Language Rights and Education of the Small Numbered Indigenous Peoples of the European North of Russia: from the Soviet Period to Modern Time

SHS Web of Conferences 112, 00035 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202111200035 Northern Sustainable Development Forum 2020 Language rights and education of the small numbered indigenous peoples of the European North of Russia: from the Soviet period to modern time Vadim Atnashev1, Art Leete2, Natalya Komelina3, Arina Bildyug3, and Elena Eltc1* 1St. Petersburg State University, 7/9, Universitetskaya Emb, St.-Petersburg, 199034, Russia 2University of Tartu, 18, Ülikooli, Tartu, 50090, Estonia 3Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House), Russian Academy of Sciences, 4, Makarova Emb., St.- Petersburg, 199034, Russia Abstract. The article examines the experience of Russian constituent entities (Murmansk region, Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Archangelsk Oblast) in the support of indigenous ethnocultural rights in the context of current models for protection of minority languages and initiatives in the field of education. The contemporary scene of interaction between the state and indigenous minorities in the region is considered from a historical perspective. Special attention is paid to the early decades of the Soviet regime when key discussions concerning the status, way of integration with the state and direction of cultural development were established. The cultural bases and boarding schools, collectivization, forced relocations contributed to the construction of social reality of indigenous peoples which we can observe in the post-Soviet period. The specificity of modern transformation in the sphere of language and life of the reindeer herders are discussed in the context of the everyday practices of the interethnic relations of the Nenets and the Pomors of the Kanin peninsula and the northern parts of Mezen Region. 1 Introduction the UNESCO list of languages in danger. Among the most pressing problems of Saami and Nenets of Culture and language are the main elements of the European North of the Russia are the low level of identity preservation, therefore the support of the culture development of traditional activities, decrease in of minorities is necessary to protect them from motivation for learning the native language, weak media assimilation and is vital for their survival in general. The coverage of the traditions, living conditions and life UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (which, like the projects “Voice of the tundra” and recognizes the right of these peoples to self- «Kola Saami Radio» is largely initiated within the determination, autonomy and self-government, to framework of international cooperation in the north of complete freedom in the development of their economic, Europe). social and cultural institutions. As a report on Russia presented at the UNPFII The definition of the concept of an indigenous people indicated in 2010, in many regions of Russia rural is contained in the International Indigenous and Tribal schools were closed. “Learning native languages is not Peoples Convention, 1989, which obliges states to use only limited, but practically abandoned altogether…. special means to protect representatives of these peoples, Powers in the culture sphere have been delegated to the their institutions, property, labor, tradition, culture and municipal level and the culture sector is financed in the environment, as well as to provide conditions for the last turn” [1]. Steps implemented to support the preservation of indigenous languages. traditional culture and languages of small indigenous The UN indigenous right bodies highlight cultural peoples in the regions, which are under discussion in this loss and assimilation as the main reasons for the study, don’t stop the threat of their assimilation and loss disappearance of indigenous languages. The Arctic of languages. peoples also face with such challenges, more or less acutely, depending on a country’s situation. The practice of placing indigenous children in boarding schools, 2 Cultural development of applied by governments in many regions of the world, indigenous people in the north-west of has led to the children’s assimilation, since their ties with Russia in the early Soviet era their culture, language, and traditions were destroyed. It largely concerns the Russian North. All four dialects of The contemporary scene of interaction the Sami language spoken in Russia are represented in between the state and indigenous * Corresponding author: [email protected] © The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). SHS Web of Conferences 112, 00035 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202111200035 Northern Sustainable Development Forum 2020 minorities in the region was very much of the Committee of the North outlined the idea that shaped by specific reforms, employed since culture bases must be founded in the areas almost entirely inhabited by natives, surrounded by native the early decades of the Soviet regime. It regions and characterised by a traditional way of life (as was the epoch when key discussions “the main hearth of the indigenous culture”). A culture concerning the status, way of integration base had to be established in order to influence the with the state and direction of cultural strongest indigenous groups and through them the development were established. Central surrounding communities. Through a chain mechanism topics of these discussions focused on the of “self-influence,” culture bases should execute Soviet control over indigenous communities in rather large degree of autonomous development that territories. Special attention was supposed to be paid to ended by the 1930s with the official preparation of specialists of indigenous origin. [5, 6, 7: decision to integrate the northern peoples 77-79]. tightly to the general progress of the state Despite ambitious plans, actual impact of the culture and a possibility of special ways of bases on indigenous population remained somewhat evolution was denied. Establishment of limited. Culture bases’ budget was insufficient; they cultural bases and boarding schools, lacked means of transportation, and even food and heating [8: 46]. Besides, there was a general scarcity of collectivization and forced relocations suitable employees [9: 41, 66]. The problem of lacking changed people’s life in indigenous competent staff concerned also the challenge of communities fundamentally and produced developing literacy in indigenous languages. social reality for them in the way we can Schoolbooks in languages of the northern peoples were observe it also in the post-Soviet period. published but it is complicated to estimate how many teachers were capable to use these textbooks in practice [10: 208]. 2.1. Missionaries of Socialism and Culture Potential effect of culture bases was significantly bases restricted by resistance from local administrators and indigenous groups who mostly just evaded invasion of The Committee of the North was established in 1924 and the Soviets to the tundra, until it was still possible. it implemented two strategies of modernising the However, violent episodes of resistance and even indigenous peoples of the North. Following the first indigenous uprisings took also place during the 1930- approach, proposed by Vladimir Bogoraz-Tan [2: 48- 40s, especially in the Western Siberia [4: 103-117, 11: 50], ‘missionaries of the new culture’ were sent to taiga 167-176, 12, 13, 14]. This lack of enthusiasm by the and tundra for facilitating socialist change among the indigenous population slowed considerably down indigenous groups. These ‘missionaries of socialism’ reforms, induced through culture bases in tundra. After were young professional ethnographers, educated after the Committee of the North was liquidated in 1935, the the tsarist time, willing to explore indigenous culture in culture bases were handed over to the Glavsevmorput deep and having new, socialist ideals. They were and later officially dismissed but these settlements exist supposed to provide practical help in turning indigenous also nowadays as administrative centres or economic peoples into socially self-conscious and economically meeting points for indigenous people. self-sufficient social agents, able to follow the socialist path of development on their own. Soon it became clear that a small number of 2.2 Soviet reforms in the Russian North inexperienced experts could not fulfil these gigantic plans of reorganising the life of the indigenous ‘The missionaries of socialism’ managed to facilitate minorities. A more structural strategy was needed, and organising cooperative production units among the the Committee of the North introduced a more Nenets and Pomors in the Russian North [2: 50]. By comprehensive plan of reforming the North by 1927, all Nenets of Small Land tundra belonged to these constructing culture bases. This was the most complex small cooperative units [15: 83, 16: 135]. However, and intriguing socialist experiment conducted by the these new ‘missionaries’ were not able to initiate Soviets in the Arctic. The construction of culture bases principal innovation in the local communities. Therefore, was decided in 1925 [3: 111]. Nineteen culture bases culture bases became the next step of socialist reforms were established in the remotest regions of the Russian also in the Russian North. In the region, two culture North, Siberia and Far East by the end of the 1930s. bases were built – in Khoseda-Khard (Big Land tundra) Culture bases were exemplary

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