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Women in : Navigating Upstream Against the Current Raad, Nayla 2007

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Introduction present, it must take more concrete measures to capitalize on the potential of women’s Over the last twenty years, women have contributions to that goal. been gaining representation in many areas of In this article I present several issues that Panamanian society. Women now comprise either affect the welfare of women or that are more than 50 percent of students in secondary affected by the activism of women in Panama. and post-secondary schools, and women’s labor The topics I address are education and work, force participation has been steadily increasing healthcare, domestic violence, sustainable since the early 1990s. (Duryea et al.) However, development, ecotourism, and politics. women’s leadership in Panama tends to be Although the lives of women in Panama are structured in a triangular fashion with improving over time because of the burgeon- representation of women decreasing as the ing economy and because of the leadership hierarchical structure increases. (Htun) Despite of women in social causes, I argue that most advances in education and training, women are women are still not reaching their full still struggling to increase their social and potential in many facets of the workplace economic status in Panama and are not being and in political leadership. utilized to their full potential. The gender inequality that exists in Panama is not only 1 harmful to women but to the country as a The author wishes to thank Jose Ibanez for help in translating Spanish articles, Mrs. Judy Aronson for insight- whole, as it impedes greater and more rapid ful revisions, Dr. Karen Hicks for never-ending support and development. If Panama wishes to benefit from consistently challenging me to do better, and Dr. Robert the economic boom that it is experiencing at Thornton for general assistance.

103 Education eligible to go on to some form of tertiary education in 2005, more women than men were In 2005 the estimated primary school enrolled (55 percent of post-secondary women enrollment of both and boys in Panama versus 34 percent of post-secondary men). (UIS was 99 percent. However, only 67 percent of Statistics in Brief) Women also attend graduate girls and 61 percent of boys continue on to programs in higher numbers than men and, on secondary education. (UIS Statistics in Brief) average, perform better than their male coun- For those who do attain a primary or even terparts. Even in traditionally male-dominated secondary education, there is no guarantee that fields such as engineering, women earn over it will be of a high standard or that they will be half of awarded degrees. (Díaz) With the able to access it easily due to transportation prospect of many professional positions open- issues and financial barriers. (Country Strategy ing due to the real estate boom, the growth in Paper…, p. 12) the free zone, growth in call centers, and port There are serious implications for family and canal expansion, it would be prudent for life when girls end their education too early. It Panama to improve the socio-economic status has been shown that poor or minimal educa- of its own citizens by recruiting qualified tion for women results in higher levels of child women for these positions. mortality, poorer health, and lower income. If women with higher education degrees Some theorists argue that having the general are actually encouraged to enter the skilled population attend school exposes them to workforce, one does not see the evidence. “modernity”2 and hence helps speed up the During the Martindale trip to Panama in May process of economic growth in a society. 2006, we met three college women from (Benavot) Universidad Technológica de Panamá who were Educating women also affects fertility being trained as engineers and, we assumed, rates. According to Benavot, moderate popula- would soon be in the workforce. However, all tion growth contributes to more sustainable three women admitted that they were unsure economic growth when it results in a popula- about going to work after graduation. Instead tion that is able to support itself with a uniform, they planned to marry, raise a family as stay-at- relatively balanced age distribution. Decreasing home moms, and did not see themselves enter- the fertility rate also allows more resources to ing the market economy. They also expressed be allocated to each individual child. the desire to continue to live with their parents Finally, educating more girls through the and care for them once they had attained their secondary level will have a favorable effect on degrees until they got married. the health of the entire population. Schools can Certainly it is unwise to extrapolate a trend test routinely for malaria, HIV/AIDS, and other from a sample of three, but it is possible that diseases; and students can be taught about the talented women are not being drawn to the symptoms of common diseases. With this workplace because of pay and advancement knowledge, women will be better able to care inequalities. The income gap in Panama for themselves and their families. In fact, between men and women is large and persis- UNICEF has set universal education as a goal tent. Between 1985 and 1995, women at each for Panama by 2011, stating that the expected education level earned between 70 and 80 results will be not only to promote gender percent of the earnings of men. (“Gender equality but also to combat diseases. (“Panama Assessment for…”) Country Programme…”, p. 2) Víctor Herrera and Manuel Madrid-Aris (“Earning Profiles and Returns to Education in Higher Education and the Job Market Panama”) explain that the gender differential in pay for those with no formal education is prob- Although a relatively small number of per- ably the result of migration from rural to urban sons of both genders go to university, of those areas where women were employed mainly as maids, pulling in lower wages than men who 2In sociology, modernity is commonly defined as the were hired for labor. As for women with formal social patterns resulting from industrialization. (Macionis) secondary or technical education, most are 104 employed in the service sector, with clerical, counterparts. Fewer than 15 percent of the secretarial, or lower management jobs. (Herrera women who do become radio personalities are and Madrid-Aris) given the opportunity to express their opinions According to 2004 World Bank statistics, on issues rather than simply reading a given women at that time made up 38 percent of the script. Griselda Lopez, a professor at the entire workforce, a steady increase from 30 University of Panama, argues that large corpo- percent in 1980. (“Summary Gender Profile”) rations that own radio stations benefit from At the same time about 88 percent of the female keeping men in more powerful positions as it workforce was employed in the service econo- reaffirms cultural norms and brings in more my. (“Human Development Indicators 2003”) profit. (Lopez) It is estimated that women in the service econ- Cultural norms are reflected in another omy, who comprise about 75 percent of the type of job discrimination in Panama. For exam- workforce, make only 58 percent of the earn- ple, some positions are closed to women ings of their male counterparts! (Mordok) In because of a perceived threat to women’s phys- August 2007, the front page of a national ical well-being, such as jobs that require night Panamanian newspaper, Panama America, bore shifts. (Díaz) Such over-protection of women the headline: “Mujeres Sufren Disparidad occurs despite the fact that women have longer Salarial,” which means “Women Suffer Salary life expectancies than men, and is further exem- Discrepancies.” The article highlighted that plified in the legal retirement age, which is today salary inequalities between men and 55 for women versus 60 for men. (Díaz) This women are still large and pervasive. (Mordok) pervasive and culturally accepted over-protec- Unemployment is also higher for women. In tion of women may create an atmosphere in urban areas the unemployment rate for women favor of the more traditional life and an antipa- is 23.5 percent while for urban men the rate is thy against ambition. 16.5 percent. Additionally, urban women earn A study entitled “Perceptions of Couple only about 76 percent of the earnings of men. Decision Making in Panama” may provide an (“Gender, Health and Development…”) insight into the reluctance on the part of Women are noticeably underrepresented women to pursue careers and how barriers are in many business realms. The set up by their husbands. The study was under- Authority official website lists twelve positions taken in part to investigate whether the phe- on the Board of Directors. (Panama Canal nomena of “machismo” and “marianismo” Authority Board of Directors) Only one of the affected family life and decision making. The twelve upper level administrative positions is investigators describe machismo as “exagger- occupied by a — Ms. Chiquilani, ated aggressiveness and uncompromising Director of the Department of Human stance in male-to-male interpersonal relation- Resources. (Panama Canal Authority ships,” and a “callousness and sexual aggression Organizational Chart) All of the banks visited in male-to-female relationships.” Marianismo during the Martindale trip to Panama reflected is defined as women being spiritually superior a similar absence of women in high paying, to men. According to these stereotypes, typical high status positions. Many banks have at most Latin American attitudes toward women are a one or two women on their boards, if they have paradox, for women are seen as spiritually any at all. One exception is Delia Cardenas, the stronger but physically weaker, and are at once Superintendent of the Superintendency of both protected and governed by men. (Danes Banks in the Republic of Panama. et al.) Another example of the underrepresenta- One of the findings of this study that is tion of women is seen in the media. In 1999, of relevant to the topic of women working outside 458 personalities on the radio, only 112 were the home indicated that the wife’s education women (fewer than 25 percent). Women who and employment were positively associated with study communications at the University of the making of joint decisions about family mat- Panama and other universities find themselves ters among couples in Panama. Less education either not working in their chosen field or else ensured more male dominance. Thus the working in lower level jobs than their male norms of “machismo and marianismo,” still 105 part of the Panamanian culture, may be super- have a longer life expectancy than men in seded one day by a new modern lifestyle when Panama (78 versus 73 years), women have high- everyone is educated to the fullest. (Danes et al.) er rates of chronic illness which require more In 2005 the Declaration of Panama3 long-term care. (“Mortality Country Fact Sheet stressed the importance of education, including 2006”) When socioeconomic status is taken into science, technology and innovation (STI), and account, the statistics are quite alarming. STI’s ability to reduce poverty, create jobs, and Women who are poor are about six times more strengthen democracy. (Bergeron) In his follow- likely to die between the ages of 15 and 59 than up on the Declaration of Panama, Michel women who are not poor. Men who are poor are Bergeron, President of the Intercienca Assoc- about three times more likely to die between the iation, continues to describe the importance ages of 15 and 59 than men who are not poor. of the Declaration of Panama for women: (Gómez) “Ignoring the gender gap in scientific profes- The health of working women in every sions [is] blocking women’s ability to partici- socioeconomic status is compromised by over- pate in the knowledge society, depriving society work. The phrase “second shift” is used to of a significant portion of its intellectual force, describe women’s contribution to home life a sure way to weaken the national scientific after coming home from a full-time job. Many capacity.” (Bergeron, p. 2) Increased knowledge women who hold jobs also manage home and is absolutely necessary for the continued devel- family, taking care of sick children, family mem- opment of all countries. Gale Johnson attribut- bers, or friends. Such work is undervalued; but es the increased productivity in the world for without the woman’s input at home, men could the last two centuries to an increase in knowl- not continue to work and earn a living to their edge and the ability to invest in knowledge. present extent. Women’s role as homemaker (Johnson, p. 7) helps to maintain the health of those in the workforce and fuels the market economy by Gender Inequalities, Gender improving the productivity of the employees Differences, and Social Action who, if healthy, are able to work with fewer interruptions. In the next section I explore several facets Although women constitute about 80 of Panamanian life that affect women and in percent of all healthcare staff in Latin America, which women have a special role. These include there are very few women with decision-mak- healthcare, domestic violence, sustainable ing power.4 (Gómez) Elsa Gómez, Panama’s development, ecotourism, and political action. regional advisor to the Pan American Health In all of these social or environmental arenas Organization, writes that in order to address there is the potential for change that women healthcare from a gender perspective, Panama can make, and I show that many women have must engage women in the reform of the already taken a stand by forming or joining healthcare system with a particular focus on activist movements. In this transitional time it women from underrepresented groups, such as is clear that women can and actually are women from rural areas and from indigenous making a difference. communities. Gómez believes that such inclu- sion will create a more equal distribution of Healthcare “burdens, benefits, and power” (such as the dif- ficulty in accessing healthcare and the unequal Healthcare utilization and costs have distribution of disease) and will necessarily glaring gender implications. Although women “influence the development of health.” (Gómez) Health development goes hand in hand with economic development, and it is therefore vital 3The Declaration of Panama includes a list of actions and recommendations that 11 associations have already endorsed and implemented with regards to making STI education 4Many women in the healthcare field in Panama work as available for women in Panama. The document was initially nurses or in family medicine. They are not generally on the presented at the Council of Intercienca meeting and has been boards of directors at hospitals nor are they usually seen circulated to other collaborative associations for support. even in lower level supervisory positions.

106 for Panama to continue to advance in this the rates of domestic violence in Panama are respect.5 unavailable. Because of acute and chronic illnesses that Domestic violence is also a healthcare many women experience, such as diabetes, they problem; yet victims of abuse do not always have more frequent medical bills than do men access the healthcare system when they most and children; and yet women continue to earn need it. For example, physically abusive people less on average than men. Creating a healthcare can prohibit their partners from receiving prop- system that takes into account the needs of er medical treatment for their injuries. women will allow for them to be more equal par- Furthermore, women might experience finan- ticipants in the workforce and to be better able cial abuse when an abusive partner controls a to manage the home. As Gómez says, women woman’s money by having a bank account she must be actively involved in the healthcare sys- cannot access or by giving her only a set tem. In 2000, women constituted 96 percent of allowance each week, thus making the health- nurses but only 35 percent of physicians. care system unaffordable. However, victims of (“Gender, Health and Development…”) It is domestic violence often require medical treat- essential to encourage women to enter medical ment for inflicted trauma and for conditions fields and become trained as doctors so that such as chronic pain and fibromyalgia, and men- women’s concerns are heard and addressed. tal health problems such as post-traumatic stress, depression, and substance abuse. Some Domestic Violence victims become permanently disabled, and it is not rare that a violent attack can turn into homi- When Vivian Fernandez de Torrijos, wife of cide or prompt a victim to commit suicide. President Torrijos, visited the UN in 2005 to (Velzeboer et al.) attend the forty-ninth session on the Status of Other serious health issues are products of Women, she spoke passionately and honestly domestic violence. A report on HIV/AIDS about domestic abuse in Panama. published by the Pan American Health We are right now in the middle of a Organization states that there is a strong campaign against gender violence, not correlation between sexually transmitted only against women but the whole infections and domestic violence. Furthermore, family. It is a matter of silence. We are, men who are sexually abusive are more likely to therefore, trying to bring up the issue, have multiple partners and increase the chances so that everybody can talk about it and of their partners contracting HIV. (“Gender more women, men and children Based Violence…,” p. 2) would be encouraged to go to the Healthcare is the primary source of authorities and report the problem. surveillance6 for domestic violence. Panama Gender violence is in our homes and began a surveillance system in 2001 at both the maybe next door, but we keep it a national and local levels. A standardized health secret. (Conversation with Vivian…) reporting form is used in hospitals, keeping basic In 2006 the crime of domestic violence was descriptive data such as age, type of violence, and named among the eight most serious human sex. The indicators used to monitor the level of rights issues in Panama. (Country Reports on violence are number of women, deaths, and Human…) Although it is difficult to measure percent of pregnant women. (“Domestic precisely, it is estimated that in all of Latin Violence Surveillance...”) America between 30 and 75 percent of adult The UN has stressed that suffer some form of domestic abuse. women is “an obstacle to gender equity and (Buvenic et al.) Unfortunately, accurate data on a threat of great magnitude to the social and economic development of nations.” (“Progress in the Eradication…”) A presentation by 5Panama receives large numbers of “medical tourists,” people who travel to Panama from abroad looking for cheap- er healthcare. These medical tourists fuel the economy. Also, 6Surveillance in this context denotes an observational more advanced healthcare will improve the health of the study that monitors the prevalence of domestic violence in local Panamanian work force. the country.

107 Claudia Piras at the Inter-American Develop- Sustainable Development and ment Bank’s business seminar series in July Ecotourism 2006 about domestic violence in Latin America estimated that “women’s wage losses from The use of natural resources by local resi- domestic violence alone represent between 1.6 dents takes a toll on the land, and development and 2.0 percent of GDP.” (Piras) is often bad for the environment. The UN defines In the last few years, Panama has seen sustainable development as “development that increased public awareness and activism meets the needs of the present without com- against domestic violence and other health promising the ability of future generations to problems. Mercedes Brenes de Eleta, the meet their own needs.” The UN has also taken current president of Fundamujer, a Non- many steps to promote sustainable development governmental Organization (NGO) that offers in Panama and other countries around the legal assistance and education to women, made world. (United Nations Division…) a presentation to the Martindale group in May The relationship of people to natural 2006. Fundamujer organizes demonstrations resources is sometimes “gendered.” Especially and raises awareness about laws related to in rural areas, there are different social roles for domestic violence. According to the 2005 men and women with regard to home and work; Annual Report of Fundamujer, the organiza- as a result their use of resources varies. tion helped to educate over 1,000 According to Justine Sass of the Population about the problems of domestic violence in that Reference Bureau, men tend to have a more year alone. It has also given legal and exploitive relationship with natural resources, psychological assistance to help solve problems using them for economic gain. Women tend to families might be having. This women’s use natural resources more in the home to organization provides a necessary service to sustain a family (such as using water to clean men, women, and children in the community clothes or gas to cook a meal). Women can and continues to decrease the impact and cost therefore play a huge role in sustainable devel- of domestic violence on the general population. opment. (Sass) (“Annual Report 2005”) Slash-and-burn forestry7 has created a cri- Teresita Yániz de Arias, another woman sis in Panama, resulting in a new effort to set whom I met during the Martindale trip to aside forests as protected land. (Fischer and Panama, is a co-founder of Fundamujer and the Vasseur) The more knowledge women gain director of SENAPAN (Secretaria Nacional para about the degradation of land, the better they el Plan Alimentario Nutricional). This organi- will be able to stop it. (Fortmann and Rocheleau) zation is in charge of the coordination and Women are situated in pivotal positions, as will evaluation of nutrition programs and food be discussed in the next section, to lead Panama safety in two districts. The program attends to into a more environmentally friendly future. It some 4,000 families that receive $35 per month is vital that women be educated about the effects to buy food on the condition that the families of deforestation and that they be involved in the fulfill certain requirements. The requirements development of plans to protect their commu- include having the children attend school and nities. Wangari Maathai provides an inspirational receive their necessary vaccinations, complet- example from Africa. Maathai’s movement in ing training on agricultural production, and Kenya has enabled women to plant more than women having current records on their sexual 20 million trees in order to combat the effects of and reproductive health. (de Arias) During our deforestation. In the same way, women in meeting, Ms. Arias stressed the importance of Panama can play a key role in helping to stop women lobbying for change with regard to Panama’s environmental crisis. (Maathai) domestic violence and women’s access to An example of the efforts and results of healthcare. She explained that a shift in cul- women’s work in sustainable development tural beliefs regarding the privacy of domestic is Mujeres Carrizaleñas Unidas. This is a violence is still necessary and that women are leading the movement to bring awareness of 7Slash-and-burn forestry refers to the practice of clear- the issue. ing an entire forest and then burning the remaining brush. 108 Panamanian organization founded by women to cially and to provide opportunities that might guarantee the sustainability of food sources for not have been there otherwise, particularly for their community through available natural their children’s City. resources and, in the long term, to obtain eco- Without the recognized craftsmanship and nomic resources through the selling of their demand for the fabric piece called the “mola,” products. In just over 40 years, by cultivating the Kuna Indians would not have been able to their land these women have transformed their continue to develop and thrive as an indigenous community from extreme poverty to one where population in Panama. With the money gener- food is abundant and can even be sold for eco- ated from mola sales, Kuna have been able to nomic gain. (Dubois and Castillo) preserve their culture by selling their own Panama and Central America have always traditional arts to tourists from around the globe. benefited from tourists who want to experience Their folk art has appeared in various museums the breathtaking wildlife and rainforests. worldwide and provides an excellent example of However, the same tourism that benefits the both an innovative and eco-friendly way to economy does damage to the environment. As sustain family units. shown above, women are in a position to pre- In a meeting I had with several Kuna serve natural resources and may be able to sug- women in May 2006, they described the oppor- gest the less environmentally harmful solution tunities they made for themselves by selling the for ecotourism. An example is given by Regina mola, which included financing their children’s Scheyvens, a senior lecturer at Massey University education both on the islands and in the city. in New Zealand: (I bought several beautiful mola purses before I Land beside a forest that is not suited left!) to livestock grazing or commercial agriculture might be identified by Political Action men as ideal land to lease for a tourist lodge development even though it is Representation of women in politics has highly valued by women who collect been steadily increasing in Panama. The first broom grass and pottery clay at the female president, , was elected site. They may make a reasonable in 1999 and helped guide the country through income from the sale of products the time of the Panama Canal’s reversion from manufactured from these resources, the United States to Panama. However, women and this needs to be weighed up are still underrepresented, occupying only 20 against the likely revenue from a percent of ministerial level positions and 9.9 tourist lodge…. (p. 236) percent in lower or single houses. (“Human Beatriz Schmitt, the Executive Director of Development Indicators 2003”) When women Fundacion Avifauna Roberto Eisenmann, an are not represented in politics, real democratic NGO that she helped found, provides an inspir- and representative government cannot be ing example of how to provide sustainable solu- achieved. tions for the generating of income. This new In 1997 a law was passed requiring that foundation, based in Gamboa, has been impres- women comprise at least 30 percent of election sively successful in raising funds to preserve a candidates. (Díaz) The percentages of women in world-renowned birding destination called the unicameral legislature of Panama before and “Pipeline Road.” Beatriz’s role includes directly after the passing of the law were 8 and 17, respec- involving the indigenous Embara tribe near tively. Interestingly, in a 2004 survey of 18 Latin Gamboa in the project by incorporating their American countries concerning political atti- expertise with the flora and fauna. tudes toward women leaders, Panama ranked The Kuna present a compelling case study 13th, revealing that thirty-six percent of of women in micro-enterprise, for they have built Panamanian respondents agreed with the a thriving trade in Panama for their traditional statement “men are better leaders than women.” folk art products. Tourism allows Kuna women (Htun) The researchers, however, could find no to support themselves and their families finan- clear correlation between sexist attitudes and the

109 number of women leaders elected into office it.” (“2004 Domestic Violence…”) Women within the 18 Latin American countries involved instantly took to the streets in protest and for- in the study. The success of women in politics mulated the aforementioned petition. (Abad and seems to depend more on their gaining leader- Sánchez) After the subsequent pressure, Rogelio ship within political parties where they can be Paredes, a deputy of the Partido Revolucionario nurtured and groomed for success, or in a Democratico political party, said that Garcia proportional representation electoral system should step aside. Vivian Fernandez de Torrijos, where there is an incentive for parties to allocate the first lady, also made a statement in support seats to candidates representing a variety of of the women’s petition, demonstrations, and social groups. efforts. (“2004 Domestic Violence…”) Despite their lack of representation, women have made many important inroads in Conclusion humanitarian efforts and policy changes which are economically, socially, and politically criti- Panama ratified the Convention on the cal. As a direct result of the women’s movement Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination in the 1970s, the government approved the cre- against Women (CEDAW) in 1981. This enact- ation of Day Nursery Centers to provide women ment increased awareness of discrimination with more support to enter the labor force. against women at the national level and led to (Díaz) Women have also created NGOs that many policies that provided for more equal rep- address issues from domestic violence to child resentation of women in political life. It also malnutrition and have organized to protest mur- worked to combat violence and discrimination. der rates, political campaigns (particularly in the Law No. 27 dealing with domestic violence and case of Noriega), and discrimination.8 For exam- child abuse crimes was passed in 1995, and many ple, in 1988, Alma Montenegro founded the first attribute this directly to the influence of CEDAW. NGO to exclusively study the status of (Díaz) A number of other important laws were Panamanian women, the Center for the passed during the 1990s that, at least on paper, Development of Women. (Díaz) Women’s work promote policy change with a gender equality through these NGOs and also through demon- resolve between men and women and, in strations is vital. Poverty, discrimination, and schools, between boys and girls. Many of these violence must be dealt with. Every year, millions policies, however, still have not been enforced of dollars are spent through loans from the Inter- and fully supported institutionally in the new American Development Bank alone in order to millennium. (Díaz) combat poverty, discrimination, and violence. Women’s substantial activist contributions One notable political demonstration are an undeniable part of the backbone of achieved its goal. In 2006 La Prensa, a Panama- Panamanian society; so are the women who take nian newspaper, reported how a network of on political responsibilities and who enter the women organized a petition to the government workforce with college degrees behind them. ostracizing Liborio Garcia, seeking to remove But real equality is a long way from being him from his government position as national achieved. Many ideas have to change first: that Ombudsman. (Pinilla) Garcia had allegedly par- women should have equal pay, that women can ticipated in electoral events thought to have be leaders in the business world, that women can biased the votes. In addition, when information embark on political careers, that women can surfaced about an alleged domestic violence inci- enter the scientific realm, and that women can dent, Garcia said that it was “a private matter teach young children that violence and abuse of between my wife and myself, and we’ve resolved others are forbidden. Above all, Panama must continue to invest in women’s education and 8Some of the more important NGOs founded by women support women in attaining careers comparable include: Coordinadora Nacional de Mujeres Indigenas de Panama, Association for the Promotion of New Alternatives to their educational attainment. It is essential to for Development, the Panamanian Red Cross, Fundamujer, provide women with the support and tools to and SENAPAN. continue to work for the betterment of Panama.

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