Interrogating Theories of Imperialism: A Case Study on Kagnew Station by Selam Negassi Kidane B.A. in African and African-American Studies, May 2010, Washington University in St. Louis May 17, 2015 A Thesis submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Thesis directed by Dane Kennedy Professor of History and International Affairs Dedication This work is dedicated to the following individuals who inspired, encouraged, and supported me throughout this whole process: To my parents, Negassi Kidane and Rezan Asfaha, for their tireless support, encouragement, and love. To my sister, Senit, for inspiring me with her passion and commitment to social justice and equality. To my grandfather, Kidane Andehaimenot, whose hard work and life lessons of the gift of education built a strong foundation for our family. This thesis is dedicated to his memory and the legacy he established. ii Acknowledgments This thesis would not have been possible without the gracious help of several individuals. I would like to thank Professor Dane Kennedy for working with me on this project. His suggestions, insight, and above all, steadfast encouragement helped me to develop my initial ideas and interests into the work it has become. His help has been invaluable, and I am immensely grateful for it. I would also like to thank Professor Nemata Blyden for her help with this project. Her feedback and encouragement have helped me further enhance and improve this work along the way. Special thanks go to the numerous ‘Kagnew-ites’ who opened up their homes to me and shared their memories and recollections of Kagnew Station. Without their voices, this work would not exist. Thank you. iii Table of Contents Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………..iii Introduction…………………………………………………………..……………………1 Road to Kagnew Station………………………………………………………………....15 Economic and Social Impacts……………………………………………………………24 Economic Impacts………………………………………………………………..24 Social Impacts……………………………………………………………………42 Understanding Eritrean and American Relations………………………………………..52 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………….70 Bibliography……………………..………………………………………………………72 Appendices….……………………………………………………………………………75 iv Introduction When Kidane Andehaimenot decided to finally leave his village, Halibo, and make a permanent move to Eritrea’s capital city, Asmara, in 1956, he first turned to his cousin and childhood friend, Haptesillase Gheremedin.1 As captain of the Native Guard of the United States Army base, Kagnew Station, Haptesillase was charged with the responsibility of hiring local Eritreans to work alongside the US military police as security guards, inspecting personnel entering and exiting the base as well as patrolling and protecting its perimeter.2 Appealing to Haptesillase to help him obtain a job at Kagnew Station, Kidane was determined to finally make a permanent move to the city and the opportunities it would provide him and his family. A former askari in the Italian colonial army and restless youth who frequently sought opportunities to leave the village and travel throughout Eritrea, Kidane had reluctantly returned to Halibo following his discharge from the Italian colonial army to take up the hereditary position of chiqa, an arbitrator of disputes among members of the village. Despite his guaranteed access to arable land and possession of a distinguished, albeit not lucrative3, position within his village, Kidane was not satisfied with the prospect of a subsistence-based living, devoid of the opportunity to partake in the western 1 The experiences recounted here and throughout this work were obtained through oral interviews conducted by the author. Appendix A records the list of interviews. Kidane Andehaimenot’s story was obtained from interviews 15 and 16. 2 Eritrean naming practices entail an individual’s last name to be their father’s first name rather than a shared, continuous family name. Consequently, in Eritrean society, individuals are referred to primarily by their first name. This work will adhere to that practice, providing Eritreans’ full name initially and referencing by their first afterwards. Kagnew Gazelle (29 April 1955 – “Native Guards Complement M.P.’s”) – Article describes Haptesilassie’s role as captain of the Native Guard as well as the role of the unit as a whole. 3 As chiqa, Kidane would charge villagers two birr to hear and deliberate on disputes. However, given that most villagers could not afford to pay the necessary fee, Kidane either waved the fee or did not grant a decision depending on circumstances. As a result, Kidane enjoyed the prestige that being chiqa afforded him but was forced to rely on farming as a means of subsistence. 1 lifestyle and education which he had been exposed to as an askari. Thus, when Haptesillase guaranteed him a job at Kagnew as a member of the Native Guard if he were to move to Asmara, Kidane packed up his wife and three children and left Halibo for Asmara and a new future. As Eritrea transitioned through different political administrations following the end of Italian colonial rule, each bringing economic instability through neglect and dismantling of key resources and infrastructure, Kagnew Station came to represent and provide opportunities for economic security and prosperity during times of escalating hardship. While every Eritrean working at Kagnew Station did not necessarily share Kidane’s experience with prior colonial administrations or social and economic background, each shared a desire to secure employment during difficult times as well as pursue opportunities for social mobility. Together, these Eritrean employees of Kagnew Station and their compatriots whose livelihoods depended on the station experienced the social and economic benefits provided by work there. A major communications facility for the United States Army, Kagnew Station’s4 official purpose, as expressed by military personnel, was to relay military and diplomatic communications to and from the United States and its worldwide network of military and diplomatic posts: The mission of this United States Army installation, an integral part of the worldwide communications network developed by the United States, is to serve as part of a program to provide rapid radio relay and secure communications for 4 The Kagnew Station complex consisted of eight tracts located throughout Asmara and the surrounding region. Each tract, lettered A through H, housed specific offices and buildings. A list of each tract, its buildings/overall purpose is located in Appendix B. Although Kagnew Station was the official title of Tract E, the residential and recreational quarters, the entire complex as a whole was also referred to as Kagnew Station. For the purpose of clarity, when used in this paper Kagnew Station will refer to the entire complex and “tract E” will be used to refer to the residential area specifically. 2 defense of the United States and the free world. Additional functions include monitoring transmission security procedures and research into natural electronic phenomena. 5 While accusations that its true purpose was a “listening or monitoring post for the Middle East and Soviet Union” were denied by US officials, rumors regarding the actual operations occurring within the station complex, not confirmed until decades following its closure in 1977, circulated among journalists, suspicious locals, and resentful Ethiopians viewed Kagnew Station and American presence in Ethiopia as complicit with Haile Selassie’s “autocratic regime.”6 Despite these rumors and suspicions, Kagnew Station enjoyed a successful 24-year long operation in Eritrea, serving as a temporary home to thousands of US soldiers and dependent spouses and children as well as providing employment to thousands of Eritreans. For Kidane, Haptesillase, and their Eritrean coworkers, however, Kagnew Station represented more than a suspicious hint of wrongful American interference with matters of self-determination. Rather, Kagnew Station, and more importantly employment at Kagnew Station, represented opportunity. A chance for economic security and social mobility not easily attained in Ethiopia-administered Eritrea, where most, if not all, of the relatively few economic development and modernization projects sponsored by the government were directed towards Ethiopia’s capital city, Addis Ababa, and the surrounding region.7 Coupled with a post-war economic recession, Eritreans were left 5 Quoted in “Ethiopians are Suspicious of Big U.S Army Base” - The New York Times, 28 August 1970 6 “U.S. Base in Ethiopia has benefits, but may be phased out” Palo Alto Times 4 April 1970. And “Ethiopians are Suspicious of Big U.S Army Base” - The New York Times 28 August 1970 Additional rumors also circulated among locals, specifically in the Gura region (Tracts F, G, and H), that precious minerals were being mined within Kagnew Station enclosed areas. These rumors will be further discussed later. 7 Interviews 1, 2, and 15. 3 with few viable economic options. Kagnew Station brought jobs, and plenty of them. With close to 5,000 American soldiers and dependents in Eritrea at a time, $69.5 million invested in the creation of a “full-fledged American community snugly ensconced in the Eritrean highlands,”8 and “more than $5.3 million poured into the local economy in the form of rental payments, salaries…and other expenses…not include[ing] payments