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The Eritrean Liberation Front: Social and Political Factors Shaping Its Emergence, Development and Demise, 1960-1981

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The Eritrean Liberation Front: Social and Political Factors Shaping Its Emergence, Development and Demise, 1960-1981 The Eritrean Liberation Front: Social and Political Factors Shaping Its Emergence, Development and Demise, 1960-1981 A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil) in African Studies (Research) Michael Weldeghiorghis Tedla Supervisors: Prof. Dr. Jon Abbink Prof. Dr. Robert J. Ross Leiden, the Netherlands August, 2014 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures, Tables and Maps ............................................................................... v List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................ vi Acknowledgments.................................................................................................... vii Abstract .................................................................................................................... xii INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 Problem Statement and Rationale .............................................................................. 1 Research Questions and Scope of the Study .............................................................. 4 Theoretical Considerations ........................................................................................ 4 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 8 Relevance of the Study ............................................................................................ 11 Organization ............................................................................................................. 11 CHAPTER ONE: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE ERITREAN WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE ................................................................................ 13 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 13 A Sketch of Eritrea’s Land and People .................................................................... 13 Early History: A synopsis ........................................................................................ 16 British Military Administration and the Growth of Eritrean National Politics ....... 18 The Case of Eritrea in the International Forums ...................................................... 22 Political Situation inside Eritrea and the UN Federal Resolution............................ 26 The Federal Period: A Prelude to War ..................................................................... 28 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER TWO: ETHIOPIAN DOMINATION AND EMERGENCE OF THE ERITREAN LIBERATION FRONT, 1960-63............................................ 33 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 33 The Eritrean Liberation Movement ......................................................................... 33 Key Forces and Their Role in the Formation of the ELF ........................................ 34 The Eritrean Students in Cairo ............................................................................ 34 Eritrean Soldiers in the Sudanese Army .............................................................. 36 The Students and Search for Leadership ............................................................. 37 The Birth of the ELF ................................................................................................ 38 iv Preparation for the Armed Struggle ......................................................................... 42 Hamid Idris Awate and the Beginning of the Eritrean War of Independence ......... 44 The Agordat Operation ............................................................................................ 57 The Abrogation of the Federation and Its Aftermath ............................................... 58 CHAPTER THREE: BROADENING THE WAR: ORGANIZATIONAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1964-1969 ............................................. 63 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 63 The Role of the Leadership Abroad ......................................................................... 63 Expansion and Organization of the Army ............................................................... 71 Rectification Movement........................................................................................... 84 Clandestine Operations ............................................................................................ 91 CHAPTER FOUR: FRAGMENTATION AND CIVIL WAR: 1970-1974 .......... 95 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 95 Disintegration and Reorganization .......................................................................... 96 CHAPTER FIVE: THE ELF: FROM TERRITORIAL EXPANSION TO HISTORICAL EXPULSION, 1975-1981 .................................................. 107 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 107 Military and Political Developments, 1975-1978 .................................................. 107 Internal Dissention in the ELF ............................................................................... 113 Military Dislodgement and Downfall of the ELF, 1979-1981 .............................. 117 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................... 125 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................... 129 v List of Figures, Tables and Maps Figures The Formation of Political Parties in Eritrea ............................................................... 22 Hamid Idris Awate ....................................................................................................... 50 One of the earliest ELF's pamphlets, June 1961. ......................................................... 66 Bergeshish Meeting, 1962. .......................................................................................... 69 The Structure of the ELF ............................................................................................. 75 Members of the Supreme Council. .............................................................................. 80 Some of the destroyed roads and railroads in the late 1960s. ...................................... 93 A scene of a derailed train in Ashadira on its way to Agordat, 1970. ......................... 93 The First Congress of the ELF, Arr, Novemeber1971. A Syrian journalist is shown holding a camera. ....................................................................................................... 100 Family Tree of the Eritrean Liberation Front and other Political Organizations, 1961- 1982............................................................................................................................ 123 Tables Eritrean Population by Language and Religion (1950) ............................................... 16 Organization of the Eritrean Liberation Army, ELF, 1964 ......................................... 71 Organization of the Eritrean Liberation Army, ELF, 1964 ......................................... 72 Map Eritrea in Northeastern Africa ....................................................................................... xi Language Map of Eritrea ............................................................................................. 14 ELF Areas of Operation, by District .......................................................................... 124 vi List of Abbreviations BMA British Military Administration DO Divisional Officer ELA Eritrean Liberation Army (ELF’s armed wing) ELF Eritrean Liberation Front ELF-PLF Eritrean Liberation Front-Popular Liberation Forces ELF-RC Eritrean Liberation Front- Revolutionary Council ELM Eritrean Liberation Movement EPLF Eritrean People’s Liberation Front ESA Eritrean Students Association (in Cairo, Egypt) ESFA Eritro-Somalia Friendship Association PFDJ People’s Front for Democracy and Justice PLF Popular Liberation Forces RC Revolutionary Command RDC Research and Documentation Centre (of Eritrea) SC Supreme Council SDF Sudan Defense Force SDO Senior Divisional Officer TPLF Tigray People’s Liberation Front UK United Kingdom UN United Nations US/USA United States (of America) ZC Zone Command vii Acknowledgments I am deeply thankful to Almighty God for blessing my life with good health and patience that led to the successful realization of my graduate study. This piece of research, which is part of my MPhil degree, is a fulfilled dream. In the process of attaining my dream a lot of people have contributed towards the successful completion of this study. I would like to acknowledge all those who, in big and small ways, directly or indirectly, helped me in various capacities. It would have been infinitely difficult to complete it without the support of my professors, family, colleagues, friends, organizations, institutions and the cooperation of former members of the Eritrean liberation movements.
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