WORD FORMATION ON MEDICAL TERMS IN NEW YORK TIME
MAGAZINE’S ARTICLES
A Thesis Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree of Strata One
RANA MEISARA 1110026000028
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA
2014 ABSTRACT
Rana Meisara, Word Formation on Medical Terms in New York TIME magazine’s articles. Thesis: English letters Department of Letters and Humanities Faculty, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, December 2014.
It is a research of morphological phenomenon which focuses on the process of word formation on medical terms in New York TIME magazine’s articles. The writer took seven articles in seven montly different edition of New York Time Magazine, namely, edition of January 13th 2014 entitle “The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine Apps aim to Replace Nonemergency Visits”; edition of June 2nd, 2014 entitle “What You Need to Know About MERS: A dangerous new disease has gone global”; edition of July 21st, 2014 entitle “The Cancer Tests You Need: Cutting through confusion on what screenings to get— and when”; September 1st, 2014 entitle “Mammograms Go 3-D: A High-Tech imaging breakthrough could pick up more cancer”; edition of October 27th, 2014 entitle “Medical Momentum: Scientists make major moves in tackling five challenging diseases”; edition of November 24th, 2014 entitle “Mindfulness for Men: Yoga has some new fans—and science says that’s a very good thing”; edition of Decemberijctjtyfacts are getting harder to ignore” for the corpus.
Conceptual morphology is used by the writer to analyze the words which experience word formation process and classify the types of word formation on the medical terms. The writer starts the analysis by reading the article, and then classifies the medical terms which exist in the texts. After that, the data is outlined in a description which includes morphological process, identifying morpheme, analyze the word formation process, morphophonological process, and dictionary. From the analysis of the seven monthly different editions of TIME magazine’s articles, it can be said that there are 39 data found, 28 derivatives found on the medical terms in this New York TIME Magazine’s articles. seven compound words, three abbreviations, and only one acronym. Moreover, from the sample chosen as represent the other data in the analysis, it is containing eight derivatives which are class changing and there are three derivatives which are class maintaining. Furthermore there is no truncation, blend, cretion de novo, and eponym found in the development of medical term in this analysis.
Keywords: Word formation, Morphology, TIME Magazine.
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Jakarta, November 28st 2014
Rana Meisara
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
Praise and Gratitude be to Allah SWT, the Lord of Universe, who has given the writer guidance and strength, thus she could finish this thesis completely.
Peace and Salutation be upon the messenger of Allah, Prophet Muhammad SAW, his family, his companions, and his adherents. May peace and blessing of Allah be upon all of us.
On this occasion, first and foremost, the writer wants to express her biggest sincere thanks and love, and also acknowledge her debt to her parents,
Mat. Rasin and Umi Hasanah. Thanks for all the non-stop support, financially and spiritually, that has always motivated the writer to proudly finish this thesis.
Moreover, the writer also would like to convey her gratitude and also acknowledge her debt to the following person:
1. Dr. H. Wahid Hasyim, M. Ag, the Dean of Adab and Humanities faculty
(2010-2014), for his motivation and advice to immediately complete the
writer’s study in English Letter and Literature Department.
2. Prof. Dr. Oman Fathurahman, M. Hum, the Dean Adab and Humanities
faculty.
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3. Drs. Saefudin, M.Pd, the Head of English Letters Department who is also
one of the writer’s advisor, for sacrificing his precious time to guide the
writer in completing her thesis.
4. Elve Octafiyani, M.Hum, the Secretary of the English Letters Department;
5. Dhuha Hadiyansyah, M.Hum, the writer’s advisor who always willing
spare his time to patiently guide and teach the writer in many ways to
complete her study and thesis.
6. All of the lecturers in English Letters Department for teaching and guiding
her very well during her study at State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta.
7. All of her family member for every support and pleased moments which
spent together with laugh and love even at the period of passing through
the hard times.
8. The writer friends in English Letters and Literature Department of 2010,
especially for Elbie and Linguistic A. Thanks for the friendship, help,
advice and support that will never found in any other Department. Some
crazy and silly folks, yet The writer’s happiness and spirit, Fithria
Luthfiyani, Thia Askayuli, Bagus Putra Ramadansyah, Muhamad Sazali,
Debi Novia Ningrum, Yuliana Kuslambang Ningrum, and Fahmi
Fahrurroji, for the caring, laugh, motivation, and all the precious moments
spent together in happy, fun, sad, bad or even in difficult situations the
writer has during her study;
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9. KKN Yellow (Youth Influential Fellowship), Muhammad Adi Rahman,
Muhammad Reza Hermanto, Ridho Alvin Harfian, Shakuntala Febrina,
Melina Hadera, Christie Adi Oktaviyana, Pranisa Syifadelima, Andriesta
Saputri, Nurali, Fatih Adzkia, Leiza Sixmansyah, Rian Lisandi,
Muhammad Semmy, Fithria Luthfiyani, Thia Askayuli and Bagus Putra
Ramadhansya, thanks for the good experiences and memories of being
together during the projects in Pasarean, Bogor, and for always being
some good and caring friends. Moreover, to GZB Ayunda Sabrina, Anita
Rahma, and Farizky Sharfina who always give the writer support even
from afar, yet it really motivates the writer during her study.
10. The employers of some University Libraries who have helped the writer in
finding some references for her thesis.
11. All the people and friends who have helped the writer in finishing her
study indirectly that cannot be mentioned one by one.
The writer cannot stop being thankful to God for this one complete package of support that the writer receives to finish her study. May Allah SWT bless them and their family. Moreover, this research is expected to be useful for all the people who read it. Suggestion and criticism will be accepted for the improvement of this thesis.
Jakarta, November 28st, 2014
The Writer
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LIST OF TABLE
Table 1 : Classification of Medical Terms from Data Card...... 39
Table 2 : Sample data that will be analyzed...... 41
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TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT ...... i
APPROVAL SHEET ...... ii
LEGALIZATION...... iii
DECLARATION...... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... v
THE LIST OF TABLES ...... viii
THE LIST OF CONTENT ...... ix
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
A. Background of Study ...... 1
B. Focus of the Study ...... 5
C. Research Questions ...... 6
D. Significance of the Study ...... 6
E. Research Methodology ...... 6
1. The Objective of Research ...... 6
2. The Method of Research ...... 6
3. The Technique of Data Collection and Data Analysis ...... 7
4. Instrument of The Research ...... 8
5. Unit of Analysis ...... 8
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 10
A. Previous Research ...... 10
B. Theoretical Description ...... 14
1. Morphology ...... 14
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2. Word Formation ...... 16
3. Morpheme ...... 18
4. Affixes ...... 21
5. Concept of Derivation and Inflection ...... 23
6. Concept of Derivation Without Affix ...... 26
7. The transpositions which happen due to the process of derivation
according to Rozelin (2011) ...... 28
8. Compound ...... 32
9. Truncation ...... 34
10. Blend ...... 35
11. Abbreviation and Acronyms ...... 35
12. Creation de novo (neologism) and Eponyms ...... 36
CHAPTER III. FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS ...... 38
A. Data Description ...... 38
B. Data Analysis ...... 39
CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ...... 73
A. Conclusion ...... 73
B. Suggestion ...... 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 76
APPENDIX ...... 79
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of Study
In spoken and written language, we need a collection of words to build
a good sentence. However, according to Katamba (1993), there is an
assumption that words are taken for granted by most people in language.1 In
fact, there are some difference views about what units are considered as
words. For instance, English speakers might not agree whether all right is
one word or two and as a result disputes may arise as to whether allright is
the correct way of writing all right.2
According to Crystal (1980) as quoted by Ba‘dulu and Herman,
morphology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the internal structure
or form of words.3 Moreover, Bloomfield, in his book Language (1933) and
his essays magazine entitle A Set of Postulates for the Science of Language
(1920), showed that descriptive linguistics Americans was no longer pay
attention to the word, but rather to the morpheme as a unit of language in
language analysis, as Parera informed in his book Morfologi (1988).4 It is
important for people who want to master a particular language to understand
better about the morphology of the language. That is one of the reasons why
1 Francis Katamba, Morphology, (London: The Macmillan press, 1993), p. 17 2 ibid 3 Abdul Muis Ba‘dulu and Herman, Morfosintaksis, (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 2005) 4 Jos Daniel Parera, Morfologi, (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1988), p. 14
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morphology becomes a compulsory subject for students of linguistics and
literature.5
Some words may sounds unfamiliar or not common in general society.
In certain fields, such as economics, politics, and medical field usually have
a certain or special words which are not common in society. Refers to
several media, public health becomes a crucial issue in today‘s global
society. It can be seen from a number of reports around the world. Recently,
WHO (World Health Organization) lays out some headlines associated to
certain diseases which endemic and feared throughout the world, mainly,
Ebola in African Region.6
The other diseases are also reported frequently, such as MERS in Arab
Saudi, West Nile virus in Brazil, Plague in Madagascar, and the other health
issues.7 In some printed media also never fail to present news on health.
According to the facts above, it is necessary to acknowledge the developing
of medical terminology which rarely to be heard to gain the understanding
in the discussion of public health. The process of this word building is
related to the rule of part of language mechanics called linguistics.
Therefore, when a term is developed, some logical process is applied.
In English, there are some types of word formation process which has
different rules in build a word. For instance, the word olive oil may at first
be considered as two different words. But, it turns out that olive oil is a word
5 Quoted from Zaenal Arifin dan Junaiyah, ―Morfologi: Bentuk, Makna, dan Fungsi‖, http://zaenalarifin28.wordpress.com/2010/04/16/morfologi-bentuk-makna-dan-fungsi/ accessed on 28 November 2013. 6 World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/en/ accessed on December 18th 2014. 7 Ibid 3
which consist in two morphemes. If the word olive and oil is stand alone in
a sentence, it can be said as a word, but if these two words are combined
with an identity and a paradigm, then these two words are no longer called a
word, but morphemes that make up a new word which has a meaning of ‗a
kind of oil made from olives‘. This formation process is called compound
word.
There is also the process of word formation which has more than one
morpheme known as morphemes. Either it is derivative or inflective. 8
Matthews (1974) in Edi Subroto (2012) divided the morphology into two
branches, namely, inflectional morphology and lexical morphology.9 Two
things which include the lexical morphology are derivation and composition.
Lexical morphology is reviewing the rules of word formation that produces
new words which lexically have a new identity or in contrast to the word
base.
This was consistent with the Marchand‘s formulation (1962) in Edi
Subroto (2012) that "word formation is the branch of the science of
language which studies the pattern on which a language form new lexical
units. i.e. word". For example, injection, one of the words in the article, is a
complex word which has more than one morpheme. When the suffix -ion is
attached to the word inject. Then at the same time, it changes the paradigm
of the word, from a verb that indicates an action of ‗to put a liquid such as a
8 Jos Daniel Parera, Loc.Cit., p. 18 9 Quoted from Edi Subroto, ―Infleksi dan Derivasi: Kemungkinan Penerapannya dalam Morfologi Bahasa Indonesia‖, p. 53 http://edisubroto.staff.uns.ac.id/files/2012/02/DERIVASI- DAN-INFLEKSI3.pdf accessed on November 28th, 2013 4
drug into a person's body‘10 into a noun that has a meaning of ‗An instance
of injecting or being injected‘11. And also, the other word formation types
like blends, truncation, abbreviation, acronyms, eponyms, and creation de
novo (nelologisms) will be discussed here.
This research took seven articles from a newsmagazine naming New
York Time; the major American weekly newsmagazine that is published in
New York City, as the corpus. The magazine is written in English as its
language in use. It was the creation of two young journalists Henry R. Luce
and Briton Hadden. They wanted to start a magazine that would inform busy
readers in a systematic, concise, and well-organized manner about current
events in the United States and the rest of the world. The magazine sought
to present the news in narrative form. TIME has the world‘s largest
circulation as a weekly magazine. It attained a circulation of more than
175,000 by 1927, and it became the most influential newsmagazine in the
United States.12
Moreover, TIME magazine has a readership of 25 million, which 20
million of them are based in the United States.13 Those records are the main
reason for the writer to choose the magazine as the analysis unit of this
research. The health column has attracted the attention from all the rubrics
10 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary Digital, 2008 11 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/injection?searchDictCode=all 12 Encyclopedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596077/Time accessed on march 10th, 2014 13 Time (Magazine), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 accessed on December 13th, 2014 5
in the magazine. It is because there are some medical terms which seem
unfamiliar to understand.
Word classes are always said to be one of the discussions in the analysis
of language. This research will be very concerned about how adjectives can
be derived from nouns, nouns from verbs, verbs from adjectives and the
other transpositions. However, this is very important because the terms for a
class of words, such as adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverb must be
understood correctly.
Since medical terms continues to increase and being the important
issues to be understood by the public in concerning their health, it is decided
that to investigate this study in the first place. Forms a word by adding
affixes or without affixes can generate new lexemes. From the formation, a
word may have a different meaning from the previous word. It would be
great if some new words which we have never heard before may found.
This study will outline the word formation process, how that word
formation process occur in developing medical terminology and will also
classify the types of word formation on the terms contained in the articles.
B. Focus of the Study
This study will be limited to the word formation process of medical
terms contained in the seven articles of TIME magazine. How the process
occurs and what type of word formation which occurs to each terms.
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C. Research Question
a. How is the word formation process of medical terms which contains in
the articles?
b. What are the types of word formation that occur to the medical terms in
the articles?
D. Significance of The Study
Theoretically, this research is expected to be useful in society, in the
field of health, and education field, especially in the study of morphology.
In addition, it practically provides more extensive information and
knowledge to the reader about medical term appeared frequently in this era
which is not that familiar for the public in general.
E. Research Methodology
1. The Objective of Research
This research aims to explain the word formation process of some
medical terms contains in the seven articles of TIME magazine and
classify the type of each term according to the concept of word
formation.
2. The Method of research
This research uses qualitative case study as the method in analyzing.
According to Merriam (1988) as quoted by Nunan (1992), qualitative 7
case study can be defined as an intensive, holistic description and
analysis of a single entity, phenomenon, or social unit.14
This research will be using Structural Morphology as the main
theory and the concept of word formation in analyzing. The analysis
will outline the process of word formation of medical terminologies in
seven different rubrics of health from seven different edition of TIME
magazine and classify the type of word formation which occurs in each
term.
3. The Technique of Data Collection and Data Analysis
In this research, the data collected by using bibliography technique
(tehnik pustaka) where is the written sources used to obtain data.15 The
data will be gained by data card which focuses to the medical term in
the articles. There are several steps in collecting the data:
1. Adopts seven articles from TIME magazine in seven different
monthly editions.
2. Concerns to the articles related to medical issue, which is in
TIME magazine usually classified in Health rubric.
3. Reads the seven articles,
4. Marks all the medical terms in the articles and then writes down
on the data card.
14 David Nunan, Research Methods in Language Learning, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 77. 15 Edi Subroto, Pengantar Metoda Penelitian Linguistik Struktural, (Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University Press, 1992), p. 42. 8
After the data has been collected, the data will be analyzed using
Structural Morphology for the word formation process, and will classify
the type of word formation on each term.
4. Instrument of the Research
Data card16 is the instrument that is used in this research to identify
the data from the seven articles of TIME magazine based on each types
of word formation. Then, the data which focuses to medical term will
be analized with structural Morphology and word formation concept.
5. Unit of Analysis
The unit analysis of this research is seven articles in seven different
edition of New York Time magazine. The title of the articles as follows:
1. ―The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps aim to
replace nonemergency visits‖ by Alexandra Sifferlin, TIME
magazine edition of January 13th, 2014;
2. ―What You Need to Know About MERS: A dangerous new
disease has gone global‖ by Alice Park, TIME magazine
edition of June 2nd, 2014;
3. ―The Cancer Tests You Need: Cutting through confusion on
what screenings to get—and when‖ by Alexandra Sifferlin,
TIME magazine edition of July 21st, 2014;
16 Ibid 9
4. ―Mammograms Go 3-D: A High-Tech imaging breakthrough
could pick up more cancer‖ by Alice Park, TIME magazine
edition of September 1st, 2014;
5. ―Medical Momentum: Scientists make major moves in tackling
five challenging diseases‖ by Alice Park and Mandy Oaklander,
TIME magazine edition of October 27th, 2014;
6. ―Mindfulness for Men: Yoga has some new fans—and science
says that‘s a very good thing‖ by Mandy Oaklander, TIME
magazine edition of November 24th, 2014;
7. ―The Great American Calorie Crackdown: Why some nutrition
facts are getting harder to ignore‖ by Mandy Oaklander, TIME
magazine edition of December 15th, 2014.
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CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Previous Research
This research is not the only one which analyzes word formation
phenomena. There are some previous studies which have concerned related to
this topic. In this section, five previous studies will be reviewed to this
research. The first study came from State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta which was made by Putri Sari Romadhon (2013), the
second study also came from the same faculty at the same university which is
made by Mega Arisanty (2014), the third is from Journal of Educational and
Social Research written by Nereida Shqerra and Endri Shqerra (2014), the
forth is from Journal of Speech and Hearing Research written by Lewis DJ,
Windsor J (1996), and the last comes from scholarly journal of Cambridge
University press written by Kim Say Yong, Wang Min, and Ko In Yeong
(2011).
The first study made by Putri Sari Romadhon (2013) is entitle
―Morphological Analysis on The Article Vocational High School in Klaten
Produces Suv Cars of The Jakarta Post‖. 17 This study focuses to the
occurrence of derivational and inflectional affixes and the process of IC
(Immediate Constituent) in each derivational and inflectional word in one of
The Jakarta Post article edition of October 22nd 2011. For the main theories of
17 Putri Sari Romadhon, ―Morphological Analysis on The Article Vocational High School in Klaten Produces Suv Cars of The Jakarta Post‖, unpublished bachelor thesis, (Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2013)
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this research she took Katamba and Norman‘s definition of Affixation and
derivation. From her research she found about a hundred affixes words that
can be classified into derivational affixes and inflectional affixes.
Derivational prefixes with four prefixes contain seven words. Derivational
suffixes with sixteen suffixes contain fifty words. And inflectional suffixes
with six suffixes contain fifty- seven words.
The second study made by Mega Arisanty (2014) is entitle ―An Analysis
of Word Formation Processes in Instagram of Simple Plan, One Direction,
Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers Band‖.18 This study is focuses to the use
of word formation which is usually used on instagram photos and comments.
Especially the using of word formation style on the instagram account of
Simple Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers band. The
writer use the concept of word formation which taken from several scholars
and describe it in the theoretical framework of the study. From the analysis
—based on the concept which has made and Webster‘s Third New
International Dictionary— the word formation process that most commonly
found is inflection with the total of 41 words. And then, it followed by
compounding with the total of 13 words. The third position is derivation with
the total of 11 words. The forth position is held by blending with the total of
four. The fifth is initialism and clipping with the total of each process is two
words. In the last position are acronym and creation de novo which each kind
18 Mega Arisanti, ―An Analysis of Word Formation Processes in Instagram of Simple Plan, One Direction, Maroon 5, and The Jonas Brothers Band‖, unpublished bachelor thesis, (Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, 2014) 12
have only one word. While, the two others kinds, back-formation and
eponyms, were not found in the data.
The third research is from a journal of Educational and Social research
written by Nereida and Endri (2014).19 The study is entitled ―The Role of
Derivation and Compounding in the Process of English Language
Acquisition‖. The focus of this study has been given to the similarities and
differences between English and Albanian word-formation. The researcher
makes a concept of the rule of derivation and word formation in English by
attaching some notions of some experts. From the research, the writers found
that there are similarities and also dissimilarities in derivation and
compounding of the two languages. The dissimilarities between the two
word-formations more often than not belong to Albanian word-formation,
making thus easier for Albanian pupils to learn English word-formation. The
focus has to be given mainly on affixes. Here should be said that English
language has more affixes than Albanian language. This fact would call for
more efforts from Albanian pupils and Students to get used with them. What's
more, even though there are similarities between English and Albanian
affixes, English has different rules in their combinations compared to
Albanian language. Hence, Albanian pupils would require only some more
time spend on morpheme‘s combination rules of word-formation, mostly on
prefixes.
19 Nereida Shqerra and Endri Sqherra, ―The Role of Derivation and Compounding in the Process of English Language Acquisition‖, in Journal of Edicational and Social Research, 2014, Vol 4, No.2. www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/jesr/article/view/2806 accessed on September 29th, 2014. 13
Another research was written by Lewis DJ. (1996) from Journal of
Speech and Hearing research in USA. 20 This research entitle ―Children‘s
Analysis of Derivational Suffix Meaning‖ focuses to the relation between
school age children‘s production and comprehension of derivational suffixes
in nonsense words and their knowledge of suffix meaning in real derivatives.
The results found in the research were indicating that knowledge of
derivational suffixes was used often in defining low-frequency derivatives
and that it was significantly correlated with suffix production in the nonsense
task. In addition, suffix productivity was found to be an important factor
determining the comprehension as well as the production of particular
suffixes to convey a range of meanings.
The last research was written by Kim Say Yong, Wang Min and Ko In
Yeong from scholarly journal of Cambridge University Pres in Cambridge.21
The study entitle ―The Processing of Derivational morphology in Korean-
English Bilingual Readers‖ focuses to the cross language activation occurs
via decomposition during the processing of derived words in Korean-English
bilingual readers. The author of this study used a priming lexical decision to
conducted three experiments. The results of those three experiments are
different: in experiment 1, when participants were given a real derived word
20 Lewis DJ, ―Children‘s Analysis of Derivational Suffix Meaning‖, in Journal of Speech And Hearing Research, 1996, Vol.39 (1), pp. 209-16. http://e- resources.pnri.go.id:2138/ehost/detail/detail?sid=a0026dc7-aaba-4531-9070- 57bf70938ce7%40sessionmgr4003&vid=0&hid=4112&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d %3d#db=mnh&AN=8820712 accessed on November 11th, 2014 21 Kim Say Yong, at.al, ―The Processing of Derivational Morphology in Korean-English Bilingual Readers‖, Cambridge, 2011, Vol.26, No.14, issue 4, pp. 473-488. http://e- resources.pnri.go.id:2056/docview/1030093511?pq-origsite=summon accessed on November 11th, 2014. 14
and an interpretable derived pseudoword (i.e., illegal combination of a stem
and a suffix) in Korean as a prime, response times for the corresponding
English-translated stem were significantly faster than when they had received
an unrelated word. In Experiment 2, non-morphological ending pseudowords
(i.e., illegal combination of a stem and an orthographic ending) were included,
and this did not show a priming effect. In Experiment
3, non-interpretable derived pseudowords also yielded a significant
priming effect just as the interpretable ones.
From the five previous studies above, this research has a speciality in
medical terminology which has not found in the research conducted before.
B. Theoretical Description
1. Morphology
There are two types of morphology, namely, structural morphology
and generative morphology. Structural morphology refers to what a
speaker says. In other words, this theory tends to be applied to a language
which has been produced. 22 Different with structural morphology,
generative morphology only focuses to the competence theory. According
to Chomsky (1965) in Muis Ba‘dulu and Herman (2005), assumptions or
principles constitute generative structure of transformational in general.23
This research will only use the structural morphology because the data has
22 Abdul Muis Ba‘sulu and Herman, Mofosintaksis, Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta, 2005, p. 14 23 Ibid, p. 25 15
already produced, not assumptions or principles. Structural morphology has four principles for descriptive analysis. The principles as follows24: a. Descriptive analysis has to be relied on what people say.
This principles has certain implications. First, this principle means
that written language form is secondary. Written language only
representing oral language by using alphabet letter. Second, the
important thing is what people speak, not what they think they should
be spoke. Moreover, the interesting matter is the type of the speaker
who represent education field, social, economy, and different racial.
Therefore, any kind of dialect has similar quality, and all the diversity
of languages are equally right in the case that language diversity
represents the dialect of speaker. b. Form is primary and usage is secondary
Descriptive linguistic starts from shape and then change over to
describe the grammatical positions where the shape is emerged. In
describe the case in Greek, for example, linguist register five shapes
collection, and then describe how the shapes are used. c. There is no part of a language which can be described adequately
without reference to all other parts.
This principle means that phonemics, morphology, and syntax of a
language can not be described without referring to one another.
24 Ibid, p. 14 16
Language is an overall which have function, and those parts can only
describe fully in its relation with entirety.
d. Languages are in a process of continuous changing.
The presence of fluctuation in the form means that a certain
structures defeat the other. Because alternative forms have never been
in balance for a long time. Structural morphology has its organization
in analyzing. It has four components, namely, list of morpheme, word
formation process, morphophonology process, and dictionary.25 The
first task is indentifying all morphemes, either free morpheme or
bound morpheme, from the data had been collected. Second task is
word formation, which explains how morphemes of a language
arranged in a group to form a word in a language. The third task is
morphophonologiy process, which is a mechanism of
morphophonology, namely, the changes which occur in the merger of
morpheme, such as assimilation, release, addition, replacement, and
permutation. And the last component is dictionary. Words which have
been through third component, which is morphophonology, form a
dictionary of the word in question.
2. Word Formation
First of all, what actually a word is? It could probably be said that a
word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is preceded by a blank
25 Ibid, p.17 17
space and followed either by a blank space or a punctuation mark. As can
be seen in the sentence bellow26:
(1) Linguistics is a fascinating subject.
The sentence is considered that it has five words. Because, there are
five uninterrupted strings of letters, all of which are preceded by a blank
space, four of which are also followed by a blank space, one of which is
followed by a period. This example shows accordance to the first intuition
of words before.
But, how to define a sentence if it is written like an example bellow:
(2) Benjamin‘s girlfriend lives in a high-rise apartment building.27
If it is considered apostrophes to be punctuation marks, Benjamin's
constitutes two (orthographic) words. If not, Benjamin's is one word. If it
is considered a hyphen a punctuation mark, high-rise is two (orthographic)
words, otherwise it's one (orthographic) word. The last two strings,
apartment building, are easy to classify, they are two (orthographic) words,
whereas girlfriend must be considered one (orthographic) word.
The notion of what a word is, should, after all, not depend on the
fancies of individual writers or the arbitrariness of the English spelling
system. The second problem with the orthographically defined word is that
it may not always coincide with our intuitions. Thus, most of us would
probably agree that girlfriend is a word (i.e. one word) which consists of
26 Laurie Bauer, Laurie Bauer, English Word Formation,(UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p.4 27 Ibid, p.5 18
two words (girl and friend), a so-called compound.28 If compounds are
one word, they should be spelled without a blank space separating the
elements that together make up the compound. Unfortunately, this is not
the case. Therefore, word formation is a concept of internal formation of a
word or complex word, with certain rules. According to Plag (2002), there
are some types of word formation. They are derivation, compound,
truncation, blends, abbreviations, and acronyms. Beside that, there are also
another types, namely, creation de novo (neologism) and eponyms.
3. Morpheme
Basically, bound morpheme serves to form words. A word referred to
derivative only if the word has plural morphemes distributed syntactically
and has the equivalent of the single word with single morpheme.29 Before
we step to the main discussion of this research, it is important to
acknowledge an entity known as morpheme which is the subject of study
by the branch of linguistics known as morphology.30
―A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria: (1) it is a word or a part of a word that has meaning, (2) it cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or without meaningless remainders, (3) it recurs in differing verbal environment with a relatively stable meaning.‖31 The criteria simply indicate that morpheme is the smallest part of a
word that has meaning and cannot be dividing into a smaller one because it
will violate the meaning of its morpheme. For example, word speaker can
28 Ibid, p.4 29 Jos Daniel Parera, Op.Cit p. 21 30 Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, English Words, history, and structure, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p.65 31 Norman C. Stageberg. An Introductory English Grammar Third Adition, ((1977), p. 95 19
be divided into speak+er. Word speak and suffix –er are both morphemes.
There is at least one morpheme contained in a word.32 Word like out, just, grace, person, ozone, London contain of one morpheme. A word may also have more than one morpheme. Outing, justly, ungracious, personalize, ozonation, Londoner, are the example of words which have more than one morphemes.33
The word morpheme itself consists of two morphemes. Morph ‗form, shape‘ and –eme ‗linguistically distinctive unit‘. Therefore, a morpheme is a form associated with some distinctive meanings.34 Since morpheme is the smallest part of a word, it cannot be divided further into a smaller meaningful form. This is a significant case to be concerned. If there is a case when the morpheme morph divided into
There are two types of morpheme, lexical and grammatical. Lexical morpheme is a morpheme which already has a meaning by itself, whereas grammatical morpheme is a morpheme which specifies a relationship between other morphemes. For instance, noun, verb, adjective as in boy, buy, big, are typical lexical morphemes, otherwise, prepositions, articles, and conjunction as in of, the, but are typical grammatical morphemes.
32 Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, Op.Cit., p.64 33 Ibid, p.64 34 Ibid 35 Ibid 20
Morpheme is divided into two, free and bound.36 The one which be able to
stand alone with meaning is called free morpheme. They may be lexical
which already has meaning by itself, such as Eat, word, mix, or
grammatical morpheme, like at, and, but. Unlike the free, a bound
morpheme cannot be used alone with as a word. It is always annexed to
one or more morphemes to form a word, in other word they are parts of a
word. They may be lexical as in preview, played, activity, supervise. The
italicized letters in those words—pre-, -ed, -ity, -vise—are bound
morphemes. And they may be grammatical such as plural form as in boys,
girls, and cats.37 Hence, it can be inferred that those morphemes which can
stand alone as words are called free morpheme (e.g., eat, word, mix) and
those morphemes which occur only in combination are called bound
morphemes (e.g., pre-, -s, -en, -ity).
The word bright ‗light‘ with the word brighten ‗make light‘ are
different. The distinction between the two words is marked by the different
form and different meaning. The different form is the added of /-ǝ n/ in
brighten, and the difference in meaning is the added sense of ‗make‘ to the
word bright. This leads us to conclude that /-ǝ n/ means ‗make‘. Thus we
see that /-ǝ n/ is a part of a word that has meaning.38 In other words, suffix
–ǝ n is a morpheme.
36 Ibid p.97 37 Handout for Psy 598-02, summer 2001, Morphology, p.3 [www.mathcs.duq.edu/~packer/Courses/Psy598/Ling-Morphology.pdf] 38 Norman C. Stageberg, Loc.Cit., p.96 21
Another classification of morphemes put them into two classes, bases
and affixes.39 A base morpheme is the part of a word that has the principle.
The italicized morphemes in these words are bases: denial, lovable,
annoyance, re-enter. Bases are very numerous, and most of them in
English are free morphemes. But, some are bond, like –sent in consent,
dissent, and assent. A word may contain one base and several affixes. In
the other hand, Grammatical bound morphemes are usually some affixes
form (-ness, -ly, -ion, -s, -er, -ing). Morpheme divided into two branches,
namely, derivational morpheme and inflectional morpheme.40
4. Affixes An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after a base.41 Affix
consists of two types, prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes are those bound
morphemes that occur before the bases, as in important, prefix, reconsider.
Prefixes in English are a small class of morphemes, numbering about
seventy-five. Their meanings are often those of English prepositions and
adverbials.
Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base, like shrinkage,
failure, noisy, realize, nails, dreamed.42 Suffixes may pile up to the number
of three or four, whereas prefixes are commonly single, except for the
negative un- before another prefix.43 In normalizers we perhaps reach the
limit with four: the base norm plus the four suffixes –al, -ize, -er, -s. When
39 Ibid 40 Ibid 41 Ibid, p.101 42 Ibid, p. 102 43 Ibid 22
suffixes multiply like this, their order is fixed: there is one and only one
order in which they occur. Dogs, oxen, discussing, bolder, boldest, chewed,
chosen, are the some examples of inflectional affixes. The words to which
these affixes (mostly suffixes) are attached are called stems. The stem
includes the base or bases and all the derivational affixes. Thus the stem of
playboys is playboy and that of beautified is beautify.44
The class of derivational affixes is much larger than that of the
inflectional affixes, its members are less interdependent, and the new ones
emerge now and then. 45 Affixes like –ness forms abstract noun from
adjectives, or –er forms agent nouns from verbs, which are very
productive, are also markedly stable in meaning. 46 Many derivational
affixes, however, have more than one meaning and can be added to more
than one category of base words.
We can assume the root is a morpheme which is left over when all the
derivational and inflectional morphemes, in this case affixes, have been
removed. For example, the word immovability, im-, -abil, and -ity are all
derivational morphemes. When all the derivational morphemes were
removed, the word move is left, which cannot be further divided into the
smaller meaningful pieces. Therefore it must be the root of the word.
44 Ibid, p.103 45 Valerie Adams, An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation,(USA: Longman Inc., New York, 1973), p.13 46 Ibid 23
5. Concept of Derivation and Inflection
In every discussion about derivation, surely, inflection has a place to
be expostulated. Traditionally, there are equations and differences which
have been made between derivation and inflection. The equation between
derivation and inflection is in the relation of the members of a pair,
consisting of the 'unmarked' base form and the 'marked' affixed form.47
Bauer stated that derivation is morphemic process generate new
lexeme, while inflection is morphemic process generate different type of
word from in the same lexeme.48 Lexemes are the vocabulary items that
are listed in the dictionary. For example, the form pockling, pockle,
pockles, pockled are different representations of the lexeme pockle. They
all share a core meaning although they are spelled and pronounced
differently.49
Verhaar (1977) in Subroto (1985) also stated that derivation is all
change of affixation which oversteps the identity of words, while all
change maintaining word identity referred to inflection. 50 Moreover,
Katamba (1993) formulated that derivation is the process of word form
which change the meaning of the base to the new form, e.g kind to un-
kind (both are adjective, but have an opposite meaning); obey vs disobely
(both are verb, but have an opposite meaning), or is changing the word
class of the base to form a new word, e.g. the addition of –ly to the
47 Ibid., p.11-12 48 Edi subroto, Loc.Cit., p. 54 49 Francis Katamba, Loc.Cit., p. 18 50 Ibid 24
adjectives kind and simple produces the adverbs kind-ly and simp-ly.51
Meanwhile, inflection does not change referential or cognitive meaning.
Inflectional suffix will not change the word as derivational morpheme
change the word kind to unkind before and will not alter the word class of
the base to which it is attached. Inflectional morphemes are only able to
modify the form of a word, thus it can fit into a particular syntactic slot.52
Those notions of change and do not change the word class correlated
to the concept of class maintaining and class changing from Bauer (1983).
―A class maintaining process of derivation produces lexemes which
belong to the same form class as the base, while a class-changing process
of derivation produces lexemes which belong to a form class other than
the form class of the base‖. For example, when suffix –ly distributed to
the word king (noun), it will generate an adjective kingly. The example
points the case of class-changing derivation. Another example, if the
suffix –dom is distributed to the word king (noun), it will generate a new
word kingdom which is also a noun, but different lexical meaning. And it
is the case of class-maintaining derivation.53
In conclusion, the different of the two paradigms, from the previous
discussion of derivation and inflection is derivation change the identity
and the meaning of a single word, therefore, it forms a new lexeme,
while inflection does not. Inflection happens grammatically and has a
different grammatical meaning which is predictable.
51 Ibid, p.47 52 Ibid, p.51 53 Laurie Bauer, Loc.Cit, p. 31 25
a. She works as a teacher in Indonesia
b. Mom is cooking at the kitchen
c. I have five books in my room
The italic words above show that the words are complex. The verb work and the third person singular suffix –s in works, the verb cook and participial suffix –ing in cooking, and the noun book with plural suffix –s in books, all create new words. Those complex words are indeed new words; however, they cannot be said as the new lexemes. In contrast, suffixes like –er and –ee (both attached to verbs, as in kicker and employee), or prefixes like re- or un- (as in rephrase or unconvincing) do form new lexemes.54
Previously, this has been discussed by the author in chapter 1 about division of morphology branches according to Matthews. It also discussed in Plag (2002) and Bauer (1983). Morphology deals with the internal structure of a word-form. In morphology, the analysts divided word-forms into their component formatives (most of which are morphs realizing roots or affixes), and attempts to account for the occurrence of its formative.55
Morphology divided into two shares, namely, inflection and word- formation. Again, Word-formation divided into two, consisting of derivation and compounding. 56 And derivation can be subdivided into class changing and class maintaining.57
54 Ingo Plag, Word-Formation in English, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p.18 55 Laurie Bauer, Op.Cit., p.33 56 Ingo Plag, Op.Cit., p.22 57 Laurie Bauer, Op.Cit., p.33 26
One of the factor a word can be said as a derivative is if the distribution
of affixes changes the identity of the word, with the result that it creates a
new lexeme. However, the derivational process is not always about the
addition of affixation. It can also occur without any of affixation in a word.
This type of derivation is usually mentioned as conversion by many
scholars.
6. Concept of Derivation Without Affix
So far, we have only encountered complex words that are created by
concatenation, i.e. by linking together bases and affixes as in a chain.
There are, however, also other, i.e. non-concatenative, ways to form
morphologically complex words.58
- My account is overdrawn. I can‘t account for where the money went.
- They wanted to green the neighborhood. They were given a green light.
- It‘s no trouble at all. Don‘t trouble yourself.
In all these cases the verb or adjective and noun look alike and sound
alike. There is reason to believe that the verbs are derived from the nouns.
They are called denominal verb for that reason, and they are said to be
derived by a process of conversion —the noun is converted into a verb.59
58 Ingo Plag, Op.Cit., p.15 59 Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, Op.Cit., p. 8 27
Conversion is the change in form class of a form without any corresponding change of form. 60 The exact status of conversion within word formation is unclear. For some scholars conversion is a brunch of derivation, for others it is a separate type of word formation on a level with derivation and compounding.61 Frequently, a term which many scholars — adams (1973), Jespersen (1942), Marchand (1969)— prefer for conversion is zero-derivation.62
The change of pronunciation and stress in a word can also be considered as conversion process according to Rozelin (2010), where the pronunciation of consonant and different stress in a word changes its identity and meaning. For instance, the change of consonant in the word house (s) to the word house (z). The difference of consonant changes the class of the noun house into verb. The other example is the change of the stress of word in expórt and éxport. Verb usually has a stress in the end of the word, as in expórt, and it turns into a noun when the stress move to the beginning of the word, as in éxport.
The notion that derivation can occur without any overt change in shape may at first seem strange. But, the process of conversion is extremely productive today. 63 For example, we can chair a meeting, mask our intentions, air our opinions, panel the walls, stage a protest, weather the
60 Laurie bauer, Loc.Cit., p.32 61 Ibid 62 Ibid 63 Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell, Loc.Cit., p. 9 28
storm, storm the gates, e-mail the students, floor our enemies, polish the
car, fish in troubled waters, and so on. In one sense, such converted words
are not new items in the lexicon. They are already there in another function
(they are nouns in these cases; but there are also adjective/adverb – verb
pairs like near, idle, clear, smooth, obscure, and many more).64
7. The transpositions which happen due to the process of derivation
according to Rozelin (2011):
5.1. The Derivational Process from Noun into Verb
There are also some common verbs that are derived by replacing
the final voiceless consonant of a noun with a voiced one. For
examples, noun bath derived into the verb bathe, breath into breathe,
and wreath into wreathe.65
It will be evident by now that suffixes play a larger role than
prefixes in English derivational morphology. But there is still one
prefix, namely, en- which forms verbs from a few nouns: enfeeble,
enslave, empower, enrage, enthrone, entomb.66
5.2. Derivational Process from Noun to Adjective
The affixes of this process are numerous. This process is affected
by some affixes.67
Adjectives –ful and –less tend to come in pairs, although the
correspondence is not exact: we have slothful but not slothless, and
64 Ibid 65Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, Loc.Cit., p.55 66 Ibid. 67 Diana Rozelin, Loc. Cit., p.591 29
penniless but not penniful. This shows that even when the meaning of
a potential word may be easily guessable, the existence of the word is
not guaranteed.
5.3. Derivational Process From Noun to Noun
There is no prefix for this process. However, some suffixes which
can be added to form noun from the other noun. The following
suffixes form the nouns from the other nouns.68
5.4. Derivational Process from Adjective into Noun
There are one prefix and several suffixes to form a noun from an
adjective. From all the three suffixes which form a noun, -ness is the
most widely applicable. It gives an abstract meaning to the base. For
example, the meaning of the word Highness is not ‗property of being
high‘, but, it has a meaning of ‗royal personage‘, as in Her Royal
Highness.
5.5.Derivational Process from Adjective to Verb
There are two prefixes and one suffix, according to Rozelin
(2011), to form a verb from adjective.
Besides –en, suffix –ise and –ify can also derive verbs from
adjectival bases. The words nationalise, tenderise, intensify, and
purify, which are all verb, are the evident of this case. To form a verb
from adjective, we can combine the prefix en- with a suffix –en. For
68 Ibid, p.592 30
example, the word bold derive into embolden, and the word live derive
into enliven.69
5.6.Derivational Process from Adjective into Adjective
Most of affixes that use to form adjective from the adjectival base
are prefixes.70 But according to McCarthy (2002), there is one suffix
used for this process. The only suffix is –ish, meaning ‗somewhat X‘,
as in greenish, smallish, remotish.71
5.7.Derivational Process From Verb into Noun
It is only suffixes which form a noun from a verb. According
Rozelin (2011), the following suffixes are used to form a noun from a
verb.72
Those suffixes cannot be used freely to the bases. In English, the
verb perform turns into performance but not performment or
performation to be a noun. And also, the verb commit can be turned
into three, commitment, committal, and commission but not
commitance. 73
The suffix –er is the one most generally used for forming nouns
denoting a person performing the action of the corresponding verb
(agent noun). But it is not the only agent suffixes, because there is the
word typist and informant which use other suffixes. The function of
69 Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, Loc.Cit., p.55-56 70 Diana Rozelin, Loc.Cit., p.593 71 Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, Op.Cit., p.52 72 Diana Rozelin, Op.Cit., p. 354 73 Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, Op.Cit, p.51 31
the Suffix –er is not only denoting a person. For example, digger
which is more denoting a piece of machinery than a person.74
5.8.Derivational Process from Verb into Adjective
Only suffixes used for this process. According to Rozelin (2011),
the following suffixes are used to form adjectives from verbal
bases. 75 Some of the processes that derive adjectives from verbs
straddle the divide between derivation and inflection in a way that we
have not yet encountered. The suffixes –ed, -en, and –ing, and vowel
change, in passive and progressive participle forms of verb. Such form
can also be adjective.
- A not very interesting book. - The party-goers sounded very drunk. - The car seemed more damaged than the lamp-post.
The modifier very and the comparative construction (more....than)
show that interesting, drunk, and damaged are adjective.
5.9.Derivational process from verb into verb
Prefix is the only affixes used in this process. According to
Rozelin (2011), the following prefixes are used to form verb from the
other verbal bases.
According to McCarthy (2002), the most prominent is re- and the
negative or ‗reversive‘ prefixes un-, de-, and dis-, as in repaint, re-
enter, untie, untangle, decompose, desensitise, disentangle, disbelieve.
74 Ibid 75 Diana Rozelin, Loc.Cit., p. 594 32
Semantically, prefix de- in decompose is ‗not to undo the creative
work of a musical composer‘.
5.10. Derivational Process from Adjective into Adverb
Some introductory treatments of English grammar talk as if all
adverbs end in –ly.76 But according to Rozelin (2011), suffixes –wise
and –ward are also exist to form adverbs, for example likewise which
has a meaning ‗in the same way‘.77
8. Compound
When two or more elements which could potentially be used as stems
are combined to form another stem, the form is said to be a compound.78
This definition contains two crucial assumptions, the first being that
compounds consist of two (and not more) elements, the second being that
these elements are words.79
Consider the expressions a green house, with its literal meaning, and a
greenhouse, meaning a glass structure (not usually green in color) where
delicate plans are reared. There is a different in sound corresponding to the
difference in meaning: in the first expression the main stress is on house,
while in the second, the main stress is on green. 80 Another example:
blackboard (board for writing on), silkworm (caterpillar that spins silk),
hairnet (net for covering hair).
76 Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, Op.Cit., p.48 77 Diana Rozelin, Op.Cit., p.595 78 Laurie Bauer, Loc.Cit.p. 28 79 Ingo plag, Loc.Citp. 170 80 Andrew Carstair-McCarthy, Loc.Cit., p. 59 33
The vast majority of compounds are interpreted in such a way that the left-hand member somehow modifies the right-hand member. Thus, a film society is a kind of society (namely one concerned with films). Such compounds exhibit what is called a modifier-head structure. The term head is generally used to refer to the most important unit in complex linguistic structures. Examples81:
Compound Verb:
1. Verb-verb (VV): stir-fry, freeze-dry
2. Noun-verb (NV): hand-wash, air-condition, steam-clean
3. Adjective-verb (AV): dry-clean, whitewash
Compound Adjective:
1. Noun-adjective (NA): sky-high, cool-black
2. Adjective-adjective (AA): grey-green, squeaky-clean
Compound Nouns:
1. Verb-noun (VN): swearword, playtime
2. Noun-noun (NN): hairnet, mosquito net
3. Adjective-noun (AN): blackboard, greenstone.
According to O‘Grady and Guzman (1996) there is also endocentric and exocentric compound, endocentric is compound that identifies the general class which the meaning of the entire word belongs, for example: dog food is a type of food, while exocentric is the meaning of compound does not follow from
81 Ibid, pp. 60-61 34
the meaning of its parts in this way, one of the case is the word redneck. It is
not a type of neck but an ultra conservative, white working-class person82
9. Truncation
Truncation is a process in which the relationship between a derived
word and its base is expressed by the lack of phonetic material in the
derived word.83 Example:
Ron (¬ Aaron)
Liz (¬ Elizabeth)
Mike (¬ Michael)
Truncated names can be distinguished from -y diminutives both
semantically and formally. Truncated names (and clippings like lab) are
used to express familiarity. Thus, truncations are normally used by people
who feel familiar with the person referred to and who want to express this
familiarity overtly.84 For example, diminutive such as sweety and frannie.
Beside truncation and –y diminutive, there is also clipping.
Clippings appear as a rather mixed bag of forms abbreviated from
larger words, which, however, share a common function, namely, to
express familiarity with the denotation of the derivative.85 Thus, lab is
used by people who work in laboratories, demo is part of the vocabulary of
people who attend demonstrations, and so on.
82 Afifah Rahmawati, ―Word Formation Processes on Slang Words Used by Transsexual‖, Semarang: Diponegoro University, 2012. P.8 83 Ingo plag, loc. cit., p. 146. 84 Ibid, p. 147 85 Ibid, p. 154 35
10. Blends
Blend is a kind of compound where at least one component is
reproduced only partially.86 A straightforward example is smog, blended
from smoke and fog. A more elaborate one is chortle, blended from
chuckle and snort. For another example:
Talkthon = talk and marathon
Cheeseburger = cheese and hamburger
11. Abbreviations and acronyms
Abbreviation is similar with blends and truncation, but, differs from
truncation and blending in that prosodic categories do not play a prominent
role. Rather, orthography is of central importance. Abbreviations are most
commonly formed by taking initial letters of multiword sequences to make
up a new word87:
BA : Bachelor of Arts
DC: District of Columbia
EC : European Community
FAQ : frequently asked question
Blends made up of initial letters are known as acronyms. For the well-
known example is NATO, an acronym of North Atlantic Treaty
Organization, ANZAC an acronym of Australian and New Zealand Army
Corps.
86 Andrew Carstair-McCarthy, Loc.Cit., p. 65 87 Ingo plag, Op.Citp., p. 161 36
12. Creation de novo (neologism) and Eponyms
As neologism or coinage we identify the word formation process of
inventing entirely new words. This is a very rare and uncommon method
to create new words, but in the media, people try to outdo each other with
more and better words to name their products.88 According to Yule (2006)
in Wagner (2010), these trademark names are usually adopted by the
masses and they become ''everyday words of language'.89 And in some
cases, the meaning of these words is broadened. For example, to google
means not always 'to use google to find something on the internet', but to
'search the internet'. Similarly, complicated chemical or technical terms
(like Aspirin: acetylsalicylic acid) are adopted as the trademark term and
often replace standard terms for e.g. in this example, painkillers. This also
happened to words like Xerox, Kleenex or the German Nutella. In
Indonesia, people usually use the word aqua (aqua: one of mineral water
product in Indonesia) as a standard term of mineral water when a person is
looking or buying water.
There are also another word formation which the formation is taken
from the name of a person or place, namely, eponyms.90 Some of The
examples of this word formation are listed bellow:
Aphrodisiac – Aphrodite Appertization (canning for food preservation) – Nicolas Appert Atlas – Atlas
88 Martina Wagner, ―Word Formation Process: How new Words develop in the English Language‖, winter term, 2010. http://web91.sv16.net-housting.de/written/wfp.pdf accessed on January 5th, 2015. 89 Ibid 90 Ibid 37
Boycott – Charles C. Boycott Cardigan – James Thomas Brudnell, 7th Earl of Cardigan Celsius – Anders Celsius Columbia – Christophor Columbus Diesel – Rudolf Diesel Fauna – Faunus Levis – Levi Strauss Salmonella – Daniel Elmer Salmon Sandwich – John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich
38
CHAPTER III
FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS
A. Data Description
In this chapter, the data will be collected using bibliography
technique and random sampling to filter out some of the data which are
too numerous to gain the written source. And then, the data will be
identified in data card to classify the data from the seven articles of TIME
magazine based on each types of word formation. The writer only focuses
to the medical terms from the seven articles in seven different edition of
TIME magazine. Then, the data which focuses to medical term will be
analyzed with structural Morphology and classified based on word
formation concept.
Furthermore, the data which have been collected are gathered into a
table. The writer will also engage some English dictionary, mainly,
Oxforddictionary.com91, and Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary
digital92 as references of every word or term‘s information—part of speech
and meaning of the word— contained in the article, and also the other
dictionaries to support another information of the data.
91 Oxforddictionary.com 92 Elizabeth Walter at.al., ―Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary Third Edition‖ digital version (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 38 39
B. Data Analysis
From all the medical terms that have already been collected and
identified, the writer classifies them in a table based on the types of word
formation. The following is the table of data analysis which has been listed
by the writer from data card:
Table 1. Classification of Medical Terms from Data Card
No. Edition of Magazine Types of Word Formation Terms 1. January 13rd, 2014 Telemedicine Nonemergency Dislocated Derivation Illness Ailments Prescriptions Malpractice Compound - Truncation - Blends - Abbreviations - Acronyms - Neologism (creation de novo) - Eponym - 2. June 2nd, 2014 Derivation Asymptomatic Infection Antibodies Compound Public-health Coronavirus Flu-like Truncation - Blends - Abbreviation CDC Acronyms MERS Neologism (creation de novo) - Eponym - 3. July 21st, 2014 Derivation Screening Physician Gynecologist Rectal Abnormalities Dermatologist 40
Cervical Colonoscopy Compound Overdiagnosis Truncation - Blends - Abbreviation ACS CT-Scan Acronyms - Neologism (creation de novo) - Eponym - 4. September 1st, 2014 Derivation Therapist Synthesizing Compound - Truncation - Blends - Abbreviation - Acronyms - Neologism (creation de novo) - Eponym - 5. October 27th, 2014 Derivation Scientists Retinal Injection Obesity Compound Nervedamaging Steam-cell Truncation - Blends - Abbreviation - Acronyms - Neologism (creation de novo) - Eponym - 6. November 24th, 2014 Derivation Yogis Hypertension Compound - Truncation - Blends - Abbreviation - Acronyms - Neologism (creation de novo) - Eponym - 7. December 24th, 2014 Derivation Nutrition Caloric Compound Nutrient-dense Truncation - 41
Blends - Abbreviation - Acronyms - Neologism (creation de novo) - Eponym -
This research aims to apply the structural morphology in examining the development a formation of a word which only focuses to the medical term in the articles of TIME magazine. Therefore, the writer will describe deeply about the internal structure of each term. Moreover, the writer will abbreviate the word ‗word formation‘ into ‗WF‘ in the details of each data in this analysis.
Since this analysis also use the random sampling to analize the data, thus the writer put the sampling data which will be analized in a table bellow:
Tabel 2. Sample data that will be analyzed
No. The Types of Word Data Formation 1. Derivation Telemedicine Nonemergency Dislocated Illness Malpractice Infection Gynecologist Cervical Obesity Hypertension Caloric 2. Compound Public-health Coronavirus Flu-like Infection Overdiagnosis 42
Steam-cell Nutrient-dense 3. Abbreviation CDC (Centers for Disease Control ) ACS (American Cancer Society) CT scan 4. Acronym MERS (Middle East Respitory Syndrome) *truncation and blend are not found in the analysis.
From the principals of Structural morphology which discussed in the previous chapter, it can propound 4 steps in organizing the process of developing a word:
Identifying Morpheme
Word Formation
Morphophonological Process
Dictionary
With that 4 model structural morphology, the writer identifies all the medical terms which has an internal structure or word formation process.
1. Derivation
Bauer stated that derivation is morphemic process generate
new lexeme, while inflection is morphemic process generate
different type of word from in the same lexeme. 93 Moreover,
Katamba (1993) formulated that derivation is the process of word
form which change the meaning of the base to the new form, e.g
93 Edi subroto, Loc.Cit., p. 54 43
kind to un-kind (both are adjective, but have an opposite meaning);
obey vs disobey (both are verb, but have an opposite meaning).94
Another type of derivation is derivation without affixes or
usually called as conversion. Conversion is the change in form
class of a form without any corresponding change of form.95 The
exact status of conversion within word formation is unclear. For
some scholars conversion is a brunch of derivation, for others it is
a separate type of word formation on a level with derivation and
compounding.96
the writer will apply the theory of structural morphology to
analyze the process of word formation bellow:
Data 1.
Word : Telemedicine
Sentence : Telemedicine apps aim to replace nonemergency visits.
(The title of the article).
Article : ―The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps
aim to replace nonemergency visits‖. (January 13rd, 2014)
WF : Derivation (form a noun into a noun)
As already discussed in chapter II that a word may consist of
one or more morphemes, the word telemedicine considered as a word
which have more than one morpheme. The prefix tele- is a bound
94 Francis katamba, Loc.Cit., p.47 95 Laurie bauer, Loc.Cit., p.32 96 Ibid 44
morpheme which can not stand alone with meaning as a word. While
Medicine, the other smallest form of this word, is a free morpheme
which can stand alone with meaning, even without tele-. And it can
not divided into smaller pieces. Therefore, it can be confirmed that the
word telemedicine has two morphemes.
When the prefix tele- added to the noun medicine, it generates a
new lexeme telemedicine. This type of word formation refers to
derivation, when the additions of affixes to a base word change the
identity and generate a new lexeme. However, this process does not
affect the pronunciation of each morpheme. Furthermore, this word
telemedicine has been listed in dictionary as a lexeme, and has a
meaning of ‗the treatment of people who are ill, by sending
information from one place to another by computer, video, etc‘.97
Data 2.
Word : Nonemergency
Sentence : …,telemedicine apps are a cheap, easy alternative to
nonemergency consultation.(paragraph 4, line 3)
Article : ―The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps
aim to replace nonemergency visits‖. (January 13rd, 2014)
WF : Derivation (form a noun into an adjective)
The word nonemergency obviously has more than one
morpheme, since it can be divided into smaller pieces
97 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 45
non+emerge+ence+y. The prefix non- is a bound morpheme which can not stand alone with meaning. While emerge is the root of the word nonemergency which is also a kind of free morpheme. It can stand alone with meaning by itself and annex to suffix –ence and –y that are bound morpheme.
Suffix –ence changes the part of speech of the verb emerge into a noun emergence, and then the suffix –y attached, but does not change the part of speech in the transformation of emergence to emergency. After that, prefix non- attached to the noun emergency and produces a new lexeme nonemergency which has a different part of speech from the base form. Therefore, this word formation process is considered as derivation. This process of word formation does not affect the pronunciation of each morpheme. All the morphemes still sound the same until it become nonemergency. Moreover, it turns out that the word nonemergency does not listed in dictionary. However, It is obvious that prefix non- denotes a ‗negative‘ sense to the early meaning of the base.
Data 3.
Word : Dislocated
Sentence : ... diagnosing routine illnesses like the flu and assessing
minor injuries like Sodera‘s dislocated knee, …
(Paragraph 5, line 6) 46
Article : ―The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps
aim to replace nonemergency visits‖. (January 13rd, 2014)
WF : Derivation (form a verb into an adjective)
In the word dislocated, it is considered there are more than one morpheme exist. The prefix dis- is a bound morpheme which can not stand alone with meaning, it usually gives a ‗reversive‘ sense or opposite sense to a verb. And then the free morpheme locate which is also the root of the word dislocated that can stand alone as a word.
The last is suffix –ed.
Prefix dis- and suffix –ed can also be called derivational morpheme, because when the two affixes attached to the root locate, it changes the paradigm of it, changes the meaning, and changes the part of speech. Suffix –ed in located does change the part of speech of the base for it changes the verb into adjective. Moreover, Prefix dis- do not change the part of speech of the root, but, it gives a ‗reversive‘ sense to the verb locate.
This process does not affect the pronunciation of the base, there is no morphophonological process in developing the word. Moreover, this derivative has not listed in all dictionary in general, but some of them has listed it as an official word and it has a meaning of ‗Displace; 47
put out of position; out of joint; disarranged; having the continuity
broken and part displace, as a line or stratum.98
Data 4.
Word : Illnesses
Sentence : ... diagnosing routine illnesses like the flu and assessing
minor injuries like Sodera‘s dislocated knee, ...
Article : ―The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps
aim to replace nonemergency visits‖. (January 13rd, 2014)
WF : Derivation (form an adjective into a noun)
It is visible that the word illnesses consists of three units of
morpheme. The morpheme which is familiar in this complex word is
ill. It is a free morpheme which can stand alone with meaning as a
word and also the root of the word illness. While suffix –ness is a
bound morpheme which is also called as derivational morpheme,
because, the suffix changes the paradigm of the base word when it is
attached, and the last is suffix –s. Although suffix –s does not form a
word, it rather happen grammatically for plural form, it also count as a
morpheme of the word illnesses which is usually called inflectional
morpheme.
The word formation process happen when the base ill connect to
suffix –ness and generate a new lexeme which is an abstract noun
illness. The process changes the form and the word class of the word
98 Eric Buckley, The Oxford English Dictionary: Volume III, D-E, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), p.465 48
from adjective (word class of the base ill) into noun (word class of
derivative illness) and it is considered as derivation. This proces does
not affect the pronunciation of each morpheme. Therefore, there is not
morphophonology process happen to the derivative. This derivative
may sounds more familiar than the other medical term, since it has
already been collected in dictionary as an official word which has a
meaning of ―a disease of the body or mind‖.99
Data 5.
Word : Malpractice
Sentence : This has previously led to some malpractice suits.
(Paragraph 5, line 16)
Article : ―The Doctor Will Skype You Now: Telemedicine apps
aim to replace nonemergency visits‖. (January 13rd, 2014)
WF : derivation (form a noun into another noun)
This derivative malpractice consists of more than one
morpheme. Prefix mal- is a bound morpheme which can not stand
alone as a word. It needs to connect to another free morpheme to be a
proper word which has meaning. While practice is a free morpheme
which is also the base and the root of the word malpractice. Therefore,
it is considered that malpractice has two morphemes. From the
description, it can be seen that suffix mal- attached to the word
practice and generate a new lexeme malpractice.
99 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 49
This derivative is another case of class maintaining after
telemedicine. It does not change the part of speech, but it does change
the paradigm of the base word, since the addition of prefix mal-
denotes a ‗negative‘ sense to the noun practice. Therefore this can be
considered as derivation. This process of word formation does not
affect the pronunciation of each morpheme and it turns out that the
word malpractice has already been listed in dictionary and has a
meaning of ‗failure to act correctly or legally when doing your job,
often causing injury or loss‘.100
Data 6.
Word : Infections
Sentence : All active infections are currently in the Middle East.
(Paragraph 3, line 23)
Article : ―What You Need to Know about MERS: A dangerous new
disease has gone global
WF : derivation (form a verb into a noun)
The word infection obviously has more than one morpheme. It
can be seen that there is a word infect and the other is suffix –ion.
Infect is a free morpheme which can stand alone as a word, since it
has an identity and a meaning, even without suffix –ion annexed.
While suffix –ion is a bound morpheme which is a suffix for it can not
stand alone without annex to another free morpheme to stand as a
100 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 50
word. This bound morpheme is also called derivational morpheme. It is because the suffix –ion changes the identity and the meaning of the word infect into infections. Moreover, suffix –s ended the word infections does not form any new word. It is a marker of plural noun and it is placed based on the grammatical rule of the word, or in other word is inflectional morpheme.
This process of word formation does not show any effect to the pronunciation of the word. It means there is no morphophonology process in the change of infect into infection. Furthermore, this derivative is considered to be an official word of English because it has already been listed in dictionaries and has a meaning of ‗a disease in a part of your body that is caused by bacteria or a virus‘.
Data 7.
Word : Gynecologist
Sentence : ...which are a regular part of any woman‘s trip to the
ginecologist. (paragraph 1, line 5)
Article : ―The Cancer Tests You Need Cutting through confusion
on what screenings to get—and when‖ (july 21st, 2014)
WF : derivation (form a noun into another noun)
This medical term gynecologist has more than one morpheme as the smallest unit of the word. The word gynecology is the free morpheme which can stand alone with meaning as a word, and is the root of the complex word gynecologists. It can even being a word 51
without any addition or suffix or the other free morphemes. Compared
to gynecology, suffix –ist is a bound morpheme because it can not
stand alone with meaning without annex to another free morpheme
which can be the base of this form, and it is usually called derivational
morpheme. Therefore, gynecologist is considered to have two
morphemes.
The describtion of the morpheme above indicates that the bound
morpheme –ist form a new word of gynecology into gynecologist.
This kind of derivation is again a class maintaining derivation. When
the suffix –ist attached to the base gynecology, it does not change the
word class, but it replace the paradigm of the word from an abstract
noun into an agent which related to its noun. Therefore it is concluded
the type for this word formation proces is derivation.
In the process of developing the word, there is no effect happens
to the pronunciation of the word. Related to the sound,
morphophonology process does not found in this case of word. As one
of the medical term which exist in the article, gynecologist has also
already been exist in dictionary, and have a meaning of ‗a doctor
skilled in the treatment of women‘s diseases, especially those of the
reproductive organs‘.101
Data 8.
Word : Cervical
101 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 52
Sentence : the USPSTF recommends screening for cervical cancer
with a Pap smear (paragraph 7, line 2)
Article : The Cancer Tests You Need Cutting through confusion on
what screenings to get—and when (July 21st, 2014)
WF : derivation (form a noun into an adjective)
The word cervical sounds familiar because there is a part which
reminded to the word cervix (the narrow lower part of the womb,
which leads into the vagina) 102 and it is considered as one of the
morpheme in this derivative. Cervix is the free morpheme which
already has meaning, so that it can stand alone without any addition of
other morpheme as a word. The other part of the derivative is suffix –
al. This suffix is a kind of bound morpheme which needs to connect to
the other free morpheme to be a complete word. The process of this
word formation happens when the bound morpheme –al added to the
free morpheme cervix. The formation changes the word class of the
noun cervix into an adjective as in derivative cervical. The meaning is
predictable since it is still related to the meaning of the base, it just has
a different paradigm. And it will definitely happen because there is a
transformation of word class in the process.
This process of word formation seems to affect the
pronunciation of the word. If there is a consonant x in the base word
cervix, it has no longer found in the derivative cervical. The consonant
102 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 53
x is replaced with consonant c. Therefore, it definitely changes the
pronunciation of the word and it is consider that morphophonological
process is happens in this formation of derivative. Furthermore, the
word cervical is an official word in English for it has already been
listed in dictionary with has a meaning of ‗relating to the narrow neck-
like passage forming the lower end of the womb‘.103
Data 9.
Word : Obesity
Sentence : Obesity (category of in the table number five)
Article : Medical Momentum Scientists Make Major Moves in
Tackling Five Challenging Diseases (October 27th, 2014)
WF : derivation (form an adjective into a noun)
This medical term may look short. However, there is more than
one morpheme involve in this derivative. One part of this word is
token from an adjective obese which is a free morpheme that can
stand alone and has meaning as a word that is ‗extremely fat‘104. The
other part is a bound morpheme –ity which is a suffix and cannot
stand alone as a word unless it is being attached to some other free
morpheme. This bound morpheme usually gives a sense of an abstract.
From the description of the smaller parts of the word, it can be
concluded that the term obesity has two morphemes, namely obese
and –ity.
103 Oxford Dictionary, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cervical accessed on December 30th, 2014. 104 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 54
This word formation process happens when the suffix –ity,
which is a bound morpheme, is attached to the word obese and
generate a noun obesity. This kind of process is considered as
derivation because it is obviously change the paradigm of the base
word obese for it affects the word class of the word from an adjective
obese into a noun obesity. This formation also affects another part of
the word base. In obese, there is a vowel e in the end of it, but after the
suffix –ity attacking, the vowel e is no longer in the place. Therefore,
it may be considered that morphophonological process happens in the
formation of the derivative obesity. Furthermore, the word obesity can
easily found since it has already been listed in dictionary and has a
meaning of ‗the state of being grossly fat or overweight‘.105
Data 10.
Word : Hypertension
Sentence : Hypertension and high cholesterol are both major risk
factors for heart disease (in the column ‗a healthier heart‘,
line 5)
Article : Mindfulness for Men Yoga has some new fans—and
science says that‘s a very good thing (November 24th, 2014)
WF : derivation (form an adjective into a noun)
105 Oxford Dictionary http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/obesity accessed on December 30th, 2014 55
It can be seen from the word hypertension that it is kind of a complex word. There are more than one morphemes involve to build this term. In this case, it is not a free morpheme which has already listed in dictionary as a lexeme. However, this prefix is considered as one of the morpheme in this term because it has a meaning of ‗having too much of stated quality‘. There is another morpheme which is also the root of this term, namely, tense. The word tense is a free morpheme that can stand alone with meaning. The last one is a bound morpheme –ion.
The word formation process happens when the suffix –ion attached to the root tense and generate a new lexeme tension. It changes the word class of the tense from adjective into noun in tension.
After that, the prefix hyper added to the form tension and creates another noun hypertension. At first, it may look like a compound word, but morpheme hyper turns out that it is a bound morpheme in the form of prefix. This bound morpheme of hyper- gives an emphasis meaning to the base word tension. It can be stated that suffix –ion is attached first because, there is no hypertense in English.
This transformation does not affect the pronunciation of the word, however, it removes the vowel e in tense when suffix –ion is added. Moreover, this derivative is considered as an official word of
English because it has already been listed in dictionary and has a 56
meaning of ‗a medical condition in which your blood pessure is
extremely high.106
Data 11.
Word : Caloric
Sentence : ... which foods are more caloric than others... (paragraph 1,
line 15)
Article : ―The Great American Calorie Crackdown Why some
nutrition facts are getting harder to ignore‖ (December 15th,
2014)
WF : derivation (form a noun into adjective)
This derivative caloric obviously has more than one morpheme.
What we usually heard is a noun calorie. It does consider as one of the
morpheme of this derivative for it can stand alone with meaning as a
word. In other word, calorie is a kind of free morpheme. The other
part is suffix –ic which is a bound morpheme which can not stand
alone without being attached to the other free morpheme. Therefore,
this medical term caloric is considered to have two morphemes as the
smallest units to build the word.
The word formation of this process is when the suffix –ic
attached to the free morpheme calorie and produced a new lexeme
caloric which is approved as an adjective. The addition of suffix –ic is
changes the part of speech and the form of the word. The
106 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 57
transformation replaces the word class of the base from noun as in
calorie into an adjective as in caloric. In other word, it is obviously
considered as a process of derivation, since it changes the paradigm of
the base when there is the additional of affix.
This process does not affect the pronunciation of the word,
however, it removes the vowel e when the suffix –ic attached at the
end of the base calorie. Thus this process of word formation has a
slightly morphophonological phenomenon. Furthermore, it is
considered as an official word of English since it has already been
added in English dictionary and has a meaning of ‗relating to heat;
calorific‘107.
2. Compound
When two or more elements which could potentially be
used as stems are combined to form another stem, the form is said
to be a compound. 108 This definition contains two crucial
assumptions, the first being that compounds consist of two (and
not more) elements, the second being that these elements are
words.109 There are three types of compound, namely,
a. Compound adjective;
b. Compound noun;
c. Compound verb.
107 Oxford Dictionary http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/obesity accessed on December 30th, 2014 108 Laurie Bauer, Loc.Cit.p. 28 109 Ingo plag, Loc.Citp. 170 58
Data 12.
Word : Public-health
Sentence : May 2 was not the day u.s. public-health officials were
dreading (paragraph 1, line 2)
Article : ―What You Need to Know About MERS: A dangerous
new disease has gone global‖ (June 2nd, 2014)
WF : compound noun
The word public-health is considered to have more than one morpheme. It is so obvious because there are two free morpheme that are public and health, the parts which can stand alone and have a meaning by themselves, moreover, they can not divided into smaller pieces which has a meaning. Then, both can be stated as the morpheme of the word. It can be sum up that the word public-health consist of two free morphemes.
The process of word formation is when there are two words which merge into one, and then generate a new word. Unlike derivation, compound word only consists of free morpheme. When there are two or more free morphemes merge into one word, it can be said compound. In this case, the word public is a free morpheme which joined together with the other free morpheme health and creates a new word public-health. This word is the type of compound noun which is the head of this compound is the word health. This can be proved by the meaning of this word, i.e. ‗the health of a population as 59
a whole, especially as monitored, regulated, and promoted by the
state‘.110 From the meaning of the word it can be said that the main
focus of this compound is refer to the word health.
There is no morphophonological process in this word formation.
The two components of morphemes do not affected by the
development of the word. Therefore, the pronunciation of the word
public-health is still the same as when it was a separated word public
and health. In English, this medical term has already been confirmed
as an official word since it is listed in English dictionary.
Data 13.
Word : Coronavirus
Sentence : ... the first American case of the Middle East Respiratory
Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus, ... (Paragraph 1, line 9)
Article : ―What You Need to Know About MERS A dangerous new
disease has gone global‖ (June 2nd, 2014)
WF : Compound noun
At first, this word coronavirus seems only consists of a
morpheme. However, the word virus found here as a part of this noun.
Then, the other part of the word must be had a relation in this
formation for it is connected without space with the word virus. Virus
is a free morpheme which can stand alone as a word, it is listed in
110 Oxford Dictionary http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/public- health?q=public+health accessed on December 30th, 2014 60
English dictionary as one of the lexeme. The other part corona is also
a free morpheme that has a meaning of ‗a circle of light that can
sometimes be seen around the moon at night‘.111 Therefore, it can be
stated that coronavirus has two morphemes in it.
The process of this formation happen when the two free
morphemes corona and virus joined together and generate a new word
coronavirus and this kind of processed is considered as a process of
compound, where there are two component which can be used as a
steam merges with another steam and create a new lexeme. This
compound is a left headed compound. This is indicated on the focuses
of the word virus in the left side of the word.
This process does not affect the pronunciation of the base word.
However, there are morphophonological process arise here. The left-
headed compound need to put pressure to the head upon it is
pronounced. In this case of coronavirus, the morpheme corona is the
one which has a stress. Furthermore, coronavirus has been confirmed
as an official word for it is listed in Oxford dictionary with the
meaning of ‗Any of a group of RNA viruses that cause a variety of
diseases in humans and other animals.‘112
Data 14.
Word : Flu-like
Sentence : Most people report flu-like signs ... (Paragraph 3, line 17)
111 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 112 Oxford Dictionary http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/coronavirus accessed on December 30st, 2014 61
Article : ―What You Need to Know About MERS A dangerous new
disease has gone global‖ (June 2nd, 2014)
WF : compound adjective
This case of compound is similar with what happened in the analysis of data 12. This compound word obviously has two morphemes in one formation. The word flu and the preposition like are the morphemes which already have meaning and become components of the word flu-like. However, there is a different between those two morphemes. Lexically, the word flu and like can be said as free morpheme. This assumption can be support by the fact that flu and like is a form which already has meaning, both are listed in English dictionary as a lexeme. In contrast to the fact that they are lexically free morpheme, the word like is grammatically bound morpheme. It would have no meaning when placed itself in a sentence without annexed to another grammatical free morpheme as a phrase or the other form.
When the morpheme flu annexed with another steam like and characterized it by attribute hyphen to merge the different steams is considered as the process of compound word. This word formation process generates an adjective flu-like. The meaning of the word which is ‗resembling influenza‘ give an indication that flu-like is an adjective. Moreover, it can be seen from the function of this word in the sentence for it modifies the noun signs afterwards. Since the place 62
of stress is very important to mark the head in compound word, then there will always be a process of morphophonology in this type of word formation. The stress of this compound is on the flu, for it is being the main focus of the word. Furthermore, this compound noun flu-like has been listed in English dictionary.
Data 15.
Word : Overdiagnosis
Sentence : ... they provide little benefit and lead to overdiagnosis, ...
(in the point of Prostate Cancer, line 8)
Article : ―The Cancer Tests You Need Cutting through confusion
on what screenings to get—and when‖ (July 21st, 2014).
WF : compound noun
The word overdiagnosis is considered as a word which consists of more than one morpheme in it. The first is the free morpheme over, and then another free morpheme diagnose. And the last is the bound morpheme –is. These three components can not divided any further into smaller pieces which has meaning. Therefore, this lexeme overdiagnosis is considered as to have three morphemes.
This word formation happens when the free morpheme over, or it is also stated as a word, merge with the derivative diagnosis and form a new word overdiagnosis. This compound word is a kind of right-headed for it describes the level of the second steam. Therefore, it seems that the steam over modifies the other steam diagnosis, which 63
is a noun. The morphophonological process of compound word is still
unknown, because this new steam is not listed yet in English
dictionary.
Data 16.
Word : Nerve-damaging
Sentence : Interfere with or stop the nervedamaging disease ... (in
table, cell Alzheimer‘s, column the promise, line 6)
Article : ―Medical Momentum Scientists make major moves in
tackling five challenging diseases.‖ (October 27th, 2014)
WF : compound noun
This word nerve-damaging consists of three morphemes in this
formation. The first is a free morpheme Nerve which is placed before
the hyphen mark. It is considered as a free morpheme because nerve
can stand alone with meaning of ‗A whitish fibre or bundle of fibres in
the body that transmits impulses of sensation to the brain or spinal
cord, and impulses from these to the muscles and organs‘113. The
second is also a free morpheme, namely, damage. This also
considered as a free morpheme because it can stand alone and has
already been listed in English dictionary as a lexeme. The third
morpheme is a derivational bound morpheme. This morpheme is
called derivational morpheme because it connect with the steam
damage and change its paradigm.
113 Oxford dictionary, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/nerve accessed on December 30th, 2014 64
The development of this compound word is the incorporation
the steam nerve with the derivative damaging. Both words merge and
produce new form of a steam nerve-damaging. This compound is
rarely heard in daily conversation. It may sound strange, But, if it
looked from the meaning of each steam which are nerve and
damaging, it can be accepted that this is a compound noun. This
compound word has no meaning or usually called headless compound
for it does not has the exact main focus of the word. Furthermore, this
steam of nerve-damaging has not been added in English dictionary.
However, the American Diabetes Association explain that Nerve
damage from diabetes is called diabetic neuropathy (new ROP-uh-
thee). About half of all people with diabetes have some form of nerve
damage.114
Data 17.
Word : Steam-cell
Sentence : The study shows that these stem-cell transplants are safe
(in the table, cell age-related visual loss, column what‘s
next, line 2)
Article : ―Medical Momentum Scientists make major moves in
tackling five challenging diseases‖ (October 27th, 2014)
WF : compound noun
114 American Diabetes Association http://www.diabetes.org/living-with- diabetes/complications/neuropathy/ accessed on December 30th, 2014. 65
This case of word formation is also similar with data 12. There
are two morphemes found in this compound noun. The first is steam
which is a free morpheme, has an identity as a noun, and can be used
alone as a word. The second is cell that is also a free morpheme.
These two morphemes are considered to be able stand alone as a word
because they has already been added in English dictionary. They are
accepted as a word in a sentence even when the do not attached to
another word or morpheme.
When the noun steam annex with the noun cell with a hyphen
between them, the formation generate a complex word steam-cell and
it is when the process of compound word happen. The type of this
compound is right-headed and it is on the word cell which is the main
focus of this word. It is indicated by the meaning of each morpheme
and the word transplants which is modified by this compound
afterwards in the sentence. The morphophonology process is when the
morphemes join together and produce stress on a part of the word to
indicate the head. In this case, the stress is on the word cell which is
the head of the word steam-cell. However, this compound noun did
not listed in English dictionary, yet it is still used by medical people
and has a definition of ‗a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to
differentiate into specialized cell types‘.115
115 Cell Teraphy Dr. Block http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info/stem_cell/ accessed on December 30th, 2014 66
Data 18.
Word : Nutrient-dense
Sentence :Whether foods are nutrient-dense is also important.
(Under the question of are calories the most important thing
in making a healthy choice?, line 6)
Article : ―The Great American Calorie Crackdown Why some
nutrition facts are getting harder to ignore‖ (December 15th,
2014)
WF : compound adjective.
This compound word consists of two free morpheme as the units in developing the formation. The free morpheme nutrient as one of the unit of this compound is a noun which can be used alone in a sentence as a word, it has a meaning and identity. And then, the word dense is also a free morpheme which has already been one of the lexeme in
English Dictionary. The formation of this compound word happens when the single morpheme nutrient connected with the word dense.
And generate an adjective nutrient-dense.
In this case, this word formation is a kind of right-headed compound for it has a focus on the adjective dense in the right side of the word, after the hyphen. It is the same as the compound word before which have not been listed in dictionary that the stress of this words must be on the head of the word which is dense. Furthermore, this compound adjective is not been added in English dictionary, yet it 67
can still be used in written and spoken language and the meaning of
this word can be predicted by referring to the meaning of the base.
Where the word nutrient is ‗any substance which plants or animals
need in order to live and grow, and dense means ‗thick; close together;
difficult to go or see through‘.116
3. Abbreviation
Abbreviation is similar with blends and truncation, but,
differs from truncation and blending in that prosodic categories do
not play a prominent role. Rather, orthography is of central
importance. Abbreviations are most commonly formed by taking
initial letters of multiword sequences to make up a new word.117
Data 19.
Word : CDC (Centers for Disease Control)
Sentence : That‘s when the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) confirmed. (Paragraph 1, line 6)
Article : ―What You Need to Know About MERS A dangerous new
disease has gone global‖ (June 2nd, 2014)
WF : Abbreviation.
From the extension of abbreviation CDC, it can be seen that
there are four morphemes build this abbreviation word. However, if it
focuses to the word centers, the suffix –s found and it is considered as
a morpheme because it is also a part which has a meaning. Therefore,
116 Cambridge Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary digital, 2008 117 Ingo plag, Loc.Cit.., p. 161 68
this abbreviation word confirmed that it has five morphemes in the formation. The four free morphemes are Center, for, disease, and control, the other is a bound morpheme –s which is annex to the morpheme center a suffix.
The process of this word formation is when the long word that consisting of five morphemes shortened by taking some of the first letter to represent the word. In this case, the abbreviation CDC is the shorten form of Centers for Disease Control. The first letter C is representing the word centers, the letter D represents the word
Disease and the last C represents the word Control. And then for the morphophonological process of this process is how the way to pronounce this abbreviation CDC. Since it is an abbreviation, therefore it should be pronounced by each alphabet in the abbreviation.
Although this word is not listed in English dictionary, it is still used in society to refer to a proper name of an organization.
Data 20.
Word : ACS (American Cancer Society)
Sentence : The American Cancer Society (ACS) says men of average
risk should... (in the point of prostate cancer, line 12)
Article : ―The Cancer Tests You Need Cutting through confusion
on what screenings to get—and when‖ (July 21st, 2014)
WF : Abbreviation 69
It seems that this abbreviation consists of three morpheme. But, it is not true when the suffix –an found as a part of the word American.
With that, it is considered that this proper noun has four morphemes in the formation to build a word. The word Cancer and Society are obviously free morphemes, while the word American can be divided again into one free morpheme America and the bound morpheme –an.
In the other word, the total morpheme of this extension of abbreviation is four morphemes. This has the same mophophonological process with the analysis of data 19. It pronounces by mentioning each alphabet of the abbreviation CDC.
Furthermore, it is not listed in English dictionary, but it is still used in the some society.
Data 21.
Word : CT scan
Sentence : ... recommended a CT scan for heavy smokers over 55
who had smoked for 30 years or more ... (in the point of
lung cancer, line 5)
Article : The Cancer Tests You Need Cutting through confusion on
what screenings to get—and when (July 21st, 2014)
WF : Abbreviation
From this phrasal word, the abbreviation CT has the extension of
Computerized. In that extension there are more than one morpheme found in the formation of the word computerized. It consists of one 70
free morpheme computer, and two derivational suffix –ize and –ed
which are bound as a morphemes. Therefore, the total of the
morpheme is three.
The word formation process of this abbreviation is when the
word computerized shortened and represented by two alphabet CT. In
fact, it is not only taking the first one letter to create an abbreviation.
This kind of abbreviation is also exist in the use of language. for
example of another case: the abbreviation cm which represents
centimeter, and Dr represents doctor. The pronunciation of this
formation is the same with the other abbreviation. It is pronounced by
mentioning only the sound of each letter. And compare to the other
abbreviation in this analysis, this word CT has already been listed in
English dictionary, then it can be mentioned that this is one of the
official English words.118
4. Acronyms
Acronym is formed by taking the initial letters of some or
all of the words in a phrase or title and reading them as a word, for
example: NATO for North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 119
Another example are an acronym of North Atlantic Treaty
Organization, ANZAC an acronym of Australian and New Zealand
Army Corps.
118 Oxford Dictionary http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ct?q=CT#CT accessed on December 30th, 2014 119 Afifah Rahmawati, Loc.Cit. p.11 71
Data 22.
Word : MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome)
Sentence : ... the first American case of the Middle East Respiratory
Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus,... (Paragraph 1, line 9)
Article : ―What You Need to Know About MERS A dangerous new
disease has gone global‖ (June 2nd, 2014)
WF : Acronyms
At first, it will create an assumption that the extension of acronyms MERS consists of four morphemes. However, it turns out that there are six components of morphemes in that formation. The word Middle, East, and Syndrome are free morphemes which can divided into smaller pieces. While the derivative Respiratory consists of four morpheme, namely, respire which is considered as a free morpheme, and two suffixes, they are –or, and –y. Therefore the morphemes in the extension of MERS are Middle+East+Respire+- or+-y+syndrom.
The process of this word formation is when taking the initial letter to shortened to represent of the phrasal word Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome and create an acronyms MERS. This is similar to the rule of abbreviation before. However it is no longer the same when it talks about the pronunciation of this word formation. The pronunciation of acronyms is the same like when we pronounced a word. In other word, it is pronounced as a word instead of reading the 72
letters one by one. Moreover, the acronyms MERS is not listed as a
lexeme in English dictionary, yet, it is still used in society to indicate
the name of a dangerous disease.
Ultimately, the writer has done all the analysis and there are some findings arise. From the analysis of the seven monthly different editions of
TIME magazine‘s articles, it can be said that there are 39 data found, 28 derivatives found on the medical terms in this New York TIME
Magazine‘s articles. seven compound words, three abbreviations, and only one acronym. Moreover, from the sample chosen as represent the other data in the analysis, it is containing eight derivatives which are class changing and there are three derivatives which are class maintaining.
Furthermore there is no truncation, blend, cretion de novo, and eponym found in the development of medical term in this analysis. It gives an assumption that not a lot of medical terms which has those types of word formation.
73
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
A. Conclusions
In accordance with the research which has been conducted based on
the concept described in the previous chapter, the writer concludes that there
are quite a lot derivatives containing in the articles. However, not all the
types of word formation occur in the data analysis. From eight types, there
are four which do not found in the analysis. Those four types are truncation,
blend, neologism (creation de novo), and eponym. The writer cannot found
the four processes on all the medical terms which have been collected. In
contrast, derivation is found numerously in the articles. There are 28 of
derivative occur to the medical terms in the articles, the second position that
appears frequently is compound, the third is abbreviation and the last is
acronyms.
In structural morphology, there are four steps in analyzing word
formation process. However, not all the changes in the process of word
formation through all the steps. Evidently, there are some medical terms
which have not been listed in dictionary, and it is usually occur on
abbreviation and acronym. From this analysis, the word MERS and ACS are
not found in dictionaries, yet, those two words are still used by medical
group as the name of a disease and an organization. And it has already been
73 74
considered by society. Other than that, there are some words which change
pronunciation, or in other word morphophonology, and some other do not
change it in the process of word formation. From this analysis, the
derivative Telemedicine does not experience morphophonological process in
the transformation, it does not affect the spelling or the pronunciation, while
the derivative obesity has the morphophonological process in transformation.
Word formation process certainly produced new form of a word.
Some of the new words have a predictable meaning and some other have an
unpredictable meaning. There are several meanings of derivatives which are
visible to be guessed just by looking to the meaning of the base word,
dislocated is one example of this case. The word dislocated found in the
article is rarely found in the English dictionary, however, the meaning can
be guest just by referring to the meaning of the base. Therefore, the writer
can easily know the meaning. Furthermore, derivatives which have an
invisible meaning to be guest also exist. It cannot be guest just by looking to
the meaning of the base, but, the meaning must be sought through dictionary.
Furthermore, English derivation has absorbed some of affixation of
other languages. From this analysis, prefix tele- and mal- in telemedicine
and malpractice are the two of some affixes which absorbed fron another
language beside English. Tele- is the prefix which is absorbed Greek120, and
120 Oxforddictionary.com http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/tele- accessed on December 4th, 2015. 75
mal- is a prefix which is absorbed from French mal, from Latin male
'badly'.121
B. Suggestions
The analysis of word formation is sometimes taken for granted by
many people. In fact, each presence of words can be a major influence in a
language. Therefore, it is very important to have a further understanding
about words and its form. Since language is arbitrary, it is necessary to
conduct continuous research in order to increase the knowledge about
phenomena of word formation.
For the object of this research, the writer chooses a written language
from seven articles of New York Time Magazine to be analyzed. For further
analysis, the writer suggests the spoken language as in movie, variety show,
speech, and song.
121 Ibid, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mal- accessed on December 4th, 2015. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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