflecrwhat has been learned from logic serkre as resources in deciding Useful alternatives are not available for research orj teaching, teachers, and how to prepare teachers. consideration. teather education. Specific effort is made to acquire and apply knowl- edge in developing program com- ponentS.

4. False Constraints Subject 'matter, program arrange- Alternatives for meeting program In designing and implementing the ments, training strategies, and operat- needs are severely limited (largely to program, faculty remain open to ing procedures.are discarded from con- . traditional strategies), and inferior so-, alternative means of accomplish- sideration because "everyone knows" lutions are accepted as necessary. ing program goals and do not reject they would not work. promising Strategies.without a trial. Judgment is suspended until altervatives have been attempted aid assessed in practice.

5. Integrarion ofTheory and Practice Students encounter academic subject Students are left with the unreasonable Pre-servicestudents-acquire matter, development of personal play task of devising their own applications knowledge about physical 'activity skills, arid development, of teaching of knowledge to performance problems and play, learn how to perform skill in entirely separate experiences. and the process of teaching. Because play activities, and learn how to There is little or no opportunity to inte- students do not perceive how what teach physical activity and play in grate knowledge, skill, and pedagogy. they learn can fit together to aid under- ways which demoustrate and il- Faculty in one area may be ignorant or standing and suggest solutions toOrob- luminate the relationship.s be- disdainful of content in other areas. lems, decisions about professional tween those three domains. practice are baSed on inferior sources. Graduates may decide that knowledge has little to do with practice. Physical education loses resj:wct in the educa- tional community as a field without a knowledge base to guide action.

36 r (ideal Condition Sample Deviation from ideal Consequences of Deviation 6. Program Sequence Either chance or convenierice deter- Students are ill-equipped to learn effi- The order in Aich students en- mines the. or4er of many program ex- ciently. The perpetual complaint "If I counter courses and prActicuriis i§ periences. Concepts which make sense had only known. . .!" or "What is the the result of decisions about which only after a practicum, are provided be- use of that?" reflects the loss of pro- skills and knowledge constitute fore Skills needed to fully profit from a gram impact consequent to poor prog- entry requirements for a sub- held practicum are delivered after its ression. sequent program component. coApletion.-.

7. Specialized Preparation Graduates who will be designated as When graduates without adequate Graduates who are to be desig- competent to work at a particular level training are passed off as prepared to nated as specialists and certified to of school or to serve particular clients render professional service, everyone serKe partictilar client populations are offered only a thin scattering of suffers. Employers are misled, clients are provided with specialized courses and subsequently may obtain are deprived and endangered, the streams of study and field experi,,, certification without substantial field graduate has been cheated and, ence,. practice in the specified area. mately, the program has been de- valued. Problems in Entry, Progress, and Ex,it 8. Entry Points Students diiftnto the prograhi, at any Students forced to waste time in repeti- The prograin specifies particular. point and are permitted to omit impor- tion lose motivation and respect for the points at which students may enter tant program experiences or _are re- program. Students w ho appear in and provides treatment which is quired to repeat work accomplished courses or ,practicums -without entry appropriate to the needs of stu- prior to entry. skills disrupt the training process and dents entering at each point. waste faculty time. Students who skip program experiences may be 'in- adequately prepared.

9. Progress and Completion Faculty have not identifiedthe Students regarded as inadequate by Students who enroll in courses minimum level of learning required for the entire faculty nonetheless become which demand particular entry,safe practice and do not immediately eligible for costly and sensitive field ex- /skills have actually mastered those and unambiguously identify students periences simply because they have skills. Minimum expectations for who fail to reach that,level. Students been passed with marginal grades. achievement in all courses are continue to move through the program Such students may even graduate be7 made explicit and consistently en- as long as they accumulate the required cause there is no serious review of. Torced. Students who graduate can credits, spend the reqUired number of overall competence. The use of credits demonstrate mastery of all essen- semesters and maintain the minimum rather than competence as the currency tialtechnical skills at asafe, grade index. Long sequences of inferior of program operation makes rational minimum level of competence. or incomplete learning-lead just as placement impossible. .surely tograduation as superior achievement.. Nothing in either the program's formal record or the process of certification can discriminate be- tween the superior teaching prospect and the program survivor.

10. Selective Retention Students are not confronted by signifi- Students graduate and seek jobs al- Students are encouraged and as- cant realities about teaC\hing until late in ready knowing that they will not find a sisted in self-selection into or out of their program of studie's when large in- satisfying career. Students graduate the program. Whe'n required, fac- vestments of time and money entrap and obtain positions even though, the ulty take direct responsibility for them into continuing despite negative entire faculty may regard them as in- retaining only those students who experience. Feedback from faculty con- competent or even dangerous to their are suitable candidates for profes- cerning performance is minimal, dif- clients. sional careers. fuse, or evasive. The program provides no mechanism through which faculty can, exercise their responsibility for screening out unsuitable candidates for graduation and certification.

37 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences' of Deviation 11. Interrupted Neparation Despite the fact that a substantial and Students who interrupt their studies Students whoust interrupt their growing number of students leave all make poor decisions about departure studies are ,assisted inp making preparation programs, they are re- and re-entry with consequent frustra- plans for o derly-departure and re- garded as aberrant. No plans are made tion and waste of program resources. turn with a minimum of disruption to ease the process3of re-entry. Per- in professional growth and prog- Sonal development -isneedlessly ress toward graduation. penalized by absence.

12. Placement Graduates with limited or inferior po- The best products of the program faitto Students who show special prom- tential compete for positions in local achieve their full potential. Local ise for advanced study are guided programs onequaltermswith schools are staffed with personnel into_ appropriate oppOrtunities. graduates of exceptional potential. who, because they possess inferior Faculty members act vigorously Local programs persist in hiring physi- teaching 'skills and little or no potential and in concert to influence the cal education personnel primarily in forThe supervisory role, have only lim- placement of promising graduateS terms of coaching ability. Graduates do ited or no utility to the program. Local in positions which control the qual- not continue iheir development as programs of indifferent quality fail to ity or availability of field experi- teachers because they are not directed gain and hold public favorcreating a ences utilized by the program. to and sponsored for programs which negative climate for operation of the provide excellence in appropriate preparation program. forms of graduate study.

13. Follow7up and Support of Graduates Nobody knows how many graduates Opportunities to aSsist the further pro- Contactisretained withall sought or obtained jobs in education. fessional development of graduates are graduates and those entering There is no way to contact recen t missed. Potentially important re- careers in education are followed graduates; many just disappear. No ef- sources are lost to the program through with special care. Whenever possi- fort is expended to make graduates feel neglect. Vital feedback about product ble, faculty visit graduates and tlat they are important to the program performance is ignored. The program provisions are made to offer them 'and worthy of special treatment,and flies blind without information on job special support services when support. placement and market conditions. peeded.

Problems in Program Operation and Development The sense of faculty control-declines as 14. Program Mbnitoring rind Evaluation, No single person or group really knows.. The faculty has reached a working what is going on in the program. In- each person becomes less sure of what consensus on what constitutes formation can be obtained only by spe- is happening outside his or her own successful operation of the pro- 'cial effort, usually in a crisis situation area. The absence of qualitative feed- back deprives the faculty of both moti- gram. Process and product indices such as program review or accredita- of program health have been iden- tion. Courses change, whole compo- vation \and the substantive basis for tified. Individuals or committees nents fail to achieve their intended ob- programdevelopment. Overall pro- responsible for ()Vera]] program jective, important changes are recom- gram quality is not sustained or im- operation have regular access to mended, but no procedure exists to in- proved, and`may decline. It is impossi- _feedback about execution of pro- sure that someone sees the whole pic- ble to provide convincing evidence of gram activities. Efficient proce- ture. Because there is no agreement on program success even when itis dures-collect concise information at how to judge the adequacy of program achieved. regular intervals from each course operation, no one has more than an and practicum.. Feedback includes impressionistic notion of the program's information about which program' quality. objectives have and have not been achieved, what problems have been encounteredand what changes have been made or rec- ommended. Periodic evaluation of this information proVides the basis for program revision.

15 ResourceiCommitment Balance The pfogram operates in a perpetual Faculty are overextended- and become Periodic evaluation and monitor- state of tension as too many students fatigued, less effective, or embittered. ing make it possible to maintain the are admitted, or available resources de- Students receive inferior opportunities three factors of available resources, cline, or the facipty initiates training to learn because of progrSin festric- number of students enrolled, and experiences whi(l'h absorb more re- tions. Necessary economies make .de- program commitments in a rea- sources. velopment of new training procedures sonable balance. impossible.

3 8 e4 3 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of Deviation 16. Flexibility Vs. Orthodoxy Faculty members ignore social changes Discontinuities develop between the Faculty are sensitive to changes in which call for program adjustment. world as it is and the world as itis the needs or characteristics of their Change is.threatening to faculty secu- pretended by faculty..Opportunities to pre-service clients, in what is rity. The established way of doing serve new needs or attract new re-. known about -teaching or teacher things is cherished and protected even sources are missed. Students experi- edUcation, and ih market demand when dysfunctional.Faculty are ence disassociation from the world of for graduates. Prompt change is caught off guard by the changes in their real professional practice. made in the program when hew own students which easily could have needs or opportunities occur. In- been noted in the schools a generation timate contact with schools permits earlier. some prediction and anticipation of changing demands.

Problems Involving Faculty 17. Faculty Consensus and Commttnwnts Faculty do not share a common Set of Some faculty members feel alienated Faculty have arrived at a working program objectives and no effort is from the program and their colleagues. consensus about the core of essen- made to negoti'ate a compromise which Divisive behaviors emerge and mem- tial program goals. Even though permits consensus and group com- bers of the minority fail to support or they may take vigorous exception mitment. The "voting majority" simply even may actively undermine efforts to particular points, 'individ ual fac- exerts its will without effort, to per- they do not approve. ulty members are committed to suade or accommodate members who supporting all program actions de- hold other poSitions. Actions are taken signed to achieve jointly agreed which individuals can't support. upon goals.

18: Models of Professional Behavior Humanistic goals and methods are Pre-service students learn that action Teacher educators exemplify.what idealized in faculty rhetoric while pre- and ideals have no necessary relation- they explicate. Students see in ac- service students are subject to rigid, in- ship in education.- In turn, what they tion the vdlues espoused in the sensitive, and depersonalized ele- do to their students will not be an- prOgram. There is high congruence ments in the program. chored in an explicit and examinable between program means and its system of belief. Self-improvement is ends. impossible under these conditions.

19. Realistic Optimism Faculty take a position of h4al pes- Students are alienated from the world Faculty have an optimistic view of simism about the possibility of\ indi- of which they _must become a part. what a strong teacher can do to im- vidual teacher action to stimulate They are encouraged to. accept what prove school practice and pro- change. The world of work is portrayed they find in practice and program be- gram. Tempered by an intimate as an alien environment with im- cause they have not been encouraged and current knowledge of school penetrable resistance to reform. Alter- to believe that change is possible. Al- conditions, this optimism helps nately, faculty may inspire students ternately, they attempt naive and ill- graduates feel responsible for ac- with reformist zeal without providing a considered reform and when rebuffed complishing realistic reforms. clear'sense of the limits of individual by school realities become confused efforts, or accurate information about ancr discouraged. Ultimately, such the barriers to Change in educational naive graduates beome cynical expo- institutions. nents of the status quo who regard their preparation experiences 4s having been an irrelevant exercise in wishful thinking.

20. Faculty Development' Faculty members expect to continue in Program development is restricted by Provisions are made to assist fac-. exactly the same role they assumed 'rigid definition of fa,culty roles. Faculty ulty in developing //new competen- when kiired. No effort is made to assist lack the time or resources needed to cies needed when the program is faculty confronted with the need to re- master new knowledge or skills, but expanded or revised. Faculty ac- tool for new assignments. Even the in- nevertheless are pressured into ser- cept the necessity for performing timation that faculty members might vice. Faculty who -might provide different tasks ias the program profit from expert assistance in urgrad- superior service to the program fail to evolves. The use of outside re- ing some of their teaching or research so because assistanceisnot sources and exert assistance in skills is resented and rejected. Faculty provided in developing their abilities. upgrading faculty skills is a routine development is a stopgap measure and accepted procedure. taken only after problems have dis- abled the prograrn.

3 9 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of Deviation 21. University Scholarship Inquiry is considered to be a personal Tenured faculty are unproductive be- Where university status demands enterprise .unrelated to the interests of cause intrinsic rewards are inadequate that the teacher educator perform the program, colleagues, or students. to motivate 'the extra required effort. scholarly functions in addition to Productive faculty are expected to carry Young faculty must rob their personal teaching and professional service, a full load of professorial responsibility lives, neglect their teaching, advise- the program accommodates and and pursue research interests on their ment, and professional service func- supports this activity. Special ef- own time and at their own expense. tions,, or simply move on when refused for\tis' expended in encouraging Young faculty facing tenure review are tenure. young faculty to establish career the most heavily burdened with teach- pitterns of productive inqiiiry. ing and service expectations.

Problems Involving Pre-service Students 22, Pre-socialization Effects Itis assumed that whatever students Students feel forced to give lip service Faculty are aware that entering know or believe about physical educa- to ideas and values which are belied by pre-service students already have tion is learned in the program. Deep their' own experience. Without resolu- fully formed value systems and conflicts between program demands tion, these conflicts remain to confuse deeply entrenehed ideas about the and the lessons of prior student experi- students about fundamental issues nature of teaching, schools, stu- ence are ignored or regarded as aber- even though they appear to make satis- dents, and physical education. Stu- rant. No effort is made to alter values or factory prOgresS..through the program. dents are assisted in becoming conceptions which will impede growth aware of this and helped to exam- toward professional status. ine. the consequences of what they believe abbut physical education (see #32).

23. Academic Ability Faculty are ashamed or defensive about Learning is made inefficient by filure The program makes realisticac--. the comparative impoverishment of to make realistic accommodations to commodations to the actual level of academic skills in many pre-service student ability. Failure to deal with re- ability and achievement reprez students. Adjustments in program mediable deficiencies leads to unneces- sented in the population of pre:- schedule, teaching methods, and ex- sary drop-outs. Students think poorly Service students. Faculty are pre- pectations for achievement are not of themselves and faculty feel frus- pared to start "where they are". made, often out of fear of "lowering trated and discouraged when students :Students are assisted in remediat- standards'''. Students are allowed to be- do not live up to expectations for ing deficiencies in' subject matter lieVe that any extension of required academic achievement. and study skills. Students are program enrollment beyond normal helped to understand and accept time to completion is unfair and unrea- the fact that both rernediation and sonable.

, extensionlrepetition of learning experiences require longer time to reach completion.

24.TeachingiCoaching Commitments Faculty ignore the primary orientation Students are unresponsive to efforts to Faculty members are fully aware of their students to .the coaching role prepare them for teaching careers. Poor that many pre-service students re- and pretend-that learning how to teach motivation leads to poor achievement gard cgaching as their primary vo- is everyone's primary interest. and frustration for everyone. Faculty cational goal. Lack of commitment are seen as out of touch with the real to teaching physical education is interests' and aspirations of their stu- dealt with in open and positive dents. ways.

25. Socialization Effect of Stuthmt Culture The powerful socialization influence of Students quickly acquire attitudes, Faculty carefully monitor . the student culture teaches new students values, and behaviors which are cOn- group-determinect perspectives what really matters in the program, trary to their best interests and the held and transmitted by students how pre-service students should think goals of the program. Faculty igno- within the program environment. about preparation and the careers be- rance about this level of program func- Attitudes that are dysfunctional to yond graduation, and what kinds of tion fosters a sense of separation be- program gotals are vigorously con- behaviors are acceptable in the training tween "us" and "them". fronted. context. Some of the perspectives fos- lered within student culture are in seri- ous conflict with central presumptions of the program.

40' Ideal Conk lition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of Deviation 26. Passivity vs. Responsibility Students are largely passive with re- The program is deprived ..of the valu- Pre-service students ta'ke an active gard to the program and completely able contribution's which could be and responsible part in the conduct dependent on faculty for all significant made by pre-service students. Stu- of their own education. They per- decisions concerning their preparation. dents are deprived of an opportunity to form specific functions in the oper- Pre-service students learn that com- praCiice skills vital to their professional ation and developMent of the pro- pliance is the appropriate behavior for a ddvelopment. Rigid definition of sub- gram.Studentresponsibility subordinate client. Faculty are unwil- ordinate/superordinate roles within the grows as they proceed through the ling to share significant responsibility program prevent the emergence of 'program.Instructional,tutorial, for any aspect of program operation rich, intense, and significant relation- and supervisory tasks are assigned an4 remain threatened by student par- ships between faculty and students. as students become ready for these ticipation inevaluation of, program roles. Faculty are active in helping, quality. students make the transition from the student rose' to the teaching role.

27. Stages of Student Concern The studdnt's personal concerns are Because students are repeatedly re- The fact that students enter the considered irrelevant to program func- quested to learn things which seem in- program with sharply different tions. Training tasks often are out of consequential when compared with primary concerns is well under- phase with the student's level of pro- their real concerns, motivation and stood by the faculty. Much pre- fessional development. What the pro- consequent achievement are poor. liminary effort is expended in iden- fessor thinks is of vital importance is tifying and coping with these pri- not what concerns the student at that mary student concerns. Program point in time. tasks are sequenced in terms of a developmental model of profes- sional growth:

28. Love of Active Play Some pre-service students do not like As teachers, these students will be un- All graduates place a high, positive to play or engage in physical activity. able to model the active lifestyle which ,value on active play. The fact that Self-conscious about their bodies or displays the personal joy and deep.re- they enjoy participation in sports, their motor competence, anxious about wards of motor play. The negative in- dance, and exercise will be evident competition, uneasy in ambiguouS or fluence they exert on the lives of their to their students as a model of the uncertain situations, or threatened by students will be subtle and thus par- active lifestyle. the fantasy element in play, such stu- ticularly destructive. dents may acquire a high level of skill in both motor performance and pedag- ogy, but their fundamental distaste for exercise and play is evident.

-. 29. Personal Fitness Some pre-service students have poor As teachers, these students will be un- All graduates place a high, positiife habits of personal health, inadequate able to model the 'advantages and re- value on personal fitness for an ac- physical capacity for skill acquisition in wards of a personal fitness program. tive lifestyle. Their attention to activity courses, or an evident attitude Such teachers are unlikely to convince maintaining personal health and of unconcern for the physical image others to believe that successful par- specific capacities needed for work which they will project to their clients. ticipation in a play activity is always and play will'serve as a model of Students may graduate still ignorant of possible at the price of the required fit- commitment to and informed con- .basic health principles, uninforMed ness level. Such clients remain forever cern about personal fitness. and uncritical as consumers of prod- limited by a rigid definition of their ca- ucts related to health and fitness; and pacity. uncommitted to a life-long regimen appropriate to tileir fitness needs.

Problems Related to Program Content:Motor and Analytic Skills- 30, Play Skills Students acquire playing competence Unprepared to perform a reasonable Graduates can play with reason- in only a few activities, or fail to master rangeof, teachingassignments, able competence and demonstrate basic skills in the activities which they graduates have difficulty obtaining the key elements of basic skills in a will teach. employment. As teachers these stu- wide range of play activities. dents provide inferior instruction and th'iair clients fail to learn sufficient skill to enjoy -the activity.

4 1 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of Deviation 31. Perception' of Movement The program provides no attention to Students are unable to assist learners Students can see individual ele- the task of develOping skill in observing through the provision of accurate feed- ments of movement within com- motor performance. Students obtain back. incorrect analysis impedes the plex Performances. They know only vague or highly general impres- process of correction and skill de- how to accurately observe and sions when they watch complex velopment. have had extensive practice in the movement. They are unable to pick out skills of movement analysis (see specific elementc within a motor pat- #39). tern. Their reports of movement are often inaccurate.,

Problems Related to Program Content:Values. 32.. Clarification of values -Students are not aware of their values Lacking clear and specific information The program 1.ovides opportunity in areas central to the teaching role. The about what they believe, students are for studentS to identify and clarify program does-not provide the kind of unable to examine their professional their already'existing values about sensitive, expert help needed to con- behaviors in terms of their intentions. critical elements in physical educa; front personal attitudes and their con- Their work as teachers,.betrays confu- tion (for example, play, competi- sequences for behavior. ,sion and inconsistency. tion, cooperation, freedom, com- pulsion) (see #22).

33. Program Value Commitments The program is not noted for espousing Graduates perpetuate destructive prac- The program faculty share strong a Orticular commitment on important tices in physical education simply be- commitment to particular value issues in physical education. Faculty cause they have had no opportunity to positions in physical education. regard it as inappropriate to attempt to develop a clear sense of personal values The program is designed to influ- influence the personal beliefs of pre- .on these issues. ence what students feel and believe service students. Faculty either have'no about several Matters of -vital im- strong convictions or display conflict- portance to physical education (for ing values about What is desirable in example, racism, sexism, and the gymnasium. elitism in the gymnasium).

Problems -Related to Program Content:Skills of Instructional Design 34. Preparing Educational Objectives Students have only a hazy conception Instruction ,pot based on clear and Then program provides extensive of the possible objectives for physical explicit objectives is often a random opportunity for students to iden- education. They often confuse ends collection of activities which do not tify, select, and articulate .educa- and means and have difficulty com- move the client toward desirable ends( tional objectives. Students under- municating their educationai inten-' Teachers without /explicit objectives stand the impotonce of having tions to others. The objectives of pre- may select activities simply to fill the clear objectives and can use them service students are so vague as to be available time. Because 'administrators in a variety of formats as the basis useless in designing instruction. perceive the lack of clear and believable for designing instruction. Faculty educational intentions, physical educa- consistently use behavioral objec- tion loses priority in planning and im- tives as the basis for planning and plementing school curriculum. evaluating courses and prac- ticums.

35. Designing Instruction The program provides only piecemeal As teachers, graduates must operate at The pr,ogram provides opportunity exposure to the elements of instruc- half power because they are unable to to acquire theory ahd practical skill tional design without integration -or organize and control the full range of in the planning of units and les- serious opportunity to practice the factors needed to produce a_ powerful sons, designing learning environ- Skills involved. Students have no sense instructional design. ments, and selecting instructional of how educational intentions, cur- .methods. riculum content, teaching method, physical environment, and evaluation fit together.

42 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of Deviation

36. IVlaintaining Congruence of Objectives Practicu'rn'experiences tend to focus ex- Students employ methods of instruc- and Methods clusively on narrow technical questions tion Which prod tiee' effects directly con- The program provides opportunity of instruction rather than attending to trary to their intentions. Because they for students to practice creating, basic Matters such as the match be- are not sensitive to this problem they implementing and evaluating in- tween educational intentions and ac- are often ineffective without 'knowing structional units which reflect con- tual decisions about how to teach. why. sistent relationships between ob- jectives and the methods of teach- ing employed.

37. Managing Instruction Pre-service students do not learn how The classes of graduates are filled with The pro-gram prOvides opportunity to utilize time-saving methods. Their meaningless activity such as waiting, for students to practice the skills clients spend excessive time on tasks moving equipment, role-taking, lining require.d to efficiently manage other than learning. up, unproductive teacher talk, and learning activities.Graduates off-task student behaviors. Students make maximum use of available practice less, learn less, and have less -time and waste little on housekeep- satisfaction with what they receive in ing. physical education.

38. Influencing Learner Behavior The program centers primarily on the Graduates attempt ineffective or ineffi- The program provides both thetSry content of lessons and desirable ar- cient methods of influencing their stu- and extensive practice in the skills rangements for instruction without giv- dents' behavior. They find themselves of influencing human behavior. ing equal attention ed specific methods in the tlangerous position of not know- Students have command.of a rep- teachers can use to alter_student behav- ing exactly how to get students to do ertoire of skills with which to influ- ior: Topics such as reinforcement, what they want. If learned by trial and ence what learners do. GraduateS shaping, .and modeling are left at the error on the job, these vital teaching can maintain good class order, ded1 theoretical level and not translated into skillS will be bought at the price of great with deviant behavior and elicit tools for practice. Graduates do not frustration and personal trauma, if they high levels of cooperative student know how to obtain desired student can be acquired at all.

behavior. . behavior and in consequence, have dif- ficulty with class discipline, motivating effort, and eliciting positivelorms of student interaction.

39. Recognizing Learning Problems Students acquire personal skill withOut Because they are not able to anticipate The program provides extensive also obtaining insight into the prob- learning problems, graduates are inef- opportunity for students to acquire lems commonly encountered by learn- ficient in designing and implementing

knowledge of the most common ers. There is little opportunity and no lessons. Failure ts.to recognize and cor- problems in learning basic skills. encouragement to practicethe skills of rectly diagnose problems in perfor- Students can readily recognize and diagnosis and corrective intervention. mance makes itdifficult to facilitate diagnose the causes. of incorrect learning. Lack'of appropriate interven- performance. When correction is tion stfategies makes it impossible. appropriate, they can draw from a When student clients don't achieve variety of intervention strategies significant skl learning, physical edu- (see #31). cation loses credibility as a school sub- ject.

40. Evaluating Learning Students associate evaluation with test- Graduates use tests inappropriately or The program provides opportunity- ing and all testing with terminal grad- inefficiently. Client achievement can't for students to acquire and practice ing. They do not learn to view evalua- serve as a resource for Motivating effort the skills used in monitoring, tion as a continuous gburce of student or assessing teaching effectiveness. In- measuring, and evaluating the feedback ,and teacher guidance. Stu- formation is not available for planning achievement of learners. SiudentS dents do n9t know how to select and better actiVities. The teacher may be know how to follow client learning administer tests. There is no opportu- unaware that little or no real achieve- on a daily basis as a means of mak- nity to practice the design of teacher- went actually occurs. ing regular adjustments in instruc- made measures, develop performance tion. graduates know sophisti- charting,systems,communicate catedlterngtives to letter grades achievement information to learners, and understand the limitations of involve students in self:evaluation, or 'terminal evaluation. use test data to revise instructions.

1

43 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of Deviation 41. Self-evaluation The program does not emphasize per- Graduates do not struggle to improve The program provides pre-service sonal responsibility for effectiveness. their effectiveness as teachers. Lacking students opportunity topractice Students believe that the learning of skills in the use of methods for self- the skills needed to assess their their clients is largely under the control evaluation, they must rely on the in- own teaching. Self-monitoring and of external factors rather than the spe- frequent and often ineffective assis- correction of their own behavior cific -i--'iA-ture of their own teaching. tance of supervisory personnel., through the use of empirical pro- Models of self-evaluation are neither cedures are re§ponsibilities ac- presented as program content nor cepted by all graddates of the pro-_ modeled by faculty. gram.

42. Skills for Changing the Schobl Pre-service students have no real idea Graduates are first confused and then Students are provided with a rela- of who controls what is in the schools or overwhelmed by the complex and tively sophisticated understanding how to infltience the way things are. S'eemingly impenetrable nature of of power and influence within the The program makes improvement of power relationships in the school. education system. They acqpire practice a revisionist assignment for After abortive attempts at changing and practice simple skills for induc- graduates, but neglects to equip them things they retire from battle and com- ing change in the school setting. with the tools required for this difficult plain that improvement is imp6ssible Graduates are(inclined to believe and delicate task. because "that's how it is in my school". that with patience and careful work they can improve physical educa- tion by changing how the school op- erates (see *45).

43. Instructing Special Students Pre-service students never have en- Graduates are unable to effectively The program makes adequate countered students with special needs. cope with mainstreamed studen ts. provision for students to work with They have not practiced the skills of They fail to meet the needs of special clients having specialneeds. integrating special students into the clients and are uriable to represent Graduates have learned methods learning activities of a regular class, physical education in the process of de- of instruction adopted to special and_ are ignorant of the demands man- signing individualized education pro- learners and practiced some of dated by federal statute with regird to grams. them in clinical settings (see *44). education of the handicapped. Problems Related.to P.ogram Content:Knowledge 44. Knowledge About Learars The program does not differentiate Students simply do not know what The program provides opportunity among types of learners and is not de-. their clients are really like. They will for students to acquire factual in- signed to provide encounters with a often' inappropriately project their own formation about learners:, their wide variety of clients. Students must experience in learning motor skills onto growth, development, characteris- depend upon their own limited experi- clients who have luite different charac- - tics, and educational needs. Both ence to cope with differences in their teristics and needs. Physical education courses and practicums are de-- clients. Students do not understand which is not appropriate to the indi- signed to sensitize students to the either the possibilities or limitations in- vidual learner is inefficient at best and differential impact of age, sex, cul- herent in different developmental destructive at worst. ture, and physical -capacity on stages, cultural backgrounds, or ability motor learning and play. Students levels, understand the general nature of emotional, cognitive, and physical limitations and. how they impact the learning process.

45. Knowledge About Schools Students have little information aboUt Their unsophisticated ,views of social The program provide§ opportunity how schools really operate or why they and political relationships within the for students to acquire factual in- are the way they are. Acquired largely school and between school and com- formation about the school as a'so- from experience as students, their un- munity leave graduates unable to make cial political, and economic in- derStanding of roles and relationships sense out of much they experience in stitution. Students develop an ac- in the school is incomplete and danger- daily work as teachers. Because they curate picture of the roles played ously inaccurate, are unable to identify sources of control by various individuals in the school for various school functions, graduates community. Courses and pra,c7 are deprived of much potential influ- ticums are designed to make stu- ence over decisions which impact their dents sensitive to the differential vork. impacf of community .enViron- ments on the natuie.of schools (see *42),

4 4 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of De iation 46. Knowledge about Pedagogy The program provides only general Graduates are deprived of aense of Pre-service students have oppor- maxims about good teaching, and membership and participationn the

tunity to study pedagogy as an are'a 7 training in task-specific methods. Pre- area of knowledge and inquiryost of theory and substantive knowl- .service students remain ignorant of closely related to their daily work. T ey edge. They are aware Of alternative both the body of research concerning will be unable to resist the powerful models for the instructional pro- pedagogy in physical education and forces of school soctety which teach the cess, current topics of debate about the rich resource of theoretical models primacyef personarexperience and in- effective teaching, and recent re- which integrate knowledge about formal exchange of folklore in attempk- search which bears upon their teaching. ing to understand teaching. Systematic work. inquiry will be seen as futile and teach- ing outcomes as capricious and myste- rious.

47. Knowledge from Social and Biological Students remain dangerously ignorant Graduates _will have no appreciation Sciences about the impact of exercise stress on for the significance of play in human The program provides opportunity body systems. They are unable to intel- experience or the elegance of design in for study in sciences which are ligently talk or read about the systems human motor systems. They will be foundational to exercise and play. which subserve vigorous movement. unable to provide their own students Pre-service students acquire a In short, graduates are uninformed with accurate information about exer- Ilroad background of information about the stuff with which they will cise and play. They will lack informa- concerning the structure and func- wprk throughout their careers. tion vital to the design of training regi- tion of the human body, the place mens. of sport-in society and the social and psychological meaning of play activities.

48. Education in the Liberal Arts Faculty devalue the general studies Graduates are ignorant in whole areas The broad and liberal education of core and provide inadequate assistance of the human heritage. They are dep- each student is held as a responsi- in course selection. Experience in other rived of the joy and meaning found in bility shared by the program. areas of ludic expression are neglected. art, music, history, and science. What- Skilled individual guidance is Program components are designed to ever their professional competence, provided in course selection. In- compete with liberal studies. ,they have an inferior education. As tegrity of the liberal arts compo- teachers, these graduates will not nent is protected and supple- interact on equal terms with the rest of mented by program-related re- the school community, thus increasing quirements. the isolation of physical education from the main stream of education:

. , 49. Knowkdge About Careers in. Physical tudents have unrealistic notions Graduates,disappointedbythe rduca t io n about the nature and rewards of careers realities they dis aver in the schculs, The program provides information in teaching. They have little factual in- become another statistic in the dropout about careers in physical education formation about alternative careers in rate for young teachers. Some stay in whkh is current, accurate, com- physical education. the program when they could have prehensive, and carefully articu- selected other, more satisfying careerS. lated to decisions which pre-. service students must make:

Prt,hlems Related to External Articulation of the Program 50! Local Influence of the Program Faculty have no contact with local pro- Faculty are unable to exert positive in- Faculty retain close contact with grams. They lack credibility as experts fluence on policy and practice in sites ' physical education in local set- in teaching practice. They are regarded needed for field experience. It is ,dif- tifV. Practitioners regara faculty as critical or threatening figures who ficult to establish the cooperative rela- members as competent in profes- lack a realistic understanding of school tionships needed for quality control in siohal matters and use them as re- problems. practicums. Students sense a gulf be- sources fdr information or special tween the program and the "real skills. world".

45 Ideal Condition Sample Deviation from Ideal Consequences of Deviation 51. Involvement of Significant Others The program is designed and operated Inferior decisions about program are Individdhlswhose interest are im- without the advice or participation of made when important sources of in- pacted by the operation of the pro- I people who have interest in the process formation and expertise are ignored. gram or the nature of its products or the products. Faculty in foundation Individuals who control needed re- .are consulted and involved in de- subjects and other preparation pro- sources are uninformed or alienated. sign, operation, and evaluation. grams, local practitioners, school ad- The program is isolated from the envi- ministrators, pre-service students, and ronment in which it must operate. graduates are placed in the position of powerless outsiders.

52.,Institutional Complementarity Programs are expanded into areas of Scarce educational resources are Rational planning is used on a state preparation already served byother in- wasted through duplication and ineffi- or regional basis to insure that stitutions. Programs are initiatedwith- ciency. The quality of new physical needed programs are encouraged, out realistic appraisal of whether re- education teachers is impaited because duplication is avoided and: func- sources are adequate to meet long term existing programs are not adequately tions i!re placed where . they can. needs. Programs are retained which supported. best,be supported. are not cost-effective.

Problems Related to Practicum Experiences 53.Practicum Experiences: Logistics Tile number of accessible sites is in- Vital field experiences are restricted in The *number .and types of prac- adequate to absorb all of the pre-service number and kind. Without practice, ticum sites are sufficient to meerall students who require4practicum expe- teaching skills are inadequately de- of the program's training needs. riences at any one.time. Students have veloped and without reality testing, Available experiences include a too much exposure to a single type of students are left unsure or overconfi- wide variety of types (field intern- practicym. Students -may have no op- dent. Visitor saturation may produce ships, micro-teaching, simula- portunity for practical experience at negative reactions in practicum site tions, on-campus teaching, and crucial points in their development. personnel. Significant program re- pet+ teaching). Faculty are in a po- sources may be diverted into place- sition to create artful combinations ment of students in sites distant from \ of experience in which the factors the immediate area. of expense, time, control, and- eCological validity are traded in log- icarpatterns. \.. 54.PracticUm Experiences:,Quality Con- Sites do not provide models of desir- Pre-service students experience sharp trol able program or teacher behaviors. dissonance betWeen the content of the What students encounter at most There is little or no opportunity for stu- preparation program and what they practicum Sites serves to reinforce dents to practice the skills urged by experience in the real world of work. many of the values expressed in program training. Practitioners pro- This results in confusion or discreditin-g the program. Much of what they nounce 7rogram goals to be unrealistic. the vision of physical education es- see is congruenr,with what they poused by program faculty. have learned. Cooperating teachers are aware., of program goals and attempt to provide con- gruent learning opportunities for' pre-service students.

55.Practicum Experiences. Indiviilualiz- Supervisory faculty are not sensitive'to The student'sprogress toward mastery ing the developmental status of the indi- of the teaching role is disrupted by the The program provides a variety. of vidual pre-service student. Upiform disenchantment of unchallenging practicums which permit gradtial expectations for teaching performance routine or the disabling anxiety caused assignment of responsibility at a often demand too much too quickly, or .by demands which exceed capacity.. paCe consonant with the develop- too little too slowly. Many students never achieve a safe ing capacity of/the individual stu- minimum level of coMpetence in basic dent. teaching functions. When graduated, such students are a lethal threat to the program and to theirclients.

4 6 .,Limitations and Assumptions 6. Pre-service students entering teacher preparation are often racist, sexist, among the least able in In the program described in the next section we did academic skills, pursuing. a secondary career not attempt to deal yith any of the following matters: choice, __primarily interested in coaching, not inservice teacher education; preparation of nort- committed to teaching, and often motivated by teaching personnel; generic teacher education re-. co'ncerns other than career preparation. quirements mandated by state law; general core re- 7. Pre-service students must learn and practice'spe- quirements peculiar to each institution; required study cific Skills, for changing the behavior of their in the educational foundations peculiar te some in-' clients. Teacher preparation is in part, a training stitutions; preparation of undergraduates for graduate task. study in a discipline; state or regional accreditation or 8. Teaching is more than the process of instruction. certification requirements; the approval, of faculty col- Pre-service students must also be prepared to per- leagues in academic disciplines; the sWdy of academic form important executive and interpersonal tasks disciplines in physical education as Liberal Arts. The proper test of the utility or this model is noi as well. whether or not it could be implernented, .intact, in an 9. :Much of the cognitive content required for prepa- ration should be embedded within the subject existing college or university. The more., appropriate- question is "do elements in this approach to teacher matter of physical education (physically active preparation seem better designed to deal 'with the play). Performance skills, instructional skills, and nature ocpre-service students, the reality Of teaching, foundational knowledge should be learnql con- and the historic problemsof preparing teachers, than currently. This will presume activity courses which include both academic and pedagogic content and , other ways of attempting that task?" If the answer is "yes", then the exercise has been. worthwhile. which make extensive use of closstly articulated Listed as a set of competencies, all of the possible self-instructional modules in a learning center. expectations for the role of physicalyducation teacher 10. To the degree possible the program should em- constitute an impossible set of skills for anyone to ploy capital-intensive technologies with sel f- master: Likewise, listed as a series of problems,- all-of paced learning and quality constant standar-ds as ;the difficulties encou,ntered by teacher preparation the vehicle for instruction. Labor-intensive uses of programs constitute an impossible set of demands to faculty should -be restricted to the subject matter Confront ,perfectly with any program design. Con- core and practicums. sequently,;if the first task for a teacher education fac- 11. There must be regular and substantial opportunity ulty is to.establish some sense of order and priority in for intensive, mutual involvement of faculty and the multitude of possible expectations which could be students in:the subject matter of physical educa- .held for their students, then the first task for the pro- tion. Joint engagement of faculty and students in gram designer is to determine which of the many active play should be a formal part of the program, probleins must be,con fronted' most directly. The fol- as should joint exainination of values and social lowing,list of assumptions reflects our priorities as we concepts embedded within these play experi- began the task of building the Subject-matter-centered ences.' . program. Some of these assumptions receive direct 'Support from the researeh literature, and all were dic- 12. ;There must be carefully directed opportunities for tated by our experience as teacher educators, examination and clarification of personal values, I. Play activities in the form of sport, ganies, dance, particularly those related to interperSonal rela- exercise, and outdoor activities are the .subject tionships in play an,d teaching.. Within this con- text, and throughout the program, the faculty matter of physical education. 7 2. The primary purposes of physical education in must espove a single coherent position, with re- the schools is to help students master the subject gard to sexism, racism, motor elitism, and multi- culturalism. matter and to increase their tendency to engage in physically active play. 13. Knowledge from exercise science and social sci- 3. Development of commitment to the task of teach- ence as applidd to sport, play, and the process of ing and the shaping of teacher values are the most schooling must be communicated early in the pro- important tasks of profeSsional preparation,. gram sequence. 4. The interests and caabilities of faculty constitute 14. Performance skills must-be developed beyond:the a primary limitation on what can be accomplished introductory level and must cover a range of ac- within any program desiAp. Their consensus on tivities appropriate to the level and type of teach- basic queStions in physical education is essential if ing certificate to be sought. 4a program is to function effectivdy. . 15. Practicum experiences must be a part of many, 5. The school as a social institution and the role of the program components, whether through service ini teacher within the School are primary realities on-campus physical education, the importation of which must guide the design of preparation. learners for use in micro-teaching, use of peer

47 teaching, simulation activities, or field work in universitY requirements, general professional study schools or agencies. requirements, or electives. Aga.-1, this is not because 16. Identification of learning problems, practice in ob- we view these matters as unimportant. Rather, it is servation and analysis of movemenLand the use because w.e understand that the physical education of 'interventions for correction should be part of 4 unit is but one of many faculty groups which exerts every activity course. influence over the broad components of under- 17. Graduates must be prepared to provide effective graduate study. In consequence, the unit can affect service for a wide variety of clients, including such components only marginally, and then only over ri4instreamed special education students. fairly long periods of time. Thus we have chosen.to 18. The Cooperating teacher is the crucial actor in the focus on that part of the college/university ex,perience process by which neophyte teachers learn "how- which most easily can be controlled by physical educa- to-d6-it" in the school environment. If they are --tors, the requirements4or the phygical education not specifically working to achieve program goals, major within the physical education unit. they will work:bgainst the intentions of the pro- The particular version of the model shown herb is __ _ gram. r- designed for a physical education major requirement of approximately 50 semeSter hours, distributed across 19. While the time constraint imposed by the four- 7 semesters. While numbers of academic credit hours year .tindergraduate program must be accepted as and semesters/quarters available are potential con- a given in program design, some students cannot straints, with appropriate expansion or reduction, this graduate without substantial work beyond 8 model could be implemented for either a four- or semesters, and others should have the option pf two-year program. The table which follows displays ".an earlier exit from the program. credit allotments for each course assuming a seven- semester distribution. Nine features of the model will be explicated to A Subject-Matter-Centered Model anticipate certain questions and to stimulate others. The nine features follow: Since we have argued that the subject matter of 1. The use of physical education activities as.organiz- physical education is motor play activity: it is logical ing centers for the curriculum; that a program designed to prepare teaching profes- 2. The intensive' Entry Core experience for all majors sionals in this subject matter should be designed beginning the program; around activity courses. What follows, then, is a cur- riculum model in which organizing centers are physi- 3. The Learning center; cal education activities, where curriculum as a course 4. The faculty/student Continuing Seminar; of study is defined primarily by a series of activity- 5. The physical education Activity Sequence; oriented experiences. 6. The common agendum for all teachers in the activ- Assumptions about important elements to which ity sequence; program models must respond require us to examine 7. The Initial Internship; curriculum at two levels other than that of a "formal S. The Client/Context Seminar accompanying the course of study". Curriculum can also be viewed at a Culminating Internship; sysfenkic level as the effects of the _entire physical, ,Z5 social, 'and academic setting upon individual de- 9. '.;he creation pf an influence system designed to velopment-. Thus, from the macro-perspective, some- shape student commitments, beliefs, and values. thing can be said about the contexts within which the model should b'e operated. Still another view is that of Subject Matter as Organizing Centers the "functional curriculum", the degree and manner Perhaps the most striking feature of the curriculum to which the individual student interacts with sub- model is that the organizing centers are physical edu- ject matter during the formal course of stiidy. At the cation activities, i.e., itis subject-matter-centered. Ex- level of this micro-perspective, a common agendum cept for the activity foci in the Entry Core, we have left for all courses within the model program will be advo- the activities unidentified so as not to prejudice the cated. conferees with personal preferences. When it is recogz The purpose of this section is to describe the pro- nized that the Entry Core includes four activities, and gram as a course of study, to identify the organizing that students then proceed through a five-semester centers, to explain certain features which might run sequence in which they enroll in eight more activity- contrary to the ways in which university prOgrams centered courses, then the degree to which the model typically function, and to show how the model reflects is subject-centered will be appreciated. our sense of appropriate attention to the priorities of teacher education in physical education and the prob-, Entry Core lematic elements to which all programs must respond. The Entry Core receives 12 semester, hours .credit The model does not attend to general college/ and acts as the initiation period for the studententer-

48 ' Table 1. A subject matter-centered physical education teacher education model.

Entry Physical Education Major Entry Core.(12)* Semester ,Activities: Outdoor Pursuits, Fitness, Football, Movement Fundamentals Entry + 1** Activity A Activity B Faculty/Student' Learning Beginning Beginning Continuing Center (2) Level (2) Level (2) Seminar (1) Entry + 2 Activity A Activity C Continuing Learning Advanced Beginning Seminar (1) Center (2) Level (2) Level (2) Entry + 3 Activity D Activity C Continuing Learning Beginning Advanced Seminar (1) Center (2) Level (2) Level (2) Entry + 4 Activity D initial Internsiiip (4) Continuing Leaming Advanced Seminar (1) Cether (2) Level (2) Entry + 5 Activity E Activity F Continuing Learning Beginning 'Beginning Seminar (1) Center (2) Level (2) Level (2) v Entry + 6 Culminating Intern Ship Client/Context Seminar (2) *Credit hours. **First semester after completion of Entry Core. ing the major program. It is designed to be intensive tially available for the Entry,Core. This time should be and intimate'so fhat faculty and students can form a "blocked" so as to provide flexibility in scheduling foundation of relationships which can be built upon in various activities. subsequent semesters. The activity foci in the Ent% Core are Outdoor Pursuits, Fitness, Football, and Movement/Education Gymnastics: The activities were Learning Center chosen because they appear to be particularly Throughout the program;capital intensive methods well-suited for beginning articulation of the knowl- are utilized to help students acquire cognitive content, edge base foundational to physical education with the while labor intensive methods are devoted to skill subject matter itserf. For example, and these are meant acquisition, practicum experiences, and shared to be suggestive rather than/exhaustive, the personal/ faculty/student experiences. ' The capital intensive fea- existential dimensions oVsport and sport ,instruction ture appears in the program as a five-semester, con- can be explored fruitfully through wilderness ac- tinuous Learning Center involvement for two credit tivities. Fitness activities can be tied neatly to the study hours each' semester. Major content is hierarehically of exercise p,hysiology and kinesiology. Football, in all sequenced and fitted; as much as possible, with the of its'international forms, repregants a series of ac- activities being offered during any, given semester.- tivities through' which to examine the socio-cultural Most of what is typically taught in physical education implications of subject matter. Finally, Movement major courses (professional and disciplinary) is pro- Fundamentals and Educational Gymnastics lend grammed througfi the various technological resources themselves to a host of foundation areas including of the Learning Center. Clearly, thelecture is a method human development, motor developinent, movement eschewed in this model. analysis, aesthetics, and others. The Learning Center utilizes explicit, sdf-paced The Entry Core would, also be used to introduce learning modules with clear objectives, appropriate students to the major pedagogical features of the cur- learning aids, and criterion-referenced standards em- riculum, namely the Activity Sequence, the Continu- ing Seminar, the Learning Center, and the*Praica. Each of these elements, which appear more clistinc- 'Labor intensive simply means that the task depends on competent tiyely as the program develops, are embedded. in the people and the time they spend directly engaged in performing the task; generally, the more people available and the more time spent Entry Core. Since physical education activity courses on the task, the better the outcome. Capital intensive, as used here, are appropriately viewed tobe;/ithin the "laboratory" simply means that the task depends on a substantial initial invest- ment in the form of space, equipmentlearning programs, and rather than the "classroom" Nnfiguration in univer- system design, followed by an operational phase in which the sities, they typically, *arrant two contact hours for outcome depends on the quality of the initial investment, rather each credit hour, thus making 24 contact hours poten- ,,, than extensive use of competent people and their time.

49 54 plpying frequent mastery-checks for adequate student cial populations. Regardless, a primary feature of the feedback on progress, status checks for faculty coun- model is that the major defining focus is activity, and seling, and sumrnative information for program rede- that performance skills, instructional skills, and re- sign. Faculty involvement in the Learning Center is lated foundational knowledge will be learned concur- primarily that of instructional design with on-call rently within these activity-Oriented experiences tutoring and discussion leadership where appropri- In the 'version of the model shown in the previous ate. While it ,inight be ideal to program much of this figure there are six activities taken subsequent to the ma teiial on `a PLATO learning system, there are Entry Core, in which th-ere are four activities. Thus, a pumerous less expensive InodelS available indUding student preparing'in this version would cornplete a the Keller Method, auto:tutorial materials and CBTE minimum of 10 activity experiences (more might be systems, all of which havesbeen thoroughly tested and taken through elective options). Activities A, C, and D found compatible with the model proposed here. The are 'tudied through the advanced level for two con- Learning Center is meant to be a place (more about the secutrve semesters. Activities B, E, and F are taken at kind of place it should be will be indicated later).It the be nning level only. Thus, this version of the should be open often, particularly at times convenient model e sures fairly skilled performance and instruc- to students. While this requires some staffing, we do tional skills in a minimum of seven activities (including not believe it necessarily requires professional in- those in the Entry Core) and beginnkng level skills in volvement on a regular basis. three others which, taken along with capabilities which mar6x students have at program entry and Continuing Seminar others acqUired through elective .options, suggests The Continuing Seminar is that time when faculty that the gradnating student would indeed possess a and students are directly and intensively involved in broad range of performance and instructional skills, the subject matter together, i.e., they play together. much more 'so at ,least than is typically acquired This might take 'the form of intra-program intramur- through many current prop:am models. als, learning a new game together, outdoor adventure experiences, or any of a host.of other relationships that are possible within the play context. This also is a time Common Agendum _when they may talk together in ways that are designed to minimize the hierarchical relationships that develop .1.t is in the Activity Sequence that the functional bntween faculty and students, a time "to explore per- curriculum is attended to-directly, where Certain sonal values regarding sport, competition, practice, codicils are adoPted which affect the degree and na- ethics, and related issues. ture of contact the individual student has with: the The Continuing Seminar is a regularly scheduled subject, matter in the course of study. It is important part of the curriculum. It iS. not extracurricular. It is that the program act as a. faithful model for the designed to be a 2-3 hour block, perhaps on a Friday pedagogical philosophy embraced by its rhetoric' and morning when students and faculty gather together to evaluated as its intended Outcomes. To achieve a take part in planned ediica tional experiences, just as a strong modeling effect, a common agendum is pro-. dramaliaculty might together with students produce a posed for the Entry Core and subsequent activity se- play, or a music department might together with stu- quence. Designed and executed as the common obli- dents perform as a band, woodwind qyintet, or a jazz gation of all PrOgram faculty, the common agendum eAemble. Skilldevelopment is not to be neglected here is defined from the student perspective and for our version of the model appears as follows. here. The experience is seen as a natural variant of the major organizMg centers, the activities pf physical For each play activity the student must: education, and as such receives one credit hour per 1. Learn to perform all skills and master all playing semester. conventions at the beginning level. 2. Make substantial progress on intermediate skills Activity Sequence and assimilate higher order strategies. The Activity Sequence is most likely to be defined by 3. Learn to identify appropriate educational goals specific activities, that together constitute the subject and learning progressions for successful learning matter of physical education. Thus, one might find based on Client characteristics. courses in badminton, swimming, lacrosse, gymnas- 4. Learn how to organize and manage, instruction so tics, team handball, and others. But, it is conceivable as to optimize client interaction with the subject that certain courses might be defined by some broader matter within a nurturant class climate. composite labe.i such as.outdoor play, which might 5. Learn to recognize and analyze common leawing include hiking, camping, Climbing, and orienteering. problems at individual and systemic levels. Or, certain activity courses might more appropriately 6.. Learn a repertoire of intervention strategies spe- be defined through a client focus, such as games and cific to the learning problems and an analysis of dance for the young child or fitness activities for spe- their causation.

50 . _ .7. Learn the technology of the activity (equipment, ,of a general:professional course requirement. The Be- aids, facilities, and resource materials). ginning Internship is designed to provide a more ex- 8. Leafn the specific safety and fitness demands of tended and intensive physical education teaching ex- the activity, including a variety of training regi- perience at least two semesters prior to the Culminat- mens appropriate to different clients. ing Internship. Not only can teaching skills be further 9. Learn the nature and status of the activity in con- shaped in the Beginning Internship, but the experi- temporary culture (who plays it, when, where, ence can beused in subsequent semesters to breathe trends, place in the school curriculum). life into the Learning Center activities in a way that 10. Practice planning instructional skills in a prac- much better prepares the student for the important ticum. culminating experience of full participation in the teaching role. For both internships, the major is as- 11. Practice soeial interaction skills in a practicum. signed to a public school teacher or agency prOfes- This common agendum, althOugh defined from the sion al who has been specifically prepared fo serve as a student outcome perspective,/clearly implies that the change agent in directions that are congruent with Entry Core and Activity Sequence must be taught in a program goals. This person becomes a clinical teacher marmer thal is congruent with the intended outcomes, educator in the most real sense and is the major source i:e., nurturing climate, succeSs-:orieriled progressions, of in fluence in this important drama. University high rates of time on task and experience with a wide supervision is viewed as back-up, on-call service range of correctiveintervenhons. oriented to the practitioner/teacher educator, who as- .During any given semester, faculty teaching courses sumes the primary responsibility for the intern. in the activity sequence md/st also be thoroughly famil- iar with the tasks concur4ently programmed in the Client/Context Seminar Learning Center, be they/ modules on legal liability, The Culminating Internship is accompanied by .a characteristics of the phYsically handicapped, expla- Client/Context Seminar, the primary purpose of which nation and application oi biomechanics to movement . is to help the intern better understand the nature of the analysis,or methods 6f criterion-referenced mea- school as an institution, the forces which foster or surement in the schools. Tasks programmed in the prevent change in education, and the skills necessary Learning' Center will be designed so that certain as- signments require students to utilize what 'they are to be an effective change agent. The Client/Context doing in their activity sequence to complete the as- seminar should include clinical faculty whenever pos- sible and should be linked to the internship in a mean- signments: Faculty will also integrate the -Learning Center materials with daily work in the activity se- ingful way, for example, by having as a major project . the creation of change in the practicum.site, i.e., start a quence._ , sport club,. introduce a new activity, utilize a new teaching method, or employ community resources in a COntinuing Seminar different way. An alternative project, equally well- During anV given semester, majors will be at differ- suited to the purpose of the seminar, woild be for a ent levels in \the prjogram, depending on when they cluster of interns to uqdertake a participant 'observa- completed the Ent& Core. But, the Continuing Semi- tion study of some aspect of the working school soci- nar is for the entire faculty and stutient population, ety. wherever they miOht be in the program or whatever their assignme t might be for that semesier. While Systemic.InfluenCe certain experien ein the Continuing Seminar might While the proposed model might accomplish much be designed for sden ts/hichlty who are in a particular if implemented only at th course of study level, and part of the progr (thatiis, a tournament for students perhaps even more if the prosal were attended to at and faculty in then try fr 2 semester, or a New,Games the level of the functional curri ulum, the model can- experience and d scusslion fer those Working in the not achieve its full potential unless attention is also Entry Core), the eerience is primarily intended to be specihcally directed to the systemic level, the degree to shared at the systeitlevel and to provide program- which the contexts- of the program as'a whole are wide integration fculty and students. designed to effect change in those who com in contact with them. This is particularly true if one ta es seri- Beginning Internship ously, as we have done, the notion that commitment During the'Entrly+ 4 semester there is a Beginning to the task of teaching and the shaping of teathe Internship in a schhol'or agency setting. This does not values are high priority items in teacher education (se suggest that this Will be the first reality experience for Assumption 3). The."school" was once routinely c7x- the pre-service ticher. Practica Of some kind are to be pected to influence students' beliefs in certain d/ i ec- associated withe Entry Core and each of the activity tions. A few private schools and colleges still attp.mpt sequence course . In many institutions the student to do that today, although a vast majority of educa- would also have ad an early school placement as part /tional instituhbns have withdrawn from all pre ense of

r

I effecting change at the systemic level, partially be- that many different Models might be developed which '. eaustritis-often 0.101/Olt to-be-um-eahstic-and par ttally are alsli connstent with the set of reality constraints because tt is sometimes thought to be improper. We identified. While it is intriguing to examine the model feel that such influence is ndt only realizable and ap- more closely and to respond lo questions about it, we propriate, but essential as well. Teacher education also encourage that attention be directed toward the programs must operate at the systemic level if they are assumptions on which it is based and the reality con- to make a significant impact on their graduates. straints to which it responds. As a result of careful While iis no doubt true that we know less about readings by colleagues and questions asked by con- how to efiect change at the systemic level, we suspect ferees, the following issues are explicated more fully. that there might be widespread agreement about some necessaryipre-conditions for programs to exert influ- ence over student commitments and values. The Con- Program Evaluation tinuing Seminar is clearly an intended effort to exert A professional preparation program centered upon such behavioral influence through deliberate attention the subject matter of physical education would be no to program context. The following additional sugges- more and no less difficult to evaluate than other train- tions are offered as other kinds of arrangements that ing models. Process .e\ialuation would deal with seem to be reasonable pre-conditions for exerting sys- measuring the degree to which a given institution was temic influence;(they are illustrative rather than successful in maintaining the general environment of ex ha ustive): systemic influence and the requisite mechanisms for t Physical education faculty and majors ought to the program's operation.. Some of those conditions share a common locker room space that is reason- and mechanisms are explicitly made in the preceeding ably. well-appointed, appropriate to professionals description; while others are implicit in the problem and pre-professionals involved together in an im- chart and list of assumptions. Product evaluation portant preparation process. would be concerned with the exit characteristics of graduates as well as with their subsequent- employ- 2. A student/faculty lounge should be provided for ment and performance records in the field. Evaluation informal meetings and as a gathering place. of this latter type hinges on the intentions of the pro- 3. A departmental library/study room (perhaps as part gram as expressed in the objectives which shaped its of the Learning-Center complex) should house cur- design and guided its operation. To the degree that the rent professional periodicals and other items of in- subject-centered model is a generic p'roposal created terest both to faculty and students. . with the primary intention of increasing program im- 4.If possible, a Studentlfaculty lunchroom should be pact, without specification of program objectives, dif- developed and maintained as a pleasant place to ferent institutions would be expected to employ dif- meet and share time. ferent criteria.for product evaluation. These standards 5. Students and faculty should attend professional would reflect the particular dispositions of the resident meetings together as part of a planned pre- faculty. To the degree that thernodel proposed in this professional socialization process. paper reflects a particular set of concerns, presump- To expect that student values will be changed with- tions, and commitments (those of the three authors), it out some sense of shared intimacy and mutual respect is possible to identify some of the broad standards is Unrealistic. If the program does indeed, as we dlich would.be used to evaluate success or failure for suggest it should, openly espouse value positions on, thtarticular version of the model. Assessment of stu- sexism, racism, motor elitism, .and multiLculturalism, dent exiting the program and follow-up of graduates then these places and times of shared intimacy are %vould we priority to four clusters of characteristics: probably more potent change settings than the more 1. Mastery

ter academic tasks. -) Commitment JLiching (see Assumptions 2, 3, 6, as well as Problem Chart items-24, 32-33, 38). Discussion 3. Possession of a reperttf pedagogical skills, practiced and secure at the safe miniNon level required for begin- We have attempted to define a set of primary ele- ning professional prctice (s'1'ick,Assumptions 7,8, 15-17 as well as Problem Chartitems 2, 34-43, 46, ments that all teacher education programs must attend to, and to suggest a model which does indeed attend to 53-55)., them whilei also reflecting Our:personal convictions as 4. Realistic knowledge about professional roles, workplaces, physical educators and teacher education specialists. and clients (see Assumption 5 as well as Problem The model we have developed is consistent with our Chart items 19, 22; 42, 44-45, 49). understanding of the subject matter of physical educa- In each of these clusters it would be necessary to tion and our knowledge about the realities of prepar- identify behavioral indices through which to assess ing teachers. We must reiterate our strong conviction student achievement. Some of these measures wOuld

52 . . be as obvious and straight-forward as a Sport skills In the broadest and best sense of coaching as teach- test. Others might be as subtle and indirect as the use ing in an educational program which extends the pur- of a semantic differential test to record changes in the poses of physical' education, the model is an ideal connotative and denotative meanings assigned to sex setting for the preparation of coaches. For the many and race related cOncepts in the motorplay setting. graduates who will find employment in the dual role of teacher/coach, the values and commitments which Faculty are central to the program should be invaluable in As -suggested in Assumption 4, the interests and avoiding the serious forms of personal conflict and capabilities of faculty members constitute the primary program dysfunction which so often accompany the limitation,on implementing any program design. The dual vocational arrangeme-nt. In the narrifWe-r sense problems presented for-faculty in the operation of the which defines the coach as a highly skilled technician subject-matter-centered model are not different from without commitments either to education goals or to a the generic difficulties hoted in the Problem Chart unified 'school program of play education, the pro- (17-21). What is different lies in the strenuous de- gram would be dysfunctional, wasteful, and entirely mands for faculty consensus in designing and imple- inappropriate. menting such a program. At every point the assump- tion has been made that 'individual members of a fac- Learning Center ulty can come to working agreements on sensitive and The Learning Center houses all of the substantive Often controversial educational issues. Given this, it is content normally found in courses for the major stu- clear that recruiting new faculty with skills and dispo- dent. The knowledge base for this model is different' sitions particularly attuned to the program would rep- than but not less than that for a traditional or a resent a far less important strategy than staff de- discipline-oriented program. Content would draw on velopment procedure's designed to help existing fac- disciplines such as the sociology of education and in- ulty form themselves-into a community with the ap- structional design in addition to relevant materials propriate range of skills and shared value commit- derived from physical education sub-disciplines. ments. The technology required for such development Since the Learning Center utilizes self-paced learning activities is in common .use throughout the business modules as a primary instrUctional format, it is con- world, government, and Other areas of education. ceivable that each student could have a slightly differ- Even in an economy of scarcity, the cost would not be ent program, reflecting differing needs and interests. prohibitive provided faculty development was held as Certainly, the modules completed by a major specializ- the first priority in creating an effective program. ing in elementary physical education would differ markedly from those completed by a student inter- Specialization and Options ested in secondary certification. As indicated in the section which lists the limitations Horizontal articulation in any given term between imposed on this brief program description, no attempt experiences in the Activity Sequence and modules has been made to deal with the question of non- completed in the Learning Center would be mediated teaching options. The subject matter was specifically by activity instructors who would be familiar with the selected with teaching physical education in the Learning Center program. This articulation would be schools as the training goal. Other progiam objectives- further enhanced by having Learning Center assign- (for example, preparation for prOfessiOnal positions ments that would be completed through experiences involving adult fitness, or the study of sport as a liberal in the Activity Sequence. arts approach to undergraduate education) would in- Horizontal articulation is made easier by the fact that volve both distinctly different subject matters and dif- the entire substantive content of the major program ferent assumptions about the nature of program influ- can be vertically articulated in the Learning Center. ence. , The total material for the major would be sequenced Whether any portion of the subject-matter-centered hierarchically and programmed in small modules model would be helpful in planning nbn-teaching op- without the need to worry about "courses". tions is beyond speculation. There are two questions concerning specialization within the model, however; which demand consideration here. First, could the model accommodate the specialized preparation re- Afterword quired for tedchers at elementary, middle-school, and secondary levels? The answer is that all three should From the beginning, the completion of this assign- easily fit into the model given appropriate adjustments ment has been a labor of love. There has been the fun iti the content of the Activity Sequence and the Learn- and warmth of working with valued colleagues, the ing Center. Second, can the model accoModate the satiSfaction of rethinking our collective experience as preparation of coaches for interscholastic athletics? teacher educators, and the job of creating a new vision Here the answer must be qualified in terms of the which might free us from some ,of our most painful \definitim given to the coaching role. constraints. Many might wonder, as did several con-

53 ferees in Chicago, how much playfulness entered into tives in a formal preparation program. Physical educa- the design of the subject-matter-centered model. In tors are not alone inthis dilemma. In counselor educa- other words, just how serious are we in propOsing this tion it is widely known as the Krathwohl-Carkhuff model as an alternative for the preparation of physical Paradox, the notion that there are certain skills, par- education teachers? This deserves an honest answer. ticularly in the affective domain, which while neces- The title of the paper, and thus the'na me given to the sary for siiccessful practice are either impossible to model, makes perfect sense to us. But, we must also achieve_or inappropriate to explicitly state and deliber- confess that it was selected as a bit of good fun. Our ately teach in training programs. colleagues in the aradeluic-diseipline4ike-te,-ttrink o t is for this latter reason that one ought to carefully themselves as stewards of the real subject matter of separate arguments that are directed toward "can it be physical education and in this bit of earnest folly make done" from those that are directed toward "should it themselves natural targets for such leg-pulling. Aside be done"-. The "can it be done" arguments are easier to from- the fun we had with the title, all else _was seri- deal with simply because they are amenable to both ously taken. The model is offered as our best and most logical and empirical evidence. The "spr61d it be honest appraisal of what would constitute an appro- done" arguments are much stickier. NonethelesS,, they priate strategy to reform the nature of teacher educa- need to be raised and raised quickly. A i.ecent \Time tion in physical education. article heralded the demise of schools in this culture In the final analysis, we suspect that many in our and one educator has characterized our esponse to profession might agree with our analysis of what is the present crisis as "shifting deck chairs on the thought to be important and necessary in preparation Titanic". We are convinced that physical e 4ucation in for effective professional practice in physical educa- the public schools requires dramatic improvment and tion. Yet we also sense that many who might so agree the best way (perhaps the only way) to cange the would also have serious doubts about both the pos- nature of physical education in the schoolis to im- sibilities and the prOprieties of teaching and measur- prove teacher education. It is to that end thatthis effort ing these knowledge, skill, value, and attitude objec- was directed.

54 A Disciplinary Model for a Curriculum in Kinesiological, Sciences

Burris F. Husman David H. Clarke David L. Kelley Department of Physical Education University of Maryland

i. . / Introduction Definition of the Field-called PhysicalEducation Physical education is that field whLse body of The Kinesiological Sciences program was designed knowledge focuses upon and is deri ed from the to satisfy a need. It was felt that physical education in study of human.movement, exercise,port, and the general, and the Physical Education Department at curricular practices and methods of tea hing this sub- Maryland in particular, were not offering the breadth ject matter in a public school setting. A though it hasa of service of which they were capable. We were turn- long history of use, our feeling has b en that there is ing away a large number of students who wanted to nothing sacred in the name Physica Education. On study our subject matte-r but had no desire to train for the contrary, its use as an umbrella term to broadly teaching in the public schools. It was the conviction of describe our ever-changing field is becoming less and some of Our faculty members, therefore, that our sub- less appropriate. Consequently, if ome bettername ject matter must serve in a capacity beyond that of could be adopted, it would appear a pro priate to iden- preparing students for a single occupation. Just as tify separate but related curricular jaths which lead to music may be studied for its own sake and for teaching separate baccalaureate degrees rather than theae- it, the "human movement scienges and sport" have cumulation of a series of options', under one degree much to offer as a core around which a basic bac- designation. Thus the teacher preparation program calaureate education can be fashioned. Thus, the pro- would continue under the name Physical Education gram which resulted was designed to impart to the whatever the new umbrella term for the department student a scholarly understanding of the human being might be. Others, with different 'aims and thrusts, ashnindividUal, engaging in the motor activities of mould be labeled to identify their special natures. Our daily life which serve as an expression of his/her physi- Kinesiological Sciences program is an example of such cal and coMpetitive natures. a separate bachelor's degree program. No carefully designed curricular mOdel was. Con- sulted when the program was originally organized. Definition of the Field called Kinesiological Sci- We conceived of our approach to_be the development ences. Within the broad definition given in the pre- of a curriculum which identified human movement ceding paragraph, we, have partitioned a subfield and spoit as the subject matter core and set about to called Kinesiological Sciences which limits its focus of bring together Hie then presently available courses as attention to the human movement sciences and sport. well as new onesIo cover the knowledge base as best In partitioning out the irOolvement with pedagogical we could. No spedal decisions were made as to matters, significant additional time is available to pur- whether or not our approach was to be cross- sue and emphasize disciplinary approaches to the sub- disciplinary vs. interdisciplinary. We simply .orga- ject matter and provide increased elective flexibility. nized a plan whereby the University's resources, out- SpeciarAssumptions. The program was developed in side and within our department, could be utilized in accordance with the following assumptions. It is as- an intelligent manner to satisfy stddent and faculty sumed that: interests.If such a classification of our curriculum were required of us today, the only reasonable re- 1. There is an audience ready to join in the study of. sponse would be that it demonstrates both characteris- such a curriculum. tics; we primarily believe it is a cross-discipline ap- 2. The special body of knowledge is sufficiently de- proach. veloped to support such a curriculum.

55 Go 3. The program can meet the needs of today's stu- for a curricujun? 14.12ich_seel6 to motivate high leyels of dents with their more diversified interests and student scholarship, for the introduction to and appli- backgrounds. 'cations of recent research findings is an .absoliiffly 4. The program can strongly encourage interdiscip- necessary corn ponent of programs with :disciplinary linary activity. emphases. If the students are then given the opportu- .5. The parent department can assimilate the addition nityto demonstrate their own independent of such a program without undue strain. capabilities for conducting investigative work, the un- 6. The science-based program can be adequately dergraduate, educative circle has reached closure. supported by laboratory facilities.- Three divisions, named Curricular Studies, Sport Studies, and Biophysical Studies, have_been orga- 7. The faculty can provide the enlightened advise- nized to encompass the sulaject matter interests of our ment which is required in. a program with exten- field (see Figure 2). Referring once again to Figure 1, sive elective flexibility. the Curricular Studies division of Figure 2 consists of 8. The, program can encourage the beginnings of Administration, Curriculum and Supervision, specializations. Teacher Education, and Adapted Programs. Sport 9. The program is flexible enough to include future Studies encompasses flistory, Psychology, and "emphasis options" on the general theme without Sociology of -Spork. Biomechanics-Kinesiology, requiring the awarding of a separate degree. Physiology of Exercise, and Motor Learning make up 10. The program can make special coritributions to the Biophysical Studies Division. Departmental pro- preparing students for acceptance into advanced grams sample from these three:divisions to construct study in_ graduate and professional schools. the scope of their coverage. A program which samples 11. There are reasonable possibilitie for employment equally from tlie three content divisions would be diagrammed as in Figure 2a.;This sort of program is .for the graduates of the program. P. The program rnakes no claims as to preparing seldom offered in physical education departments. graduates for specific employment. The :more common case is one which finds the selec- tion of content skewed to meet special needs. At Mary- land, the two undergraduate program emphases may be depicted as in Figure 2b,.the solid circle represe,nt- The Plan ing the B.S. in Physical Education (Teacher Prepara- tion) and the dashed circle representing the B.S. in The organization of the subject matter sources un- Kinesiological Sciences. As woullci be expected, the dergirding the field presently called physical educa- Kinesiological Sciences program emphasizes biophys- tion is ,seen to follow the plan depicted in Figure 1. ical and sport matters with very little attention paid to -Assume that a small circular disc is centered over its curricular matters. larger mate:' The large disc identifies the traditional subject Matter field of knowledge. The small disc iden- tifies the subject matter concerns specific to physical education. On its periphery are the "specializations"' zooi-owi contained within our field while its center identifies 0/NeeIC S / the core elements 61 the kinesiological sciences. If the small disc is permitted to rotate about its central axis, 0° el0414.0,9, 15, the subject matter specializations witlyin physical edu- OV cation can be placed to adjoin any of the traditional 1?090* 44./Os 8 CO' Cool. kr subject matter fields so that "information passage" V routes between them- and the kinesiological sciences mc c0 M Oce 1:1 z . a Human. m - core are develOped. As a result, we see ourspel . z _4 40 aX Movement cializations acting as information and application. fil- -J r -4 & Z C 0. ters, giving the foundational information coming to Sport the student from the traditional fields the urimIstaka- 7.1)...1 1O- 9. 0?" ble and unique hues characteristic of our special inter- -v)qs.tT ests. IWOdS AO The filtering function noted above must not be AO010100S thought to be a passive process. Rather, it is an active 44'oe4,49 process in that our courses do more than simply re- move matters beyond our specific interests. They in- AHAOSOINd ,007°°3 troduce new knowledge, embellish and_manipulate it between and within the specializations, and set it up for scrutiny in light of what has been 'learned in the traditional disciplines. This is particularly important Figure 1. Organizational plan for sUbject matter sources.

56 C4_ From the beginning, a -bothersome problem con- The roblem arises with the term professibnal and all cerning the wfifing of thi8---pal5eYhas been-the seeming that i ,impliregarding fhe cliaraaeristics of a profes- mandate to categorize our program under the rubric of sion. There is no clearly-identified-profession- professional preparation. We have no quarrel with the ponenf in the KinesiologicalScience program, that is, term preparation as long as it may be broadly thought no professional mission as traditionally defined. We to mean the study of and mastery of a subject matter. see the \ program as being similar to liberal arts pro- grams where no specific employment automatically awaits the graduate. Certain 'career directions have been established nonetheless, and they are covered in a later section of this paper. The program's orientation- is both theoretical and technical. To av,oid the seemingly endless task of de- scription, perhaps the best way to present the inter- play, of theSe characteristics is to include a short pas-- sage from Thomas Mann's; The Magic Mountain, which establishes the hoped for appreciations which can be derived from careful study.

"...He had learned in his technical school about statistics, about supports capable of flexion, about loads, about construction as the advantageous utili- zation of rnkhanical material. It would of course be childish to -think that the science of engineering,the rules of Mechanics, had found application in organic nature; but just as little one might-say that they had been derived from organie nature. It was simply that the mechanical laws found themselves repeated and corroborated in nature ...The thigh-bone was -a a. Key A Large Circle crane, in the construction of which organic nature, P.E.body of knowledge by the directionshe had given the shaft, carried out, Small Circle to a hair, the dame draught-and-pressure curves Program sample (he) hadhad to plot in drawing an instrument serv- ing similar purPose ... Heenjoyed the reflection that his relation fo the femur, or to organic nature. generally, was three-fold:it was lyrical, it was medi- cal, it was technical... It would be possible to establish certain emphasis options which could require field experiences. If these necessitated the alteration of the basic_program as it is outlined in Section IV, and these experiences contrib- uted substantially to the development of specific job qualifications, then a bona fide professional cbmpo-_ nent of the prograin would exist. We have consistently a voided any tendencies, which are very marked within the profession of physical education, to act as an employment agency. Consequently, our energies can be given, unabridged, to the task of dealing with the basic subject matter.t should be noted, however, that all ,Kinesiological S iences students are encour- aged to volunteer servi e in our Sports Medicine- Physical Fitness Center,egardless of their inclina- tions towa rd specia liza tioi s. Performance skill, as p ,rceived in the traditional Key B , physical education prograi 1 emphasis, is- almost en- P.E. program .firely- absent from the Ki esiological Sciences pro- K. S. program gram. Six credits in activitk s courses are required of the students. These experie ices are included not for Figure2.Physical education-body of knowledge and pro- the usual teaching, coachin,and skill development gram samples. reasons, but to jgrovide movL -lent background which

1 57 may be brought to bear in theory courses where the The only exit requirement, other than the Unimer, actual mechanisms of the active human being are sity's 2.0 (C) average for all Bachelor's degrees, is the :.-.Audied,ror-exarn-ple, if gelf-an-d-gymnastiLs aLtivittes-Independenr:Studies,seminar. This senior level were elected, it will be apparent within the physiology course is described in the program section that fol- of exercise course that strength and endura,rice train- 14s., ing elements for optimum performance cat4fer widely In Maryland it is legislated that every University between the two. The societal importance placed upon -program be articulated with all 'other college pro- the two activities in our culture will become evident in grams. An assistant to the Vice-President of Academic a sport sociology course. Similarly, the historical and Affairs has articulation records for all community Col- philosophical consequences of the differing develop- leges. Community college counselors as well as faculty mental.patterns toward "professionalism" of the two advisors know what courses are acceptable to our pro- activities will be appreciated. Since mbst of our stu, gram:Since the elective credit in the program is high, dents come to us with rather wide backgrounds in with careful counseling it iS relatively yasy to adjust physical activities, we always try to steer them toward the transfer student's program to our Kinesiological activities beyond their original experience. If they Science program with minimal loss of credits.Itis si-iould improve their performance skills and learn often more difficult to accommodate transfer students something about- skill vrogressions during these from within the University, out-of-state,or from courses, so mUch the better, foreign couhtries. Regardless, since there areso Many electives, careful advising is necessary if the student is to successfully complete the requirements in four Entry and Exit Requirements years. The importance of enlightened advisemera cannot be overemphasized.. There are no special entrance requirements for this program except an, abiding interest in the human a movement sciences and sport. The entrance require- The Program ments of the University are applicable to all Bachelor's degree programs. At the University of Maryland it is Recently the basic program has been substantially not Possible to establish special entrance or retention revised. Although the .new requirements have not requirements in specific programsunless approved by been fully implemented, that process is only a for- the Board of Regents and the State Board of Higher mality. The recommended sequencing of course work Education; and then only in those programs where for the new program is given below, followed by sec- there is overcrowding or insufficient resources. tions which explain several of its special requirements. Table 1. FreshmanYear Course Title Credit *ZOOL 101 General Zoology 4 *MATH '110 Introduction to Mathematics 3 *CHEM 103, *104 General Chemistry 4,4 PF-IED '181 Fundamentals of Movement 2 NUTR 100, Elements 'of Nutrition 3 Activities See program sheet 3 Univ. Studies 'Req. See University Regulations 6

Total 29 Sophomore Year Course Title Credit ZOOL 201, 202 Human Anatomy and Physiology 4, 4 *PHys 121 or *141 Fundamentals of Physics 4 *PHED 287 Sport and.American Society 3 CMSC 103 introduction to Computing 3 Activities 3 Electives 3 Univ. Studies Req.

Total 33 *These courses may, be applied to both major requirements and University Studies Requirements. NOTE: For those students with highly defined social science interests, the CHEM 103 and104 requirement may be replaced by suitable social science courses. See ,-our advisor for selection.

58 :p junior Year Course Title Credit pHED 400 Kinesiology 4 PHED 381 .Advanced Training andConditioning 3 .. *PHED 350 Psychology of Sport 3 Restricted Electives See program.sheet 12 Univ. Studies Req. 9

Total 31 Senior Year

Course , Title Credit f PHED 493 . History & Philosophy of Sport and P.E. 3 *PHED 360 Physiology of Exercise 3 *PHED 385 . Motor Learning & Skilled Performance 3 PHED 489E Biomechanics of Sport 3 PHED 496' Quantitative Methods (Statistics) 3 pHED 497 Independent Studies Seminar 3 Electives 9

Total 27 Grand Tota1120 Courses Especially Recommeniled for Election Course Title PHED 451 American Women in Sport PHED 461 Exercise and Body Composition PHED 487 Physical Education and Spott-in Contemporary Cultures PHED 293 History of Sport in America PHED 489L International, Aspects of Sport HLTH 285 Controlling Stress and Tension . HLTH 456 Health Problems of the Aging and Aged *These courses may be applied to both major requirements and University Studies Requirements. NOTE: For those students with highly defined social science interests, the CHEM 103 and 104 requirementmay be replaced by suitable social science courses. See your advisor for selection. Restricted Electives categories. Often the Physiology and Kinesiology A minimum of twelve ..credits (nominally four categories are a chosen pair. Similarly, the Psychology courses) is chosen from a prepared list of courses and Sociology pair are often elected. Since this is an which has been subdivided into seven categories. electiVe process, any combination of two may be cho- These categories are: Physiology; Kinesiology; Psy- sen. chology; Sociology; History; Philosophy; Measure- The emphasis behind this requirement is to encour- ment and Statistics. Seven lists of appropriate cofirses age additional specialization after the student has been have been prepared from the University catalog, one introduced to our program and a number of its intro- for each of the listed categories, by department faculty ductory courses. In this way, the subsequent require- members who have related specializations. ment of choosing an Independent Studies Seminar Courses from the following departments are in- (PHED 497) research problem as the culminating expe- cluded within the specialization categories. rience of the program, is facilitated. In addition, greater depth of subject matter penetration on an in- 1. PhysiologyZoology, Chemistry, Biochemistry, terdisciplinary basis is encouraged. Engineering, and Nu trition. University Studies Program 2. KinesiologyMathematics, Physics, Engineer- ing, Anthropology, and Zoology.. During the early 1970's, submitting to student pres- 3. Measurement and StatisticsMathematics, Educa- sures, the University of Maryland developed a Gen- ,tional. Measurement, Computer Science, Psy- eral University Requirements program which was al- cholbgy, and Sociology. rpost wholly elective and consisted of 30 cretdits. This program replaced the old General Education Re- The remaining categories (History, Psychology, and quirements Program which was' very similar to such Sociology) contain courses which are limited to those' programs throughout the United States at that time, departments. that is, a traditional.sampling from theestablished and Two from these seven are elected as areas for stu: venerated disciplines, including physical education. dent specialization. Two. coursesare then selected Very recently, the University has instituted a new frOm the courses listed under the two Chosen University Studies programfor all students which

59 closely reserhbles the original General Education pro- 11. The Uses and Abuses of Anabolic Steroids gram. The new program entails the completion of 12. Aggression in Sport 39-40 credits, distributed as follows: 13. The Heart Differential in the Palmer Area of the 1. Fundamental Studies Forearm During Various Intensities of Isometric a. English Composition 6 Credits Exercise h. Mathematics 3 credits 14. Knee Joint Ligament Stresses and Strains Using 2. Distributive Studies the NASTRAN Model a. Culture and History 6 credits b. NatUral Sciences and: Mathematics 6 credits To demonstrate further the nature of this program, it c. Literature and the Arts 6 credits was suggested that the course content of several d. Social and Behavioral 'Sciences 6 credits courses be included. Below are to be found two ab- 3. Advanced Studies (upper bivision) 6 credits breviated course outlines for PHED 350, Psychology of Sport, and PHED 360, Physiology of Exercise. For the Independent Studies Seminar sake of brevity, listings of laboratory exercises have A number of curricula in universities today require a not been included. The knowledge base for the con- culminating experience where the student demon- tent of these courses is research. strates a particular depth of knowledge in a part of the general subject matter. The Independent Studies Course Objectives: PHED 350=Psychology of Sport Seminar was designed to give the student, under the To explore the personality factors, including, but not careful guidance of the faculty, an opportunity to de- lImited to motivation, aggreSSion, and emotion, as they velop (research) a major seminar paper in an area of affect sport participation and Motor skill performance. their own choosing, i.e., in one of our specialization Unit Headings areas. The project, when completed, is submitted in 1. Introduction to the Psychology of Sport duplicate, written form and is presented to the semi- nar ,r/hich is open to faculty and graduate students as 2. Attitude and Character Change Through Sports well: The completed papers are'kept in the department Participation library so they may be studied and consulted in the 3. Personality and Sports and Physical Activity same manner that is typical for.Master's and Doctoral 4. Psychological Problems of Outstanding Athletes theses. The students in the seminar also have the 5. Social Facilitatiohand Performance opportunity to participate in presentations given by 6. Body Image,. Self-Concept, and Motor Perfor- selected graduate students, members of the faculty, mance and invited guests. Since this course demands very large quantities of time, it is recommended that no 7. Emotion, Activation, Arousal, and Performance more than 12 credits be carried durihg the semester it is 8. Anxiety and Performance _taken. Below is an abbreviated list of seminar research 9. Motivation-An Overview project titles which demonstrate the breadth of inter- 10. The High Risk Athlete est covered: 11. Mental Health, Social Adjustment, Life Quality, 1. Justification of Salaries Received by Superstars in and Sport Baseball and Basketball 12. Academic Achievement, Intellectual Peror- 2. The Efficiency of the Oxygen Debt Mechanism as a mance, and Sports and Physical Activity Function of Level of Fitness 13. Aggression and Violence in Sport 3. The Leer Ski Injury: What Research is Telling Us 14. The Coach and the Athlete 4. The Need for and Implementation of High School- 15. Perceptual Characteristics of the PhysicallyActive\ Athletic Training Programs' 5. The Roles of Essential Nutrients in Athletic Per- Course Objectives: PHED 360-Physiology of Exercise \ formance The objectives of the course are to provide the stu- 6. The Geographic Origins of Maryland Athletes dent with an understanding of the physiological ad- 7. History in the Making-Title IX: Flow One justments of the varioug systems of the body as man County School System Has Handled Change engages in physical activity. It is designed to study the systems of the body as they interact with each other in 8. The Effect of Hypokinesis on the Aging Process: response to the stress of exercise, to examine the Focus on the Locomotor System chronic effects of exercise and conditioning on the 9,Analysis of Injuries in Basketball: Male Versus various physiological parameters of the body, and to Female reveal the adjustments that are made in response to 10.. A Comp_arison of Womon's Athletics in England exercise in changing environments. and the United States, 1920-1925 'Unit Headings Ilnte:rest in this paper has been so widespread that approximately 1. Work and Energy 150.copies of it have been distributed to professionals throughout the United States. 2. Muscle Stimulation and Contraction

60 o Skeletal M uscle4--S tructure,T--ypes_oECon traction withthe sameames offeredby same physic aLeduc 4. Energy Transformation in Muscle tion departments where the fundamental subject mat-' ter is touched upon only for the purpose of applica- 5. Metabolism and Respiratlory Quotient, tions. 6. NIutrition and Athletic Performance One very interesting result of our course emphasis is 7. Energ-S, Metabolism and Oxygen Debt that students from other disciplines within the univer- 8. Work and Mechanical Efficiency sity are enrolling p our courses. In the past this was" 9. Oxygen and Carbon Diwdde Transport rare. In fact, we were always sending our studenis to 10. Transport of Gases in thE, Blood absorb "good things" from other departments without demonstrating any real drawing power forour own 11. Respiration °theory courses. One reason for this influ3( of outside 12. Blood and Circulation students into our theory courses, we believe, is that it 13. ,Cardiac Output is recognized that our subject matter is now available 14. Blood PreSsure to them without the former, ini'O'minable emphasis on 15. Physiology of Physical Conditioning 'pedagogical matters. We believe this interaction will do more to establish an enviable discipline-oriented reputation for our department than most other efforts that might be Chosen for iMplementation. Matters of Interaction With no clear prpgressional mission for the pro- gram, Kinesiological Sciences is more akin to liberal The Department of Physical Education is one of the deprtments contained within the College of Physical arts and sciences programs than education, recreation, Education, Recreation, and Health. The College is and health education. No binding relationship, there- fore, exists between these professional fields and our placed administratively within the University in the program. In fact, if any trend is developirctg with w- Division of Human and Community Resources, along gard to how khe univerSity scees u?, it would be as an with the Colleges of Education, Human Ecology, and emerging science. A continuafion of this discussion is Library_ Si Information Services. Of the 18 degree- to be found in. the section concerning Implications. granting programs of the DiVision, all have profes- Our program depends heavily on the traditional sional missions except Kinesiological Sciences. disciplines for background and stipport information. The Kinesiological Sciences program is 'adminis- However, these ancillary disciplines for the most part, tered under the aegis of the Assistant Department do not research or teach the relationships between Chairman who is responsible for all undefgraduate human movement and sport and their disciplines, so programs. The Kinesiological Sciences Committee is there is little or no overlap or duplication of course the policy-making body for the program and its rec- ommendations are forwarded to the Department content. Executive Committee for action. A similar committee serves the Teacher Preparation (Physical Education) Program Evaluation program. The two undergraduate programs th US have equal status in the department structure. To date there Since all gracIuating seniors are required to complete have been no problems arising from the interactions the Independent Studies Seminar, it has been the between the two,programs. practice, since the inception of4he program, to spend a As is clear from the material in the program section, number of class meetings evaluating every aspect of the curriculum in Kinesiological Sciences isolates and the program with the students. Not only are the physi- consolidates the body of knowledge commonly called cal education courses eValuated, but the courses in the physical education into a discipline,, i.e.,it pulls it ancilliry disciplines are also critiqued and evaluated. together under the title, Kinesiological Sciences. A Courses and requirements not making a significant number of courses serve both the Kinesiological Sci- contribution to the program are replaced by others ences Program and the Physical Education Teacher more cogeni and workable. Thus evaluation is an on- Preparation Program. These courses are: PHED 181, going, continuous process. Fundamentals of Movement; PHED 360, Physiology of One measure of the program's success has-been its Exercise; PHED 385, Motor Learning and'Skilled Per- continued growth. It was approved by the Board of- formance; 141-IED 381, Adianced Training and Condi- Regents on September 21, 1973, and by the State Board tion,ing; RHED 493, History and Philosophy of Sport Higher Education on January 4, 1974. It was late 'and Physical Education. One important way these April, 1974, before the program could be,implemented courses differ from those at other institutions which vithin the department. table,2 demtinstrates th6 offer only a teacher preparation program in physical steady growth of the program. education is that our courses strongly adhere to the It is gratifying to note that students come to us from fundamental_subject matter, with performance and diverse backgrounds. We have had students transfer pedagogical applications offered only where they are to Kinesiological Sciences frorn nursing, biological sci- absolutely necessary. It is not unusual to see courses 'ences, pre-medicine, pre:physical therapy, health, li- r. I, 61 LItJ Table.2. Growth of the Kinesiological Scie.ncesprogram._ competencie. The elective flexibility of the program makes this feasible, while careful and enlightened ad- Semester - Year Total visement makes it happen. Spring 1974 3 Fall 1974 15 Spring 1975 23 c. Fall 1975, 39 Implications Spring 1976 30 Fall -1976 28 Of particular value to us is the continuedhigh inter- Spring 1977 48 est of the students toward the program. They tell us, Fall 1977 .43 that the content of the program istconsistently interegt- Spring 1978 53 ing and, on occasion, exciting.1 Communication be- Fall 1978 65 tween students then passes this same informAtion Spring 1979 81 along to eventually publicize the program as a worth- Fall 1979 91 Spring 1980 while enterprise. For example, the University recently 108 host1 a Science Career Day in which high school sophomores were invitedvto visit science departments and learn of their programs. pf the 400 students who brary science, and-even horticulture, to name buta participated, 35 specified an interest in the Kinesiolog- few. ical Sciences program and joined us for discussions of Those students w,ho have sought employment im- the program as well as in tours of the facilities. Thus, in mediately upon graduation have been generaBysuc- the minds of future students, present students and the cessful, with jobs ranging from chief technician," Exer- perceptions of the University, the Kinesiological Sci- cise Cardiology Laboratory, Georgetown University, ences program seems to be taking its place next to to coordinator of tennis programs at a year-round re- Astronomy, Chemistry, Entomology, Physics, etc., as sort community, to executive trainee in the YMCA a program with, interesting science content. organization. Although we know the whereabouts Of equal importance is the recognition given to a -'and activities of most ofour graduates, no formal number, of our theory courses. Five PHED prefix study of their involvements has been undertaken. It is courses have been selected as applicable for Phi Bet obvious that as our list of graduates grows over the' Kappa. Thiee of these courses and two others have years the task of staying abreast of their work pursuits been selected as eligible for meeting the Distributive Will become more and more difficult. Unlesssome Studies requirements of the'ne.w University Studies systematized fe'edback plan is implemented to gather program (see the section on programs). In our Division that information, knowledge of their activities will be of the University (Human and Community Resources) very limited. For a list of those employment opportu- 11 courSes were so selected from the offerings of the 18 nities available to graduates, refer to ourpaper, "A degree-granting programs. With. 5, of those coming Kinesiological Scienceslirogram", in-Alternative Pro- from the Department of Physical Education, we feel fessional Preparation in Physical Education, AAHPERD that the desired recognition of our subject matter's Publication, P979, p. 51. placement in higher education is on firm footing. Another indication of the program's success is the The phenomenon called the Kinesiological Sciences- degree to which it.satisfies the special assuMptions program has made it clear that we, indeed; are making listed in the introductory section of thispaper. It is our significant strides in the development of an academic belief that all have been satisfactorily met. Weare discipline which stands secure by ykue of its own particularly proud of the successour graduates have unique subject matter, a coherent subject matter \ had entering graduate and professional schbols. Our worthy of study for its own sake. This program has students have found their way intoSchools of Physical changed the image of the Physicai Education Depart- Therapy,. Corrective Thera py, Law, Chiropractic, ment on our campus just as similar programs have Podiatry, and Business. A large percentage ofour stu- done -on other campuses Toss the United States. dents pursue Master"s degree programs in physical There, are those' among ius who would support the educa tion. Many of these are a warded teaching and/or contention, arguable as it ir that the continued good research assistantships. health of departments of physical education in major What all of this reduces to is that if we can learn the university settings depends to a large measure on dis- specifiC interests and goals of our studentsvery early ciplinary progi'ams than on presently constituted pro-. in their college careers, we can develop individualized fessional preparation ptograms. Only the passage of 'programs which will go far in fulfilling theft required_. time will reveal the accuracy of that prophesy.

62 Undergraduate Physical Education: A Cross-Disciplinary Model

W. Robert Morford and Hal A. Lawson, School of Physical Education and Recreation University of British Columbia Robert S. Hutton Department of Kinesiology Uniyersity of Washington

Intro ductipn with the model. A number of separate labels, then, are associated with the cross-disciplinary model, but sep- A complete picture of undergraduate education arate labels do not imply diminished importance for usUally includes three components, one or which is teacher education or a severing of relationships be- optional. Undergraduate education beOns with a gen- - tween degreeprogranis and faculty who woyk within eral education requirement. This requirement them. The cross-disciplinary *model is an integrated provides foundational understandings in a university model. degree program and is equated with liberal education. Other necessary distinctions can be generally iden- It also paves the way for a second component. Sub- tified stating what the model is not. This is not a model ' sequent 19 the breadth of sturdy found in the case of in which performance. courses and experiences are generar education, specialized study of a subject`mat- diminished in importance. Moreover, not all degree ter field in delth builds vertically upon the above- programs in this _model are professional in nature, so mentioned faindation. In addition to these two com- this is not a mOdel of professional preparation. It is a pOnents, there is customarily a third component. This model of undergraduate education. It follows as well optional facet is professional education, or preparation that the disciplinary component of the model is not a' for a specific cpreer. All three components can be ac- discipline of physical educa tion, but one which commodated in a cross-disciplinary model. The pur- provides useful study for physical educators. In The pose of this paper is to identify and describe the com- next few paragraphs these key distinctions, are ponents, assumptions, and advantages of this rnodel. am pliTied. But first, pivotal definitions and distinctions are in The more precise identification of physical educa- order. tion is a professional program in higher education permits a clearer distinction between it and a disci- pline. A discipline is structured to permit impartial Definitions and Distinctions inquiry quite apart from ar(applied or professional If the cross-disciplinary model is to be understood,, mission. In other words, inquiry proceeds without then a major reorganization oT the reader's conception strings attached and is propelled by curiosity. It fol- lows that in the cross-disciplinary model any discus- r"\of undergraduate education may be necessary. Like Kuhn's (1975) paradigm or exemplar' shift, this reor- sion of "a discipline of physical education" invokes a ganization or reorientation toward a cross-disciplinary contradiction in terms. model begins with a change inlprimarKassump ions. It is for this reason in the main that labels other than It follows that the first step reqtiired of the'veade to physical education have evolved in an attempt to shed the tratlitiónal assumption that the under- adequately idenpfy and describe the field of sfudy. For 'graduate major is desigtned to serve onlyPe schodls in example, terms such as Human Kinetics, Leisure the enterprise known as teacher educatiort Certainly, 5tildies,Exercise and Sport Sciences or Studies, and ,-, this is the historic meaning associated with physical others have.all been employed to describe the discipli- education in, universities. For this reason,- the label nary component. Forour purpose, the label Kirsesiol- physical education is an appropriate descriptor for ogy will be used. The subject matter embraced by it teacher education and associated work in the schools. includes: But physical education cities not accurately depict the "Selected biological, psychological, and sociological model, nor does it adequately apply to the career factors associated with the growth and develop- streams, other than teaching, \A/Rich are embraced ment, functional status and ability of the individual

63 4 to eagage in physical and ludic activitieS\; the histori- phenomena involved in the service, i.e., the subject cal, socio-historical, and ,ontemporary roles of matter herein called Kinesiology. physical and ludic activities in culture, in both primi- To recapitulate, the cross-disciplinary model lead- tive and advanced societies, and Hie contribution of ing to professional training in physical education em- 'these activities to the emotional', -social, physical, braces three components: general education (pre- and aesthetic development of the individual." major), Kinesiology (pre-professional study), and pro- fessional studies. Since a major in Kinesiology in- Clearly, this body of knowledge entails more than the cludes other non-professional degree programs, it is study of school programs of physical education, yet, not strictly a model of professional preparation, but prospective teachers of physical education would and rather, the orientation bf the major rests on assump- should profit from this broader exposure to human tions which are embodied in the uniqueness and inte- performance, motor control, and sport studies. Thus, gration of the subject matter studied. It is now appro- a program in Kinesiology is viewed as providing a priate to turn to a more completedescription of the pre-professional foundation for teachers and for per- model. 'Sons interested in other careers. To reiterate, performance courses and experiences .are not relegated to the perimeter in a cross- Features of a Cross-Disciplinary Model djsciplinary model. ln faet, a primary assumption for the model is that Kinesiology and physical education Two related characteristics dra.,,k/otal in a cross- are, in part, performance-based, with the former de- diSciplinary model. The first, identified earlier, is that: votal,to an understanding of performance and the the model can accommodate one o\r many degree latter to, its' acquisition and' refinement. Within the tracks or options. In cases where only dne degree track contours of this model, performance courses and ex- is offered, the program is strictly non:professional. periences may be vieWed as means to other ends or as That is, the degree is comparable to a liberal arts de- intrinsically valuable. That is, performance courses gree. There are varying amounts of specialization in serve as a, valuable laboratory setting in which per- the departmental courses which may be elected; all sonal knowledge (Polanyi, 1958) a'nd skill are , courses are Structured without an eye toward a profes- amplified quite apart from any other purpose.' On the sional mission. This degree in Kinesiology is, there- other hand, such courses can also serve, as \ik field fore, similar to other programs found in a College of setting within_which knowledge about performanfe is Arts and Sciences. Indeed, this cross-disciplinary blended with the performed act. In the latter context, model is best harbored in such a unit instead of the students confront the variables which define skill more traditional housing in a School or College of complexity and delivery. In short, the personal, qual- Education. itative experiences which accompany, or stem from, A second feature ofs the model can be presented by actual performance are as indispensable to a complete contrasting it with ad hoc curriculum designs. When a understanding of it as are the disciplinary perspec- number of degree tracks are Offered in an ad hoc for- tives. Like opposite sides of the same coin, they join to mat, there results a series of separate or parallel degree give the student the basis for apprehending the nature tracks. This is a logical outcome because ad hoc models and significance of human involvement in physical are by design riveted upon a particular role. An an hoc- and ludic activity. program is in fact constructed after an analysis of the Any true profession must have a disciplinary base perceived role requirements and role behaviors of with which to identify. This identity involves the ques- pr'actitidners. What people do or have done is tion of uniqueness, often a politically-charged concern analyzed and broken down into a series of Courses, all in higher education. Monopoly of a unique body of of which tend to be role-specific. For example, in a knowledge is part of \the nexus for a group interested 'university where ad hoc degree programs might be in its professionalization, and uniqueness of a field of offered for teachers, fitness managers, and sport scien- inquiry is indispensable to the existence of depart- hsts, these three degree programs would be epected ments in colleges and universities. The problems asso- to have few common courses. In principle, if not in ciated with establishing in higher education a unique practice, each degree program, would have a life apart cross-disciplinary oriented program within one de- from,the others. Each would require its own resources. partment will become obvious; foremost among these \ These and other difference2s between ad hoc and, is negotiating 'relationships with related disciplines, \ cross-disciplinary programs are reviewed in Table 1. However, solutions td these problems have, been lo- By contrast, in the cross-disciplinary model there is cated in the advAtages of a cross-disciplinary a common denominator of study which is centralized framework (Lawson and Morford, 1979). for all degree programs. This second, key characteris- But the importance of a disciplinary base goes be- tic of the model is its "core" set of courses and experi: yond political expedience to practical necessity.. The ences. Such a core is structured in relation to the ques- key to responsible Eict ion in the name of service; e.g., tion which follows. What must all undergraduates teaching,isclearly an understanding of the possess in common to be considered educated in and

64 omparison of assumptions underlying a traditional ad hoc model and the cross-disciplinary model of professional preparation in physical education.

Ad Hoc Model Cross-Disciplimary Model 1. Course coltent tends toward strong value orientation; Course content is oriented toward free examination of knowledge is selectively filtered in accordance with these knowledge. values.

2. All courses are,structureci in relation to occupational role Core of subject mattei\ is n t occupation-specific; attendant requirements;'attendant emphasis is upon technical con- emphasis is initially uPon ubject matter and understanding cerns from the-beginning of the major. Of theory, with applicatis and technical mastery coming la ter.

3. Performance focus equally upon methods of Skill is refined foi its o n sake and as a fundamental experi- teaching. ence in the major.

4. ProfesSional courses concentrate on efficiencyf means Professional courses concentrate on examination of goals. for goal attainrnent; goals are viewed as unproematic. Means are consider d in relation to basic assumptions about problem-solving ai2d goals.

about Kinesiology? This question obviouslcalls into Theadjectiv7e,inter-disciplinary (or multi- play value jud ements and requires a th roughas- disciplinary) describes the interaction among two or sessment of fa ulty resources. Just as tilue judge- moredifferent/ disciplines (departments). Ideasare ments and fac lty resources vary, so, to, does the cross-fertilized withan eye toward the iputual integra- exact compositi n of the core vary from hstitution to tion of the dqciplines conterned In other words, an institution. Thfact remains, however that in this inter-disciplivary framework involves the specialized model the common denominator of cour .es and expe- application o1f traditional disciplines to probl2ms in riences, forms the foundation for all deg ee programs. sport and p ysical activity. The focus is upon how a All students enjOy a comnion fund of k owledgecon- phenomenoi such as sport, for example, can be cerning perforrhance. There is parsim ny here be- studied asmeans of solVing specific problems and

cause core cour es serve'all undergradu te majors and further dev loping the parent discipline. . can .easily accoinmodate non-majors.pecialized or It is suggsted that such an inter-disciplinary struc- moread hocc iurse resources surface only later, in ture for p irtraying the body of knowledge embraced the professional degree programs rathr than at the within Ki esiology brings continued and unavoidable outset. fragment lion. Affected in this regard are both courses Such a core program .of studies carri s with it two and facul y. Differences among faculty become laccen- riders. One hin es upon the meaning a d delivery of tuated b cause each sub-discipline borrows from the cross-diktiplinastudy; the other is co cerned with parent dscipline subject-specific concepts, constructs, performance an1 performance courses. and syn ax. Courses, in turn, tend to become equally The first rider centers on the organizatio of courses isolatedj and specific. As Wolman (1977) has noted, to fit this frameLfork. Critics of disciplina models "... aeducational effort along interdisciplinary lines charge that courSes become overly-specialid to en- confro ts major difficulties in virtually every area re- compass moleculr or atomistic distinctions isubject lated tthe process of education. These problems in- matter. There are two sides to this issue.The critics, on volve philosophy, faculty, students, curriculum, re- the one hand, tend to view disciplinary study om. an search, money, and evaluation" (p. 800). ad hoc vantage point. Here, knowledge and tech iques Sport and -physical activity require multi-faceted are directly applie\d to an identified work role.ince examnation if they are to be fully understood. They disciplinary know edge exists apart froin applic tion, must/be viewed as the objects of analysis instead of and since many pr ctitioners now attempt rolesith- mere means. For this reason and others, a cross- o tt it, this knoWle ge is often cursorily waived at ay disci linary framework is more appropriate because it by critics without ft Ilattention to its potential. On he allos faculty to continuously interact within a single other hand, it mus be granted that some disciplin dep rtmental setting. rians have been overly ambitious in the design a d B contrast, with an inter-disciplinary framework, conduct of their courses. One root.of this problem, itI invhich the parent discipline provides principally a suggested, is the dikiplinary framework which is em vertical glimpse at aspects of human involvement in .ployed to organize ind disseminite knowledge. In ph sical and ludic activity, the cross-disciplinary many institutions an nter-, Multi-, or sub-disCiplinary framework promotes both a horizontal and a vertical approach is in use.he inter-disciplinary approach ex mination Of these phenomena. This integral has its merits, but It Idoe. differ significantly froma fr mework is reflected in the definitions of three broad cross-diSciplinary apOroa -h. ar as of study within Kinesiology. These are:

65 70 1. Biodynamics of Human Performancethe_study of In summary, there are important differences be- acute and chronic systemic and cellular human ad- tween inter- and cross-disciplinary frameworks which ptations to movement activity. form one of the two riders to the model described here. 2.AilorControlthe study of neural and behavioral The other rider pertains td performance courses. pro 'esses underlying pre-selection processing, In this model, performance courses share features of selection, Mitiation, execution, error detection disciplinary course work. Like disciplinary courses, correction, retention of movement behaviors and they are conducted without an eye toward a profes- their adaptive properties. sional role. Simply put, methods and materials for teaching are not central to these courses. Stated 3. SportStudiesthestudy of play, games, and sport from socio-historical and contemporary anaJytic another way, practical extractions from theory to per- perspe5tives wherein the social, economic, and formance are examined to test the validity of the con- political relations existing in the society at large and structs entertained, but not in the context of pedag- associatedpsychologicalparametersare ogy. Since not all students in the core courses plan to be teachers, performance courses of this kind are es- dramatized. sential. Academic components involving human develop Performance mastery provides an experiential com- men t and biomechartics are viewed as inextricably in- ponent around which Kinesiological study is ordered tertwined with these identified areas of inquiry. and in which disciplinary study is anchored. This is no To elaborate, a .student of biodyriarbics of human less the case in other performance-based fields such as p h y sica I perform a nce-mostb-e-exp-etted-toiaussess-a---music,- art, an d- drama.- -.The art of perform ing a n d edir prerequisite knowledge of basic systemic physiology knowledge about performance proceed hand-in-hand ,and anatomy. Only then can this student address, for for students. In fact, upper division courses in the example, that pdrtion of biodynamics which concen- major can serve to further weld the two together. trates on problems 'related to human adaptations to Called performance analysjs courses, these offerings increased demands on metabolism. Specific dincerns, require as prerequisites both performance mastery in this example, relate to work intensity-energy ex- and core courses in Kinesiology. Their intent is to change support systems and their respective interac- provide laboratory settings in which students gain tions to yield specific adaptations, both *acute and greater skill in analyzing performance. In fact, this chronic. Yet, the focus of the student's study here is assumption which accords performance, such signifi- not on 'physiologyper.se,but on the biodynamics of cance is one of the distinguishing features of a_cross- physical performance. To more fully comprehend the disciplinary model. Although scholars outside the problem.. posed in this example, the student needs field of Kinesiology may gather knowledge about per- a multi-faceted approach involving elements of formance, these same scholars, who have a lesser un- biochemistry, physiology, motor control, bionie- derstanding of the actual experiences of performing, chanics and principles of exercise training.: will always have less than a complete grasp of perfor- Differences between, cross- and inter-disciplinary mance. The situation here is akin to the distinction approaches can be further illustrated. (For example, in between a spectator and an athlete. The athlete's un- the socio-cultural area, not the sociology of or tke derstanding of the subtleties and complexities of the psychology1 of sport, but sport studies results from a inner world of sport are rich and cumulative. Al- cross-disciplinary orientation. Its scholars, while though the spectator can enjoy the athlete'S perfor: trained and educated in part in traditional disciplines mance, a complete picture of it can never be attained. such as sociology or psychology, are not socielogists As Cady (1978) has pointed put, the performance re- and psychologistsper se-but rather academicians in sulting from physiqd acts is a language unto itself. sport studies.. Consequently, these persons arecol- While one may discuss its parameters, it remains dif- leagues in the strictest sense, because they share ficult to fathom perforMance unless one has been nomenclature, concepts, and syntax. They are appro- deeply engaged in it. NO less is expected when scho- priately .housed in the same administrative unit to lars outside the field make isolated and selected at- facilitate the development and dissemination of an tempts to look inside. integrated and multi-faceted \body of knowledge.) Such claims foruniqueneSswhich are associated with a Cross-disciplinary model should hot blur rela- Proportional Representation and Sequences for tionships which are enjoyed with other disciplines. Different Kinds of Courses in the Major ,Three convenient clusters from the traditional disci- lh the typical interdisciplinary framework, discipli- plines provide contributions to three academic com- nary study is often postponed until the later second or ponents of Kinesiology. The physical and biological early third year of a student's' degree prwgram. This sciences offer con tributiops to biodynarnics of human occurs in large part becfluse study in the respective performance, the neuro-sciences to motor control, and parent disciplines for each .of the sub-disciplines is a the. social sciences and humanities to sport studies. prerequisite to intra-dcpartmental. courses, Further- These relationships are depicted in Figure 1. more, each sub-discipline generally requires a sepa-

66- 1 Mathematical Modelling

Computer , Science

History_ Economics

Communications

Neurosciences Philosophy

Anthropology

Physiology Sociology

Animal Medicine Biostructures

Orthopaedics Engineering

Figure 1. Kinesiology-major components and knowledge stratification for the cross-disciplinary structure.

rate.and specialized course or set of courses for knowl- first tier of cross-disciplinary course work is comprised edge dissemination.- By contrast, a cross-disciplinary by comprehensive core of courses representing framework permits an earlier exposure to theory be- biodynamics, motoccontrol, and sport studies. Pre- cause knowledge generation and dissemination do not requisites may be mandatory but thesecan, in large occur by dependency upon or borrowing from parent part, be accommodated through the general education disciplines. Nomenclature, concepts, and modes,of requirements as defined by the faculty of the college or .inquiry can, therefore, be presented with less exten- university. Conceivably, core courses could be offered sive prerequisites because much of the material pre-. 'at the second level, and, in some instances, at the, sented is uniquely integrated as Kinesiology. Further, first-year level, particularly in selected courses offered courses organized in this fashion can be delivered in sport studies. thematically which results in a refinement of courses The final tier of courseS in Kinesiology is at the comprising the core program. upper division level. These courses are not core The schematic outline for a typical cross-disciplinary courses. They are required for certain specializations major in Kinesiology is comprised of several area com- within Kinesiology and are open to election 1))4 qual- ponents which, for the sake of this description, may be ified students from other disciplines and from profes- viewed aS discrete from one another when in actual sional tracks within the department. These courses fact they are integrated for any given student's pro- and seminars are organized around a more focialized gram of study. ,The outline for such a Anajor is pre- methodology and related set of substantive concerns sented in Tables 2 and 3. The latter shows a course in Kinesiology. Their intent is to disseminate knowl- percentage breakdown for each component within the edge and formulate questions which result ina special-. major. Along with the performance cornponent, the ized depth.of understanding. The student of Kinesiol-

67 Table 2. Course areas in a kinesiology major. physical activity. In the same course, curricular theory from a College of Education provides models for de- Perforrhance & Analysis (21% of program) sign, implementation, and evaluation which harbour personal skill development & refinement nicely these applications from Kinesiology. The final analysis of skill and game strategy ingredient in the blend is scholarship in physical edu- Cross-Disciplinary Theory Core (21% of program) _cation curricula. It is this kind of blend, through A. Required in 1st and 2nd years Kinesiology, ,aat findings from relevant models and introductions to: study of sport theories, and approaches from physical education and biodynamics of physical activity other professional fields bring uniqueness to profes- dynamics of motor skill acquisition human functional anatomy and applied physiology sional courses wittiin the department. That is, Without measurement in sport and physical activity such an approach, differences, for example, between a B. Required iri"3rd and 4th years curriculum course in education and one in physical elective courses selected from the three sub areas: education become narrow. This situation is, therefore, biodynamics; sport studies; motor control. akin to the difference between cross- and inter- Professional Electives (11-15% Of program) disciplinary in that the latter involves the same bor- introduction to- professional studies rowing from and dependence upon parent disciplines, planning sport and exercise programs while the former requires the generation and integra- instructional design and analysis tion of knowledge into unique packages. field experience The second characte?istic of these professional exercise management courses, perhaps obvious by now, is that they are sports medicine and athletic training theoretical and scholarly in nature. That is, they are foundations of coaching structured to give a free examination of the profes- physical education for special populations Sional role or role setting. The intent here is not respec- advanced courses in cross-disciplinary sub areas tability in relation to kinesiologists, but rather to. sport management provide tested and testable theoretical constructs which serve as adequate blueprints for practice in the real world. To some extent, such theory and the spe- ogy, whether in a pre-graduate(research-oriented) or cific findings and techniques which it anchors will liberal arts degree program (terminal degree intended always be nd hoc. Bur to grant immediate or direct' at the bachelor's level) thereby acquires specialization which is anchored in the breadth which characterizes the core. The implications of this pattern of curricular organization are dear for the future scholars of Table 3. Curricular componentsePercentage .Kinesiology.It paves the way to integration -and breakdown,. Uniqueness instead of identification only in relation to Lower Uppe4. -a parent discipline. Area Division Division Total Professional education is accommodated in a % of cross-disciplinary model by the provision of profes- 2°-/)°, eoafr 2°-/y° eoafr 4-year sional options or tracks. Like their non-professional total . total total counterpafts; these courses build from the core. Two Performance & 20 23 21 kinds of courses can be so organized, but both kinds Analysis share two-characteristics. Theory Core & 27 3 First,in these professional courses, disciplinary Core Elective's 1.0 knowledge derived from the 7o.re is to be mixe'd with Professional Electives 21230 11-15. applied theories a n d orien ted t ) professional roles an d Related Fields & 53 34-43 43-47 role settings. In short, the core courses in Kinesiology, Prerequisites,, for example, are not just niceties for a liberal educa-, Electives tion. They are important prerequisites to professional

course work. . For example, a course which focuses on the.exami- nation ot school physical education curricula gives priinary attention to the design, planning, and im- RELATED plementation of programs in relation to findings from FIELDS all three areas of Kinesiology. From human perfor- PRE-REQS. THEORY mance and motor control comes findings which have PERE. ELECTIVES CORE implications for exercise training regimens, physical PROF. fitness, optimization of performance, and skill acquisi- ANALYSIS ELECT. tion. In sport studies, im plica bons are derived from ELEGY. investigations of sociali:zation into, and via, sport and 45% 21% 21% 13%

68 applicability is not to grant at the same time an uncriti- these institutions and differ in form and substance; cal, missionary zeal; the guiding norm is one of ra- they pave the way fortudents to, view the entire tional analysis in the ineerests of service to society. picture of the work world of physical activity and Professional education in any field is an important sport, both within their own and across other profes- catalyst for.change in the roles practitioners perform sions; they provide a way of uniting students in the and in the settings within, which they work. If this, same profession, despite the fact that they may have function is to Iciedischarged, then nothing short of a' quite different career plans:- that is, studentsare free examination of roles and role settings, which in- equipped with the same models for problem-solving, cludes where necessary a critique of existing 'opera- speak the same language, and understand theircom- tions and beliefs, is absolutely necessary. The term mon goals and heritage. professional studies is, therefore, an appropriate de- Generic courses are prerequisite, then, to the spe- scriptor for such- courSes. cialization which is inherent in a profession. Since this This second characteristic Of professional courses in model of professional preparation takes the assump- the cross-disciplinary model is clearer when the roles tion that Kinesiological subject matter applies directly of field experiences and internships is bared. Field to work roles, it follows that certain of the three areas experiences precede, accompany, and follow profes- of specialization with Kinesiology apply more tosome sional studies courses. TITose which preeede are de- roles than to others. For example, a student in exercise signed for career selection and for introduction to the prescription and management would be expected, profession. Those which accompany and follow are after completing the core, to emplibsize biodynamics structured to permit the student in whatever career and, perhaps, human performance (see Table 4), while track, to move from role observation, to role perior; a perceptual motor specialist would turn to motor con- mance, to role analysis. These experiences, are, in trol (see-Table 5). Still others may desire the prepara- short, predicated upon the assUmption that the field tion of the generalist, as in the case of the master provides the optimaitite for ad hoc role training. Here 'teacher. These kinds of degree patternsare demon- the important tricks of the trade and situation-specific strated in Figure 2. practices can be unearthed for what they are and mas- In the case of professional preparation for acareer, tered accordingly'. These field experiences gain then, the sequence in the crost-disciplinary model is amplified meaning, however, because of their inter- summarized in- Table 6. During the pursuance of a communication with professional studies courses. general education requirement, prerequisitecourses That is, the relationship between theory and practice is to a major in Kinesiology. are completed. Students planned in lieu of the sink or swim exposure to field then complete a Kinesiology core of course work,e.g., work which was characteristic of days gone by. designated by a KIN prefix, integrated with perfor-' TralTITIM, professional.courses have wo cnarac- mance courses. An introductory field experience teristics. They require core courSes. in Kinesiology as course is preferable at this same time. Following com- prerequisite and they are struCtured to allow a theoret- pletion of the core, and depending upon the institu- ical and scholafly examination of roles and role set- tion, students next proceed to professional :courses tings. Two kinds of professional courses can be so (designated by a KINPE prefix), whethercareer- organized. Which kind is employed hinges upon the specific or generic, and pursue other electives in number of career streams or tracks offered in a particu- lar department as well as upon external requirements for certification. Put simply, some patterns of course Table 4.Exercise prescription and management. organization require more time than others, and time required to complete the degree is often a pivotal factor Relaied Fields Prerequisites 28% in curricular decisron-making. PerformaTice Core Aith one or two tracks, professional courses can be 21% expected to be more role-sp'eci fie or ad hoc. With many Theory.Core & Electives 21% degree tracks, more generic professional courses may taincluding advanced electives in: be prerequisite to role-Specific. counterparts.. For Physical Growth and Development example, a generic course which concerns itself with Physiology of Exercise planning and, programming for sport and physical ac- Professional ReqUirements and Electives 15% tivity may be prerequisite to a specific course on school Introduction to Professional Studies curriculum for physical education, Or a course on in- Planning Sport and Exercise Programs structional design may be requisite to teaching Instructional Design and Analysis methods for secondary schools. The question here is Exercise Management not with right or wrong kinds of courses, but rather, Sports Medicine and Athletic Training Field or Clinical Experience with different sets of assumptions which may be enter- tained. The advantage's of the generic courses are: they Related Fields Electives 15% provide, training and education for careers which, Physiology and Biophysics Organi-6.a.tional Behavior while related to aspects of the schools, occur outside Marketing

69 a. Sport Pedagogy and Sport Coaching b. Sport Management

r \.

Core Courses

Advanced Courses

c. Early Childhood/Perceptual Motor Specialist- d. Exercise Prescription and Management

Figure 2.Cross-disciplinary model fur undergraduate education. Four examples of special options.

Kinesiology. These professional studies courses are approaches surrounding their applicatitm and organi- linked to field experiences which both precede and zationin professional vork roles, and to direct experi- s,LiCreed this foTmal training. Students completing this ences under field supervision in the real world. The overall sequence will have moved from an under- goal at the.end of the undergraduate program is suc- standing of important phenomena, to.questions and cessful role performance.

70 Table 5. Early Childhood/perceptual motor specialist. , "Table 6Hierarchy of degree program componentsfortwo professional options. Related Fields Prerequisites 28% Performance Core 216/0 RELATED FIELDS Theory Core & Electives 21% PREREQUISITES & ELECTIVES 28% including advanced electives in: Human Motor Response PERFORMANCE & ANALYSIS 21 % Physical Growth and Development Professional Requirements & Electives 15% KIN'ESIOLOGYCORE Introduction to Professional Studies -19 21% Instructional Design and Analysis SECONDLEVEL KINESIOLOGYELECTIVES Human Motor Performance Physical Activities for Young Children PROFESSIONALGENERIC Physical Education for Special Populations COURSES 15% Field or Clinical Experience PROFESSIONAL P.E. PROFESSIONALP.E. Related Fields Electives 15% ELECTIVES ELECTIVES RELATED FIELDS RELATED-FIELDS Early Childhood Education 15% Growth and Development in Psychology Home Eco- ELECTIVES ELECTIVES nomics or Pediatrics Child Psychology Recreation

Prototypes and Evaluation in fields which related to their education, (for example, the sporting goods industiy) while others exhibit no Prototypes for the cross-disciplinary model con- such linkage. In relation to the research enterprise, the tinue to evolve in several North American insiitutions. first generation of kinesiologists with doctoral degrees While not all are identical in structure, these programs is just being produced, i,e., those who conform to the share a similar conceptual focus, namely, the study of cross-disciplinary mold. It will be an interesting exper- human involvement in physical and ludic activity. iment to observe how successfully these individuals While the model has withstood the test of time in some will compete for teaching-research appointments in institutions, there is some evidence to suggest that it higher education and to note whether these ap- remains widely misunderstood by colleagues in more pointments will ultimately be resfricted to the fields of traditional professional programs. In fact, iris interest- Kinesiology or physical education. On the basis of the ing to note that at least one prototype isrdivorced from observations at present, these itrdividuals appeafr to be all professional training while others may serve more fairing quite well both within and outside the cross- than one professional option beycind the core, e.g., discipline of*Kinesiology. physical educatiOn, sport administration; and pre- physical therapy. Some colleagues have difficulty un- derstanding this outcome. Evaluation of this cross-disciplinary model has oci References curred in less formal ways than the desirable norm of Cady; E. H. The Big Game.. Knoxville: University of Ten- experimeo research. In the professional fie1d, stu- nessee Press, 1978. deny ha enjoyed successes in job placement; Kuhn, T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: Uni- graduates who become physical education teachers, in versity of Chicago Press, 1975. particular, have initiated school programs in which Lawson, H. A., and Morford, W. R. "The Cross-Disciplinary Kinesiological concepts are taught to elementary and Nature of Kinesiology and Sport Studies," Quest 31, 2: 222/23T. . secondary school students; their work is completed Polanyi, U. Personal Knowledge. Chicago: University of with an eye toward theory from both Kinesiology and Chicago Press, 1958. pedagogy. Liberal arts graduates-are as diversely oc- Wolman, M. G. "Interdisciplinary Education: A Continuing cupied as those from other fields. Some are employed Experiment." Science 198: 800-804.

7 1 ki PART Rllllk

Accreditation of Programs? t.

Accreditation: Is the Horse .-Already Out of the Barn? ,

P. Stanley Brassie The University of Georgia

Introduction cupation or grants permission CO an institution to per- form specified functions. (Teachers=state grants a NASPE has been studying accreditation over the teaching license; State licenges a university to prepare past three years, and this has been, most appropriate. teachers; university'certification.) When the experience of other disciplines is examined, Itreaders have read the Ghroniclepf Higher Education, the accreditation process emerges as the most influen- they have probably recognized the increasing fre- tial force in the design and conduct of programs of quency with which articles on accreditation have been professional preparation: Since accreditation is rela- appearing. Accreditation is a proverbial "volleyball" tively new in physical education, its impact has yet to which is being "sworn t*O" by professional associations be fully realized. and "sworn at" by administrators. It is a very live issue as the decade of the 1980's begins. The author has served as coordinator for NASPE's . study of- accreditation. In this connection, the issues For example, in the June 16, 1980 Chronicle of Higher and problems associated with accreditation have been Education an article announced that Dr. Kenneth identified, evaluated, and synthesized. It is the pur- Young had resigned as pressident of the Council on pose of this section to explore these issues and prob- Post-secondary Accreditaticfn (COPA) after a five-year lems. In so doing, a major question must be con- battle to keep the fedeial government ;rom encroach-. fronted directly by the reader: Does the profession of ing into the accreditation arena. Few physical educa- physical education have anything to gain by participa- tors probably bothered to read that three-column arti- cle, but many colleagues in other disciplines (those gov- ilig i;tCu accrechtatiorrprocedure? It shall become apparent that there are numerouS- possible answers to erned by accreditation) were very, very concerned that this question. The author has come to the conclusion Dr. Young had thrown in the towel. The rea on for this that there aye many reasons why accreditation is worth concern is that govenment has been 'tryilo en- pursuing hy physical educators, and there are some croach into the accreditation arena for purposes of qualifications which must be established in this re- awarding federal grants. If Uncle Sam succeeds, fac- gard. But first, some groundwork must be laid. ulty in physical education may someday i.:)e confronted To begin, it is necessary to define the latest, fashion- by the stark reality that Co qualify for a federal grant the able jargon used in higher education, to differentiate program in which they work must be accredited by an between confusing terms. agency representing their profession. Accreditation is, Accreditation. The proe'ess whereby an agency rec- then, a process with far-reaching consequences. It is ognizes a program of study or' an institution aS meeting time that physical educators be given undivided at- certain predetermined qualifications or standards. tention. . Institutional Accreditation. Involves a look at the en- tire institution without identifying the quality of any one of its parts. (Regional Accreditation Associations History are examples.) Professional Accreditation. A look at the quality of a' Accreditation began in this country at the turn of the professional pmgram of study by agencies established century. From its beginning, itw-as a non- by members of the professional discipline. governmental, voluntary process. This has made it a . Certification. The process by which a non- -unique system in the world, In nearly every other governmental agency grants recognition to an individual country, programs and institutions are controlled and who has met certain predetermined qualifications evaluated by governmental ministries of education. specified by that agency. (WSI, Scuba, and NATA are Accreditation did pot' become an influential factor in 'examples.) setting the standards of a profession until 1920 when Licensure. The process by which an agency of gov- accreditation developedinto a controlling force in the ernment grants permission to an inylividual meeting field of medical education. They were the first to feel predetermined qualifications to engage in a given oc- the impact of the non-governrnental program of stan- .

75 - dard setting. Within less than a decade (1920-1930) tion in divergent disciplines? In connection with a the number of medical schools in the country Was re- pre-convention conference in 1980 on accreditation of duced in half as shoddy, inept operations were forced graduate programs faculty from one of the most pre- to close. This first accreditation process began with stigious graduate programs (as identjfied by a recert the financial backing from a foundation, and with it survey) declined to attend. Their reason was: "We do the medical ,profession accomplished through ac- not have a graduate program in physical education." ,creditation what many members of -the AMA and the -Yet their graduate program, known by another name, Association of American .Medical Colleges had been is considered by colleagues as one of the very best in endeavoring to accomplish for some years. physical education. Disciplines that established ac- As a consequence, accreditation was established as creditation twenty years ago are not facing this di- an irriportant and legitimate means by which a profes- lernma. They know who they are, what their product "sion could raise t\-ie standards of education of its future,' must be able to do, and they have identified ways to Members and exert further control, over entrance into accomplish this-goal. To return to the question, then, its ranks. This example Was later follow iectn order by is physical education stronger or weaker in 1980 be- law, dentistry, business:, chemistry, psychology, and cause of divergent views on the identity and functions .countless other professiOns. It Should be added here of the field? that some phySical educators apparently stu5lied ac- 3.' It also appears that there is a question of where creditation in the. mid 1960's, but the fruits *of these pl4sical education is going. This is the most serious .efforts have been difficult to locate. indictment. Even more alarming is that physical edu- Physical education is today one of very few degree cators have no established procedure for determining programs on the nation's campuses which has no pro- where they are going. Disciplines that established ac- ). fessional accrediting agncy monitoring standards creditation procedures twenty years ago have estab- that are established by the profession. Once again, lished an organized procedure for determining future tBere are consequences' for physical education as com- directions based upon information systematically pared to those degree programs that are being gov- gathered from, the public sector, professionals in the erned by professional accreditation agencies. These field, and the institutions involved in professional consequencesspan those which are fiscal "and capital, preparatioh. Today there is indeed diversity in physi- although there is no doubt that many other depart- cal education. It has had great impetus on our growth, ments on niany-campuses.have used accreditation as but at the same time this has been growth' without a leverage for new faiOlities, equipment,.and supplies. unifying element. Perhaps accreditation would have These consequences can be traced to the very roots of provided that during the 1960's and 1970's. physical education, including its definition and scope. What, then, has happened or not happened-in the-- past 20 'ears with the absence of professional ac- 2 Accreditatiop in the 1980' creditation? 1.It appears that there is little or no agreement on There is, then, good reason to consider accreditation who pllysical educators are. Today, there .-arean jn- as the 1980's unfold. Yet,..physical education finds creasing number of scholars in the most _prestigious itself handling the issue of accreditation at a strange institutions who want to be called historians, psychol- time. Physical educators missed the golden moment in ogiSts, sociologists, physiologists, biomechanists, but the 60's. Although accreditation seems to have well- not physical educators. (This is not, by the way, a served many professions during the past two decades, lobby for, the name "physical education" per se, but the it is ironically enough, being challenged as never be- use of, it as a collective noun is justified because of its fore in its history, just at the time when physical edu- heritage.) The point is, some persons are in a paradox- cators appear .to need it most. Why is accreditation ical position. They want to dissociate themselves from being challenged? Two primary reasons can be iden- our discipline, yet contribute extensively to its scho- tified: larly literature. 1. Cost effectiveness is one reason, and twin criteria Diseplines .that established accreditation twenty are employed: cost in terms of financial commitment; Nars ago are not having these dilemmas. Scholars cost in terms of faculty/administrative time. On the accept the parameters of their body of knowledge and other hand, most departments and most colleges/uni- subscribe to the.standards which define it. Es the pro- versities would be willing to. pay the PRICE (financial fession of physical education stronger or veaker-in and faculty/administrative) if it was concluded that 1980 in the-absence of such definitions? BENEFITS being derived were commensurate with 2.It appears that there is little or no agreement on the cost. What institutional/departmental benefits are what physical educators do. Alter reviewing the well- being derived presently for the cpst? There appear to conceived papers prepared for this publication, one be three which accrue to a single institution, including: mav-.ask a pointed question: are divergent views of self-study (a chore oft61 delegated to an administra- professional preparation within a discipline being pre- tor); external peer evaluation (very valuable, but ex- sented, or is the question one of professional pre pa ra- pensive); recognition of quality by the profession.

76 "1 kj *In addition, there are presently some collective pro- mensurate with costs), and management (the selection fessional benefits being-de-rive-dr the cost: the provi- of technologies that will produce the best outcomes in sion of a data bank for the profession; the provision of relation to the amount of employed resources). a vehicle for identifying problems, addressing prob- In each case, the assessment of outcomes need not lems collectively, and implementing solutions; the be so precise and expressed in cardinal numbers, but way of transferring.the profession's suppoit to institu; we crnust be able to get a subjective reading at least. tions to maintain standards in view of declining There is no way to solve questions of value by easy budgets, etc. These all sound like reasonably good quantitative formulas. In the opinion of the author, benefits for the cost. Consequently, there must be an this- is especially so in education where the purpose is underlying reptoy why accreditation is being chal- to facilitate the sound development of a unique human lenged. being. Statistics are no substitute for judgment. 2. The validity of-the accreditation process being chat- There are better ways and poorer ways of approach- ler,-ig-a is the second reason. The goal.of accreditation ing teaching, research, and service. The most efficient is to establish standards, measure a department's pro- ways are those which yield the highest ratio of results gram against those standards, and identify strengths to costs. Colleges and universities could be more effi- to be commended and weaknesses to be corrected. But cient if they paid greater attention to discovering their is there evidence for the validity of the standards?,For outcomes. At present, colleges and unWersities, and the past seventy years, accreditation standards have yes, physical education departments, know very little focused on what- this author calls RESOURCE IN- about their results and next to nothing about te ef- PUTS. Included in this category are the following: fects of change in their procedures and metho s on recruitment standards;- admission standards; reten- results. What passes for evaluation has little to dil with tion standards; administrative structure standards; the outcome, what happens to students! acuity and support personnel standards; curriculum Without a knowledge of outcomes as it pertains to tandards; library and technological support stan- _students, physical educators are destined to merely prds; facilities standards; financial resource stan- follow tradition, or do what is expedient in the light of dards. It is true that all of the above resources are prevailing pressures, or be vulnerable to every fad that importan tto departments of physical education. sweeps education, or manage by intuition, or maybe However, the issue focuses on how much of each and all of these! (We have all attended faculty meetings how many on each are required for quality. The re- where scholars debate educational or curricular policy seatch that has been done by COPA and USOE show and make speeches on the advantages of this require- that these independent vadables taken individually, ment or that without the remotest notion of what collectively in groups, and collectively in total have but--difference their proposarcWill make Oirthe students, a loth positive correlation with a program's overall the outcomes). quality. The highest predictor was a student's admis- The author has concluded that physical education, sion standards. For years, accreditation agencies first by virtue of its being twenty years late, can definitely doubted, then challenged, and finally accepted the ,benefit from accreditation and become a leader in the fact that their standards were low predictors of quality, field of accreditation. There are, however, some qual- biit -reOgned themselves that this was the best way ifications. known to evaluate a program. 1. The study of outcomes in physical education -- It might appear at this point that questions of valid- must avoid the confusion of resoUrce inputs. How can ity might bury the NASPE accreditation project, but a real measure of program effectiveness in physical there is more to be said.on the issue. It is this author's education be derived i.e., how do our students view that accreditation may emerge from this crisis as change and grow as a result of their college experi- an even stronger influence in the next 20 years than it ences? has been for the past 20. The reason for this predictiar 2. Assessment of outcomes should be based upon is that accrteditation is finally proceeding beyond re- the study of alumni as well as of students. There source inputs to program outcomes, i.e., to the stu- should be interest in the values and attitudes of dents gradu'ating from our institutions. The key to alumni, their interests, their citizenship, land their accreditation in the future will be the ability to measure careers as they may have been affected by their college these outcomes in addition to the more traditional experiences. recource inputs. All decisions about faculty, curricula, 3. Assessment of outcomes should bd vconcerned teaching methods, facilities, institutional and de- with change in students as a result of their college partmental governance, and finance can be rationally experiences, not merely with their absolute lei*of and deliberately determined only ifhere is some performance during and after college. The outcomes knowledge of their effects on outco s. Furthermore, to be 'measured center around changes, not absolute all of the terms being used today to evaluate education performance, as the criterion of a true educational refer to outcomes. These include efficiency (the ratio outcome. between outcomes and resources employed), accoun- 4. Assessment of outcomes must be practical, not -lability (the ability to produce outcomes that are corn- too time consuming or expensive. _It should concen-

7 7 8 0 trate on major goals and avoid trivial detail. It can be' Now that the issues associated with accreditation based on small samples of students .and alumni and have been identified 'and analyzed, it should be clear not attempt to cover the universe. that there is a yet-unreaped potential associated with 5. Assessment of outcomes should be related to the the process. There are also some immediate problems special missions or philosophies of a particular de- which -must be solved, especially those related to the partment..A department should not have to-adjust measurement Of outcomes from programs/Of profes- their goals and programs to the requirements of a sional preparation. When it comes to the.selection of standardized evaluation scheme, or measure its per- valid measures, subjective judgments of' competent formance to uniform set standards established by peers will be a central as quantitative, objective data. NASPE or any other group. However, they should be Despite such initial problems, the benefits associated held accountable for affecting change in their stu- with accreditation, in the author's opinion, off-set the dents. The documents'which were presented in De- costs. Accreciitation can serve well Vie profession of troit last year dealt excluSively with resource inputs. physical education during times sqh as these when This information will Ebntinue to be a source of valu- diversity clouds both its identity add purpose. able guidelines and measures, but only useful in terms of outcomes of the programs.

9

-

,18 PAWL nh

Analysis and Synthesis

41.

gr Professional Preparation: Quality and Diverisity

Linda L: Bain University of Houston

Introduction Our commitment to pluralthrn does not diminishour need for coherence, our need to makesense of it all. The,ntral theme of this publication 'and the 1980 Many of us are searehing for a comprehensivepro- Detro_. conference has been diversity; the major goal gram design which can accommodate the preparation 'has been quality. It seems worthwhile to examine each of professionals who provide physical educationfor a concept and the relationship between the two. Xnder- variety of clients in a range of settings. Declinesin son's (1,980) review of previous professional confer- enrollment in teacher educationprograms were fol- / ences was helpful in putting this particular conference lowed by band-wagoning for "non-teaching" options. in perspective. Those earlier conferences asked what is (Considine, 1979) Such Options oftenwere tacked on to the best way to prepare a, person to teach physical existing programs without careful consideration of the education in schools and resulted in the development total program. After an initial flurry of activity,more of standards for professional preparationprograms. thought is being given to the search fora coherent Here, however, a broader.question is addressed: What design for the whole program. . are alternative ways to prepare physical educators Yr There are both practical and philosophicreasons for a range of professional,responsibilities? The emphasis ttiis search. Inan era of limited resources, it is not has been upon understanding each of the models feasible to develop a separateprogram fOr each profes- rather tlian upon identifying and endorsing the best sional speciality. In most universities thesame basic way to accomplish.the task. Anderson anticipated that program must accommodate all of the options. For the some would react with frustration to ans diversity and student this has the advantage of permitting more lack -of national unity. However, NASPE's decision flexibility and perhaps simultaneous preparation for not to endorse a program model for professional prep- more than one professional role. Such multiple prepa- aration of the physical educator does not indicate the ration maximizes employment potential and respom- absence of a policy. It is a visible, forceful statement of siveness to future trends in the job market. commitment to pluralism. This search for prograrn coherence is originating` at Pluralism is more than the passiVe tolerance of dif- e local, not the national level; that isit is not impor- N1 ferences, more than a reluctant admission that com- ta nor desirable that there be national agreernent a promise is impossible. It is a strong commitment jo the upon some common program design. At the local level fact that,diversity is desirable, that diversity does not it is more necessary and More realistic to identifya merely lead to progress, but that diversity is progress. coherent program philosophy and to develop a pro- Ellis (1980) has described rather convincingly the gram consistent with,it. The faculty at any institytion strengths of plurahsrn in resPonding effectively to are certainly a diverse group, but they share a common client needs and to changing social conditions. 'context and common concerns and they have the op- Sociologists have suggested that the building of portunity for the prolonged deliberationnecessary to knowledge does not proceed in linear fashion but in- build a consistent, logical program model which effec- volves struggle between alternative paradigmsor tively provides preparation for physical educationpro- world views follOwed by sometimes sudden shifts in fessionals who will serve a range of client populations. basic perspective. (Ritzer, 1975) In addition to this pragmatic belief that diversity builds knowlehe,our ability to embrace those different from ourselves is The Four Models perhaps the deepest and most significant expression of our assessment of the unique qualities of each Each of the four models presented co101dserve as human being. A true commitment to pluralism indi- such a comprehensive program design. Each could cates that our goal is not unity but dialogue. NASPE's presumably be expanded to include preparation of willingness to publicly affirm-alternatives rather thana teachers and other professionals regardless of whether single standard approach to professional preparation the 13.i.esentors have done so. It should be noted that is an important' step. the absence of such an extension does not reflectneg-

83 ligence on their part. lEach group was requested to -om etencies identified as .essential for all physical describe a model in its Current state and not to explore -ducation professionals would constitute a core pro- possible extensions of the mbdel. They have thor- t.am. Program components would have to be added oughly,well-performed"this task. Yet it may be helpful o de ,lop any competencies not currently provided to us to explore the Viability of-each model as A'gom- y theacher education prograrn. One of the practical prehensWe program cleign. iifficuit es with this'qpproach is that each new option- Bruce Joyce (1975) has ,discussed various concep- equires-new planning committee to integrate new tlons of human beings and of education and has qompetei cies wifh the existing programs which is a analgrzed the implications of these conceptions for difficultask. However, an advantage of the teach'er education. He prbposes that teachei education ompetenc-based approach is that its reliance upon was built around a prevailing industrial conception of modular leaTing would permit small numbers of stu- education oriented toward efficient attainment of out- dents to pu sue specific alternatives through inde- comes, particularly literacand occupationally-related endent lean ing. skills. Against this backdrop, Joyce identified four Both the cress-disciplinary (Morford, Lawson, and major reform movements -s,rhich have had some im- Hutton, 1980) -Ind the kinesiological sciences (Hus- pactl on teacher education in this century: man, Clarke, sind Kelley, 1980) Models vem to 1,, The P,rogressive Movement exemplify the !academic reform movement. The Educationknowledge emergent from group teacher (or otherrofessional) would become a practic- process ing member of th disciplinç who would subsequently Teacherproblem-soler group leader induct students/c ients into the discipline through The Academic Reform Movement either deductive learning or inductive process-: Educationinduction into practice of the disci- centered learningoyce, 1975). In both programs,a pline cbre of kinesiologor kinesiological science would Teacherpracticing scholar precede any prepar tion for a Professional career. The 3. The Persbnalistic Reform Movement primary differences I.etween the programs are the use Educationprovision of diverse, growth- of a; broad fields ap roach in the cross,c(isciplinary i n d uci ni`en viron men ts model and the diffen\ g role of performance courses, Teacherself-actualized person, "gentle guide" Performance mastery in specified number of courses ig 4. The Competency Orienta hon. viewed as essential knowledge inthe cross-

Ed ucationsystet1-0 to provid% for assessed [ disciplinary model wh le in the kinesiologicarsciences ° needs model, activity courseare taken merely to provide Teachersystems engineer with repertoire of [ background for theore ['cal analysts. - skills Professional .skills a -td knowledge would be de- .Althoqgh Joyce's analysis was limited to teacher edu- veloped subsequent to he completion of thecOre. The cation, it seems applicable to the preparation of pro- ! student, having becoe a practicinescholar in fessionals who deal with physical edueation in settings kinesiology, would no1/4 begin professional study. In

other than schools. [ the cross-disciplinary me del a broad fields approach is The Competency-based model (Engberg, Har-1 again eMphasized. Gen -ric professional courses ap- rington, and Cady, -1980) described at this conference plicable to teaching and to other pnysical education can be easily categorized. Joyce desCribes the cornpe . professions examine isSL es from a scholarly perspec- tency orientation as a logical extension of the inclUstrial tive. -A practical advanta e of'such generie[courses is conception of education with its emphasis i4pon effi- that small numbers of stt dents with a particular spe- ciency and accountability. Howev6-, the sought out- ciality can be absorbed into the program with little comes haVe expanded beyondliteracy and occupa-. extra expenditure. The-generic approach may also in- tional skills to include a broaclrarcge of human needs. crease the student's professional Cybernetic analogies, systems anal{,sis, and improved The kinesiological sciei ces model as described has technology have made delivery systems much More no professional missionlthough some of its liberal sophisticated and have permitted individualization of arts graduates were cited as having_accepted profes-. the content, rate, and mode of learning. sional positions. If the m idel were extended to be- The competency-based program described here ad- come a comprehensive &sign for the total program, dressed only teacher education:but it could be used as ccTurse work needed to accluire professional skills and a model for a comprehensive program. ExpaInsion to meet certiffeation requIrm nts wbuld be addechto this include professional roles other thpn teaching \k/ould required core. In contrast ,nth the cross-discipHnary requir2 a, process similar tp that uged,in the develop-i model; students ivouldenerlly be sen.t. to other ment,of a teacher education program. The positions [ academic units to acqui e necess,ary professional' forN[s,'hich students are to be' employed would be skills, to education,usirAs, jburnalism, etc.' Few additional resourcesould be needed'to offer a sek±ted and a team of university faculty and persons . currently employed in such positions would identify wide range of professional' ontions because the re- the competenees needed to perform the role. Any sources.would be available in other academic _units.

.4 One practical problem may be the total nUmber of program _coherence. Each of these models has an. hours required to complete both the kinesiological sci- internal consistency which could provide the basis for ences program and the professional preparation re- comprehensive and coherent programs and for re- quirements. The recommended solution was a fifth search regarding the profession& preparation process. year for professional preparation. Another issue re- To build a body of knowledge about any subject it is lates to tne responsibility for the Kotessionalqualific_a- necessary to frame one's research questions in the tions of liberal arts graduates who are employed in 'context of a theory. -Although each of the proposals professional positions without professional training. begins with a value judgment of what ought to be, The responsibility for evaluating professional qualifi- each alsO contains hypotheses which could be empiri- cations has shifted from the university to the em- cally tested. Research comparing the effectiveness of ployer. In situations without certification or licensure the models is of limited value beCause they are not requirements, e.g., exercise centers, private schools, aiming at the same goals and therefore share nocom- etc., neither the government nor the prOfession cur- mon criterion of effectivenss. But.the components of rently has influence upon these decisions. each model can and should be evaluated. Perhaps It is more difficult try place the subject-matter cen- each institution has the obligation not only to'develop. tered model (Locke, Mand, and Siedentop, 1980) into and justify a comprehensive professional program, one of Joyce's classifications. The learning resource but also to conduct both program evaluation andpro- center employs the technology common to the fessional preparation research... competeney-based approach. The continuing seminar It is interesting to note that three of the four models with it emphasis upon camaraderie between-fatulty presented seem to fit into the discipline/subject .and students suggests the personalistic reform move- matter-based category. Does this reflect the direction mOnt, but the, collegial relationship is'also consistent in which-we are. headed or merely the biases of the with induction into a community of scholars. Upon planning coMmittee? Are there models.of progressive close examination the emphasis seems to be upon or personalistic professional preparation programs in Jducation as induction into the discipline, but the dis-- physical education?' cipline has been defined as activity-centered rather One of the clearest descriptions of the application of than concept-centered. The definition of play activities the progressive philosophy to physical education has as the subjea-matter of physic& education and the been the wofk of Rosaline Cassidy. The chapter in identification of mastery of subject-matter and in: Cassidy and Caldwell (1974).von the development okt creased engagement in subject matter aS the prithary units df instruction portrays the teacher's role as'the purposes of physical education are clearly consi,stent leader in a group, planning process. This recent work with the principles of the academic refor,m movement. also reflects a strong influence by Maslow, Combs,_ TI-Isubject matter-centered modekvotdd presum- and others .associated with the personalistic Move- ably continue to use physical education activities as ment. Don Hellison (1978) has been a major spokes- _the organizing centers in the preparation of a physi- person for the personalistic approach in phlcal edu- cal education /professional. Since the activities in the cation. He describes the teacher as a helpirig, caring entry core were selected_because of their appropriate- person whose role isto assist students to Clarify and ness in articulating activity with the knowledge' base, -vattain theirown goals. It is uncertain whether thereare there vould seem to be no need to Modify thiS core if existing professional preparation programs which the program were expanded to prepare professionals, utilize these approaches. The" absence at the confer- other than teachers. The subsequent activity sequence ence of Models exemplifying the progressive and per- whiche,is representative of the subject matter 4 physi- osonalistic movements and the Keay)/ represen tatio,rof al education and of client interest might require some models from tbe avidemic reform movement is signifi- modifications if a wider range of professionals were eant as istfte increased prissence of college and univer- being prepared. In addition, appropriatenew mod- sitv faculty other' than, teacher-education specialists. ules \vould be added to the learning ccnter and rele- The emphasis in colleges and universitiesupon schol- vz.int internships would be arranged. V-I,owever, the,- ar;hiyand disciplinary study appears to be having a basic structure of the program would remain un- dramatic impact upon our perceptions of prOfessional changed. Relatively few added resources would tbe preparation. needed because of the reliance upon the learning re- OnUissue raised in the, precedingpapers aincerns sourcie cente'r. Thi; individualized delivery system. the definition of the disCipline: Is, the substance of would alsd permit o'ffe,ring Options with low enroll- physical education best defined in terrns of thovement nuinrs because there would be 'noconcern about activities or in terms of scholarly perspectives used-to minimum class sizes. examine movement? Tha t issue may be of little interest ; One word of cautionthe lines Lhave just aided to or consequence to those whose commitment is to the the drawing of each of these models are my lines. The progressive, personalistic, or competency orientations presentors might not agree,with my extrapolations. I since none of these approaches uses .the strlicture of have taken the risk and prOk.eeded with my Srula the discipline as the basis for program development. tion because of the 'urgency I feel about handling the These models insteadtldvocate the selection and struc-

CZ) turing of curriculum content around student needs caution one step furthet and say that to attempt to cure and goals. The academic reformists object to this in- the woes of public school physical' education by in- strumental use of the content area which they see as creasing the competence of the individual teacher may intrinsically valuable and worth knowing for its own be a sophisticated example of blaming the victim. If sake.. The apparent Jack of discussion of this issue only the teacher would get better .and try harder, could indicate a growing acceptance of the intrinsic school physical education would be saved! My obser- value position, the non-attendance of the instrumen- vation is that our new teachers already have more' talists, or a failure to recognize the 'significance of this skills id knowledge than permitted to use.. What fundamental difference in positions. ' ,needs to, be cured is the System,and not just the indi- One question persistently asked is whether it is pos- vidual teacher. Giveri reasonable class sizes, adminis- sible to be eclectic without being contradictory and trative -support, and relief from the domination' by inconsistent. have become increasingly convinced athletics, many teachers can teach! We need to be that the answer to that question is no.-Such a denial of- prepared to .participate in the political process neces- eclectism doe's not imply that there bre not elements saryto effect these changes. Weneed.to be prepared at common to more than one program model.. every level (NASPE, the university, the individual vidualized modular instrüction or problem-solving teacher). methodologies could be used to develop competen- l-fow does NASPE fulfill this political role? One cies:to acquire disciplinary knowledge, or to reach major approach may indeed be the dissemination of personal or social goals. Information about the mo- standards. Standards are not the Mechanisnoto create chanical analysis-of skills could be identified as a nec- quality innovative pr6grams. But standards may be an essafy competency for teaching, as an essential coM- effective political togl to influence administrators to porient of the body of-disciplinary knowledge, or as-,K) allocatepcleguate resources so-that a quality program information with personal meaning to the student or can be developed. Standards are the responsibility of a udents. There will be common program components profesionarorganization, but program development but the principle for determining what is to be, in- remains the responsibility of faculty 'at the specific cluded differs in each program. With the exception of stituti&c. When stanaards are viewed as a political the progressive and personalistic movements, those tool it is easier, to write them in such broad terms so principles for progkm development seem, mutually they will accomodate any one of several program excrusive. Develdpment of a comprehensive; coherent philosophitss. Dissemination strategies Must bring program design requires a commitment to one alterna- standards to the attention of administrators;. the tive. Theprocess of selection and implementation of a planned involvement with NCATE seems to be an: model will involve both examination of models and effective political strategy. darificatiomof personal values. AAHPERD's political strength would seeM to be, What is the _tole of a professional association in this-1, greater than that of NASPE. In depth discussion of process? HoW does NASPE contribute to the overall innovative programs may require a conference just for quality of professional preparation and professional. phy'sical educators. However, our political survival practice? Historically AAHPERD and later NASPE. ; may require maintaining ourallian-ce with health, rec- disseminated S'tandards which were prePared and ap- reation, and dance. This will involVe thoughtful con- proved .by leaderS-of the professional organization. sideration of issues resulting from our broadened vi- Although compliance with standards has been volun-, sion of physical education as more than school pro: tary/ NASPE's increasedinvolverment in the NCATE grams. Many of the new profeSsional position's do not accreditation 'process is anticipated. How does one fit nicely into ouepresent,claisification scheme. Who reconcile th al,. desire for standards to guide 'practice should prepare the person employed by an induqtrial with a commitment to diversity? My suggestion is that firm to conduct exercise programs, to lead seminars on NASPE's role, is twofold. clearlyone responsibility is wellness, lifestyles and stress management, to teach , to provide forum for debate; and- deliberation. racket sports and swimming, and to manage the em- Perhaps the most potent force for quality in education ployee recreation programs?:. Although immediate is the need for public jukification of one'sjdeas, one's reactions tend to be territorial, the rnore5Ogical re- program. Dialogue and debate not. only subject one's sponse seems to be a reVamping of the Vd lines of work to critiques by others but the process of explain- demarcation developed during an, era of identity- ing and justifying often leadS to, clarity and under- crisis. This thought process seeniS to haVe begun at the standing of one's own assumptions. local level in some institution's although it is not yet The other role of a professional organization is polit- visibl6 at the national level. ical. Anderson raised questions regarding the degree Professional organizations cannot be expected to be to which a cOnference such as this would improve innoVative and risk-takirig. Stich organizations are in-. teacher education and subsequently public school herently burea ucra tit and reactive because they must physical educaition programs. He cautioned U about 'respond to and represent a widely .varying mem,ber- p e ting a conference to have a marked effect on ship. Maintenance of this broad coalition provides a what is conducted in the 'gym.I wish to take this base'for political power' but it necessitates an eclectic, 0

84 cv middle ground approach to program issues. Innova- at Professional PreparafIon Conference of the National tion and excellence will depend upon the develop- Association for Sport and Physical Education, Chicago, ment of model programs by small groups of dedicated November, 1980. professionals and upon an organig,ational structure Hellison, D. Beyond Balls and Bats. Washington, DC: Ameri- which provides mechanisms for the sharing and can Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recrea- examination of our diverse efforts. tion, 1978. Husman, B. F.; Clarke, D. H.; and Welley, D. L. "A discipli- niry model for a curriculum in kinesiological sciences." References Paper presented at Professional Preparation Conference of the National Association for Sport and Physical Educa- Anderson, W. C. "Professional preparation conference: tion, Chicago, November, 1980. one more time." Paper presented at Professional Prepara- Joyce, B. "Conceptions of man, and their implications for tion Conference of the National AssOciation for Sport and teacher education." In Teacher Education, edited by K. Physical Education, Chicago, November, 1980. 'Ryan. Part II of Seventy-fourth yearbook of National Soci- Cassidy, R.; and Caldwell, S. F. Hwnanizing Physical Utica- ety for Study. of Education, 1975. tion . Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Co., Publishers, 1974. Locke, L. F.; Mand, C. L.;,and Siedentop, D. "Theprepara- Considine, W., ed. Alternative Profrssional Preparation in tion of physical education jeachers: a subject-centered 0 Physicry Education. Washington, DC: American Alliance model." Paper presented at Professional Preparation Con- for Health, Physical Educati6n, Recreation and Dance, ference of the National Asso6iation for Sport and Physical 1979. Education, Chicago, November, 1980. Ellis, M. J.'Curient context and future curriculum. Paper Morford, W. R.; Lawson, H. A.; and Hutton, R. S. "Under- presented at Professional Preparation Conference of the graduate physical educatiOn: a cross disciplinary model." National Association for Sport and Physical Education, Paper 0,esented at Professional Preparation Conference Chicago, November, 1980. of the National Association for Sport and Physical Educa- Engberg, M.L../ Harrington, W.; and Cady, L. V. tion, Chicago, November, 1980. '!gompetency-based teacher preparation in physical edu- Ritzer, Sociology: a multiple paradigm science. Boston: Allyn cation at Washington State University." Paper presented and Bacon, 1975.

4

85 Ar. Textures

William Harper Purdue University

Introduction I-will offer a; few suggestions which we must always keep in mind when making a legitimate effort to un- Wedged somewhere within the many fine com- derstand projects such as these: ments made in the two opening papers were several 1. Attend closely to the stipulated assumptions statements whfcli bear-directly on my analytical and given in each program. It is here that we must think synthetic task. Both, in their own way, were warnings. close aud hard, for if -assumptions are given, conclu- The first warning (Ellis) was that we sensibly ought to sions are difficult to deny. find our way between knee-jerk optimism and de- 2. Try to think of some assumRtions which have not structive pessimisM. The second warning (Andersem) been stipulated in advance. You might ask yourself: was that we had best no4yearn for unity and that we "What have they assumed to be true in order for their resist the temptation to try to create a false vision of position to ring true?" unity by pretending that all these diverse points of 3. Tryto stick to the content of the paRer and not to the background or personalitiesof the team presenting view- can be neatly fitted together into some grand 10, design. them. Nobody gets anywhere by using the tactic of Now, of course, both of the -warnings must be arguing "to the person". heeded, at least by you, the reader. What I want to do 4. Try not to condemn these teams for failing to is ignore the warnings,- I am going to streSs optimism; I answer questions they did not ask. am going to try to fit together what are thought to be 5. Do not criticize them for posing questions they diverse views. It will be for you to determine whether admittedly cannot answer. They should be thanked inr not my approach is a knee-jerk "or pretentious. for posing the question and for being candid enough to, My plan is as follows. There are two parts to thiS admit that they don't know the answer. paper. First,I will say a few words about analyzing 6. Perhaps you can see other possibilities for their these papers, in which I will not analyze, myself. Sec- approaches they have not seen. In other words, given ond, I will say many words about synthesizing the their assumptions, there might be some equal or better papers, in which I will synthesize, myself. TheSynthe- alternatives they haVe not considered. sis will depend upon the simple idea of what I will call 7. Please be generous enough to know that even if texture. And texture, in turn, will be discussed in the you can show them to be in error, you have not three Manifestations of pretext, context, and ,the text thereby shown that your approach is right. The bur-.

. itself. den of proof remains with you to. show how your alternative improves the world. 8. Maybe there are some disadvantages to their proposals that they have not seen? Identify them for Some Words on Analysis yourself. Maybe there are'some advantages they have missed. You are obligated to point them out as well. Please remember that each presenting teani was 9. Look carefully to see whether or not, in your requested to encourage the conference participants mind, the prescriptive program meets the descriptiVe and readers to clearly understand the position their state of affairs, In other words, does their approach program endorses with respect to professional prepa- solve the problem with which they are grappling? rallon in physical education. It is my g4ess thAt the 10. Finally, remember that practice ought to be the written "explanation and charting more than consequence of thought. Ultimately, the genuine test adequately meets this stipulation. of some of these ideas will be to try them out. It is also my guess that each of theSe approaches to think that these teams are to be sincerely congratu- phyical education undergraduate preparation, by lated. They have each conjured up an approach Which now, has gone under the analytical knife. Although issued from reason and which they ultimately know some of this is destined to be with well-polished but must appeal to logic. Of course, the papers are not blunt knives, for the most part most of the poking, ;unassailable, nor are they entirely year given their cutting,. shaving, ,slicir,g, and whittling, was with a occasional lapses into jargon and mystification. But gharpiand incisive knife, they have been created and piesented with the good (/ 87 /- intentions of giving substance, choice, and work fo be 2. (SMCM)2 "Play activities in the form of sport, done. Although the individual commitment to their games, dance,.exercise and outdoor activities are the approaches must not be underestimated, they have all subjecfmatter of physical education." presented their views in the best spirit of disinterested 3. (CdDM) 3 "kinesiology,will be used as the subject scholarship. For this, we express thanks. matter explored . . . involving various factors as- sociated with the status and ability of the individual to engage in physical and luck activities, the role of these activitieg in culture, and the contribution of these ac- tivities to individual development. Many Words on Synthesis 4. (InDM)4 ". . . human movement and sport (are) the subject matter core oikinesiological sciences. . Taken ind4lually, these approaches are quite and the program was designed to impart to the stu- worthy of our continued reflective attention, criticism, dent a scholarly understanding of the human being as and experiment. Taken collectively, these papers may an individual engaging in the motor activities of daily be cause for some quiet celebration. Indeed, I think the life which serve as an expression of his/her physical basic conference theme (Progress through Diversity) and competitive natures." has not only been satisfied in these papers, but in fact ,Essentially, these are the answers each team would - extended one step- to the theme for my synthesis: give to our question concerning what we are to be busy Likeness4in Diversity. We are, as a field, becoming about:One does not have to ponder over these work- texture& In my opinion, it is both good and true that ing definitions very long to discover that they are far this is Ne. more alike than diverse. Except for the turn of a phrase SP Texture is that which has structure or body. The or two here and there, maybe preference for more or word is commonly used .in refmne-e)to an aspect of less specificity, and an occasional difference in wdra

1 matkrial objects, such as hair, l';. d, or a fabric. When .choice, these "whats" are quite alike; our subject mat- so used, we mean that the object\has more than one ler is (for the sake ofeconomy and convenience) motor dimension to it, or that it has a feel or a certain quality play activity. not present when the same object is untextured For If there is likeness here, then what is diverse? Well, example, if we speak of a textured 'ceiling, we mean the what may be largely shared; the why and how are that it is of a given character or pattern, that It. has the causes for diversity. These approaches differ on undulations, or that it is in some way thicker than reasons for studying our subject matter. They differ On ordindry ceiOgs. how that subject matter is to be studied. Regarding the It is somewhat .dangerous to use this. word when why: some say because we are to be teachers of it we speaking of a non-material object, such as a field of had better know it to excel at teaching it to others; study. There is a certain meaning the Word brings others say because the study of it will lead to a career of forth wiiich helps me in seeing the similarity between one kind or another in addition to teaching; others diversities to which I have referred. suggest we study it because it is there to be studied-and -10-1 It is appropriate to speak of the texturing of a field in that is good in itself regardless of what comes of it. this way because it is the form not the content which makes Regarding the how: some say that we ought to experi- the field tt`.xtured. Even with the texturing of the mate- ence itfirst and foremost, and thereby study its rial objects, texture results more from the way the nuances; others want us to intellectually master it, yet strands are woven, or the way the paint is plastered on at the same time such mastery will be enhanced if we the ceiling, than from differences in the strands or experience it too; others suggest that we ought to pigments themselves. largely sit still and measure or think over this subject Reflect back for a moment on the workirig defi- matter. in short, the whys are both instrumental and nitions of the-subject matter put forward Neach of the f0.ir approaches to undergrad uate study in physical r education. I .(CBTE)' ". . PhysicaLeducation (is) the study 2(SMCM), refers to the Subject-MatteriCenter Model, "The of hifinan Movement phenomena, including the play Preparaiion of ,Physical Edycation Teachers; A Subject- element in our culture." Matter-Centered Model," by LaWrence Locke, Charles Mand, and Daryl Siedentop, presented in Chicago, IL, .Nov. 7, 1980.. 3(CrDM) refers to the Cross-Disciplinary Model, "Under- graduate Physical Education: A Cross-Disciplinaryodel," by Robert Morford, Hal Lawson, and Robert Flut ,pre- sented in Chicago, IL, Nov. 7,980. '(CBTE) refers to the Competency-Based Teacher Prepara- 4(InDM) refers to the InterdisciPliry Model, "A Discipli- tion paper. Presentation of program at Washington State nary Model for a Curriculum in Kinesiological Sciences," by University, Mary Lou Enberg, Wilma Harrington, Lillian Burris Husman, David Clarke, and David Kelley, presented Cady, Chicago, IL, Nov. 6, 1980. in Chicago, IL, Nov. 6, 1980.

8 intrinsic; the hows are both dramatic and discursive, is-the form in which the subject is approachedor given These whys and hows make up the form of the field; it to the learner. is the form, not the content that renders it posSible to I may not have advanced the readervery far with speak of texture..Let me be even more specific. this distinction. One could say that I have simply sub- Everybody has probably studied, at.. one timeor stituted the word discipline for the word profession, another, Henrys (1964) paper. Indeed, many have and in place of the ordinary uy of the word discipline I referred to thi s-piece as a classic. What if there is *aye- chosen touse the word doctrine. Thus, 'one another way to see this notion of what, exactly, consti- might say, weare still left witlithe original problem of- tutes -a discipli- e? If this were so, there might be good theory versus yractice only couched in differentterms. 'reason to reevaluate the gist of our modern literature Then we woulci speak of our "new doCtrinarians" and (the last tWenty or so years)- and the significance of our "old disciplinarians!" what meaning it has for us. In kit f,,it mighr be thatit But it does seem .to me, at lease' that thisway of has only been in appearancLC-that we have been seeihg things does make an interesting difference, and steeped in earthquake-like spasms w hich4g said to be -in at least twO ways. First, if what Ihave noticed...to be rending open the field leaving a fault line into which true about what these four undergraduate approaches we will all tumble, being swallowed up like so much to physical education largely agree upon (thewhatwe sand and silt. The rumblings may be farmore, in are to study), then instead of being at war over disci- realk perhaps like the orogenic behavior associated pline/profession matters at the expense of the field, with-the birth of mountains (or at least small terraces), they in fact (noisy though they may be)are cooperat- -from which more, not less of the- World, enters Our ing (perhaps unknoWingly) in creating the disciplinary 64 vision. texture of the field, all of them, to a one. They hold the What I arn wondering is whether or not,,we have..the doctrine, the subject matter, incommon. What are right notion of the nature-of a discipline inour c011ec- considered perverse ia each other's scheme ofthings tive heads. Henry did not put it in our heai,all by actually are only diverse disciplinary forms spaNWOed himself, of course,- We were ready for it. We have kept by the inherent nuances of the doctrineor subject this notion of what constitutes a discipline before'-lis matter. In other woLds, they are friends, not foes. fc-fr 'all these years. It is taiken for granted, by Hensry and, gcond, thig'waYof looking'at the noting of whai by most of us as well, that a discipline is (in his words) c'onstitutes.a discipline also suggests thepossibility "an organized body of knowledge whichmay be ac- that it is by giving form to the doctrine that the doctrine quired without an eye to application". He goes-on to comes to be at all.It may be that content is Onlya say that the content is "theoretical and scholarly as phantornor ghost until it becomes embodied ina form. . ctistin-guished-7from ' technical and professional". In Sometimes we get the idea that there is this ''body" of other words, the notion of a discipline is that it is knowledge sitting around somewhere, someplace, content-specific.. .:r having been created by us but stored insome tidy 'But what if a discipline is form-, not content- loc?tion to be served Up'a t will. I f, by a body of knowl- specific? Such an outlook goes againstour normal edge, we mean ideas, or facts, or judgments thenwe thinking about what constitutes a discipline. Indeed, surely ought to know better. It is in giving expression much literatdre outside the physical education field, to ideas and facts that they become manifested. Vis- even the normal and popular uslr. of the word disci- ions of reality are given by means ofan expressive act: pline, points to the content-specific meaning of the a word; a -movement;. a gesture; a piece bf music;a word: the body of knowledge (organized, preferably). novel; a proposition; a dance. We give that visiona If the original meaning of the word,discipline,is re- body. Hence, in giving shape or form toa doctrine (let viewed one wonders how it,ca me to be used.theway it us say, the subject matter of our field) we areexpres- %is. Instead of being concorned with academicor sing it. The expression of it niay takea variety of forms. abstract theory, discipline actually has more to do with Until-it is eptessed, it does not exist. Ina way then, it pradice or exercise, Discipline 'means the instruction is true to sdy that until such time that thereare compet- of disciples. It refers to a course of training or instruc- ing disciplinary forms giving epressionto a doctrine tion. ft means orrJ,ething that is a process or act ofa or su6ject rn-atter, the doctrine is not embodied and learner. It doeS not .refer to that which is taught,so access to it is denied us. much as it does to the fact that it is taught or the ferm in The mere fact that there are thought to be diverse which it is taught. WHa t is the antithesis to discipline is ways of obtaining access to Our subject matter, some not the profession, but thedoctrine.It- is the doctrine discursive and some dramatic, and that' thereare a which is taught. Doctrine is What is possessed by the number of some intrinsic and instrumental expla- teacher. Although doctrine may be a body of instruc- nations which make access to it desirableor nec- tion, it is generally taken to be that which is laid down essary, are illustrative of a present conditioin in aS true, Concerning .a subject. The word doctrine is physical education which calls for celebration,not de- closer to the meaning-ordinarily gis. en to the word spair. As we discover and .elaborate differentways or - discipline, it being the system of principles or tenets. modes of knoWing our subject matter,we are discoVer- --Thus, the doctrine is the subject matter; the discipline ing and elaborating the doctrine itself. In the physical

z 89 9 0 education field, as in most others, our answering de- First, each team is wise enough to allow -their ap- fines our questioning. proach to be no more than it appears to be. In this they Please don't think that I zim underestimating the have cautioned the readers or listeners to look and see quite real differences between the approaches to un- for themselves`, to study the asspmptions and the limi- dergraduate study in physical education. No doubt tations, to realize that the approach in question will many of the people representing these different ap- not satisfy everyone, th understand that there are a proaches think each other are twits, and that the. re- host of contingencies i-issociatedwith..the approach in spective approach:for ,which they are singing is mere question, to understand the problems the particular twittering. This is possible because there are funda- approach is aiming te solve, and so on: Further, they mentally different answers being given about our , have notmade the mistake of giVing rig an eitheror question. For example, there are differences with re- situation. They each seem to acknowledge the possi- _gard bility of an excluded middle, and theY appear to know whether and how to prepare teachers and coaches; that their' differing approaches are not mutually exclu- sive,contiary, but -not necessarily contradictory. \ whether knowledge learned discursiYely (by mind) necessarily matters in teaching motor play skills; Th us, 'even though these teams are quite cominitted to their models and some are publicly or privately betting whether researd) in the so-called basic areas will health", none of realmof the teaching on their way ''for our continued good ever improve the'iust-as basic the teams have attempted to weave before, they are act itself; . not twits in the older sense at least_ which me.ant a whether the basic research should even be expected creating of weak or thin places in an uneven spinning to.improve the, practice of teaching;. of the yarn. They do not appear to be trying to -spin the- whether the teaching act itself is in need of special. whole fabric by themselves which would inevitabW research attention or is merely a t&hnique picked result in thinness, i.e., fabric withon texture. up plong the way, preferablyinthe department of Second, they are not "weaving before" the ultiwate education; charactgr of the doctrine itself-We have not witnessed Whether thinning and doing are recondlable; 4 irithese papers the workings of true believers, of fana- whether there is in thinking a special kind of doing, tics who, ,as Santayana has said, redouble their effort in doing a sPecial kind of thinking; after forgetting their aim.. Quite the contrary. Thexan- whether there are any number of differences regard- dor with which the field is spoken abput can be annoy- ing time, method, vocation, skills, and the like. ing. There is nothing here of the child's confidence in the infallibility of their parents. These tearn4ave their What I am suggesting, is that these differences are eyes wide open.-They see things as theyi.a re.Gone are with regard to form, not tlio content. En exploring the days when we could (or would) claim more kr our these four approaches (and others in existence or pres- field than we could demonstrate to be. true. I would not ently-being conceived) we are discovering'features.of sayftha't we a,,re looking coldly.at the field, but we are our content we,scarcely knew existed twentyand more looking more carefully, We appear to be trying to years ago. The word diversity,after all; means some- discover -for ourselves what is or is not the case with thing like a turning, strictlY speaking, a driving about. re.spect to ludic activity: Even if we intuitively under- More literally, we take it to mean somethingwhichhas stand that thc-e.is something rather special about this multi-forms. The multi-forms for the ways in which-- human indina ion to ploy, we are apparently, and ludic activity (in the la`rgest of senses) manifestsitself, finally, patichtenough to find out_what it is precisely. have a shared likeness because of the shared doctrine. Even if we think play might be an Amtrak to heaven, We ean.see th'e likeness if what is implicit in-these these approaches ascert.ain that we have not mounted proposals a rix1 programs is examined. In making the a donkey. In this regard, these fourapproaches are implicit explicit, We find this similarity appearing in at shunning the pretext of being more than they are least three ways. These are the pretext, the context, known to be; they are creating forms in which the field and the text itself. will be all it can be. Simply put, what is alike in these proposals is that in Netext their collective refusal to "weave before", they have These four approaches to undergraduate study are placed both their proposals and the nature and signift- alike insofar that they reject pretE4t. Remember that cafice of the subject 'matter in front of us, not behind us. Theselively disciplinary forms by which we may ob- pretext means, figuratively, a zet.Wing before. Mpking i- pretext is to adorn,, lt sometimes means havingan tain access to the subject matter depend upon what is ostensible reason for something, such as using the awaiting us. For so long the tendency has been- to pretext of playing chess in the middle ages to get into imply that the studying had already been cOmpleted the bed chamber' of a Indy or a man, the modern and that all we reallyneeded were capable technicians, version of which is the invitation to come on up and managers, or salespeople. No more. The realstudying "see my etchings". In these papers pretext is shunned has yet to be done. In these approaches, what is taken with regard to two important themes. for granted is simply not taken: And wha t is granted is t) 90 that which is not takeR for granted. Pretext does not explicitly laid out in any of the proposals. There,,are satisfy. For those of you familiar with our history, this some strong and frequent signs in all of these papers is indeed a significant and powerful turn. that share a common idea of what education prop- erly ought to be about. Someone, it seems to me, Context ,should say sOmething about what that larger con-- text appears to be. If pretext is a "weaving before", context is a weaving The signs I am thinking of, by the.way, which en- together or a joining together of what is. The context is courage me to look for a proper context for these pa- the general climate or environment surrounding the pers are such things as;,the learning centers; the semi- text itself. It is that which sheds light op or gives nars; the independent study projeds field work; in- meaning to. We are all familiar with the situation in , ternships; Systemic influencing; self-paced learning; which what is said is "taken out of context". We mean the variety .of modes of encouraged study; etc. So, I that standing by itself the word or phrase does-not ask, on the one hand, given these signs, what kind of mean the same thing as when it-appears-with its kin in. climate would make these approaches 'utterly sens`é- context. _We need to put the part into the whole to- less? On the other hand, into what context might these. catchits intended and full meaning. Thus, it is better to programs nicely weave? be in, nOt out of, context. I suvest that each of these proposals-largely rejects In examining these papers with a slight squint (shut= the characteristics of schooling and largely endorses ting out the direct light;looking laterally)1 think there the characteristicsbf edueating. Indeed, the fact that it is, again, a likeness in their diversity with regard to the is the educating context which is implicitly endorsed context into which their- program alternatives are in these papers provides further reason for cele- thought to fit. You will not find that what follow-S is brating th,e variety of suggested disciplinary forms.

, Schooling Context (Skelch) Educating antext- (Sketch) I. Schooling is obligatory. 1. Educating is self-chosen.

2. Being obligatory, others are frequently telliV 2. Being self-c.,hosen, educating is at best, freedmn students what they muSt learn and when and how (freeing from ignqrance,. freeing for knowledge, they must learn IL Hence, it is easy for schools to wisdom). be coe:Tive, Manipulative, exploitive. (3

3. Schooling emphasizes havmg, e.g., getting a 3. Educating emphasizes being. degree, haying an A.B., possessing skillsimd techniques.

4. To have an education, one muskbe there to obtain 4. Educating stresses 'knowing,' knowing howor iL Thus, attendance is the chief esvaluative criteria. knowing what orthat.

5. Schooling is a passive process, like being 5._ -Educating is an active searching out, unhampered pasteurized. lt is done to one; it1s external-. discoyery, something one participates in, interno).

6. Being a process, it produces prothwts. 6. Allows for growth arrd unfolding ofpersons.

7. Oftentimes, schoolmg is,a sf/stem, a technically 7.Educating thrives in a community. effident brganization with various units, departments, and divisions.

8. Inevitably, persons are made to learn. 8. Educating is a shareCiNoject of helping, not making.

9. Schooling is-bY Its very nature competitive. 9. Educating is characterized by cooperation.

10. Schools, again by design, routinize (bells, 10. Ferrets out diversity, looks for the unexpected, schedules, hours, credits, courses, curriculum, encourages creative exploration, nurtives surpri:,e, exarns, recitations, etc.). wonder, astonishment.

I L. Schools often discourage, prevent, andsometimeS 11. Baseii upon hope'that each individual will trust no even punish la prodOct for thinking (products One in matters of thought, will think for oneself cOttout /wads or hearts). will question, pro, disturb the peace, all of which would be guided y one's courage, logic, and loye.

91 11..4 o in my pefuSal of these papers, I am convinced that Do they emerge with the desire to go on learning there is a definite similarity among them regarding the and reading as long as they live?" (p. 14) preferred cbritext into _which our programs ought- to Well, he says, these are embarrassing questions. But fit..lt is genuine educating they advocate. It is educat- they are ques ions which we can afford to ask. The ing each paper will help provide. It is educating which right question may be more important than anything provides the larger context into which they are woven. else. And I t ink our answers, that is, the fOur a15- In this idea of educating, there is a truey liberating proaches -outlined, clearly exhibit an attitude of mind spirit, for Us and our students. hich strives for the vision of greatness about which I think E. Trueblood (1959) said it best.,, In his words Trueblood speaks. In this, they weave together. there is a wisdorn to which each and every t.n'oposal we have examined these last few days is testimony. The Text Itself , Trueblood says: "Few contempOrary developments are-more dis- I have thus far spoken of the idea of our field becom- ing textured, that this is a quite necessary and desir- quieting than that represented by tlw cult of medioc- able feature of the field, that this texture develops in rity. The heart of this mediocrity is deliberate limita- [he weaving of various alternative forms (disciplines) tion of achievement. It is a terrible. -and, frightemiog: through which our content (doctrine) comes to h?e, that thing when it appears in industrial establishments, but it is far more frightening whim it appears in all of these, approaches appear to stiare a. common subject matter, that they are alike in their refusal to educational establishments. "weav;2 before" the s u bject is studied- (pretext), andi 1makes little di'fference how advanced-our technol- that they may also be in their idea of what ogy is if the ideal of excellence is lost in our civilka-- educational features proviL.e the.proper context .into Hon. When it is lost, men and' women habitually which our particular.subject/imatter May properly fit. settle for what is passing; thevput in the timerthe Now it remains for me to say a few words about whatis hold the jOb. The sharne, thQn, is that theV have being written: th-e.text itself. nothiviiii in their experience of which they mar be The text is the doctrine. The doctrine has been taken justifiably. proud. Tho-e are mar% ways in vhich in these various proposals to be what is called motor civilizations decline, but this is one ot the most obvi-- play activity, or in general, ludic activity. I am suggest- ous ways. If the colleges do not provide an.antidote ing that this doctrine (what we know of it) is being to mediocrity, it is hard to know where such ant-, written precisely through the variety of disciplinary antidote will be found." (pp. 183-184) forms by which it is.manifested. And what isexciting ' "There are many features whieh 1ri involved in the about the writing itself is that we' are witnessing the production-of a genuine college, but 'all of the other discursive and dramatic, the intrinsic, and instrumen- features are patently insuifient if there is not some tal. We are beginning to see that our subject matter true sense in which the entire college life is an intro- admitspf both, being known and being understood.' duction to the experience of greatness. A.college is _1.1.3y being _known I mean that the subject can be an institution which, because it recognizes that Hi-E.-- studied in more or less tidy ways. The results'o- kthis enemy is the trivial, makes a deliberate attempt,i-iOt examinatiOn, whether of the element itself or orti e g"\ only to createithe visipn of greatness, nut to crea te it prácess of helping others learn the element, en be -habitually." (1). 182) repOrted in the form of propositions or statements. By bi.Cing understood I Mean that Ithe subject can be Furthermore, 'studied in perhaps less fidy Ways,' but nonetheless

'"Because ediTcation today is big business . . it is really ;meaningful ways. Understanding the ludic ele- easy to lose sight of fundamental goals. It is easy to ment -can be captured, in such forms as painting, coneentrate upon the construction of buildings and music, poetry, and literature, or in the doing of playful efficiency of administration without serious search- bodily activity' itself. In the knowing we 'have truths ing for the purpose, apart from which these are abst(act, in the understanding, truths incatthte. In the nothing. %flowing we have tru:th progyessive, in ,the tinder- . And what is the purpose? sta'ling, truths respbnsive. In the knowing w'6 have truths ve repeat, in the understanding, truths -ye "IS it developin judgment in regard to literature, experience. In the knowing we have truths about, in art or conduct? the understanding true ways ihto. Both knowing and, Is it producing creativity in science such that pew understanding weave together, clearly announcing to discoveries will be made? . the world that we are a field genuinely in the service of Is it encouraging new imagination concerning the truth no matter in which -form it is given us. ways in which people can live together in Peace? I speculate that/Ne are writing a novel txt..,If the "Do people come out of this comn-tunity more com4 ludic element (in/cluding such play forms aSA cise, passionate and more unified in their-lives. than thin/ sptirt, game, 'dance, movement, and so my) is the , .. vere when they entered? . ' heart of the text; our protagonist so to speak, thell we

9 2 4 s, are about to take seriously what until this time has only These few instances of scholarseibougfilsconcern- occupied out attention and the attention of others ing- play serve to suggest that ..al least thosewho :intermittently. Chiefly because the play elementis trouble themselves to uncover the secrets of playap- Considered by many to be frivolous, unproductive, pear to' hOld p'lay in the highest regard. Moreover, and the proper doliain of ehildren, the .serioustudy there isno surprise that play is manifested invarious of this element and,.its. motor forms has oftenbeen . fields of study. Because playappears in different thought to be frivolous, unproductive, and childish. modes, epoch's, and regions Of humanexperience,it As many of you knoW, there have been peoplefrom necessarily transcends the-often crudely-.cut bourfth a wide variety of backgrounds and fields of study who aries of typical scholarship. To this extent, descrip- have remained unperturbed about "what isthought", tions of the natureand significance of play oftensound .--- -, and have seriously searched after the ludic element. rather pretentious, e.g., play as the gate to theroot of Whether they started out looking for playor came the ,world, play as a glimpse of paradise, playas the upon play while searching for something else, these clarifYIng and speculativemetaphor of the world, and thinkers have rioticed the ludfr to bea rich, exacting, so on. Then again, play may be beckoning these I a nd excitingsubject for study.Knowing the nuances thinkerS'. Praetendere, after all, doesmean "to stretch of play is a significant contributionto the ongoing forward". struggle to uhdFrstand ourselves. . If we are permitted this stretch forward,we can alSo Maybe we need Some examples? As is well known, a' catch' a glimpse of the ultimate significance of,thetext variety of schi)lars have caugla glimpses of thiselusive of our subject. These suggestionsput forth by thinVers an'd'broad s.ubjct. Bronowski (1973,p. 432) surprises refer to play as a meaningful.efribOdied us all when he action as w4.--!--,--- ds his study on the ascent ofman as to our tinkering' with ideas'w,hich play beforeus. with the obsemation that scientific thought, indeed all These rpay be little more than illustrativeexamples of hurnan thought,. is a. form of play. es,rthur.-Koestler wliaaluizinga (1955/1934 pressedupon 4injiamo (1964). fin4,the 'nature of the creativeact to Lig stint imdens. The veryeicistence ofculture is to be viewedas thiough !ith playful techniques. Kant, (1951/1970),von sub-specie ludi; vithout the play elementMtirit,'cul--, Schiller,(1975/1934), and Santayana (1961/1896) tie the ture wanes.V.you will recall, 1,-Itltizirl-ga makhed oi;to aes,thetiC act and aesthetic enjoymentto play_ Edmund support his ffiesis by-analyzing-Vie Various regions of 777.'Th. Husserl (196711913, pp. 280-281/57)o fterwe fqrred to human experience which arise from and the method of phenomenology as playJn- as the free /play of cluding such experieneess language. laws khow11- fancy; Eric Hoffer (1971, Chapte f> ) suggests that play, edge, poetry, philosoph,art, Music, rifual, andSQ on. being largely useless,,may be oiir most usefuloccupa- His view a "cultureappeqrs to be simllar.to Edward ti n. Carl Jung -(1933, p. 66) tefls us that without the 'Sapir's (1924, pp. 401-429) notion thiat thehighest 'ldlike playing with fantasy, no creative activity has levels of -cultu:re have, frequently ,beenreached in the ever come to birth. Lewis Mumford (1934) observed lowest level's 6f sophistication; ;the lOwest points,01-,C that the spirit of play enfranchised mechanical imagi-2 culture haVe peen plumbed in .'soine-ofthe'Thighest. nation . . ."engines are buckets and shovels 'ilressed .Civilization as a whole ,he says, :_rnoveson; culture uP for adults" (p. 101). JosephCampbell (1959, pp. comes and gOes: _-- . i -. 21-29) points to play as the meaning-function of myth: Both authors stress the limitation andmasteryofself Peter Bergr (1970,pp. 57-60) has'arguedthatplay is a ,ds,eisential to the, preservatiOrr andperpetuation of -7. signal of transcendence.r:Herrnan /Hesse(1969/1929) culture; that is, the selr must recOncileits own ,Ficlionalized the existence of a community Of scholars searches andstrivings With thegeneral spiritual tifeof held together by the notion of sc'holarsas players, - the commu-nity (limitation). Sapiyalso -seriving in play to achieve perfection, reveals that it pure being, the som'ehOtw must kriWwithin,the/resttistionof.our ac- fullness of truth and reality. Hu& Rahner(1972/1949) tivity.to ltiCat& satisfying of one'cspirit (astery). has described people at play For as reaching out for a Hvizinga an 'd ottiei-,so* thinkarspit is thtlplayspirit superlative .ease in which the body, freed fromits which is necess5ryfart' adtie'ving,a_ delicate balance' earthly burden, moves toward the effe4fessmea- between limitation and mastery of.,..self. 'sures of a heavehly danc-e. -Martin Heidegger(1971, think pray, in this senge, isnur,-creator. Itencit'onty, pp. 165-186) eVen speaks of play as the mode of Being. serves to'create those selves in 'whonAhe play element .Freeman Dyson (1979, p. 106) says we.could solve our is introduced or in whwn it lives, Filtit"also serves to 'nuclear power problems if the-accouritaRts and Mana- create the texture of the field M which it_ istudied. gers woilld move out of the way and assemble The a bunch creatittns which result fromthig play atie tiatural ex- of enthusiasts to tinker and pla-y. Iris MGdoch(1978, pressions of what we liVe byorhatliveur p.-266) and Joyn Updike (197511966, p. 39) both take -text is about. pia), but iswrittdn nnly.to the extent, to their craft of writing to be close dangerous playwith,:- which we arc willing to play oh. tinknowi?-forceg,an act of wiJlful,,play. There are those, Were .,e to becor-iie the custodianzpf5the as most of you know, who even suggest that the teach- Playele- ment of culture, were we tocare g-nd fe6d for the ing act itself is play, or rwst at least begiven play to knowing and understanding of this ludic' tnpulse, achieve its-purpose. .were we to help eaeh other, ourselves,our students,

93

4 and those our students rouch, learn more of the Hesse, 11.Magister ludi.New York: Bantam Books, 1969. nuances of play, were we to -explore,discover', and (Originally published, 1929.) elaborate these and other approaches to under- -I Hoffer, E.Firt thil;gs,and last. New York: Harper aTI.d Row, graduate study In physical Cducation, were we to 1971. Huizinga, J.Homo ludens: a study of the play element M cultuie. realize that these forms of study are necessary in order Boston: TheBeacon Press,1955. (Originilly published, for the text (the doctrine) to be written at all, were1\4e '1938.) to learn, that in our very diversity there islikeness Husserl, E.'Ideas. New York: Humanities Press, 1967. (Orig- which makes us all a part3 and weie 'we to celebrate, - inally published, 1913.) not lament; the progress throughdiVersity, I think we Jung, C. G Molfirn mat in-search of a soul.NewYork: Har- woUld in 'the truest alnd.most original sense be a pro- court Brace and World, 1933. fqsion, a community of people who'cleclare and place Kant, I. Critique of judgment.New York: Hafner Press, 1951. ourselves at the 'disposal of that very pl'ay 'element (Originally publighed, 1790.) which 'creates, strengthens, and embodies the field, Koestler, A.The act of creation,New York: Macmillan, 1964. New \York: Harcourt, that is, which gives it texture. "For Christ'ssa'ke," says Mumford, L.Technics and civilization. Brace and World, Inc., 1934. William Carlos Williams, 'pull yotir bloomers clown,. Murdoch, I. "Dialogue with iris mui\och." InMen of ideas. everybody's-glooking at you. 'You're not ,ten years old New York: Viking Press, 1978. any more." (1974, p. 34) Rahner, H.Man atphrg. New York.,.. Herder and Herder, .F 1972. (Originally published, 1949.) -References The sense of beauty: bethg the oulline of aesthetic . Santayana, G. i . . ..,7Berger, P.1Rumor Of angels: moderh society and the rediscovery of` Itory.New York: Collier Books, 1961. (Originally pub- Ished, 1896 ) ',Athe superralural.Nq%,v York: Anchor Books, 1970. American joul.nal kgronowskiN.The aseent of man.Boston: Little, Brown and NSapir, E.."Culture:genuine add spuriou." Co., 1973. . of sociology 29, 401-429. . ; New York: Harper and Campbell, J.The masks of god: primitive mythology.New York: Trueblopa, E. Tbridea qf a college. The Viking Press, 1959. Bros1959 Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Crest, Dyson,- F.Disturbing the 'universe. New'York: Harper and drpdike, J.Picked-up pieces. 1975. (Originally published,1966.) Row, 1979. . . Heidegget, M.Poetey,, !lip ye, thought.MSC,/ York: Harper vonSchiller, F.On the aesthetic educatim; of nian.New Haven: Colophon, 1971: ', s. . Yale UniTrsityPress, 1975, (Originally published, 1934.) Henry, F. "The cit&plineibiptlysical education." JCIFIPER Williams, W. Tip, enjbodiment of knozvlecige. New york: New Direction, 1974. ..-.37:7. i . i f

. , . i.. i

t.

(1.

. 43 A r

-t ;14:.1

94

To: ;- .... I' TVg

Responses with a View to the Future Issues,las Reflections

Marian E. Kneer Univer.sity of Illinois at Chicago Circle

Asone of the participants at the Professional Prepa- Research has clearly pointed to the positive learning ration Conference held in November, 1980 in Chicago, outcomes resulting from teaching behavior that iscar- entitled "Progress through DiversityI was intro- ing, helping, sensitive to student needs and duced in advance to the theme of the conference conimit- by ted. (Beane, Lipka, and Ludewig, 1980) Otherthan the casually examining four professionalpreparation Locke-Siedentop model, no professional preparation models and finding the reading ponderous. When the plan had a protocol or strategyto develop, focus, or conference opened, all that changed. Iwas filled with promote these behaviors. Should we try? How? The deep thoughts about' what these models couldand need for such a caring and committed physical could not do. A stage was appropriately educa- set for tor was never more apparent than in the fourreports dynamic interaction between thepresentors and the frOm students in the recent Fall, 1980issue of UP- presentees. At the final wrap-up so elegantly done by DATE. (Mark, Glakas, Mitchell, and Brown, 1980) Professors Bain and Harper, my mind couldnot rest A seriesostAssues arise from the entire because the real issnes of professional preparation process of in helping a professional physical educatorto deliver, physical education somehow kept bobbingup. No facilitate, transmit, or teach, ifyou will, the array of model held potential for solving .these issues.I re- knowledge carefully packaged inany one of the four viewed- them all, studied them intently, and tried to presented models. Again, given the evidenceof stu- placate myself that issues were not the theme;yet, it dent uniqueness and the positive relationship of was many of these issues that contaminated the teach- ac- ing styles to student learning styles,can we- go on ceptability of most of the models. promoting a "onebest way" or provide practice within One persuaSive issue is the quality ofour inductees. a narrow range of teaching approaches, to what What professional stand can be taken ex- to upgrade the tent is practice provided in teaching smallgroups product of professional preparation? Shouldwe be as and/or indiViduals? Even if we are enlightened and selective as coaches are for athletes. Can we be? provide pre-clinical experiences to help theneophyte Should NASPE recommend inductee qualifications to and be a virtuoso of diverse teaching approaches,how professional preparailon institutions? What should do we create or provide a supportive clinicalexperi- these qualifications be? Scholarship? Skill? Personal- ence? Is the reality of a non-university practicei school ity? worth the lack of on-site technical assistance? Related -to the inductee is the development of the Clearly evidence has pointed to the impact of pre-serviceand ability to solve problems. No professional preparation in-service role modeling. Canwe continue to tinker program can possibly continue with the multi-variant with clever "Turf Divigioris", and "Course settings that will fall heir to each young professional. Arrange- It ment Plans" in our professional preparationprograms is of concern to me that the same problems thatnegate without facing the reality of the all too rapid the quality we dream of in physical education still eradica- tion of the sum of professional preparationcdurse perSist. Why no progress? Arewe turning out inflexi- work by the real world role models? Are ble, non-creative professionals? we creditably? Are our programs creditable? If theyare, why the gap Most teacher education-related prOgramsare still between our theory and practice? Shouldwe talk preparing the teachencoach. Canwe go on? Must we about it? Study it? Resolve it? go on? Evidence indicatesthat 3 out of 4 inducteesare Even if we sigh and decide that "good not really interested in teaching physical education: wine needs aging" and with experienceour intentions as profes- (Donald, 1980) Physical education is what .you do so sional preparators will indeed bereflected in our stu- that you can coach. Given whatwe know about teach- dents as practicing professionals, ing styles, learning styles, goals setting, we should reflect on and so forth, the low percentage of studentswho seek graduate can the myth persist that physical ecincaRon and work and who are often noteven in the physical edu- coaching are similar? Should it? Ifso how do we solve cation discipline. Do you knoW why? Is the problems of teacher burn-out from it related to overwork re- working all day'ds teachers and allnight as coaches? sulting from coaching? Can and should theprofession What about the low percentage of physical investigate this problem which is educators now also attacking who are members of a physical educationassociation? the elementary specia4t as secondary schoolssearch Illinois has one of the largest State for coaches? Associations in the country, to which belong less than 75% of thepractic-

A 97 ing physical educators Why? Should we be con- References cernedT Whardo we do about it? Beane, J.; Lipka, R.; and Ludewig J. "Synthesis of Research And finally one last issue concerns the student who graduates with an "LAS in Physical Education". oh Self &-nc-ept."Educational LeadershipOctober,1980, p. Should no ultimate profession for that person be as- 4. .Donald, Chu."A Sociological Analysis of the Career Lines of sumed? What will they do? Can we go on employing American Physical Education Teacher/Coaches."Proceed- them as graduate teaching assistants without prepara- tion to teach? To whpt extent-do we do this? is it a ings Women in Sport Conference,Rome, Italy, 1980, p. 45. Mark, J.; Glakas, B.; Mitchell, L.; and Brown, G. "Grasg problem? Should we be concerned? Roots Controversy over Physical Education." UPDATE Obviously I came away from the NASPE Profes- sional Preparation Conference stimulated, and yet September/October, 1980, p. 4. bewildered. Thank you CUPEC, thank you Tom Loughrey, Hal Lawson, and Linda Bain. When will we have another that addresses these issues?

,A72.

r.1

98 Undergraduate Preparation: Marchind to Different Drummers

Anthony A. Annarino Purdue University

A Musical Fable sity". The models either advocated a shifting of focus and-direcs.ion in .undergraduate preparation from a Dissonance, in a musical sense, may be defined in two "Teacher" orientation to a "discipline" orientation or ways: a simulateous combination of tones conventionally accepted as being in a state of unrest; a mingling of alternative approaches to teacher preparation and cer- discordant soundsso out of harmonic relation as to give tification. They reflected varying emphases in and beats. These definitions will provide a basis for this reflective from the professional,' studies component, perfor- monologue about stimulating dialogues engaged in at mance component, behavioral studies component, professional preparation conferences. scientific- studies component, humanistic studie; In attending professional preparation conferences and component, and the general or liberal studies compo- sessions for the past two decades, I've heard the same old nent. They were classified and described as a cross- tunes but being led by different drummers. This same disciplinary model, an inter-disciplinary model, a observation was experienced in attending the most recent competency-based model, and a subject-matter- National Professional Preparation musical held in Chicago, centered model. Their designs werebased on different Illinois. core requirements, such as, human movement - As in previous Conferences, the professional educator's glee club gathered and-vocalized the familiar Melodies phenomena, sport and play activities, kinesiological asking the musical questions: Who are we?; What are we all sciences, and disciplinary. They were designated as about?; What should our product be?; What is the best professional and non,-professional .preparation pro- process or approach?; Can a degree of consonance be grams dependent uponlie program objectives. They 'established Izetween student, educator, and real world differentiated in program outcomes from a specific expectations relative to undergraduate preparation? career preparation to a liberal arts preparation. They In response, opposing melodies were played by a number were permeated with philosophies ranging from a of duos and trios. Since each was driven by a different form of generic Realism to naivete Existentialism. Ba- drummer there were variations in syncopations ranging sically, they were examples of functional models de- from the traditional four-beat to avant-garde accents. signed for specific institutions or as prototypes that At the conclusion of the concert, a new form of dissonance could be modified for other institutions including Was heard when the assemblage sang out in harmonyan old Roman marching song, "Quo VadisWhither do we go?" "Fantasy Island U". ' At the conclusion of the presentations, my percep- In retrospect, the responses to the earlier questions lions and reactions could have been described by posed at the conference did not greatly differ from another Titanic analogy. It is an apocryphal story attrib- previous conferences I attended. (JOPER, October uted to John Jacob Astor, a passenger on the ill-fated 1979, p. 18) My initial reaction was characterized by a voyage, who, after ordering from rooM service, quote, in one of the presentations, of a recent Time exclaimed in dismay, "I ordered icebut this is article. The quote indicated that the response of educa- ridiculous!" However, at the risk of creating a semi- tors to the present educational crisis is analogous to frivolous bullfight with soine sacred cows, I shall at- "shifting deck chairs on the Titanic". tempt to be more specific as to my personal observa- Whether this analogy was applicable by the presen- tions and professional conclusions relative to the cur- tation of alternative, substitute, and modified under- rent stattts-of undergraduate preparations as reflected graduate preparation models or whether these pro- by this conference. gramatic thrusts were being proposed as attempts to In introspect, is there professional unity through "raise the Titanic" was difficult to determine. Only diversity? Have we made progress through diversity? time, the extent of model implementation, and an It is evident that the term, "phyS'cal education" is not assessment of their impact, will be valid determinants. widely accepted as a global namer describing who A capsule review of the various conference presen- we are and what VVQ do. This is reflecd by the variety tations yielded high relationships between the models of specific subdiscipline role designars, such as, and the conference theme, "Progress through Diver- kinesiollists, exercise physiologists, dagogists,

99 etc. It seems to me thal we are making "progress fitness director, sport sociologist, sport psychologist, through diversity" from "unity through diversity" to sport historian, researcher, teacher, or coach. "proliferation through diversity". We are not a corpo- These recommendations are predicated on a defini- rate power group for effecting Change. tive group commitment to identify the basic concepts There are still philosophical and theoretical differ- and principles that would constitute an interdisci- ences in defining what we are all about. We agree that plinary core. We have the expertise to investigate, there ia body of knowledge; we cannot agree as to its identify, refine, and synthesize .subject matter from content, focus, emphasis, and name. the sciences in our domain Imotor learning, motor Therefore in prospect I propose, that it is time to development, spoil and play, kinesiology, biome- eliminate personal and professional ego biases and chanics, and exercise physiology). We can add to this with unanimity'resolve that we are physical educators core, parastically and synergiStically, those applicable preparing physical educators. Our concern should not concepts and principles from allied sciences and other be in changing a name, but we need to.invest our time disciplines. This same process can be used to identify in changing the physical eduCator's image and singu- and match competencies with Subject content and lar role perceived by-the general publiCand academic training for specialization areas. colleagues. This can be accomplished by student selec- In conclusion, this panacea that I am prescribing for tivity and quality control programs that infuse or dif- the ills that pervade our profession is not a new pre- fuse an inter-disciplinary core of studies with cross- scription. It will not be totally accepted and it may (in disciplinary, multi-disciplinary, pan-disciplinary, all probability) compound the problem of diversity. track, option, ad hoc, integrated, subject matter- and However, we can no longer afford to disregard the competency-based approaches that would be the visible critical signs and symptoms. Our academic "best fit" for the resources of an accredi d institution. dialogues and consultations need to result in profes- Tile student would belkntified as a "psical educa- sional concurrenCe as to diagnosis, prognosis, and -don major" with areas of specialization nd compe- remedy, or we may be marching to one drummer tency determined by the uniqueness; emphasis, and playing. .. afuneral march. integration of subject-content and applied experiences that are added to the inter-disciplinary core. Furthermore, we must initiate, with the support Of A Professional Allegory our professional organizations, a public relations campaign that creates a positive image that describes "A pervasive solipsisrn may account for the need to go around periodically rediscovering the wheel. the "New Physical Educator", a physical educator The business of forgetfulness and rediscovery may be who is educated and trained to be a fitness clinician, part of a vast dialectic sifting and refinement by which his- stress testor, exercise physiologist, kinesiologist, pre- tory discovers, and interminably rediscovers, whatever is ventive cardiology technician, sport writer and broad- worth keeping." caster, sport sales person, resort director, agency and Lance Morrow, "The Endless Discovery of the Wheel." sport club director, health club manager, industrial Time. December 15, 1980.

I 0 0 1 00 For information/questions concerning material in this publication, please write:

William Anderson Robert Hutton Department of Physical Education Department of Physical Education Teacher's College University of Washington Columbia University Seattle, WA 98105 116th and Broad Way New York, NY 10027 D'aVid-Kaley Anthony A. Annarino Department of Physical Education Department of Physical Education University of Maryland ,Health and Recreation Studies College Park, MD 20742 West Lafayette, IN 47907 Marian Kneer Linda Bain, Chair Department of Physical Education Physical Education Department University of Illinois University of Houston at Chicago Circle 'Houston, TX.77004 Chicago, IL 60680 Stan Brassie, Chair Physical Education Department Hal Lawson University of Georgia Department of Physical Education Athens, GA 30613 and Recreation University of British Columbia Lillian Cady 2075 Westbrook Mall Division of Professional Preparation Vancouver, British-Columbia State Department of Public Instruction Canada V6T 1W5 Olympia, WA 98504 Lawrence Locke- David Clarke, Chair Department of Professional Preparation Department of Physical Education in Physical Education Indiana University University of Massachysetts Bloomington, IN 47405 Amherst, MA 01003 Michael Ellis PhySical Education Department Charles Mand University of Oregon School of HPER Eugene, OR 97403 337 West 17th Avenue The Ohio State University Mary Lou Enberg columbus, OH 43210 Department of Physical Education for Wome,n W. R. Morford Washington State University Department of Physical Education Pullman, WA 99164 and Recreation, University of British Columbia William Harper 2075 Westbrook Mall Physical Education Department Vancouver, British Columbia Purdue University Canada V6T 1W5 West Lafayette, IN 47907 Daryl Siedentop Wilma Harrington SChool of HPER Department of Physical Education The Ohio State University University of Georgia 337 West 17th Avenue Athens, GA 30613 Columbus, OH 43210

'Burris Husman Mary Lou Thornburg Department of Physical Education Physical Education Department University of Maryland Bridgewater State College College, Park, MD 20742 Bridgewater, MA 02324 Do your students, need answers about professional preparation in HPER?

THEN...LOOK NO FURTHER!

Directory of Undergraduate Physical Education Programs $7.75 Directory of °Graduate Physical Education Programs $6.75 Now physical educators, librarians, coun- selors and career placement officers can bring-it all together for their students. Two up-to-date, informative directories of American colleges and universities with programs in physical education and related fields. One is devoted!to institutions offering undergraduate de- grees; the other to institutions offering graduate degrees. Information about each institution includes degrees offered, course requirements, program emphasis, special program options, faculty, financial assistance and accreditation. Comprehensive information on each institution also includes tuition, enrollment data, student housing, admission . requirements and wholo contact for further information. Additional information on research facilities is provided for each institution listed in ihe graduate directory. , Order your copies of the Directories today. ... and provide your students with the v-aluable information they need to chart their futures.

For prices and order information please write: AAHPERD Promotion Unit 1900 Association Drive Reston, VA 22091