CHAFTEE 1

THE COMPEEHENSIVE TAXONOMIC ACCOUHT OF THE UCHEM 6ENfUS GSAPfflSiFMMhY eEiAFHlDACEAE) FEOM MDIA. Taxonomic Account

Graphis Adans. ex Miill. Arg. Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve, 29(8): 28, 1887.

The genus Graphis is characterized by: crustose, corticolous, or rarely saxicolous or foliicolous thallus; lirelline, elongate, simple to irregularly branched ascomata; simple, unbranched paraphyses; unitunicate asci with apical pore apparatus; colourless and transversely septate ascospores with lenticular cell lumina. Photobiont a green alga (generally Trentepohlia).

The name Graphis was first proposed by Adanson (1763) in his treatise "Families des Plantes" for accommodating a few species of lichens known at that time. However, Linnaeus (1753) in his "Species Plantarum" had included them under Lichen scriptus while Acharius included them in Opegrapha. Acharius (1810) in his "Lichenographia Universalis" has divided Opegrapha into three genera Arthonia, Opegrapha and Graphis where Graphis is characterized by an elongate apothecium immersed in the thalline margin. Miiller Arg. (1880, 1882) in his series "Lichenoligische Beitrage" has utilized spore characters in the segregation of genera. Taking Graphis (sensu Acharius) with hyaline, transeptate spores he formulated three more genera Graphina with hyaline muriform spores, Phaeographis with brown, transeptate spores and Phaeographina with brown, muriform spores. The name Graphis given to the genus by Adanson has been retained with all the diagnostic characteristics universally accepted, are sensu Miiller Arg. (1882).

Exciple characters have traditionally formed the backbone of species delimitation in Graphidaceae. In addition, almost all subgeneric taxa are based on excipular characters. Many of these characters according to Wirth & Hale (1978) appear to be quite variable and unreliable.

Although a system of ascospore based genera in the family established by Muller Arg is still in use, the in appropriateness of Zahlbruckner's ascospores concept had long been recognized and several Hchenologists (Santesson 1952; Wirth & Hale 1978; Staiger & Kalb 1999) stated it as an unnatural and artificial system and therefore needs to be revised.

As opined by Liicking (2003), the concept now presented by Staiger (2002) is indeed revolutionary. Although Graphis, Phaeographis and Phaeographina still exist, these genera are no longer what they used to be. Graphis now comprises species with a carbonized excipulum and hyaline, both transversely septate and muriform ascospores, while Phaeographis unites taxa with non-carbonized excipula and brownish, transversally septate or muriform ascospores. In addition, no less than 16 genera, described more than a century ago and long forgotten by most Hchenologists, have been reinstated, and two further genera are newly established. However, Staiger's treatment of Graphidaceae is different because it terminates an artificial arrangement already accepted for too long. The taxonomic concept applied by Staiger, chiefly based on excipular structures and supported by ascomata morphology, hamathecium structure, ascospore type, and secondary chemistry.

Graphis is the largest genus in the family Graphidaceae claiming c. 300 species (Kirk et al. 2001), which are cosmopolitan but occurring more abundantly in the tropics.

Several Hchenologists have contributed to the knowledge of the genus Graphis. However, noteworthy contributions in recent years include the publications recording 49 species from Brazil (Redinger 1934, 1935), 14 species from Mexico (Wirth & Hale 1963), 17 species from Japan (Nakanishi 1966), 27 species from Dominica (Wirth & Hale 1978), 5 species from Florida (Harris 1995). More recently, 6 species have been described from Japan (Nakanishi «fe Harada 1999, Nakanishi et al. 2002), 74 species from India by Indian Hchenologists (Awasthi 2000) and 4 species were added from Australia (Archer 1998, 2001).

Recently, on account of the occurrence of spiny periphysoides and /or periphyses, seven species previously described under Graphis have now been placed in the genera Acanthothecis and Fissurina (Staiger & Kalb 1999). To summarise, the most important works on Graphis, particularly those concerning India, are as follows:

Awasthi (1965), in his "Catalogue of lichens from India, Nepal, Pakistan and Ceylon" enumerated 36 species of Graphis which were recorded in the 19* and the early 20"" centuries by various lichenologists viz. Belanger (1838), Leighton (1869), Stirton (1879), Nylander (1867, 1891, 1900), Jatta (1905) and Rasanen (1952) based on the collections of European botanists or naturalists from India.

Lichenological studies in India were resumed by the work of Dr. D.D. Awasthi in the early forties of the last century and little later by Dr. P.G. Patwardhan and their associates. Consequently, several species were described and reported by Indian lichenologists. As such 33 species of Graphis were recorded and published in various scattered publications [Awasthi & Singh, K. (1975) Awasthi & Singh, S. (1977), Patwardhan & Kulkami (1976, 1979), Kulkami (1977), Nagarkar & Patwardhan (1982), Singh, K. (1984), Singh, A. (1994), Singh, K.P. & G.P. Sinha (1994) and Makhija et al. (1992)].

Awasthi (2000), in his recent publication the "Lichenology in Indian subcontinent" listed 74 species of Graphis so far known from India.

In the present work I have recorded 137 species and 8 varieties oi Graphis from India, which includes 11 new records to India, 48 new species, and 7 unnamed species. In the present treatment, I have preferred to key all the species under the genus Graphis sensu Mtiller Arg. (1882). After understanding the new concept presented by Staiger (2002), the species now placed in Graphis will be revaluated for their correct placement in the new system before the publication. Description of the Region (Geographical Extent, Topography, Climate, and Vegetation)

Although the vast area of India encompasses a broad range of phytogeographic areas, thousands of years of human habitation and severe population have so altered the natural vegetation that primary forests are thought to exist only on small areas in hilly regions of northern, eastern and southern India and the sparsely populated but increasingly settled and exploited Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. Only about one sixth of the subcontinent is now forested, and areas that have retained their climax vegetation after shifting cultivation practices of the past are exceedingly rare and under great pressure, being mostly confined to isolated pockets of tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forest in northeastern India and monsoon forest in the Western Ghats (Kendrick 1989).

The 3.27 million km^ of subcontinental India harbor so great a variety of biomes that they can be only grossly defined by reference to the three major relief regions and the south west monsoon of summer. Where the relief blocks the southwest monsoon, regions in the rainshadow exhibit a tropical dry deciduous or torn forest vegetation. Such is the case for the great Deccan Plateau. On the other hand in Northeastern India, lying thwart the air flow and at the junction of the Himalayas and the Eastern Hills that trend into Burma, the hill station of Cherrapunji on the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills records more than 11 m of rain a year, whilst Shilong, only 54 km away, receives only about 2.15 m of annual rainfall. Thus the description of the region that follows can only hint at the great complexity and diversity of the subcontinent.

To the north and arcing southeastward, tower the young Himalayan peaks, formed in the upper tertiary when geosynclinic deposits were compressed, folded and upraised by the northward movement of the Deccan block from the ancient continent of Gondwana. The eastern Himalayas rise from the Brahmaputra valley through a zone of swamp forest that gives way from about 200 m to 800-900 m to broad-leaved tropical evergreen rainforests, topped by subtropical grasslands and subtropical forests up to about 1800 m and succeeded by temperate forests to about 3500 m. The Eastern Himalaya region has provided a gateway for the migration of plants and is considered a meeting ground of the Indo-Malaysian and Sino-Japanese floras. The Eastern Hills, running in a northeast-southwest direction, are a series of ranges, averaging 1500-1800 m. which divide India from Burma and support tropical evergreen forests. The Brahmaputra, or Assam, Valley is the corridor that links Arunachal Pradesh to the rest of India. The vegetation is very varied and interesting. Tropical wet evergreen forests comprising species of Dipterocarpus, Syzygium, Artocarpus, Mesua and Aguillaria and bamboos occur in eastern and Southern Assam. Tropical semi evergreen forests comprising species of Phoebe, Dysoxylon, Termimlia, Michelia etc. occur in foothills of Assam. The Assam Plateau, in a pocket between Bangladesh and Burma, is a fragment of the Deccan block and is broken by the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills averaging 1200-1800 m in height. Rainfall on the south facing slopes is among the heaviest in the world and the humidity supports the growth of dense tropical evergreen forests. The dominant soil type is acrisol, very low in nutrients and subject to much erosion.

In the west, below the icy peaks and high plateaus of the Himalayas lies the heavily formed intermontane basin, the Vale of Kashmir. Himalayan conifers of tropical and subtropical types grow on the slopes of Kashmir.

Paralleling the mountain wall to the south are the low lands of the alluvial Indo Gangetic Plain that sweeps more than 3,200 miles across the subcontinent from the Arabian Sea on the west through the deserts of Rajasthan. The Indo-Gangetic divide, on which Delhi is situated, has several climatic and topographic zones. From the Pakistan border east to Delhi is a submontane strip of dry deciduous forest dropping off from the Siwalik Hills. The region becomes increasingly dry towards the south which receives between 64 cm and 100 cm rainfall a year. The Plain is largely featureless where rainfall increases to as much as 180 cm a year. East of Calcutta and into Bangladesh are the tidal mangrove forests of the Sundarbans at the old and new mouths of Ganges. The sub montane moisture parts have tropical moist deciduous forests of Shorea robusta mixed with species of Lagerstroemia, Adina, Kydia, Syzygium, and Mallotus etc. The larger forest area is under tropical dry deciduous forest, having species of Terminalia, Acacia, Buchanania and Aegle etc. Some protected spots in National Parks have rich vegetation. Tall grasses of the genera Themeda, Saccharum and Narenga and species of Cymbopogon, Apluda, Dichanthium, Bothriochloa, Desmostachya, Chloris etc. are common.

Just north of the Tropic of Cancer the alluvial plains begin to rise through a complex topography of hill country, interrupted by the Vindhya Range escarpment, to the east-west Satpura Range, still forested and with heights of up to 1350 m, which marks the weld at the northern extent of peninsular India proper. Rainfall in the hill country ranges from more than 100 cm a year in the east, where dry deciduous forest dominates, to no more than 25 cm westward in the Aravalli Hills where thorn forest and scrubs take over. The Narbada River valley cuts through the Dindhya Range, providing an east-west route across the plateau. Teak {Tectona grandis), sal (Shorea robusta), babul (Acasia nilotica) and other species of deciduous forest grow on the surrounding hills at 450-600 m. Lying across the Tropic of Cancer is the Malwa Plateau which is drained by the Chambal River, and is fairly fertile in the south where the soil is derived from the Deccan lavas.

Peninsular India is dominated by the great triangle of the eastward tilting. Deccan Plateau, an Arabian shield some 39,000 km^ in extent extending from about 22°N to 8°N and with an average elevation of 460-66m. Although built fundamentally on the ancient crystalline rocks of Gondwana, the northwest Deccan in the State of Maharashtra is characterized by thick flows of basaltic lavas from the cretaceous era that have formed clayey "black cotton soil", or "regur", that retains the little moisture the region receives (about 100 cm a year, as it lies in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats). Just east of the Ghats is an area that gets no more than 50-80 cm of rain a year on average. Larger parts of this plateau are covered by Tropical Thorn Forests of species of Acacia, Dichrostachya, Azadirachta, Grewia and Strychnos etc.

To the northeast, the topography is more varied with hills, plateaus, basins, and valleys and the rainfall is more certain and abundant. The Bastar-Orissa highland, at the great eastern bend of the peninsula, is still under monsoon forest cover, while to the south the silty Mahanadi basin and the rice-growing Godavari basin are under cultivation. TTie Eastern Ghats, fold ridges that peak in several points at more than 1,500 m are also forested. Separating the Mahanadi and Godavari basins on either side of 20°N is the Bastar Plateau. The eastern parts of the plateau in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa have moist deciduous forest with species of Terminalia, Bombax, Dalbergia, Phyllanthus and Shorea robusta (Sal) is abundant in north-eastern part of the plateau.

In the south the plains of the plateau, sliced by outcropings of granite or gneissic rock, rise through dry deciduous woodland, thorn forests and scrub to more than 900 m, where (in the state of Kamataka) the Eastern and Western Ghats converge. The Cauvery River valley separates the Deccan from a small plateau broken by the Nilgiri and Cardamom Hills, which themselves are separated by the Palghat Gap. The higher elevations of the Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills, which reach up to 2500 m, catch the relief rains, recording up to 280 cm of rain during the monsoon months from June to October, and are wooded to about 1500 m with semi-evergreen and subtropical broad- leaved hill forests, especially in Sholas. Tea, coffee and rubber plantation dominate the slopes of the Nilgiri and Cardamom hills while the plateau beneath them (the side of Coimbatore), in a rain shadow, is semiarid wasteland in parts and has a natural vegetation of dry deciduous woodland and scrub. The Nilgiris have subtropical broad-leaved hill forests of species of Syzygium, Machilus, Meliosma, Elaeocarpus, and Celtis etc.

The western ghats in general, support the tropical moist deciduous forest of Terminalia, Dalbergia, Pterocarpus, Schlochora etc. Tropical semi-evergreen forests of species of Ceiba, Hopea, Trewia, Lagerstroemia, Anthocephalus, Xylia, Terminalia, Dalbergia, Holoptelia, Ficus, Syzygium, and Adina etc. occur in a narrow north-south strip almost throughout the ghats.

The eastern Coromandal Coast on the Bay of Bengal is divided into two regions roughly demarcated by Madras at 13°N. To the south are plains that receive only 100 cm or less of rainfall a year and most of that from the retreating monsoon of October to December. The western coastland, from the Gulf of Cambay to Cape Comorin some 1600 km south, forms a strip up to 50-65 km broad at the bottom of the steep Deccan escarpment. Below the transitional zone of Goa and Kanara, the Ghats retreat inland giving way to the Malabar Coast that stretches from the slopes through low lateritic

10 terraces and hill country to alluvial flats forming shallow lagoons and mudbanks for long stretches. The region above 16°N is narrow and broken by rivines, lying at the foot of Ghat scarps. Between the Gulf of Cambay and the border of Pakistan is the peninsula of Saurashtra, built of Deccan lava. It is an area of sandy valleys and rocky ridges that supports scanty woodlands. Northward the semi-desert of Kutch is bounded north and east by extensive tidal marshy mudflats. Lying along the border of Pakistan is the Thar desert with about 25 cm of rainfall a year. The western dry region of India has four fairly distinct habitat conditions, namely sandy plains and dunes, gravelly plains, rocky habitats and saline depressions. The sand dunes have very sparse vegetation and the sandy plains a few scattered trees of Acacia and Prosopis and bushy plants chiefly of Calligonum, Lycium, Aerva, Leptadenia, Crotalaria etc. The gravelly plains or rocks have species of Calotropis, Gymnosporia, Zizyphus, Cassia, Commiphora, Indigofera etc. The rocky habitats have bushes oi Euphorbia and Grewia. Species oiSalvadora and Tamarix occur mainly near saline depression.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie in a chain in the northeast Indian Ocean on the southward trend line of the Himalayan range. The Andaman comprise 204 islands and are thought to contain India's main surviving primary forests-tropical evergreen rainforest dominated by Diptyrocarpus and rich in Pterocarpus and Mesua ferrea. The tropical wet evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests, with their commercially important teak and sal, are under severe pressure from logging and agriculture. The North Islands of Andamans have tropical wet evergreen forests vdth tall trees of Dipterocarpus griffithii, Endospermum malaccense and Terminalia bialata. The moist deciduous forests have species oiPterocarpus, Terminalia, Canarium and Albizzia. The Nicobars lie between 6° 40' and 9° 30' North latitudes and 92° 30' and 94° 10' east longitudes, are composed of 22 volcanic islands south of the Andamans, and the major upper canopy genera are Hopea, Alstonia, Calophyllum and Terminalia. The low float islands of the northern Nicobars support scrub forest. Coastal areas in both island groups are bordered with mangrove forest and littoral vegetation. The coastal marshy areas have species of usual mangrove and littoral genera like Ceriops, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, Bruguiera, Herithiera, and Pandanus etc.

11 The Lakshadweep Islands (Laccadives) are a group of 16 coral atolls totalling only 28 km^ are situated in the Arabian sea, about 300 km off southern India's Malabar coast. They form a long narrow belt of islands extending from 14°N to 8°N latitude. The climate is warm tropical with a northeast monsoon from about the end of November to March and a southwest monsoon usually beginning towards the end of May and continuing until September. Rainfall on the islands increases from about 1500 mm in the north to 2600 mm in the south, much of it falling in the months of June and July during the southwest monsoon. During the rest of the year, except in November and December when the northeast monsoon brings heavy showers, there is little rain. The temperature in the shade vary between 20°C and 35°C. Ten of the islands are inhabited, while three are small keys with no vascular plants. The islands have an open vegetation of coconut palms {Cocos nuciferd), many in plantations, and a few other tree species including Thespia populnea, Caulophyllum inophyllum, Terminalia catappa and Moringa pterygospoerma are fairly common.

In the present work, to understand the species distribution in India and from the view point of general vegetation and floristic elements I have followed the 9 botanical regions of India (Jain 1990) as 1.) Northwestern Himalayas, 2.) Eastern Himalayas, 3.) Western Dry Regions, 4.) Gangetic Plains, 5.) Eastern India, 6.) Deccan Plateau, 7.) Western Ghats, 8.) Eastern Ghats, 9.) Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Map I).

Collecting Sites

North Western Himalaya

Shivalik Hills, Nainital, Mussouri, Dhanoulti.

Eastern Himalaya Sikkim: Teesta river bank, Kalimpong, Rangpo, Gangatok-Tangshi View Point. Darjeeling.

Eastern India Assam: Arunachal Pradesh-Bhalukpong evergreen forest, Gauhati to Tejpur road, near Gauhati-Maniknagar, Balaparai, Tejpur to Kaziranga-Jagi road; Kaziranga to Dimapur

12 •u..

r BOTANICAL REGIONS OF INDIA ^' K

r' / •••••../ .^v..^' / •^•~. a .-^^'•'

Map 1: Major Collecting Localities road, Nilangarh, and Garamapani. Meghalaya: Khasi hills, Gauhati to Shillong Road, Mohmthaeid, Mawasmai, Cherapunji, Nongstoin; Mophlong (sacred forest) Garo hill; Ningwal-Bibra, and Darugiri Reserved Forest. Manipur: Kohima to Imphal road - Mao, Maram, Karang, Kangkopki, near Imphal, and Imphal to Silchar road-Tupul. Nagaland: Dimapur to Kohima road-Ghaspani, Dhipimi, and Zebuza.

Deccan Plateau Madhya Pradesh, Eastern Maharashtra,

Western Ghats Western Maharashtra: Ajra, Ajinkyatara fort, Amboli, Bhimashankar, Dabhole Ghat, Fonda ghat, Karla, Kas lake, Khandala, Lonavala, Mahabaleshwar, Malshej Ghat, Nerur, Nivali, Panchgani, Panhala, Purandar fort, Radhanagari, Saptashringi, Sawantwadi, Sinhagad fort and Trimbakeshwar. Karnataka: Agumbe, Agumbe-Udipi Road, Anamod, Armel Ghat, Balehonnur, Bhatkal, Charmudi Ghat, Devimane Ghat (Sirsi-Kumtha Road), Ganga Mulla to Nagatirtha, Hebri, Hosar Ghat, Jog Falls, Karakkal, Koppa, Kudremukha, Londha, Manjeshwar, Mercara, Mudigiri, Mudigere-Mangalore road, Mundaje, Nandi hills, Sirsi, Someshwar, Sringeri, Talcauvery, Tirthahallli, and Yellapur. Kerala: Cardamom Hills, Munnar-Thekadi Road, Kumily, Peermade, Poonmudi Valparai, and Yallapatti; Devicolam, Munnar, Silent Valley, Sholayar forest, Thekadi. Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hills, Bandipur, Coonoor, Dodabetta, Gudalur, Korakundha, Kottagiri, Mudumalaim, Naduvattam, Pykara, Sim's Park, Windicap, Wyanad, Govt. Botanical Garden (Ootacamund); Palni Hills, Daizy Bank, Kodaikanal, Kodaikanal- Munnar Road, Pillar rocks. Silver Caskade; Sabarimalai Hills: Patnamthatta to Sabarimalai; Agasthi Hills, Upper Kodayar, Kakachi; Kallakad Forest, Singeltheri; Udumbanshola.

Eastern Ghats Chitteri hills, Kollimalai.

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

South Andaman Islands: Port Blair, Garacharma, Jungali ghat, Corby's Cove, Chidiya Tapu, Tirur, Wandoor, Mount Harriot, Port Mount, Bamboo Fait, Wimberligang, Wright

13 Myo, Shol Bay, Red Skin Island, Tarmugli Island, Kalatang. Middle Andman: Baratang Island, Long Island, Elphiston Bay, Betapur Range, Guitar Island, Parlobjig Island, Yerrata, Dhaninala, Kuranghala, Nilambur, Jarwa Creek, Wrafter's Creek, Baludera Lorjig, Bishnunala. North Andaman: Interview Island, Mayabandar, Diglipur, Rangat, Aerial Bay, Kalighat, Kalara, Pathar Thikri, Lamia Bay, Mount Saddle Peak, Sitapur, Milangram, Kalipur, Kaichinala. Little Andaman: Hut Bay, Buttler Bay, Vivekandapur, South Bay, Kisrhnanala.

Nicobar Islands Car Nicobar, Kimus; Kamorta island. Daring; Great Nicobar, Campbell Bay to Laftil Bay

Lakshadweep Islands (Laccadive) Kavaratti Island, Bangaram, Pitti Islands.

Materials and Methods

As a result of last 3 decades of lichenological expeditions to various parts of India by my predecessors at Agharkar Research Institute (ARI) and by me, I was able to examine the exhaustive collections of Graphis from various localities in India as listed above.

The types/authentic material of the known species of Graphis and allied genera, which are preserved in different world herbaria (listed below) were borrowed on loan and studied as the essential part of the taxonomic and revesionary treatment. AMH Ajrekar Mycological Herbarium, Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, India. ASSAM Kanjilal herbarium, Shillong, Assam, India. BM British Museum (Natural History), London, UK CAL The Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, India G Conservatorie et Jardin Botanique, Geneve, Switerzerland GLAM Glasgow Art Gallery and Museums, Glasgow, Scotland, UK and H Botanical Museum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

14 Specimens were carefully examined in the light of current taxonomic criteria for their morphology and anatomy. Morphological features like nature, colour, size etc. of the thallus, ascomata and disc were studied using stereo binocular microscope (CITOVAL-2 Carl Zeiss JENA make). Colour of the ascomata was noted in wet condition. Anatomical features were studied by taking dry sections of thalli and ascomata obtained by a razor blade. Sections were mounted in water, 10% KOH (K), iodine- staining with Lugol's solution (Ig iodine and 2 g potassium iodine in 300 ml water), and lactophenol cotton blue (LCB). All the anatomical details were studied under transmission light microscope (Carl Zeiss JENA). Measurements of hymenivim, asci, and ascospores etc. were made at xlO, x40 or xlOO. All routine measurements were taken in centimeters (cm) and millimeters (mm). Microscopic characters like thickness of thallus, hymenium height, breadth, size of asci and ascospores etc. were measured in ^m.

Lichen substances were determined with colour tests (Hale 1969) and by thin layer chromatography (TLC) using methods standardized for lichen products (Culberson & Kristinsson 1970; Culberson 1972; White & James 1985). All the specimens were observed for the fluorescence under long wave (365 nm) UV light.

The microchemical colour tests were carried out by direct application of the reagents on pieces or sections of lichen thalli and ascomata using the following chemicals and abbreviated as K : 10% solution of KOH C : Freshly prepared saturated solution of aqueous Calcium hypochlorite commercial bleaching powder). KC : K is applied first and immediately followed by C. P : 5% ethanolic solution of /7-phenylenediamine.

To see the colour reactions, a drop of ¥J C/ P/ KC was placed on the thallus and the color changes were noted. When necessary, a lOx lens was used to note the colour changes. Colour tests indicate the presence of lichen substances and to ascertain the exact nature of the substances, a highly sensitive technique of thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was used.

15 E. Merck precoated silica gel 60 F254 aluminium sheets were used for chromatographic methods. Acetone residue was extracted from a fragment of the thallus and was spotted on the TLC plates 2 cms from the base. The loaded plates were run in three solvent systems BDA (Benzene-Dioxane-Acetic acid; 180:45:5), HEF (Hexane- Ethyl ether-Formic acid; 130:100:20) and TEF (Toluene-Etheylacetate-Formic acid; 139:83:8). The plates were dried and sprayed with 10% H2SO4 and heated in an oven at 110°C, till the development of the spots. Identification of lichen substances was done using Rf values and colours of standards substances by loading and running the two simultaneously, for direct comparison. Chemical characters have been used as supplementary characters in the taxonomy.

Species were identified by comparing the protologues and the data obtained by re­ examination of relevant type / authentic material of earlier known species.

I have had an opportunity to access the morphological and chemical data based on the re-examination of type/authentic material of several species by late Dr. Masson Hale along with the photographs of types which was made available to us by him for our studies during his several visits to our laboratory at ARI.

The taxonomic account of the 137 species of the lichen genus Graphis from India has been presented in the thesis along with a key for the identification of all species now known from India. The taxa described are arranged in alphabetical order. The detailed taxonomic descriptions of only new species and new records have been given. In the treatment of the species, current name is followed by the citation of relevant literature and the basionym. Each species is described in respect of its morphological, anatomical and chemical characters followed by a comparative study of the species with closely allied ones followed by distribution in India and world distribution. Certain species from Sri Lanka (Ceylon) have also been included in the study to denote their phytogeographic continuity with the Indian Territory. All specimens studied by me are deposited in Ajrekar Mycological Herbarium (AMH) at the Department of Mycology, ARI, Pune,

16 Figures 1-6 : Ascomata with non carbonized exciple

1. Exciple swollen at the tip ('Puff) (e.g. G. taeniocarpoides) 2. Exciple indistinct at base (e.g. G. suhnitidula) 3. Exciple with narrow disc and with prosoplectenchymatous layer (e.g. G. subchrysocarpoides ) 4. Exciple showing internal striae (e.g. G. karnalensis) 5. Exciple with broad disc and expanded base (e.g. G. insidiosa) 6. Exciple with smooth periphyses (e.g. G. collateralis)

1.3, 5 at lOx 2.4, 6 at 45x •-•^' Figures 7-12: Ascomata with carbonized exciple

7, 8. Completely carbonized, entire exciple (e.g. G. cinnamomeus) 9. Laterally carbonized, entire exciple (e.g. G. afzelii) 10. Carbonized at the tip, entire exciple (e.g. G. alboglaucescens) 11,12. Striate, laterally carbonized exciple (e.g. G. vittata)

7,9, llatlOx 8,10,12 at 45x

Figures 13-18 : Asci, Ascospores and Paraphyses

13-15 Asci, paraphyses and 4-locular ascospores (e.g. G. taeniocarpodes) 16-18 Asci, paraphyses and more than 4-locular ascospores with and without 1 reaction (e,g. G. nerurensis)

13-18 at lOOx unless specifically denoted. The latin diagnoses for the new species, are deliberately not given to conserve the space. They will be given at the time of publication.

Key to the species of Graphis from India la. Ascospores always 3-septate 2 lb. Ascospores more than 3-septate 22

2a. Exciple carbonized 3 2b. Exciple non-carbonized 7

3a. Periphysoides present 4 3b. Periphysoides absent 5

4a. Thallus greenish gray, smooth, glossy; ascomata fissurine, black, 2-4 mm long, simple to irregularly branched; disc very narrow; exciple thinly carbonized only at the tips, present at the base; ascospores 16-19 x 8-10 |^m in size; stictic and constictic acids present; from Meghalaya G. khasiana

4b. Thallus creamy to off-white; ascomata narrow, concolorous, 0.2-1.2 mm long, in scattered groups of 2-5 lirellae, more or less parallel to each other; disc black, narrow, pruinose; exciple entire, blackish brown to carbonized at the tip, present at the base; ascospores 16-21 x 3-4 ^m in size; norstictic acid present; from Andaman Islands. G. collateralis

5a. Lecanoric acid absent Thallus pale yellowish orange; ascomata fissurine, concolorous, 0.2-0.4 mm long, in scattered groups of 4-5 lirellae; disc narrow; exciple thinly carbonized at the tips, entire, present at the base; ascospores 13-15 x 4-5 ^m in size; stictic acid present; from Andaman Island G. inquinata

5b. Lecanoric acid present 6

6a. Ascomata 1-6 mm long, 0.2-0.7 mm broad, occasionally branched, distinctly emergent, completely covered by a powdery, white thalline layer; exciple laterally carbonized, entire, distinctly present at the base; ascospores 14-20 x 6-8 nm in size; from Andaman Island, Kamataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Nagaland, and Nicobar Island ^•"•^^^'"

6b Lecanoric acid and one unidentified substance present (indicated by yellow spot at ' stictic level in TEF); from Andaman Island, Kamataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, and ^' , , ' G. afzelii var. indica Meghalaya

17 7a. Ascomata aggregated in patches on the thallus 8 7b. Ascomata uniformly scattered all over the thallus 10

8a. Ascomata aggregated in whitish patches Thallus brown; ascomata concolorous, 0.3-2 mm long, mostly immersed, unbranched; disc narrow, black, pruinose; exciple entire, non carbonized, orange brown, indistinctly present below or absent, broad and flattened at the base; ascospores 10-12 x 3-4 i^m in size; no lichen substances; from Andaman Island. G. pallidomaculata

8b. Ascomata grouped in scattered patches concolorous with the thallus 9

9a. Thallus pale luteous to ochraceous, glossy; ascomata minute, concolorous, aggregated, linearly arranged in patches; mostly unbranched, rarely branched; disc indistinct; exciple non carbonized, absent at base; ascospores 12-14 x 7-8 |am in size; no lichen substance; from Assam G. implexula

9b. Thallus stramineous with greenish white patches; ascomata minute, 0.1-0.2 (0.3) mm long, blackish brown, unbranched, immersed; disc narrow, blackish brown to black, epruinose; exciple non-carbonized, entire, absent at base; ascosproes 8-12 x 3-4 ^m in size; no lichen substance; from Andaman Island G. exalta

10a. Hypothecium thick, upto 40 |am Thallus brownish, glossy; ascomata scattered, 1-3 mm long, concolorous, immersed, simple to branched; exciple non-carbonized, entire, globose; present at base; hypothecium yellowish, 42 ^m thick; ascospores 12-14 x 4-6 |im in size; no lichen substance; from Nicobar Islands G. hypocrassa

10b. Hypothecium narrow 11

11a. Ascomata not exceeding 5 mm long 12 lib. Ascomata more than 5 mm long 21

12a. Lichen substances present 13 12b. Lichen substances absent 15

13a. Ascospores more than 20 |im long Thallus yellowish brown; ascomata short, fissurine, 0.5-1 mm long, unbranched; Exciple non-carbonized, indistinct at base; ascospores 16-24 x 10-12 ^m in size; stictic acid present; from Kamataka G.triticea

13b. Ascospores less than 20 |xm

18 14a. Thallus gray green, stramineous; ascomata black, fissurine, 0.5-3.5 mm long, simple to branched; exciple non carbonized, present at the base, entire, broad at the base, narrow at the top; ascospores 10-12 x 4-6 ^m in size; stictic acid present; from Andaman Island, Kamataka, Kerala, Nicobar Islands C. dumastioides

14b. Thallus gray green, stramineous; ascomata black, fissurine, 0.5-3.5 mm long, simple to branched; exciple non carbonized, present at the base, entire, broad at the base, narrow at the top; ascospores 10-12 x 4-6 nm in size; salazinic and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. dumastioides var. salazinica

15a. Ascospores less than 20 |im in length 16 15b. Ascospores more than 20 |am in length 19

16a. Ascomata not fissurine Thallus yellowish gray to olivaceous, glossy, plicate; ascomata 0.1-1 mm long, unbranched, blackish brown, semi-immersed, acute to obtuse ends; disc narrow, brown, epruinose; exciple entire, yellowish orange laterally, indistinctly present at base, non-carbonized; ascospores 12-16 x 3-4 ^m in size; no lichen substances present; from Andaman Islands G. parvicarpa

16b. Ascomata fissurine 17

17a. Ascomata embedded, exciple with swollen tissue ("puff) at the tip or apical region Thallus stramineous or greenish; ascomata concolorous, ribbon like, 1-5 mm long, intricate, anastomosed; disc black, pruinose; exciple non-carbonized, reddish, indistictly present at base; entire, swollen at the tip, broad and flattened at the basal region; ascospores 8-12 x 3-4 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Andaman Islands G. taeniocarpoides

17b. Ascomata not embedded; exciple without swollen tissue ("puff) at the tip 18

18a. Thallus yellowish-ochracheous; ascomata 0.2-1 mm long, inmiersed, unbranched to furcated, straight or curved; exciple non carbonized, brown; ascospores 12-16 x 5-6 urn in size; no lichen substances present; from Tamil Nadu G. homichlodes

18b. Thallus yellowish brown to olive green, verrucose; ascomata fissurine, short, concolorous, upto 1 mm long, unbranched, straight, immersed to slightly emergent; exciple entire, indistinct at the base, non-carbonized; ascospores 14-16 x 6-8 ^im m size- no lichen substances present; from Andaman islands, Kamataka, and Meghalaya G. subnitidula

19a. Disc broad, broad open Thallus brown, shiny; ascomata 1-5 mm long, emergent, slightly flexuose, unbranched; disc wide open; exciple entire, thin at base, non-carbonized, yellowish brown, divergent; ascospores 13-22 x 5-10 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Kamataka and Kerala G. karstenii

19 19b. Disc narrow 20

20a.Thallus gray; ascomata short, 0.5-1 mm long, oblong to linear, unbranched; exciple entire, non-carbonized, convergent, indistinct at base; ascospores 22-36 x 12-16 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Ceylon G. furfuracea

20b.Thallus yellowish green, rugose; ascomata fissurine, concolorous, 1-5 mm long, mostly unbranched, emergent; disc pale brown, epruinose; exciple entire, indistinct at the base, non-carbonized; ascospores 12-25 x 8-10 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Andaman Island, Kamataka, and Tamil Nadu G. insidiosa

21a.Thallus brown, shiny; ascomata upto 10 mm long, semi-emergent, unbranched to radiately branched; exciple entire, indistinct at base, non-carbonized, pale brown; ascospores 10-12x3-5 ^m in size; from peninsular India G. grammitis

21b. Thallus greenish yellow, rough; ascomata long, 8-13 mm long, concolorous, simple to branched, flexuose, immersed to slightly emergent; disc narrow, black, pruinose; exciple entire, non-carbonized, orange yellow to brownish; ascospores 8- 16 (-21) X 3-4 (-6) ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Andaman Islands G. subchrysocarpoides

22a. Thallus saxicolous or foliicolous 23 22b. Thallus corticolous 24

23a. Thallus saxicolous, gray; ascomata upto 9 mm long, emergent, simple to branched, margin thick; exciple entire, present at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 11- 27 transeptate, 44-133 x 9-16 |am in size; norstictic and salazinic acids present from Meghalaya and Nagaland G. longispora

23b. Thallus fr)liicolous; ascomata 0.5-1.3 long, unbranched, flexuose; exciple entire, not present at the base, carbonized; ascospores 7-11 transeptate, 28-56 x 5-8 ^m in size; from Palni hills G.foliicola var. major

24a. Thallus sorediate or isidiate 25 24b. Thallus lacking soredia and isidia 27

25a. Thallus sorediate, whitish, soredia granular; ascomata 5-10 mm long, concolorous, flexuose, dendroidly branched; exciple entire, indistinct at base; outer surface not smooth, indistinctly incised, carbonized laterally; ascospores 6-8 transeptate, 27-32 X 7-10 nm; stictic and constictic acids present; from Meghalaya G. sorediosa

25b. Thallus isidiate 26

20 26a. Thallus pale olivaceous buff to citrine green, minutely warty; ascomata black, 2-7 mm long, simple to dendroidly branched, ends obtuse; exciple striate, 3-6 striae on each side, laterally carbonized; ascospores 15-20 transeptate, 60-90 (-110) x 8-12 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Tamil Nadu G. patwardhanii

26b. Thallus greenish gray, rugulose; ascomata concolorous to brownish, 2-8 mm long, simple to dichotomously branched, flexuose; exciple striate, indistinctly present at the base, 4-5 straie on each side, carbonized only at the tip; ascospores 5-9 transeptate, 21-34 x 4-8 ^m in size; stictic and consticitc acids present; from Kamataka G. isidiza

11 z. Exciple carbonized 28 27b. Exciple non-carbonized 131

28a. Exciple striate 29 28b. Exciple entire 66

29a. Lichen substances present 30 29b. Lichen substances absent 51

30a. Ascospores less than 50 fim 31 30b. Ascospores more than 50 ^m 43

31a. Exciple partially carbonized 32 31b. Exciple completely carbonized 42

32a. Exciple carbonized only at the tip 33 32b. Exciple laterally carbonized 39

33a. Ascomata concolorous 34 33b. Ascomata black 35

34a. Thallus whitish glaucous; ascomata simple to branched, 3-6 mm long, scattered, immersed, ends round; disc narrow, indistinct; exciple striate, 3-4 striate on each side, present at base, apically carbonized; epithecium hyaline to pale yellow; ascospores 33-37x 4-6 ^im in size; norstictic acid present; from Kerala and Maharashtra G.exalbida

34b. Thallus grayish green, warty; ascomata 0.5-3 nun long, simple to branched, ends acute; disc narrow, brown, pruinose; exciple 2-3 striate on each side, thinly present at the base, carbonized at the tips; ascospores 25-42 x 4-6 urn in size; stictic acid present; from Kamataka G- treubii

35a. Ascomata upto 5 mm long 36 35b. Ascomata more than 5 mm long 37

21 36a. Thallus pale green, verrucose; ascomata 0.2-4 mm long, simple to branched, semi-emergent, ends round to acute; exciple present below, multistraite, more than 10 striae on each side, carbonized at the tips; ascospores 38-49(-59) x 6-8 |im in size; stictic and connorstictic acid present; from Kerala and Meghalaya G. exipuloflabillata

36b. Thallus dark green, uneven; ascomata 0.5-1 mm long, simple, semi-emergent, ends obtuse; exciple thin at the base, 5-6 striate on each side, carbonized at the tip; ascospores 38-46 x 6-8 |im in size; stictic acid present; from West Bengal. G. atrobrevis

37a. Ascomata sparsely dendroidly branched Ascomata 0.5-6 mm long, flush with the thallus, concolorous, more or less effuse; exciple entire to mostly 2-4 striae on each side, indistinctly present at the base, carbonized at the tip; ascospores 21-49 x 4-6 )xm in size; constictic, connorstictic, consalazinic and norstictic acids present; from Maharashtra G. nerurensis

37b. Ascomata irregularly branched 38

38a. Thallus yellowish green, verruculose; ascomata black, 1-6 mm long, immersed, simple to branched, ends obtuse to round; disc moderately broad, black, epruinose; exciple present at the base, 5-6 striate on each side; orange brown, carbonized at the tip; ascospores 21-29 x 4-5 |im in size; constictic and stictic acids present; from Tamil Nadu Graphis sp. A

38b. Thallus greenish; ascomata black, 0.3-9 mm long, immersed to semi- immersed; simple to branched, flexuose; disc blackish brown to black, pruinose; exciple present at the base, 2-3 striate on each side, apically carbonized; ascospores 16-25 X 4-5 |am in size; norstictic and stictic acids present; from Tamil Nadu Graphis sp. B

39a. Ascomata upto 2 mm long 40 39b. Ascomata more than 2 mm long 41

40a. Thallus greenish, rough; ascomata small, 0.5-1.5 mm long, immersed, simple to branched, ends acute to subacute, pruinose; exciple laterally carbonized, 2 striate on each side, present at the base; ascospores 17-25 x 3-4 ^m in size; norstictic acid present; from Kerala Graphis sp.C

40b. Thallus cream or whitish, rough; ascomata 0.2-2 mm long, emergent, simple, unbranched, ends round; disc narrow, indistinct; exciple laterally carbonized, present below, 3-4 striate on each side; ascospores 25-29 (-33) x 4-5 ^m in size; constictic, stictic and norstictic acids present; from Kamataka. G. vittata var distincta

22 41a. Thallus greenish; ascomata black, 1-4 mm long, mostly unbranched. ends pointed emergent; disc black, epruinose; exciple laterally carbonized, 2-4 striae on each side; ascospores 21-38 x 4-5 |am in size; constictic and stictic acids present; from Kamataka and Tamil Nadu G. stenotera

41b. Thallus grayish green, verruculose; ascomata black, 0.5-4 mm long, curved, branched, emergent; exciple laterally carbonized, present below, with 3-4 striae on each side; ascospores 21-39 x 4-7 \\.m in size; stictic acid present; from Maharashtra G. vittata

42a. Thallus yellowish; ascomata upto 1 mm long, immersed, simple to furcate; exciple indistinct at the base, 2-3 striate on each side, completely carbonized; ascospores 24 -34 X 7-9 [im; norstictic acid present; from North West Himalaya G. schiffneri

42b. Thallus yellowish green, glossy, smooth; ascomata black, 1-5 (-7) mm long, emergent, simple to branched; disc narrow, indistinct; exciple present below, 5-6 striate on each side, completely carbonized; ascospores 38-42 x 4-6 nm in size; stictic acid present; from Tamil Nadu G. nilgiriensis

43a. Ascospores 50-80 |im in length 44 43b. Ascospores more than 80 |im in length 47

44a. Ascomata upto 5 mm long 45 44b. Ascomata more than 5 mm long 46

45a. Thallus undulate, glaucous white; ascomata 0.5-3 mm long, simple, curved, sparsely branched, flexuose; exciple not smooth, crenate or uneven, laterally carbonized, thin at the base; ascospores (33-) 40-56 x 7-12 jim in size; norstictic acid present; from Assam, Meghalaya and Nagaland G. inamoena

45b. Thallus greenish; ascomata 2-5 mm long, mostly simple, flexuose; exciple striate, distinctly visible from outside, laterally carbonized, indistinctly present at the base; ascospores 50-60 x 4-8 |Am in size; norstictic acid present C?. elegans

46a. Thallus buff to whitish green; ascomata 0.5-10 mm long, concolorous, simple, rarely branched, immersed to semi-emergent, narrow, acute ends; exciple with 2-4 internal striate on each side, apically carbonized; ascospores 25-67(-80) x 11-12 ^m; constictic, norstictic and stictic acids present; from Maharashtra G. aphanes

46b. Ascomata 1-9 mm long, concolorous, semi-emergent; exciple apicallly carbonized, present at the base, 3-4 striate on each side; ascospores 25-36 x 5-6 ^m in size; stictic, constictic and norstictic acids present; from Maharashtra G. indica

23 47a. Ascomata completely carbonized Ascomata 1-6 mm long, emergent, simple, rarely furcate; exciple with 2-3 internal striate on each side; ascospores 60-105 x 9-12 [im in size; norstictic acid present; from Assam and Kerala G. celata

47b. Ascomata partially carbonized 48

48a. Exciple laterally carbonized Ascomata 2-10 mm long simple to dichotomously branched, semi-emergent to emergent; exciple 3-4 crenate-sulcate; ascospores 60-125 (-160) x 12-16 jam in size; stictic and constictic acids present Graphis sp. 1

48b. Exciple carbonized only at the tip 49

49a. Ascomata 12 mm long Thallus; ascomata 2-9(-12) mm long, concolorous, emergent; exciple present below, 3-4 striate on each side, apically carbonized; ascospores 49-112 x 4-5 jxm in size; constictic, norstictic and stictic acids present; from Maharashtra. G. amboliensis

49b. Ascomata upto 8 mm in length 50

50a. Thallus yellowish gray; ascomata 1 -5 (-6) mm long, emergent, simple, rarely furcate, straight to flexuose; exciple 6-8 striate on each side; ascospores vermiform, 44-120 (-150) X 7-10 \xm; norstictic acid present; from Manipur G. verminosa

50b. Thallus olivaceous, verruculose; ascomata 0.5-6 mm long, concolorous, simple, rarely branched, semi-emergent, acute to obtuse ends; exciple present below, multistriate, more than 10 striate on each side, apically carbonized; ascospores 84- 93 X 3-4 ^m in size; norstictic and stictic acids present; from Meghalaya. G. meghalayensis

51a. Ascospores less than 50 ycm in length, lichen substance absent 52 51b. Ascospores more than 50 \xm in length, lichen substance absent 60

52a. Exciple partially carbonized 53 52b. Exciple completely carbonized 57

53a. Exciple laterally carbonized Thallus olivaceous buff, granulose; ascomata 0.5-2 mm long, emergent, unbranched, straight; exciple 3-5 striate on each side, indistinctly present at base; ascospores 16- 19x3-7 |im in size; no lichen substance present; from Manipur...C subglauconigra

53b. Exciple carbonized only at the tip 54

24 54a. Ascomata upto 5 mm long 55 54b. Ascomata more than 5 mm long 56

55a. Thallus gray-white; ascomata 1.5-5 (-6) mm long, black, immersed to semi-emergent, branched; exciple 2-3 striate on each side, apically carbonized; ascospores 32-45 x 5-8 ^im in size; no lichen substance present; from Andaman Islands, Assam, E. Himalaya and Sikkim G. chlorotica

55b. Thallus grayish-yellow; ascomata 1-4 mm long, black, emergent, simple to radiately dichotomously branched, ends acute to roimd; exciple 2-3 internal striae, present at the base; ascospores 26-38 x 4-8 fxm, no lichen substance present; from Manipur, Eastern & Western Himalaya G. proserpens

56a. Thallus gray, offwhite within, smooth; ascomata 0.3-7 mm long, simple to branched, concolorous, ends acute; exciple present at the base, 2-3 striate on each side, apically carbonized; ascospores 21-25 x 4-8 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Andaman Islands G. chloroalba

56b. Thallus yellow to olivaceous buff; ascomata 8-20 (-30) mm long, black, semi- emergent, radiately branched; exciple present at the base, 5-6 striate on each side, carbonized at the tip; ascospores 24-44 x 6-8 |im in size; no lichen substance present; from Sikkim G. sikkimensis

57a. Ascomata more than 5 mm long 58 57b. Ascomata less than 5 mm long 59

58a. Ascomata upto 7 mm long, simple to furcate; exciple 4-5 striate on each side, completely carbonized; ascospores (24-) 30-45 (-50) x 5-9 |am in size; no lichen substance present; from North West Himalaya G. rimulosa

58b. Ascomata 1-5 rrmi long, black, emergent, simple to rarely branched; exciple present at the base, multistriate; ascospores 21-35 x 4-8 |jm in size; no lichen substance present; from Maharashtra G. schizograpta

59a. Ascomata 0.5-4 mm long, subparallely disposed, straight to flexuose; exciple 4-5 striate on each side; ascospores 32-40 x 7-8 nm in size; no lichen substance present; from Manipur G. rimulosa \ar. parallela

59b. Ascomata 0.5-3 mm long, black, semi-emergent; exciple 3-4 striate on each side; ascospores 30-45x6-10 urn; no lichen substance present; from Nilgiri hills. G. persulcata

60a. Ascomata arranged in groups (but not in stroma) Thallus olivaceous buff, gray, verruculose; ascomata 2-5 mm long, black, simple to radiately profusely branched, immersed to semi-emergent, scattered m well defined groups- exciple present at the base, 3-6 striate on each side, apically carbonized;

25 ascospores 10-13 transeptate, 42-80 x 4-8 |am in size; no lichen substances present; from Tamil Nadu G. astrizans

60b. Ascomata scattered all over the thallus 61

61a. Ascomata strongly emergent; exciple present at the base, very thick Thallus glaucous gray to ashy gray, effuse; ascomata much elevated, black, 3-12 mm long, usually simple, rarely branched, irregularly curved to flexuose, contortuplicate; exciple multistriate, vertically elongate, completely carbonized, present below; ascospores 15-25 transeptate, 45-100(-110) x 5-8 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Manipur and Nagaland G. contortuplicata

61 b. Ascomata semiemergent, exciple present at the base, not very thick 62

62a. Exciple present below 63 62b. Exciple absent below 65

63a. Exciple with many striae Thallus yellowish to brownish gray; ascomata 1 -4 mm long, immersed, simple to dichotomously branched, flexuose; exciple present below, 3-many striate on each side, carbonized; ascospores 15-20 transeptate, (68-) 80-120 (-160) x 10-15 \xm in size; no lichen substance present; from Nilgiri hills G. illota

63b. Ascomata with 2-3 striae on each side 64

64a. Thallus greenish, warty; ascomata 0.5-2 mm long, black, semiemergent, simple, rarely branched; exciple 2-3 striate, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores 12-18 transeptate, 50-80 (-100) x 8-11 |nm in size; no lichen substance present, from Tamil Nadu and Kerala G. glauconigra

64b. Ascomata 1-3 mm long, black, not much elevated; exciple striate, laterally carbonized present below; ascospores 88-96 x 11-13 |am in size; no lichen substance present; from N.W. Himalaya G. granulata

65a. Exciple laterally carbonized Thallus glaucous green to pale yellow, smooth to ferrinose; ascomata 1-3 mm long, black, semiemergent, simple, sparsely branched; exciple absent below, rarely entire mostly striate, 2-3 striate on each side, laterally carbonized; ascospores 11-13 transeptate, 40-50 x 8-10 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Manipur G.supertecta

65b. Exciple apically carbonized Ascomata upto 2 mm long, simple to furcate; exciple not deeply striate, absent at the base, 2-3 crenations at apical region, apically carbonized; ascospores 11-13 transeptate, 40-54 x 9-11 ^m in size; no lichen substance present; from Manipur and Palni hills G. striatula

26 66a. Exciple entire, partially carbonized 67 66b. Exciple entire, completely carbonized 104

67a. Lichen substances present 68 67b. Lichen substances absent 92

68a. Ascospores less than 30 jim in length 69 68b. Ascospores more than 30 ^m in length 76

69a. Only norstictic acid present 70 69b. Norstictic acid and other substances present 71

70a. Thallus whitish green; ascomata 0.5-2 mm long, concolorous, immersed, simple to branched, ends acute; exciple entire, present below, apically carbonized; ascospores 8-11 transeptate, 16-25 x 4-5 |am in size; norstictic acid present; from Kamataka. G. alboglaucescens

70b. Thallus off white, yellowish, smooth; ascomata uptolOmm long, thin, black, simple to branched; ends acute; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 21-25 x 3-4 |^m in size; norstictic acid present; from Kamataka G.filiformis

71a. Ascomata upto 4 mm long 72 71b. Ascomata more than 4 mm long 73

72a. Thallus olivaceous, greenish glaucous; ascomata 1-3 mm long, black, semiemergent, flexuose, radiately branched; exciple entire, absent below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 5-8 transeptate, 14-24 x 4-7 ^m in size; salazinic, stictic, and norstictic acids present; from Assam G. subasahinae

72b. Thallus yellowish, rugose; ascomata 1-4 mm long, black, ends acute to obtuse; simple to branched, immersed; disc pruinose; exciple entire, thin at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 5-6 transeptate, 16-25 x 3-4 ^m in size; constictic and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. cf. bougainvillei

73a. Ascomata simple, unbranched 74 73b. Ascomata branched 75

74a. Thallus brown, evanescent, effuse; ascomata upto 8 mm long, superficially white, prominent, simple, unbranched, rarely furcate, ends acute; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 5 transeptate, 19-23 x 5-8 ^m in size; constictic, stictic acids present; from Ceylon G. nematoides

74b. Thallus whitish gray; ascomata 1-8 mm long, black, simple to furcate; disc pruinose; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 5-8 transeptate, 20- 38x5-8 ^lm; constictic, stictic acids present; from Maharashtra G. modesta

27 75a. Thallus whitish, stramineous, evanescent, flaking; ascomata 1-7 mm long, black, immersed, simple to irregularly branched; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 21-29 x 4-5 |im in size; constictic, salazinic, and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. stramineus

75b. Thallus silvery white, glossy; ascomata 5-7 mm long, simple to branched, ends acute to subacute, immersed to slightly raised; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 6-7 transeptate, 21-25 x 4-5 |im in size; constictic, salazinic and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. argenteus

76a. Ascospores 30-50 (im in length 77 76b. Ascospores more than 50 fimin length 88

77a. Exciple carbonized only at the tip 78 77b. Exciple carbonized on lateral sides 79

78a. Thallus greenish gray; ascomata 1-5 mm long, black, immersed to slightly emergent, straight to flexuose, irregularly branched; exciple entire, not present at the base, carbonized at the tip; ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 25-40 x 5-7 ^m in size; stictic acid present; from Kerala, Tamil Nadu G. arecae

78b. Thallus offwhite; ascomta 0.5-2 nrai long, brownish, unbranched; exciple entire, present below, carbonization at the tip; ascospores 9-12 transeptate, 33-42 x 4-6 [im in size; norstictic acid present; from Kamataka G. eburneus

79a. Salazinic acid present 80 79b. Salazinic acid absent 82

80a. Ascomata short upto 2 mm long, aggregated in groups Thallus greenish glaucous, smooth to farrinose; ascomata black, immersed to semiemergent, compact in small groups; simple to dichotomously branched; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 8-11 transeptate, 24-44 (-48) X 6-10 |im in size; norstictic, salazinic and stictic acid present; from Assam, Chinsurah, Kerala and Tamil Nadu G. capillacea

80b. Ascomata more than 2 mm long, scattered on the thallus 81

81a. Thallus yellowish gray, ferinaceous; ascomata 0.5-5 mm long, black, immersed, radiately to irregularly branched; exciple entire, thin at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 29-34 x 4-5 |im in size; constictic, salazinic, and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. insularis

81b. Thallus gray, warty; ascomata upto 5 mm long, black, ends obtuse, semiemergent; exciple entire, present at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 9-12 transeptate, 42-46 x 3-4 ^m in size; salazinic acid present; from Kerala G. bakeri

28 82a. Protocetraric acid present Thallus greenish, warty; ascomata 0.2-3 mm long, black, immersed, simple to branched, ends acute to subacute; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 21-34 x 4-5 ^im in size; constictic, protcetraric, and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands C distincta

82b. Protocetraric acid absent 83

83a. Only norstictic acid present 84 83b. Norstictic and other lichen substances present 85

84a. Thallus glaucous white; ascomta 1.5-5 mm long, simple to branched, concolorous, unbranched, flexuose; exciple entire, crenulate, indistinctly present or absent at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 8-12 transeptate, 24-32 (-40) x 6-8 |im in size; norstictic acid; from Assam, Nagaland G. inamoena

84b. Thallus greenish, smooth; ascomata 2-5 mm long, concolorous, immersed, mostly unbranched, curved; exciple entire, present below, carbonization at the tip; ascospores 6-8 transeptate, 33-38 x 4-5 nm in size; norstictic acid; from Kerala G. exalbida

85a. Ascomata dendroidly or radiately dichotomously branched 86 85b. Ascomata irregularly branched 87

86a. Thallus greenish glaucous to olivaceous buff, smooth to minutely warty; ascomata 1-4 mm long, black, ends obtuse, simple, straight, curved to rarely dendroidly branched; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 9-11 transeptate, (20) 30-40 x 6-8 |im in size; constictic, norstictic and stictic acids present; from Karanataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu G. ajarekarii

86b. Thallus glaucose white to whitish gray, smooth to furfuraceous; ascomata 2-4 mm long, black, immersed, simple to branched; exciple entire, present at base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 6-9 transeptate, 30-40 x 4-6 ^m in size; constictic, norstictic and stictic acids present; from Kerala and Lakshadweep Island G. caesiella

87a. Thallus whitish, smooth; ascomata 1-8 mm long, black, simple to branched; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 8-11 transeptate, 25-50 x 7- 10 urn in size; norstictic, and stictic acids present; from Kamataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tami Nadu G.guimarana

87b Thallus buff to greenish brown, rough, smooth to plicate; ascomata 1-2.5 mm long, ' black, simple, semiemergent; exciple entire, present below, laterally c^bomzed; ascospores 3-10 transeptate, 17-42 x 5-9 ^m; constictic, norstictic acids; from - . , , ^ G. librata Maharashtra

29 88a. Exciple carbonized only at the tip Thallus greenish gray, smooth; ascomata upto 4 mm long, concolorous, simple, unbranched, rarely branched, immersed to semiemergent; exciple entire, present below, carbonization at the tip; ascospores 15-23 transeptate, 75-100 x 8-10 |im in size; stictic and connorstictic acids; from Kamataka Graphis. sp. E

88b. Exciple carbonized on lateral sides 89

89a. Ascomata more than 10 mm long Thallus glaucous to grayish, maculate, effuse; ascomata 5-16 mm long, black, emergent, radiately dichotomously branched; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 10-18 transeptate, 45-87 x 9-10 |im; stictic acid; from Manipur, Nagaland, Nillgiri hills G. longiramea

89b. Ascomata less than 10 mm long 90

90a. Ascomata immersed Thallus brownish to greenish gray, smooth; ascomata 0.5-6 mm long, concolorous, immersed, ends obtuse; disc broad, pruinose; exciple entire, may or may not present at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 8-16 transeptate, 18-67 x 5-11 nm; norstictic acid present; from Maharashtra G. pyrrhocheiloides

90b. Ascomata semi-emergent or emergent 91

91a. Thallus whitish; ascomata 3-8 mm long, whitish, emergent, unbranched, flexuose; exciple entire, present below, carbonized only at the tip but sometimes laterally carbonized; ascospores 12-15 transeptate, 60-75 x 5-10 |im; norstictic and salazinic acids; from Arunachal Pradesh, Kerala, Meghalaya, Orissa G. garoana

91b. Thallus pale grayish; ascomata 1-5 mm long, immersed to semi-emergent, simple to irregularly branched, ends subacute; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 13-17 transeptate, 63-84 x 4-8 nm; constictic and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. subhypolepta

92a. Ascospores less than 30 |jm in length; lichen substances absent 93 92b. Ascospores more than 30 ^m in length; lichen substances absent 96

93a. Exciple carbonized only at the tip , u- • u Thallus greenish; ascomata upto 5 mm long, black, surrounded by whitish area, simple, rarely branched, acute ends, irregularly curved; exciple entire, present at the base, plane at the apical region, carbonized at the tip; ascospores 5-9 transeptate, 21- 28 x'4-5 lam in size; lichen substances absent; from Kamataka Graphis sp. D 94 93b. Exciple laterally carbonized

30 94a. Ascoamta dichotomously branched. Thallus whitish gray, effuse, minutely papillate, furfuraceous; ascomata upto 4 mm long, forming small patches, black, profusely and shortly dichotomously branched, ends acute; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 4-6 transeptate, 15-21 x 5-6 |im; no lichen substances; from Assam G. coarctata

94b. Ascomata irregularly branched 95

95a. Thallus whitish gray, smooth; ascomata 1-7 mm long, black, simple or dendroidly and irregularly branched, acute ends; exciple entire, present below, laterally carbonized; ascospores 5-7 transeptate, 21-25 x 4-5 ^m in size; no lichen substances; from Andaman Islands. G. hypolepta

95b. Thallus greenish glaucous, slightly warty, evanescent; ascomata black, upto 7 mm long, simple to branched, semi-emergent; exciple entire, indistinctly present at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 4-6 transeptate, 15-25 x 4-7 ^m in size; no lichen substance; from Andaman Islands G. tenella

96a. Ascospores upto 50 ^m in length; no lichen substances present 97 96b. Ascospores more than 50 nm in length; no lichen substances present 103

97a. Exciple carbonized only at the tip 98 97b. Exciple laterally carbonized 100

98a. Ascomata irregularly branched Thallus glaucous gray, thick; ascomata 0.5-4 mm long, concolorous, simple to branched, thin, irregularly curved, ends acute; exciple entire, present at the base, apically carbonized; ascospores 8-10 transeptate, 25-38 x 6-8 ^m in size; no lichen substances; from Assam G. cineracea

98b. Ascomata dendroidly/dichotomously branched 99

99a. Thallus glaucous green; ascomata upto 5 mm long, concolorous, immersed to semi- emergent, simple, flexuose, dendroidly branched; exciple entire, present at the base, carbonized only at the tip; ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 30-40 x 6-8 ^m in size; no lichen substances; from Assm, Kerala & Orissa G. intermediella

99b. Thallus glaucous gray, rough; ascomata 1-6 mm long, concolorous, simple to dichotomoulsy branched; exciple entire, present below, carbonization at the tip; ascospores 9-11 transeptate, 38-46 x 6-8 ^m in size; no lichen substances; from Andaman Islands, Kerala and Tamil Nadu G- glaucescens

100a. Ascomata more than 10 mm long Thallus glaucous green, membrancaeous; ascomata 1-15 mm long, black, simple to sparsely branched, ends acute to round; disc narrow; exciple entire, present below,

31 laterally carbonized; ascospores 10-14 transeptate, 38-46 x 4-6 |im in size; no lichen substances; from Nicobar Islands G. leptocarpoides

100b, Ascomata less than 10 mm long 101

101a. Ascomata simple, unbranched Thallus greenish gray, smooth; ascomata 0.5-3 mm long, black, semi-emergent, ends subacute; exciple entire, present at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 8-11 transeptate, 21-48 x 4-6 ^m in size; no lichen substances; from Kerala G. persicina

101b. Ascomata branched 102

102a. Thallus grayish green, rough, verrucose, warty; ascomata 3-5 mm long, emergent simple to branched, ends round; exciple entire, present at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 3-6 transeptate, 21-34 x 4-5 [im in size; no lichen substances; from Sikkim G. sauroidea

102b. Thallus buff to offwhite, smooth; ascomata 3-5 mm long, black, simple to branched, immersed to semi-emergent, acute ends; exciple entire, rarely 1-2 striate, present at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 7-15 transeptate, 25-56 x 8-12 ^lm; from Tamil Nadu G. rigidula

103a. Thallus gray, rough; ascomata 0.5-4 mm long, black, immersed to semi-emergent; exciple entire indistinct at the base, laterally carbonized; ascospores 15-20 transeptate, 60-80 x 8-12 \im in size; no lichen substances; from Kerala, Tamil Nadu G. hossei

103b. Thallus grayish; ascomata 2-5 mm long, emergent, curved; exciple entire, laterally carbonized; ascospores 70-110 x 10-14 |am, no lichen substances G. cinerea

104a. Exciple completely carbonized, lichen substances present 105 104b. Exciple completely carbonized, lichen substances absent 124

105a. Ascospores upto 30 ^im long Thallus grayish, evanescent; ascomata 0.5-2 mm long, black, simple to branched, semi-emergent, ends round; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 5-9 transeptate, 21-27 x 4-6 ^m in size; norstictic acid present; from Tamil Nadu G. colhculotdes

105b. Ascospores more than 30 ^m long 107 106a. Ascospores between 30-50 ^m in length ^^^ 106b. Ascospores more than 50 ^im in length , 108 107a. Ascomata upto 5 mm long

32 107b. Ascomata more than 5 mm long 110

108a. Ascomata simple, unbranched Thallus dull greenish gray, evanescent, warty; ascomata 1-4 mm long, black, unbranched, semiemergent, acute to obtuse ends; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 6-12 transeptate, 37-50 x 4-6 |im in size; norstictic acid; from Tamil Nadu G. verruciformis

108b. Ascomata dendroidly/dichotomously branched 109

109a. Ascomata 0.5-5 mm long, simple to dendroidly branched; disc narrow, epruinose; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 24-38 x 7-8 um; constictic and norstictic acids present; from Himalaya & Kerala....G^. intricata

109b. Thallus gray to brownish; ascomata 0.5-3 (-5) mm long, simple to dichotomously branched, flexuose; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 8-12 transeptate, 24-44 (-50) x 5-7 f^m in size; constictic, nortictic and stictic acids present; from West Bengal, Kerala & Tamil Nadu G. subvirginea

110a. Ascomata simple, imbranched Thallus olivaceous buff, shiny; ascomata 2-7 mm long, black, semi-emergent, simple, flexuose, ends obtuse; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 6-8 transeptate, 25-30 (-50) x 6-8 ^m in size; contictic norstictic, and stictic ands acids present; from Kerala and Tamil Nadu G. asahinae

110b. Ascomata branched Ill

Ilia. Ascomata emergent Ascomata 0.5-6 mm long, simple to branched, emergent; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 7-10 transeptate, (28-) 35-57 x 7-9 |im; constictic, norstictic, stictic acids present; from Palni hills. G. nigroglauca. lUb. Ascomata immersed ^^^

112a. Ascomata more than 10 mm long ^ , u v,.^ Thallus glaucous gray; ascomata 0.2-16 mm long, simple to V^of^^^^y ^^it^^: black, immersed, blunt to rarely acuminate ends; exciple entire present ^^^ihe W completely carbonized; ascospores 3-9 transeptate 16-42 x 4-8 ,m in size s ct,c and constictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. flavovirens 113 112a. Ascomata less than 10 mm long

33 113a. Thallus greenish yellow to yellowish brown, finely cracked; ascomata 4-8 mm long, black, simple to rarely branched, immersed, acute to subacute ends; exciple entire, completely carbonized, present at the base; ascospores 7-15 transeptate, 21- 42 X 5-8 |im in size; norstictic and salazinic acids present; from Tamil Nadu. G. cinnamomeus

113b. Thallus grayish-brown; ascomata 0.5-7 mm long, immersed, simple to branched, flexuose; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 5- 12 transeptate, 23-40(-50) X 6-9 ^m in size; norstictic acid present; from E. Himalaya, Kerala and Tamil Nadu G. assimils

114a. Ascospores upto 50-100 ^im in length 115 114b. Ascospores more than 100 ^m in length 123

115a. Ascomata more than 10 mm long Thallus stramineous, yellowish brown, uneven; ascomata 0.5-20 mm long, black, simple to rarely branched, immersed, ends rovmd; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores 12-17 transeptate, 76-88 x 4-8 |im in size; constictic and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. longissimea

115b. Ascomata less than 10 mm long 116

116a. Ascomata concolorous with the thallus 117 116b. Ascomata black 119

117a. Disc epruinose Thallus glaucous green, granulose; ascomata 1-3 mm long, concolorous, dendroidly branched, semiemergent; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 13-15 transeptate, 41-64 x 6-10 urn in size; stictic, constictic and salazinic acids present; from Assam G. assamensis

117b. Disc pruinose 118

118a. Thallus pale grayish brown to brownish gray, thick, warty; ascomata 1-5 mm long, concolorous, simple to branched, immersed, ends acute to obtuse; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 8-11 transeptate, 33-63 x 4- 8 nm in size; norstictic acid; from Tamil Nadu G. tubercularis

118b. Thallus pale grayish white, rough, warty; ascomata 4-8 mm long, simple to branched, immeresed to slightly emergent, acute to slightly round ends; exciple entire oresent below, completely carbonized; ascospores 12-14 transeptate 55-71 xTsSze^orkctic'acid present; from T^^^ G. altuiofannecu.

34 119a. Ascomata immersed Thallus yellowish to whitish, warty; ascomata 1-7 mm long, black, simple to rarely dendroidly branched, immersed; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 10-14 transeptate, 42-59 x 4-5 jim in size; stictic and hyposalazinic acids present; from Nicobar Islands G.formosana

119b. Ascomata emergent 120

120a. Ascomata simple, unbranched Thallus whitish to brownish gray; ascomata 1-6 mm long; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores (11-) 18-25 transeptate, (48-)72-120 x 9-16(-18) |im in size; constictic, and norstictic acids present; from Arunachal Pradesh, E. Himalaya, Kerala and Tamil Nadu G. marginata

120b. Ascomata branched 121

121a. Ascomata dendroidly branched Thallus grayish to yellowish brown; ascomata 1-4 mm long, black, semiemergent, dichotomously or dendroidly branched, flexuose; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores constictic, salazinic, stictic acids present; from Tamil Nadu G. subassimilis

121b. Ascomata irregularly branched 122

122a. Thallus green, smooth; ascomata 1-5 mm long, black, simple, triradiately to sparsely but irregularly branched, ends obtuse; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores 9-13 transeptate, 50-71 x 8-12 |im in size; norstictic acid present; from Tamil Nadu G. nigrocarpa

122b. Thallus greenish to yellowish green, evanescent, flaking; ascomata 1-8 mm long, black, irregularly branched, immersed to raised; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores 8-14 transeptate, 33-63 x 4-6 urn in size; norstictic acid present; Tamil Nadu G. nigrocarpa var. elongata

123a. Thallus greenish gray, glossy, uneven; ascomata 1-8 mm long, concolorous, simple to rarely branched, immersed to slightly raised, round ends; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores 18-21 transeptate, 96-105 x 10-12 |im in size; nortictic and con-norstictic acids present; from Kamataka G. induta

123b. Thallus greenish; ascomata 1-5 mm long, flexuoue, elongate when mature; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 9-18 transeptate, 84- 132 x 18-24 um; norstictic, salazinic, and stictic acids present; from E. Himalaya, .,^, , G.illinata and Tamil Nadu 124a. Ascospores upto 50 ^m in length; exciple completely carbonized; no lichen ^^^ substances

35 124b. Ascospores more than 50 ^m in length 128

125a, Ascomata simple, unbranched 126 125b. Ascomata branched 127

126a. Thallus glaucous green, glossy; ascomata 2-3.5 mm long, black, simple, rarely branched, flexuose, acute to round ends; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 4-7 transeptate, 12-16 x 4-5 ^m in size; no lichen substance; from Andaman Islands G. urandrae

126b. Thallus grayish white; ascomata 1-6 mm long, black, simple, emergent, acute to obtuse ends; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascosproes 4-12 trasneptate, 21 -29 x 4-8 ^m; no lichen substance; from Nicobar G. palmicola

121n. Thallus pale grayish brown; ascomata 0.5-3 mm long, simple to branched, flexuose emergent; exciple entire, present at the base, complete carbonized; ascospores 8-12 transeptate, 27-48 (-60) x 5-9 |im in size; no lichen substance; from North West Himalaya & Tamil Nadu G. anfractuosa

127b. Thallus greenish glaucous green, stramineous, rough; ascomata 0.5-4 mm long, radiately dendroidly branched to irregularly branched, immersed, curved, acute to subacute ends; exciple entire, present below, completely carbonized; ascospores 42-50 X 4-8 \xm in size; no lichen substances G. flavens var. microspora

128a. Ascomata simple, unbranched 129 128b. Ascomata branched 130

129a. Thallus greenish gray, uneven; ascomata 1-2.5 mm long, narrow, simple, occasionally branched, concolorous, immersed to semi-emergent, irregularly curved, flexuose, obtuse ends; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 14-18 transeptate, 29-63 x 8-12 ^m in size; no lichen substances; from Tamil Nadu G. flavens

129b. Thallus offwhite, cracked; ascomata 1-6 mm long, black, simple to sparsely branched, emergent, acute to obtuse ends; exciple entire, present below, complete carbonization; ascospores 12-15 transpetate, 54-67 x 6-8 ^m in size; no lichen substances; from Nicobar Island G.dispersa

130a Thallus yellowish gray; ascomata 1-10 mm long, simple to branched; exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized; ascospores 11-15 transeptate, (48-) 64-100 X 9-12 ,m in -e; no lichen substances; from^^^^^

130b. Thallus greenish gray; ascomata 3-10 mrn long^^^^^^^^^^^^ branched, sem-iemergent to ^"^^'^gf ' ^^'^^P^"^ ""'^'"'Xf S x 6-10 completely carbonized; ascospores 10-16 transeptate, 36-70 (-84) x 6 lU ^m i

36 size; no lichen substances; from Arunachal Pradesh, Andaman, and Tamil Nadu. G. subdisserpens

131a. Exciple non carbonized, striate 132 131b. Exciple non carbonized, entire 137

132a. Ascospores less than 30 ^m in length Thallus white with greenish tinge, ferrinaceous; ascomata 0.5-2 mm long, simple to branched, concolorous, scattered all over, immersed, acute ends; exciple present at the base, entire to superficially striate, orange brown; ascospores 5-7 transeptate, 21-29 X 4-5 ^m in size; stictic, constictic acids; fi"om Tamil Nadu. G.cf. tenuissima

132b. Ascospores more than 50 fxm in length 133

133a. Ascospores more than 100 ^m in length Thallus gray, smooth to eneven; ascomata 8-15 mm long, concolorous; exciple heavily crenate, present below; ascospores (45) 52-122 x 8-12 |jm in size; norstictic and unidentified lichen substances; from Nagaland G. nagalandica

133b. Ascospores 50-100 fim in length 134

134a. Ascomata aggregated in groups (not in stroma) Thallus greenish gray; ascomata 0.3-1.5 mm long, 2-3 ascomata arranged in a group; exciple present below, non carbonized; ascospores 21-53 x 6-9 |im in size; constictic, norstictic and stictic acids present; from Maharashtra G. disposita

134b. Ascomata scattered all over the thallus 135

135a. Ascomata upto 5 mm long Thallus whitish gray to grayish green, rough; ascomata 0.1-2 mm long, black, simple to rarely branched, semi-emergent, straight to curved; exciple brown, present at the base, with 1-3 internal striae, to entire; ascospores 9-12 transeptate, 21-60 X 5-9 ^m in size; constictic and stictic acids present; from Maharashtra G. karnalensis

135b. Ascomata more than 5 mm long 136

136a. Thallus buff to whitish green; ascomata 0.5-10 mm long, concolorous, simple or rarely branched, immersed to semiemergent, flexuose, scattered; exciple orange brown to blackish brown, with 2-4 internal striae, present at the base; ascospores 10-14 transeptate, 25-67(-80) x 11-12 |im in size; constictic, norstictic and stictic acids present; from Maharashtra G. aphanes

37 136b. Thallus gray; ascomata 1-9 mm long, concolorous; exciple superficially striate, present at the base; ascospores 25-56 x 6-8 |am in size; norstictic acid present; from Maharashtra G. norindica

137a. Thallus UV+ 138 137b. Thallus UV- 141

138a. Only lichexanthone present 139 138b. Lichexanthone and other lichen substances present 140

139a. Thallus whitish green to greenish white, irregularly warty; aslcomata 0.3-0.9 mm long profusely branched, concolorous, immersed, acute ends; exciple yellowish to woody brown, entire, non carbonized; ascospores 3-5 transeptate, 12-21 x 4-8 |im; UV+ lichexanthone present, no lichen substances; from Tamil Nadu. ... G. commiscens

139b. Thallus grayish white, ferrinaceous, rough; ascomata 0.2-0.5 mm long, simple to radiately branched, brown, immersed to semi-emergent; exciple orange yellow to woody brown, present below; ascospores 3-7 transeptate, 12-25 x 4-5 nm; UV+ lichexanthone present, no lichen substances; from Tamil Nadu Graphis sp. F

140a. Thallus greenish white; ascomata minute, 0.3-0.4 mm long, concolorous, simple to radiately branched, immersed, acute ends; exciple orange yellow, present at the base; ascospores 5-7 transeptate, 21-29 x 4-8 ^m in size; UV+ lichexanthone present, constictic and norstictic acids present; from Tamil Nadu G. occulta

140b. Thallus olivaceous, white buff, verruculose; ascomata small, 0.2-0.6 mm long, concolorous, in scattered groups, immersed, acute to obtuse ends; disc blackish brown, becomes dark reddish in wet condition; exciple orange yellow, present below; ascospores 5-7 transeptate, 12-25 x 3-4 ^m in size; UV+ lichexanthone present, norstictic acid present; from Tamil Nadu G. occulta var. areolata

141a. Protocetraric acid present Thallus greenish gray to buff white, rough; ascomata 0.5-6 mm long, concolorous, simple to branched, immersed; exciple orange brown, present below; ascospores 9- 12 transeptate, 29-42 x 4-6 ^m in size; protocetraric, norstictic, stictic and constictic acids present; from Kamataka G. fulvescens

141b. Protocetraric acid absent ^^^

142a. Ascomata upto 2 mm in length Thallus greenish gray; ascomata 0.2-2 mm long, simple to triradiate to irregularly branched, pale brown, immersed; exciple orange brown, present at the base; ascospores 10-14 transeptate, 33-42 (-46) x 6-8 ^im in size; norstictic acid present; from Madhya Pradesh G. balaghattensis

142b. Ascomata exceeding 2 mm in length 143

38 143a. Ascospores less than 30 |am long Thallus whitish green, rough; ascomata 3-7 mm long, light brown, simple, unbranched; exciple yellowish to woody brovm, present at the base; ascospores 6-7 transeptate, 16-21 x 4-5 ^m in size; stictic acid present; from Andaman Island. G. crosea

143b. Ascospores more than 30 \\.m. long 144

144a. Ascospores 30-50 |am in length 145 144b. Ascospores more than 50 jjm long 146

145a. Thallus brownish yellow, olivaceous, glossy; ascomata 1-13 mm long, simple to branched, immersed, acute ends; exciple orange woody brown, present at the base; ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 21-33 x 3-4 nm in size; constictic and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G. aphaneomicrospora

145b. Thallus greenish glaucous to pale olivaceous bufif, shiny; ascomata 2-7 mm long, concolorous, flexuose to dendroidly branched; exciple crimson red to slaty, presnt at the base; ascospores 8-10 (-15) transeptate, 30-40 (-60) x 6-9 ^m in size; constictic, norstictic, and stictic acids present; from Maharashtra, Kamataka G. nakanishiana

146a. Thallus greenish stramineous, rough; ascomata 1 -4 mm long, concolorous, immersed to slightly raised above; exciple woody brown, present below; ascospores 13-22 transeptate, 63-88 x 6-9 ^im in size; constictic, salazinic, and stictic acids present; from Andaman Islands G.scariosa

146b. Thallus glaucous; ascomata 1-8 mm long, simple to rarely branched, emergent, concolorous, straight to curved; exciple reddish orange brown, entire, present at the base; ascospores 16-19 transeptate, 42-81 x 7-11 |im in size; constictic, and stictic acids; from Maharashtra G. aphanescens

Descriptions of TskJa^/^,^ \ «•

Graphis afzelii Ach. \>^-¥' ^ lFigs.:9,19] 5v«opj. L/c/j. p. 85,1814.

Thallus yellow to pale olivaceous buff to dark brownish tan to gray, smooth, thick. Ascomata white, lirelline, 1-6 mm long and 0.2-0.7 mm broad, mostly simple to occasionally branched or forked, distinctly emergent, straight, curved, flexuose, scattered all over, usually completely covered by a powdery white thalline layer, appearing black only where this layer is rubbed, obmse ends. Disc narrow, slit like, not visible in surface

39 view. Thalline margin entire, encircling exciple. Exciple entire, present at the base, converging at the apical portion, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium greenish brown to dark brown, 14-28 \im thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-115 |am high and 200-275 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium reddish brown to yellowish orange, 10-12 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 60-100 x 4-6 nm. Ascospores ellipsoidal, always with 3 transeptate, 14-20 x 6-8 ^m, I-. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C+ red, KC-, P-, apothecial covering C+ red; UV-; Lecanoric acid present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Kamataka, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Nagaland), South America, Australia, Brazil, Cuba, Dominica, Java, Mexico, Peru, Singapore, and Sri Lanka. -^^ o-ro-r

Remarks: Graphis afzelii Ach., a common pantropical species is unlikely to be confused with any other Graphis species by virtue of the presence of lecanoric acid and can be distinguished by its ascomata, with thick, covered by a powdery white thalline layer and laterally carbonized exciple. No other species in India has white ascomata.Grap/jw afzelii apparently with broad ecological amplitude, has been collected from rain forests of Andaman and Nicobar Island, as well as at higher elevations in Meghalaya and Nagaland and also at lower elevation in Kamataka.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Tugapur Range, Mayabandar, Pathar Tikri, 85.2581, 85.2691. Milangram, south east of Diglipur, 86.257, 86.332, 86.352. Middle Andaman, Long Island, on the way to Lalaji, 85.2036A; South Andaman, Baratang Island, Lorojig, 85.260; Nilambur, forest guest house, 85.327, 85.394, 85.401, 85.421, 85.422, 85.432, 85.434, 85.459, 85.460. Karnataka: Gudalur, 76.90; Bhatkal, 78.12, 78.24, 78.25; Kerala, Wyanad forests, 73.2806. Maharashtra: Nerur, 74.478, 74.479, 74.2108. Meghalaya: Garo hills, Darugiri reserved forest, 78.381, 78.384; Nicobar Island, Kamorta Island, Daring, 87.367. Nagaland: Kohima, Rangapahar, SinhaN 15 (ASSAM).

40 Graphis afzelii var. indica var. nov. [Fig.: 20]

Type: India, Andman Islands, South Andaman, Shol Bay, near Wright Myo, 20.12.1986, M.B. Nagarkar &. P.G. Patwardhan, 86.709-Holotype (AMH).

Graphis afzelii var. indica differs from G. afzelii Ach. in having an unknovm substance in addition to lecanoric acid indicated by distinct yellow spot at Rf 3 (at stictic acid level) on the TLC plate in TEF. The other characters are exactly identical to the species G. afzelii.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Kamataka, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Nagaland), South America, Australia, Brazil, Cuba, Dominica, Java, Mexico, Peru, Singapore, and Sri Lanka.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Sitapur, in moist deciduous forest, 86.127; Milangram, south east of Diglipur, in evergreen forest, 86.270; Middle Andaman, Long Island, on the way to Lalaji, 85.2030; South Andaman, Shol Bay, near Wright Myo, 86.706; Panighat to Mount Harriot, 86.738; Little Andaman, Vivekandapuram, 85.990, 85.991. Karnataka: Agumbe, 80.270, 80.272, 80.531, 80.532, 80.533; Someshwar, 80.586; Ganga Mulla to Nagatirtha, on the way to Kudremukh, 81.71, 81.72; Hebri, 82.671, 81.672, 81.673. Maharashtra: Nivali Village, Chiplun to Hatkhamba road, 74.2062. Meghalaya: Garo hills, Darugiri reserved forest, 78.382; Nilangarh, Kaziranga to Dimapur road, 77.1362.

Graphis ajarekari Patw. & Kulk. [Fig.: 21] mrweg. J. Bot. 26: 45, 1979.

Type: India, Kamataka, Coorg, Khushalnagar, leg. C.R. Kulkami & M.B. Nagarkar, 74.3281-Holotype-AMH (!).

Thallus glaucous green to olivaceous buff, smooth to warty, thick. Ascomata lirelline, black, semi-emergent to immersed, simple, rarely dendroidly branched, straight, curved, 0.5-4.0 mm long, with obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin

41 raised, concolorous, partially covering the exciple. Exciple complete, present below, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-120 [im high and 150-200 |am across, 1-, K1-. Hypotheicum pale yellowish to hyaline, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 90-110 x 10-11 nm. Ascospores 8-12 transeptate, (20) 30-40 x 6-8 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ orange red; UV-; constictic, norstictic, and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: Graphis ajarekari Patw. & Kulk. is very close to G. nigroglauca Leight. known from Ceylon in ascospore size and chemistry but differs in exciple characters and morphology. G. nigroglauca has distinctly emergent, black, simple lirellae with indistinct thalline margin and completely carbonized exciple.

Specimens Examined: Karnataka: South Canara, Charmudi ghat, Mondaje, 76.1159; Coorg, Khushalnagar, 74.3281. Kerala: Poonmudi, 73.2626, 73.2649, 73.2653, 73.2664; Paranthal, 76.881, 76.890. Maharashtra: NivaU 74.2144, Ajra 74.2256, near Sawantwadi; Nerur 75.458. Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hills, Coonoor, Sim's Park, 73.814; Korakundha, 73.1473; Palni hills, Kodaikanal, 73.1842, 73.1847, 73.1987, 73.1998.

Graphis albidofarinecia sp. nov. [Fig-: 22]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Kodaikanal, 24.9.1973, P.O. Patwardhan &. M.B. Nagarkar, 73.2254-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus pale grayish-gray, white, rough, unevenely thickned, warty, distinctly cracked, somewhat effuse to granular. Ascomata lirelline, 4-8 mm long, 0.2-0.3 mm broad, simple to branched, irregularly spread, immersed to slightly emergent, acute to obtuse ends. Disc black when exposed, other wise covered by white pruina, narrow. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, laterally to sometimes completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 138-232 |im high and

42 168-315 \xm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium orange yellow, thick, 42-63 |am high. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 6-8 sporate, 90-110 x 10-12 [im. Ascospores 12-14 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 55-71 x 6-8 ^xm, 1 + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: Graphis albidofarinecia, the new species is comparable with G. immersa Fink in exciple nature but differs fi-om the latter in having large ascospores. Ascospores are 38-45 \x.m long in G. immersa. G. induta Miill. Arg., another allied species is distinguished fi'om the new species by its thallus texture and morphology of ascomata.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, 73,2247, 73.2248, 73,2249, 73.2251, 73.2253.

Graphis alhoglaucescens sp. nov. [Fig.: 10,23]

Type: India, Kamataka, Nandi hills, 26.9.1981, P.K. Sethy & M.B. Nagarkar, 81.578 - Holotype (AMH).

Thallus whitish green, smooth, distinctly cracked, delimited by thin black, hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-2 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to branched, irregularly curved, concolorous, immersed, thin, scattered, narrow, acute ends. Disc black, narrow, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous, seperated from the exciple by a fine crack. Exciple yellowish, complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, apically carbonized. Epithecium pale yellow, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 86-90 ^m high and 140-145 ^m broad, I-, K/1-. Hypothecium hyaline, 6-8 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform. Asci 8 sporate, 60-80 x 6-8 nm. Ascospores 8-11 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-25 X 4-5 |am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ deep yellow; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka).

43 Remarks: Graphis alboglucescens is closely related to Graphis glaucescens Fee in respect of external morphology and the characters of exciple, but G. glaucescens has no lichen substances and the thallus is not whitish green. The species was collected on road side tree in dry decidous forest.

Graphis amboliensis sp. nov.. [Fig" 24]

Type: India, Maharashtra, Sindhudurga District, Amboli, 28.9.1976, P. G. Patwardhan & U. V. Makhija, 76.1260-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish-gray, glaucous, continuous, smooth, cracked, thick, delimited by black hypothalloidal region at the periphery. Ascomata lirelline, semi-emergent to distictly emergent, concolorous with the thallus or pale woody brown, straight or curved, flexuose, simple to sparsely but distinctly branched, 2-9(-12 mm) long, 0.2-0.7 mm broad, subobtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit-like. Thalline margin raised, partly covering the proper exciple, concolorous with the thallus. Exciple entire or indistinctly striate, convergent, reddish-brown to blackish-brown, complete, present at the base; striae 3-4 on each side, completely non-carbonized or carbonized at the tips. Epithecium colourless to greenish-brown or brown. Hymenium hyaline, 53-49 \xm high, 98-213 broad |am broad. Hypothecium hyaline 35-49 ^m. Paraphyses simple, thin. Asci cylindrical, 77-112 x 11-14 |im in size. Ascospores 4-8 sporate, 13-21 transeptate, 49-112 x 7-14 \x.m in size. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ orange red; UV-; constictic, norstictic (trace), and stictic acids (trace) are present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra).

Remarks: Graphis amboliensis, is very well distinguished from the closely related G. nakanishiana Patw. & Kulk. especially by its much larger ascospres of 49-112 x 7-14 |im. In Graphis nakanishiana Patw. & Kulk. the ascospores are 40-60 x 6-9 ^m. The specimens at hand were previously described under G. nakanishiana.

44 The specimens were collected from Amboli in tropical semievergreen forest and is named after its locality. G. amboliensis has been collected on Mangifera indica, and has been found associated with G. nakanishiana Patw. & Kulk.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Amboli, 76.1234B, 76.1235, 76.1256B, 76.1260, 76.1261,76.1263.

Graphis anfractuosa Eschw. In Martius, Flora Brasiliens 1: 86, 1833.

Graphis anfractuosa Eschw. is distinguished by its pale grayish brown thallus; 0.5-3 mm long, black, flexuose, prominently emergent ascomata; entire, completely carbonized exciple; 8-12 transeptate, 27-48 (-60) x 5-9 |im ascospores and absence of lichen substances (after Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (Eastern and North Western Himalayas, Palni hills), Brazil.

Graphis anguilliformis Taylor in Hooker Hooker's London Journ. Bot. 6: 152,1847.

Thallus continuous, smooth, shiny, cracked, pale yellowish to gray. Ascomata lirelline, long, slender, 3-10 mm long and 0.4-0.5 mm broad, simple, flexuose to triradiate, rarely dendroidly branched, semi-emergent to distinctly emergent, black. Thalline margin distinct, raised, partly covering the exciple. Disc narrow, slit like. Exciple entire, thick, completely carbonized, present at the base. Epithecium hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 90-100 x 10-12 ^m. Ascospores oblong, hyaline, with 11-15 transeptate, (48-)64-100 x 9-12 nm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Palni hills), Ceylon and West Indies.

45 Remarks: Graphis anguilliformis Tayl. has been considered as conspecific with G. illinata Eschw. by Zahlbruckner (1923). 1 could not study the types of G. anguilliformis as well G. illinata. I have re-examined the Ceylon specimens. From the characters it appears that it is almost identical with G. formosana Zahlbr. knovra from Taiwan. For ascertaining synonymy type study is needed.

Specimen Examined: Ceylon, South of the Islands, leg. G.H.K. Thwaites, CL 153 -BM.

Graphis aphanes Mont, et v.d. Bosch [Fig«: 25] Jungh. Plant. Junghuhn. 4: 474, 1855.

Thallus continuous, buff to whitish green, smooth to cracked, sometimes warty, tightly attached to substratum, moderately thick, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, long, slender, 0.5-10 mm long and 0.4-0.5 mm broad, simple to rarely branched, immersed to semi-emergent, irregularly curved, flexuose, scattered, concolorous, tapering acute apices. Disc narrow to broad, dark brown, epruinose. Thalline margin distinct, entire, overarching the exciple. Exciple, entire to 2-4 internally striate, present at the base, carbonized at the tips, and converging at the apical portion, non carbonized, orange brown to blackish brovm. Epithecium blackish brown, 18-21 Hm thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 116-140 \xm high and 140-158 ^im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 25-35 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the apices. Asci 4-8 sporate, 103-105 x 11-14 pm. Ascospores oblong, hyaline, with 10-14 transeptate, 25-67 (-80) x 11-12 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; constictic, norstictic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra), Java, Japan, Bonin Island, and Thailand.

Remarks: Graphis aphanes is characterized by buff to whitish green thallus, concolorous, mostly simple, immersed, upto 10 mm long, unbranched lirellae with narrow, acute ends; 2-4 internal striae, apically carbonized exciple; 25-67 (-80) x 11-12 pm ascospores and presence of constictic, norstictic and stictic acids in its thallus. This species is collected from the semievergreen forest of Mahabaleshwar.

46 Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Panhala, 00.390; Matheran, 70.40, 70.41; Mahabaleshwar, Arther Seat, 74.1733, 74.1737, 74.1750, 74.1761, 74.1778, 74.1779, 74.1798; Lodwick point, 74.1834, 74.1871, 74.1880, 74.1888, 74.1917, 71.20; 72.10, 74.10, 74.24, 74.52; Dhobighat, 73.2947, 73.2928; Kolhapur, Vishalgad, Amba to Gajapur Road, 74.2207.

Graphis aphanescens sp. nov. (Fig-: 26]

Type: India, Maharashtra, Sindhudurg District, Amboli, 10.10.1976, U.V. Makhija- 76.1230-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus smooth to cracked, warty glaucous, thick, epruinose. Ascomata lirelline, 1-8 mm long and 0.5-0.7 mm broad, simple to rarely branched, emergent, straight to curved, scattered, concolorous, tapering acute apices. Disc narrow, brown, epruinose. Thalline margin distinct, entire, overarching the exciple. Exciple reddish orange brown, smooth, present at the base, converging at the apical portion, entire, non carbonized, reddish brown laterally. Epithecium greenish black, 14-21 |am thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 105-130 )im high and 123-175 jim broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 21-35 \\m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened and branched at the tips. Asci cylindrical, 2-8 sporate, 84-126 x 10-14 ^m. Ascospores fiisiform to oblong, 16-19 transeptate, 42-81 x 7-11 (am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red to yellow, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; constictic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra).

Remarks: Graphis aphanes Mont, et v.d. Bosch, is comparable with the new species G. aphanascens Nak. in having non carbonized exciple and larger ascospores of 80-100 nm long but differs in having norstictic acid in addition to stictic acid. The species is also comparable with G. triticea Nyl. regarding exciple and chemistry but has larger ascospores than G. triticea Nyl.

47 Specimens Examined: Maharashtra, Kolhapur, Vishalgad, Amba to Gajapur Road, 74.2204, 74.2205.

Graphis aphaneomicrospora sp. nov. [Fig.: 27]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, North Andaman, Mayabander Range, Kaichi Nala, in moist deciduous forest, 30.12.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.K. Sethy, 85.2757-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus brownish yellow to olivaceous, slightly glossy, irregularly cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, concolorous, 1-13 mm long, slender, simple to rarely branched, scattered, immersed, acute ends. Disc narrow, pale brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, non carbonized, orange woody brown. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 85-105 \im high and 79-97 i^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline, 16-21 ^m high. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 77-112 x 11-14 |am. Ascospores 7-9- transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-33 x 3-4 |am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; stictic, constictic acids present.

Distribution: India.

Remarks: Graphis aphaneomicrospora is extremely similar to Graphis aphanes Mont et v.d. Bosch from Java, from which it differs in having much much smaller ascospores. G. aphanes has ascospores of 80-100 ^m long. The new species has been collected from the tropical rain forests of Andaman Islands.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Mayabander Range, Kaichi Nala, 85.2843; Tugapur Range, Pathar Tikri, 85.2557, 85.2531, 85.2532.

GraphisarecaeVainio ^^^'' ^^1 Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A. 15(6): 249, 1921.

48 Thallus greenish gray, smooth, or uneven, thick. Ascomata lirelline, black, 1-5 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, straight to flexuose, irregularly branched, immersed to slightly raised, scattered, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, epruinose. Tballine margin distinct, entire. Exciple entire, present at the base, apically carbonized. Epithecium thin, indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-130 |am high and 90-140 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 90-100 x 12-14 |im. Ascospores fusiform to oblong, 7-9 transeptate, 25-40 x 5-7 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu), Philippines.

Remarks: Graphis modesta Zahlbr. and G. hougainvellei Zahlbr. are extremely close to G. arecae in all the diagnostic characters except in gross lirellae morphology. Both these species have simple and thin lirellae.

Specimen Examined: Kerala: Wyanad forest, 73.2811, Thekadi, near Periyar Lake, 76.937. Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hils, Sim's Park, Coonoor, 73.3093.

Graphis argentius sp. nov. [Figs.: 29]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, Middle Andaman, Long Island Range, Elphiston Bay, in beach forest, 23.12.1985, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 85.2226-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus silvery-white, thin, glossy, smooth, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 5-7 mm long, simple to branched, concolorous, scattered, immersed to slightly raised, acute to obtuse ends. Disc 0.25-0.3 mm broad, pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent to slightly divergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium thin, brownish. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 63-84 ^im high and 126-189 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, pale orange yellow. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 80-90 x 6-8 ^m. Ascospores 6-7-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-25 x 4-5 \im, 1+ blue.

49 Cheinistr>': Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-. P+ orange; UV-; constictic, salazinic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: This beautiful new species is distinctly distinguished by its silvery white, glossy, thin thallus, immersed ascomata with broad, pruinose disc; complete, entire, laterally carbonized exciple and presence of constictic, salazinic and stictic acids in its thallus. The present new taxon is comparble with G. assimilis Nyl. on accoimt of its exciple characters and overall morphology, however, G. assimilis has large ascospores (25-) 30-40 X 6-9 |am and lacks lichen substances.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: Middle Andaman, Long Island, Range, Elphiston Bay, in beach forest, 85.2228, 85.2231, 85.2232, 85.2251.

Graphis asahinae Patw. & Kulk. [Fig.: 30] Norweg. J. Bot. 26: 46, 1979.

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Palni hills, Kodaikanal, Silvercaskade, P.G. Patwardhan & A.V. Prabhu, 75.220-Holotype-AMH (!).

Thallus olivaceous buff to citrine green, continuous, smooth, glossy, thick. Ascomata lirelline, black, 1-8 mm long and 0.2-0.3 mm broad, simple to rarely sparsely branched, flexuose, semi emergent, scattered, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, brown, epruinose. Thalline margin distinct, entire, overarching the exciple. Exciple entire, present at the base, completely carbonized. Epithecium thin, indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-130 ^m high and 115-150 [am broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 80-106 X 10-12 nm. Ascospores fusiform or oblong, 6-9 transeptate, 25-30 (-50) x 6-8 nm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange red; UV-; constictic and stictic acids present.

50 Distribution: India (Kerala and Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: Graphis nakanishiana Patw & Kulk. is comparable with G. asahinae Patw. & Kulk. in ascospore size and chemistry but differs in having a totally non carbonzed exciple. The present species is well differentiated from its closely allied Graphis ajarekarii Patw. & Kulk. in having completely carbonized exciple.

Specimens Examined: Kerala: Anamalai hills, Munnar-Kodai Raod, near Yellapatti 76.628; Ponmudi, 73.2632, 73.2652, 76.2657. Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hills, Coonoor, Sim's Park, 73.832; Palni hills, Kodaikanal, 73.1703, 73.1784, 73.1897, 73.1973.

Graphis assamensis Nagarkar & Patw. [Fig.: 31] Biovigyanam 8: 125, 1982.

Type: India, Assam, near Tejpur on Jagi road, 5.11.1977, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 77.1334-Holotype-AMH (!).

Thallus pale glaucous green, granulose, thick. Ascomata lirelline, 1-3 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, dendroidly branched, semi-emergent, flexuose, scattered, concolorous. Disc narrow to moderately broad, black, epruinose. Thalline margin entire, overarching the exciple. Exciple entire, present at the base, converging at the apical portion, completely carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 180- 200 ^m high and 200-225 |im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 84-126 x 10-14 nm. Ascospores ftisiform-oblong, 13-15 transeptate, 41-64 x 6-10 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red to yellow, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; constictic, salazinic and stictic acids are present.

Distribution: India (Assam).

Remarks: Graphis assamensis has been reported ( Nagarkar 8c Patwardhan 1982 ) to be closely related to G. asahinae Patw. & Kulk in respect of morphology and chemistry from which, however, it differs in having larger ascospores of 41-64 x 6-10 ^m long and

51 dendroidly branched lirellae and presence of salazinic acid in addition to the stictic and constictic acids in its thallus. The species is known only by its type.

Graphis assimilis Nyl. ActaSoc. Sci. Fenn. 7: 465, 1863.

Thallus buff to honey brown or greenish glaucous, smooth, shiny. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-7 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple, flexuose, unbranched, black, mostly immersed to rarely semi-emergent. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium indistinct to thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Periphysis short, smooth at the tips. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 70-100 x 10-12 |am. Ascospores 6-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 25-40(-45) x 6-9 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Eastern Himalaya, Kerala and Nilgiri hills), Brazil, Ceylon, Chili, Colombia,, Japan, Java, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Singapore.

Specimens Examined: Ceylon, leg. Almquist, H. NYL. No. 6035; Paradeniya, H. NYL. No. 7129.

Graphis asterizans Nyl. [Fig.: 32] Acta Soc. Sci. Fern. 7: 467,1863.

Thallus olivaceous buff, gray, rough, thick, minutely cracked, verruculose, epruinose. Ascomata lirelline, 2-5 mm long and 0.2-0.5 mm broad, simple to radiately branched, distinctly black, immersed to semiemergent, scattered in well defined groups, narrow, acute ends. Disc narrow, covered by white pruina, Thalline margine concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thick thalline margin till top, striate, 3-6 striae on each side, apically carbonized, expanded at the apical region. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90- 120 |.im high and 130-160 ^xm broad, 1-, K/1-. Hypothecium indistinct. Paraphyses

52 simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 100-112 x 8-10 ^m. Ascospores 10-13 transeptate, ellipsoidal. 42-80 x 4-8 |am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu) and China.

Remarks: Gr aphis asterizans Nyl. reminds very much G. caesiella Vainio in respect of radiately branched ascomata, however, G. caesiella can easily be distinguished from the present species by the entire exciple and presence of stictic acid. The species was previously reported from China and now reported from India.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Kollimalai, 85.1721, 85.1732.

Graphis atrobrevis sp. nov. [Fig.: 33]

Type: Meghalya, Kurseong, near Chatapani, 14.11.1977, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 77.2063-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus dirty green to dark blackish green, uneven, loosely attached, cracked, limited by black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, black, 0.5-1 mm long, short, simple, straight to curved, semiemergent, scattered, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like, indistinct. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, indistinctly present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin till top, striate, 5-6 striae on each side, expanded at the apical region, apically carbonized. Epithecium indistinct to pale brown, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 75-84 ^im high and 113-117 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 6-8 sporate, 100-130 x 10-12 ^m. Ascospores 8-11 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 38-46 X 6-8 ^m,I+blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; Stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (West Bengal).

53 Remarks: The present new species is somewhat similar to G. pyrrhocheiloides (Vainio) Zahlbr. in respect of exciple characters, however, G. pyrrhocheiloides has much larger (1-4.5 mm long and 0.5 mm broad) lirellae, pruinose disc, exciple carbonized at the tip or on lateral sides and presence of norstictic acid in its thallus.

Graphis bakeri Vainio [Fig-* 34] Ann. Acad Sci. Fenn. Ser. A., 15(6): 253, 1921.

Thallus yellowish to whitish gray, smooth, cracked, unevenly thickened, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-5 mm long, dichotomously to iregularly branched, black, scattered, slightly raised above, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, blackish brown, pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, indistinct at the base to sometimes absent at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-120 ^m high and 121-150 ^im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline to pale yellowdsh orange. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 80- 112x9-10 Jim. Ascospores 9-12 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 42-46 x 3-4 nm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+yellow, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; salazinic acid present.

Distribution: Philippines and now India (Kerala).

Remarks: Graphis bakeri Vainio resembles G. subvirginea Nyl. in its ascomata characteristics and spore range. However, G. subvirginea differs from the present species in having simple to furcate ascomata. The species was earlier reported from Philippines and is now being reported from India for the first time.

The species was collected at higher elevation in very hot climatic conditions.

Specimens Examined: Kerala: Shabrimalai hills, Patnamthatta, 83.490, 83.497.

54 Graphis balaghattensis sp. nov. [Fig.: 35]

Type: India, Madhya Pradesh, Balaghat district, Chahili, 22 km from Lanji, 26.9.1986, P.G. Patwardhan & P.K. Sethy, 86.614-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish gray, cracked to form squarish aeroles, unevenly thickened. Ascomata lirelline, 0.2-2 mm long, simple to triradiate or irregularly branched, pale brownish, scattered, immersed, acute to sparsely obtuse ends. Disc broad, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, non carbonized, orange brown. Epithecium thin, hyaline Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-130 ^m high and 155-160 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 80-100 x 8-10 ^m. Ascospores 10-14 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 33-42 (-46) X 6-8 nm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Madhya Predesh).

Remarks: The new species Graphis balaghattensis apparently resembles G. oshioi Nak. from Japan in its morphology and chemistry which, however, differs from the present species in having smaller ascospores of 20-38 \xm in length and thick thalline margin.

The species is named after its collecting locality Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh of India. This is the only Graphis species found in Deccan Plateau area.

Graphis cf. bougainvillei Zahlbr, apud Redgr. [Fig.: 36] Denkschr. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss. Matk-Naturwiss. KI. 88: 18, 1911.

Thallus yellowish rugose, unevenly thickened, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-4 mm long, 0.1-0.3 mm broad, simple to branched, black, scattered, immersed, with acute to obtuse ends. Disc moderately broad, 0.1-0.2 mm broad, blackish brown, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top.

55 narrow at the base and expanded at the apical region, entire, laterally carbonized,. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 37-50 ^m high and 105-168 \im broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 70-100 x 6-8 ^im. Ascospores 5-7-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-25 X 3-4 ^m,I+blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; constictic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands) and Insula Bougainville.

Remarks: The present species seems to be most similar to the G. bougainvillei Zahlbr. ex Redgr. and can only be distinguished by the later species in having much smaller ascospores. G. bougainvillea has large ascospores of 30-35 x 8-9 ^m.

The species has been recorded for the first time from India.

Specimen Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Mayabander Range, Interview Island, 85.2871.

Graphis capillacea Stirton Proc. Roy. Philos. Soc. Glasgow 11: 315, 1879. Type: Assam, Chinsurah, leg. G. Watt, lectotype-BM (!).

Thallus greenish glaucous, smooth to slightly farrinose, shiny. Ascomata lirelline, simple, flexuose, short 0.5-2 mm long, triradiate to sparsely dendroid (in Nilgiri specimen lirellae appear asteroid), black, semi-emergent. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple absent at the base, convergent, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium indistinct to thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 77-112 x 11-14 ^im. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 30-45 x 6-10 Mm,

1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; norstictic, salazinic and stictic acids [vide annotations by Hale (1975)].

56 Distribution: India (Assam. Kerala and Nilgiri hills).

Remarks: Awasthi & Singh (1973) annotated Chinsurah specimen as the lectotype. Hale (1975) studied the chemistry of Nilgiri specimen and found norstictic, stictic and salazinic acid. I also studied chemistry of both Nilgiri and Chinsurah specimens. I found the presence of norstictic acid only. G. capillacea Stirt. is comparable with G. guimarana Vainio in ascomata morphology, exciple characters and ascospore size, but contains only norstictic acid.

Graphis celata Stirton Proc. Roy. Philos. Soc. Glasgow 11: 316,1879.

Type: India, Assam, Chinsurah, leg. G. Watt, No. 98-Isolectotype-(GLAM)!

Thallus glaucous green, warty, continuous, shiny, thick. Ascomata lirelline, simple, flexuose, short c. 1-6 mm long, triradiate, unbranched, black, semi-emergent. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus, Exciple indistinct at the base, convergent, entire to striate, sulci not very deep, completely carbonized. Epithecium indistinct to thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 2 sporate, 110-105 x 12-14 ^m. Ascospores fusiform, 65-105 x 10-15 ^m, 1+ (based on observations of Stirton -1 did not find any ascospores). Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; TLC not done.

Distribution: India (Assam, Kerala).

Remarks: The present taxon collected from Chinsurah was available fi-om GLAM, for rechecking. I could not find any ascospore in the specimen. Since GLAM specimen is sterile and duplicate of this is not available. I feel, the taxon is not typifiable.

Graphis caesiella Vain. l^'S- 37] Acta. Soc. Fauna Fl. Fenn. 2: 122, 1890.

57 Thallus olivaceous buff to whitish gray, smooth to furfuraceous, continuous, thick. Ascomata lirelline, radiately branched, concolorous, immersed, (0.5) 2- 4 mm long, black, simple, flexuose, obtuse to acute ends, scattered. Disc black, narrow, pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium colourless, thin. Hymenium hyaline, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asei cylindrical, 8 sporate, 80-100 x 10- 12 |im. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, (20) 30-40 x 6-8 \im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Lakshadweep Island) and Ceylon

Remarks: G. caesiella Vainio is comparable with G. arecae Vain, in respect of ascospore size and chemistry. But G. arecae has dendroidly branched, black ascomata and partially carbonized exciple.

Specimen Examined: Lakshadweep Island: Kavaratti Island, 88.1.

Graphis chloroalba sp. nov. [Fig-: 38]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, North Andaman, Lamia Bay, from Kalipur, south east of Aerial Bay, in mixed forest, 5.1.1986, M.B. Nagarkar & P.O. Patwardhan, 86.529- Holotype (AMH).

Thallus pale green to gray, yellow within or offwhite, smooth, cracked, delimited by black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.3-7 mm long, 0.2 mm broad, simple to dendroidly branched, scattered, immersed to slightly emergent, seperated from the thallus with a narrow fissure, irregular, flexuose, acute ends. Disc blackish brown to black when exposed otherwise covered by white pruina, narrow. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, studded with crystals, striate, 2-3 striae on each side, apically carbonized. Epithecium pale, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 84-109 nm high and 117-134 \xm

58 broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium yellow, 6-8 ^m high. Paraphyses simple, long. thin. Asci 6-8 sporate, 90-110 x 10-12 ^m. Ascospores 4-8 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-25 x 4-8 \im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: The new species Graphis chloroalba is distinguished by its greenish-white thallus, concoiorous, dendroidly branched lirellae, 2-3 striate, apically carbonized exciple, ascospores 21-25 x 4-8 ^m and absence of lichen substances. Graphis intermediella Striton and G. glaucescens Fee closely resemble to the present species but, have larger ascospores 30-45 |am long.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Lamia Bay, 86.529, 86.530, 86.606; Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Pitcher Nala, 85.2395; South Andmaan, Wright Myo, 86.719, 86.720.

Graphis chlorotica Massal. & Krempelh. (Fig.: 39] Verhanl. Zool. Bot. Gesselsch. Wien. 21: 865, 1871.

Thallus whitish gray, smooth to finely and distinctly cracked, thin, effuse, separating from the bark, epruinose. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-5 (-6) mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to irregularly branched, concoiorous or grayish black, immersed, scattered, narrow with acute ends. Disc black, narrow, pruinose, Thalline margin concoiorous with the thallus. Exciple yellowish, complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, distinctly 2-3 striate, apically carbonized, streaks between striae are crystals studded. Epithecium colourless, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 84-88 ^m high and 147-155 \ym broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 6-8 ^im thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci 8 sporate, 80-90 x 8-10 ^im. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 32-45 x 5-8

^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances found.

59 Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Assam, Eastern Himalayas and Sikkim) and Amboinia.

Remarks: Graphis caesioglauca Redgr., from Brazil differs from the present taxon in having smaller ascospores of 18-30 x 7-9 ^m and G. glauscescens Fee differs from the present species in having entire exciple. The species is found to be associated with theloremes and pyrenolichens.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: South Andaman, Baratang island, Nilambur, forest guest house, 85.312, 85,32, 85.427, 85.324, 85.409; Alexanderia Island, 85.1050, 85.1054,85.1085.

Graphis cinerea Fee Essai. Cryptog. Ecorc. Officin. p. 31, 1824.

Graphis cinerea Fee is characterized by grayish, smooth thallus; 2-5 mm long, emergent, flexuose ascomata; entire, laterally carbonized exciple, absent at the base; 2-4 ascospores per ascus of the size 70-110 x 10-14 jam and absence of lichens substances in the thallus (vide Awasthi 1991). The species was reported by Leighton (1869) from Ceylon.

Graphis cinerascens sp. nov. [Fig" 40]

Type: India, Assam, Maniknagar, 31.10.1977, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 77.1194-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus cement gray, thick, uneven, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-4 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, simple to branched, thin, irregularly curved, concolorous, immersed to slightly raised by thalline margin, separated from the thallus by crack, thin, crowded, narrow, acute ends. Disc narrow, slit like, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, entire, apically carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 97-105 ^m high and 185-189

60 |im broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium orange brown, 16-21 |im thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, globose at the tip, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 85-90 x 8-10 nm. Ascospores 8-10 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 25-38 x 6-8 \xm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Assam).

Remarks: The new species Graphis cinerascens seems to be closely related to G. exalbata Nyl. in respect of its external morphology. However, G. exalbata contains norstictic acid and is saxicolous. G. glaucescens Fee, another allied species differs from the present taxon in its lirellae nature. G. garoana Nagarkar & Patw. has similar extmal morphology but differs from the new species in ascospores characters and the presence of norstictic and salazinic acids in its thallus. G subvirginea Nyl. apud Leighton is close to this species but differs in having completely carbonized exciple.

Graphis cinnamomea sp. nov. [Figs.: 7,8,41]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Kodaikanal, near Golf Club, 24.1.1975, P.G. Patwardhan & A.V. Prabhu, 75.184-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish yellow to yellowish brown, thick, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 4-8 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, black, simple to branched, immersed, acute to subacute ends. Disc narrow, black. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, laterally to sometimes completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline to light brown, thin, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 52-87 ^m high and 105-157 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to light orange, thick, 17-21 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci 8 sporate, 90-100 x 10-12 ^m. Ascospores 7-15 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-42 x 5-8 nm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic, & salazinic acids present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

61 Remarks: Graphis cinnamomea is characterized by the entire, laterally to completely carbonized exciple and presence of norstictic and salazinic acids. The new species is distinguished from the externally similar G. adpressa Vainio by the absence of lichen substances and the larger ascospores of 46-58 x 12-15 \xm. The combination of norstictic and salazinic acids is rather rare in Graphis.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Sim's Park, Coonoor, 73.814; Niligiri hills, Korakundha, 73.1473.

Graphis coarctata Stirt. Proc. Roy. Philos. Soc. Glassgow 11: 314, 1879.

Type: Assam, near Chinsurah, G. Watt, Lectotype-BM (Awasthi & Singh 1975).

Thallus effuse, smooth to minutely papillate to furfuraceous, whitish gray. Ascomata lirelline, 4 mm long, forming small patches, black, immersed, proftisely and shortly dichotomously branched, dense, straight to flexuose. Disc indistinct. Exciple enite, present below, laterally carbonized. Asci 8 sporate, 45-57 x 9-10 ^m. Ascospores 4-8 transeptate, 15-21 x 5-6 ^m, 1+ blue, (Awasthi 1975). Chemsitry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Assam).

Remarks: Graphis coarctata Stirt. is characterized by its papillose thallus; ascomata in small patches, 4 mm long, radiately branched; exciple present at the base, entire, laterally carbonized; ascospores 8/acus, 3-5 transeptate, 15-21 x 5-6 ^m in size, no lichen substances present.

The species has been reported to be allied to G. capillacea Stirt. in respect of morphology of the ascomata, characters but differs in the nature of the exciple, having smaller ascospores, and lack of lichen substances (Awasthi 1975). The specimens were not available for our studies.

62 Graphis collateralis sp. nov. [Figs.: 6,42]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, South Andaman, Baratang Island, Lorojig, 19.2.1985, P.G. Patwardhan, 85.259-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus off-white, smooth, finely cracked, delimited by thin light to slightly dark hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.2-1.1 (-1.2) mm long, mostly simple, very rarely branched, concolorous to brownish red when wet, blackish when dry, immersed to slightly raised above, in scattered groups of 2-5 lirellae arranged side by side more or less parallel to each other, bordered by whitish rim, narrow, with obtuse ends. Disc narrow, brownish red or black, pruinose, Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus, slightly raised. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, apically carbonized. Epithecium indistinct, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 42-71 (am high and 84-126 urn broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Periphysoides very short, smooth. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 80-90 x 8-10 (am. Ascospores mostly 3-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-21 x3-4nml-. Chemistry: K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic and stictic (trace) acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: The present new species stands distinct among all other species of this genus by its beautiful appearance and can easily be distinguished by the 2-4 (-5) ascomata arranged side by side more or less in parallel fashion in the scattered groups all over the thallus, which looks like chromosomes. Moreover it also has periphysoides which have smooth surface.

Specimen Examined: Andaman Islands, South Andaman, Baratang Island, Lorobjig, 85.458A.

63 Graphis colliculoides sp. nov. [Fig" 43]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Devicolam, 25.1.1976, P.G. Patwardhan, 76.701-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus grayish green, thin, mostly evanescent to rarely and sparsely cracked with age, delimited by thin, black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-2 mm long, 0.1- 0.2 mm broad, black, simple to branched, semi emergent, round ends. Disc black, narrow to moderately broad, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, crystal studded. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline to light brown, K-. thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 96-105 nm high and 147-155 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to pale, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 80-90 x 9-10 ^m. Ascospores 5-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-27 x 4-6 (am, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present new species resembles with Graphis colliculosa (Mont.) Nyl. in its appearance. However, Graphis colliculosa has non carbonized exciple and has salazinic and protocetraric acid in its thallus.

Graphis commiscens sp. nov. [Fig" 44]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Kollimalai, 15.10.1985, M.B. Nagarkar «fe P.G. Patwardhan, 85.1577-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus whitish, cracked, irregularly warty, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.3-0.9 mm long, short, profusely branched, intermingled, concolorous, crowded, completely immersed, acute ends. Disc narrow, slit like, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, entire, non carbonized, yellowish to woody brovm. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 25-30 ^m high and 60-

64 70 ^m broad, I-, YJI-. Hypothecium orange yellowish, studded with crystals. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 70-90 x 8-10 |im. Ascospores 3-5-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 12-21 x 4-8 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV+ yellow fluorescens; lichexanthone present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu)

Remarks: The new species Graphis commiscens is distinguished by its whitish green to greenish white thallus UV+ yellow fluorescens; short, immersed, profusely branched, concolorous, intermingled ascomata; complete, non carbonized exciple, small ascospores of 12-21 x 4-8 fim and the presence of the lichexanthone. The species is close to G. exalbata Nyl. and G. grammatica Fee in respect of morphology and exciple natiire. But G. exalbata is saxicolous and has norstictic acid in its thallus while G. grammatica has only 3-septate ascospores and has no lichen substances in its thallus.

Graphis contortuplicata Miill. Arg. [Fig-: 45] J. Linn. Soc, Bot. 29: 225,1892.

Type: Manipur, G.Watt, no. 6399- Lectotype-BM.

Thallus greenish gray to ashy gray, smooth, effuse. Ascomata lirelline, 3-12 mm long and 0.2-0.3 mm broad, simple to shortly dichotomously rarely branched, flexuose, distinctly black, strongly emergent, scattered in small patches,obtuse ends. Disc narrow slit like, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, distinctly multistriate, contortuplicate, completely carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 88-120 ^m high and 100-135 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 10-15 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci 2-4 sporate, 100-120 x 9-10 ^lm. Ascospores 15-25 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 45-100 x 5-8 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV -; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Manipur and Nagaland).

65 Remarks: This species is well distinguished from the other species of the group with completely carbonized exciple in having strongly elevated, black, contortuplicate ascomata, exciple with numerous striae, large ascospores of 45-100 x 5-8 \im and absence of lichen substances. The occurrence of this species is rare in India.

Specimen Examined: Nagaland: Tuensang, Saramati hill ranges, N. 3864 (ASSAM).

Graphis crosea sp. nov. [Fig.: 46]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Dhaninala, 85.2486- Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish with white tinge to grayish green, rough, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 3-7 mm long, simple to irregularly branched, delicate, scattered, immersed to semiemergent, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like, orange red, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, non carbonized, yellowish to woody brown laterally. Epithecium thin, brown, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 59-67 ^im high and 120-130 |am broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, pale yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 6-8 sporate, 70-80 x 8-10 ^m. Ascospores 6-7 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-21 x 4-5 [im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: The new species Graphis crosea is characterized by its semi emergent, irregularly branched, delicate, concolorous ascomata; narrow, epruinose, reddish orange coloured disc; entire, non carbonized exciple and presence of stictic acid in its thallus. Graphis patula Archer from Solomon Islands is apparently close to this species but has larger ascospores of 28-40 urn long.

66 Graphis dispersa sp. nov. [Fig.: 47]

Type: India, Nicobar Islands, Kamorta, 17.1.1987, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 87.314-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus off white, rough, thin, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-6 mm long, 0.1-0.2 mm broad, black, mostly simple to rarely furcate, emergent, scattered, narrow, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, not clearly seen. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, crystals within, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 105-113 ^im high and ca, 105- 126 )im broad, sometimes inspersed with oil globules, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 6-8 sporate, 90-100 x 8-10 |im. Ascospores 12-15 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 54-67 x 6-8 |im, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen acids present.

Distribution: India (Nicobar Islands).

Remarks: Graphis dispersa appears to be closely related to the new species G. palmicola in general appearance but differs from the latter in having dispersed, narrow ascomata and much larger ascospores (more than double the length). G. palmicola has ascospores 21-29 X 4-8 ^im. The species was collected in tropical rain forest.

Specimen Examined: Nicobar Islands: Kamorta , 87.312.

Graphis disposita sp. nov. ' •^•' '

Type: India, Maharashtra Sate, Kolhapur District, on the way to Phonda ghat from Radhanagari, 12.10.2000, U.V. Makhija & V. A. Mantri, 00.262-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus creamish to buff, smooth, cracked, moderately thick, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, organized in a group of 2-3 lirellae together in an elevated wart like structure, linear, round to elongate, 0.7-2 mm long and 0.5-0.7 mm

67 broad stroma, lirellae 0.3-1.5 mm long and 0.1-0.4 mm broad, simple to branched, semi emergent to emergent, scattered all over, concolorous with obtuse ends. Disc narrow to moderately broad, reddish black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin entire, studded with crystals. Exciple orange brown, exciple present at the base, non carbonized, rarely carbonized at the tips, and converging at the apical portion, entire to sometimes striate, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top. Epithecium greenish black, 14- 18 |im thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 74-112 ^m high and 70-245 \im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 11-21 [im thick. Paraphyses simple, septate, thickened and branched at the apices. Asci 8 sporate, 88-123 x 11-14 ^m. Ascospores fusiform to oblong, 7-13 transeptate, 21-53 x 7-10 \im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+, C-, KC-, P+ yellow orange; UV-; constictic, norstictic (trace) and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra).

Remarks: Graphis disposita is characterized by its short upto 1.5 mm long lirellae aggregated in a group (not in stroma); non carbonized, entire exciple; 21-53 x 7-10 ^m ascospores and presence of constictic, stictic and norstictic acids in its thallus. This new species is distinguished from all other species of Graphis and does not belong to any known species. This has been found in moist place on the road side trees.

Graphis distincta sp. nov. [Fig.: 49]

Type: India, Andman Islands, South Andaman, Port Mount, 14.2.1985, P.G. Patwardhan, 85.26-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus grayish green, thick, distinctly cracked, warty. Ascomata lirelline, 0.2-3 mm long, simple to branched, concolorous, scattered, completely immersed, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline to brown tinged, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 63-84 ^m high and 126-189 m broad, I-, YJ\-. Hypothecium pale

68 yellowish, 16-21 [jm high. Paraphyses simple, long, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 90-100 X 8-10 |im. Ascospores 7-9-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-33 x 4-6 |im broad, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange red; UV-; stictic acid, protocetraric and constictic (trace) acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: The occurrence of protocetraric acid is uncommon in the genus Graphis. Graphis Candida Nyl. was reported to have protocetraric acid (according to annotations by Dr. M.E. Hale) which, however, has now been placed by Staiger (2002) in the genus Carbacanthographis on account of the presence of warty apices of the paraphyses. The new species, reminds very much of G. aracae Vainio but is not comparable with this species.

Graphis dumastioides Fink [Fig.: 50] Mycologia 19: 2\3, 1927.

Thallus corticolous, crustose, tightly attached to the substratum, gray-green, straminious, rough, rugose, thick, cracked, uneven. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-3.5 mm long, simple to branched, fissures in the thallus, immersed, flexuose, scattered all over the thallus, black, ends obtuse to acute. Thalline margin moderately thin, entire, concolorous with the thallus, with a distinct prosoplectenchymatous upper corticiform layer, studded with crystals, encircling exciple. Disc very narrow, sunken, usually not visible but brown when seen. Exciple complete, present at the base, converging at the apical portion, entire, covered by the thalline margin up to the top, non carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 50-90 |im high and 100-120 [im broad, 1-, KI-. Hypothecium indistinct. Paraphyses simple, unbranched thin, septate, sparsely branched. Asci cylindrical, 8-sporate, 95-110 x 8-10 ^m. Ascospores oval, hyaline, always 3-transeptate, 10-12 x 4-6 ^im, I-. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow-red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Island, Kamataka, Kerala, Nicobar Island, and Tamil

Nadu).

69 Remarks: Graphis dumastioides Fink is very much similar in morphology to G. triticea Nyl. but its ascoamta are embedded in swollen tissue (Puffs). G. insidiosa (Knight & Mitten) Hooker, is also close to this species in all morphological characters, however, which has no lichen substances.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Tugapur Range, Father Thikri, 85.2640; Lamia Bay from Kalipur, s.e. of Aerial Bay, 86.474, 86.476, 86.520, 86. 523; Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Pitcher Nala, 85.2317, 85.2377; South Andaman, Baratang Island, Bishnu Nala, 85.673, 85.685, 85.705; Baludera Mangrove forest, 85.814, 85.1120, 85.1134; Little Andaman, Krishna Nala, Netaji Nagar, 85.912. Karanataka, Udupi-Agumbe road, 77.494. Kerala: Anamali hills, Walparai, 76.409; Cardamaom hills, 5 km from Devicoloam on Kumily road, 76.698. Nicobar Island: Kamorta, 87.244, 87. 328; Great Nicoabr, Campbell Bay to Laful Bay, 87.27. Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, 75.200.

Graphis dumastioides var. salazinica var. nov. [Fig.: 51]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Pitcher Nala, 26.12.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.K. Sethy, 85.2461-Holotype (AMH) .

The specimen at hand differs from G. dumastioides Fink in having salazinic acid in its thallus. However, I do not wish to describe it as a new species based on a single, small specimen and hence it is described as a variety of G. dumastioides here.

Graphis duplicata Ach. Synops. Mehod. Lick p. 81,1814.

This species was reported by Miiller Arg. (1895) from Manipur and by Patwardhan & Badhe (1973) from Bhimashankar located in Western Ghats. However, neither I have seen the material from Manipur nor I have material in our collection matching to this species and hence not included in the present account.

70 Graphis eburneus sp. nov. IFig.: 52]

Type: India, Karnataka, Anamod Ghat, 21.10.1970, P.G. Patwardhan & P.D. Badhe, 70.70-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus offwhite, smooth, thin, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-2 mm long and 0.1-0.25 mm broad, simple, brownish black, scattered, slightly raised above the thallus, narrow, acute ends. Disc narrow to slightly broad, blackish brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, entire, apically carbonized. Epithecium thin, pale brown, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-84 nm high and 138-147 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 6-8 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, globose at the tip, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 100-110 x 10-12 nm. Ascospores 9-12- transeptate, ellipsoidal, 33-42 x 4-6 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Karnataka).

Remarks: Graphis eburneus, reminds very much of G. aphanes Mont.et v.d Bosch, however from the latter species it differs by having much smaller ascospores and by its chemical contents. G. aphanes has large ascospores of upto 100 \\.m in length and has stictic, constictic and norstictic acids in its thallus.

Graphis elegans (Smith) Ach. Synops. Method. Lick P. 85, 1814. = Opegrapha elegans Smith In Smith & Sowerboy p. 16, 1807.

Graphis elegans is characterized by its black, prominent, mostly simple lirellae; distinctly striate and laterally carbonized exciple and presence of norstictic acid in its thallus. G. elegans has been reported (Wirth & Hale 1978) to be closely related to G. rimulosa (Mont.) Trevisan in all respects of external and internal characters except for the ascospore size and chemistry. G. rimulosa has smaller ascospores( 40-50 ,m in length)

71 and has no lichen substances. G. elegans has larger ascospores (50-60 ]xm long) and has norstictic acid. (Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India, Dominica, Europe, and New Zealand

Graphis exalbida sp. nov. [Fig.: 53]

Type: Kerala, Paranthal, near Trivandrum, 26.1.1976, P.G. Patwardhan & A.V. Prabhu, 76.891-Holotype(AMH).

Thailus greenish grey, thin, smooth, cracked. Ascomata lirelline, 3-6 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm braod, concolorous, simple to branched, scattered all over the thailus, immersed, separated from the thailus by a fine crack, irregular, flexuose, round ends. Disc narrow, indistinct. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire to striate, 3-4 striae on each side, apically carbonized. Epithecium hyaline to pale yellowdsh. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 92-105 \xm high and 147-151 |im broad, I-, KI-. Hypothecium hyaline to pale, 16-21 ^m high. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 95-100 x 8-10 nm. Ascospores 6-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 33-37 x 4-6 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thailus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kerala, Maharashtra).

Remarks: The present new species differs from the Graphis exalbata Nyl., only by its corticolous thailus. G. exalbataYiyl., however; is saxicolous.

Specimens Examined: Kerala: Paranthal, near Trivandrum, 76.885, 76.888; Wyanad forest, 73.2783, 73.2790; Poonmudi, 73.2660. Maharashtra: Nerur, 75.462.

Graphis exalta sp. nov. 1^*8- 5 J

Type: India, South Andaman, Shol Bay, near Wright Myo, 20.12.1986, P.K. Sethy & P.G. Patwardhan, 86.709-Holotype (AMH).

72 Tha]lus stramineous with greenish white patches, or brownish, thin, rough, cracked, and delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, very short, 0.1-0.2 mm, simple to rarely branched, concolorous to slightly blackish brown to slightly whitish, numerous, scattered in groups, very fine, narrow, immersed, irregular, acute ends. Disc narrow, blackish brown to black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, indistinctly present below to sometimes absent, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, narrow at the apical region and broad at base, non carbonized, orange brovm. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 33-63 |am high and 80-84 \im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, pale yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 6-8 sporate, 80-90 x 6-8 |im. Ascospores always 3- transeptate, rarely 4-septate, ellipsoidal, 8-12 x 3-4 \im, I-. Chemistryr.Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: This new species Graphis exalta is easily distinguished from the other species of the group of species having 3-septate ascospores and not having fissurine ascomata, by its stramineous thallus with greenish white patches, usually short, very fine, minute, blackish brown ascomata with entire, non carbonized exciple and absence of lichen substances in its thallus.The species has been collected on road side trees in the tropical rain forests.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: Middle Andaman, Betapvir Range, Dhaninala, 85.2491.

Graphis exipuloflabillata sp. nov. 11^*8" ^^1

Type: India, Kerala, Anamalai hills, on the way to Valparai, 3.1.1982, U.V. Makhija, 82.226-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish glaucous green, or stramineous, rough, unenven, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-4 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple

73 to radiately dendroidly to irregularly branched, thin, immersed to slightly raised above the thallus, irregularly curved, scattered all over the thallus, narrow, acute to subacute to round ends. Disc black, narrow, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, raised. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to almost half of the exciple, crystal studded, multi striate, about 10 or more striae on each side, fused together, expanded at the apical region, apically carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 59-69 |am high and 63-67 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 4-8 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, filiform. Asci 6-8 sporate, 100-110 x 8- 10 |im. Ascospores 8-12 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-46 x 4-8 jam, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic and constictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Kerala, Meghalaya).

Remarks: Externally Graphis excipuloflabillata resembles Graphis treubii Zahlbr. which, however, has exciple with only 3-5 striae and has only stictic acid in its thallus. The species is also distinguished from G. endoxantha Nyl. and G. subelegans Nyl. by the exciple nature and chemistry. Both these species have abundant excipular incisions and absence of lichen substances. Another closely allied species G. sikkimensis Nagarkar & Patw. differs from the present species by the absence of lichen substances in its thallus. This species occur at higher elevations, in evergreen forests in areas getting heavy rains.

Specimens Examined: Kerala: Anamalai hills, on the way to Valparai, 200 ft., 82.194, 82.206, 82.213, 82.267, 82.303; Sholayar forest, near Sholayar Dam, 76.319; Vazachal, 76.379; Wyanad forest, Gudalur to Nilambur road, 76.75; Talcauvery, Bagmandala to Talcauvery road, 74.3377. Meghalaya: Cherapunji, 77. 833,77.869,78.511.

Graphis filiformis sp. nov. l^^'g" ^^^

Type: India, Kamataka, Jog Falls, 1.11.1971, D.N. Mhaskar, 71.54-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus whitish brown, smooth, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata distinct, black, few in number, irregularly curved, thin, slender, thread like, more than 10

74 mm long, simple to branched, ends acute. Disc narrow to moderately broad, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin thin, concolorous. Exciple entire, present at the base, convergent, laterally carbonized. Epithecium indistinct, sometimes pale brownish. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-90 ^m high and 100-130 ^m broad, I-, K/I. Asci 8 sporate, 95-110 x 10-12 ^im. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, 21-25 x 3-4 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic, connorstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka).

Remarks: Graphis intricata Fee, somewhat resembles the new species G. filiformis in internal morphology, however, G. intricata has short lirellae upto 5 mm long and slightly larger ascospores (27-30 ^m long). The species has been collected in moist deciduous forest along the waterfall.

Graphisflavens Miill. Arg. [Fig.: 57] F/ora85: 334,1882.

Tballus yellowish green, uneven, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-2.5 mm long, long, narrow, mostly simple to occasionally branched, concolorous, scattered, immersed to semiemergent, irregularly curved, flexuose, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin upto the top, crystal studded, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium brovmish, thin, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 97-105 ^m high and 100-105 \im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 8-12 nm thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform. Asci 8 sporate, 90-100 x 8-10 nm. Ascospores 14-18 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 29-63 x 8-12 ^m,

1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: Java and now India.

75 Remarks: Graphis flavens Mull. Arg. is characterized by its yellowish green thallus; narrow, simple to occasionally branched, concolorous, immersed to semi-emergent lirellae; entire, completely carbonized exciple; ascospores 29-63 x 8-12 |im and absence of lichen substances. The species, previously reported from Java, is reported for the first time from India. This species has been collected in undisturbed forest at higher elevation.

Specimen Examined: Tamil Nadu: Agasthi hills, Upper Kodayar, 84.76.

Graphis flavens var. microspora var nov. [Fig.: 58]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, near Chinnar, Munnar-Udumalpet, 19.10.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.G. Patwardhan, 85.1751-Holotype (AMH).

Specimens at hand show morphological and anatomical characters similar to Graphis flavens MUll. Arg. however, G. flavens has ascospores 29-63 ^m long and our specimens have much smaller upto 30 [im long ascospores and therefore the specimens have been kept as a variety of G. flavens. The species is found to be associated with pyrenocarpous lichens and collected in dry deciduous forests.

Specimens Examined: Karnataka: Agumbe, 76.623, 76.586, 76.587, 76.113.

Graphis flavovirens sp. nov. (Fig-: 59]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, Middle Andaman, Parlobjig Island, 23.12.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.K. Sethy, 85.2264-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus light yellowish-green, thick, minutely cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.2-16 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, simple to profusely, radiately, irreguarly branched, black, immersed, scattered, narrow, blunt to rarely acuminate ends. Disc narrow, covered by white pruina, Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thick thalline margin till top, entire, completely carbonized, expanded at the basal region. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 105-126 ^m high and 147-210 ^m

76 broad, I-, K/1-. Hypothecium indistinct. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci 8 sporate, 90-95 x 6-8 \im. Ascospores 3-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-42 x 4-8 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; constictic, and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: The new species can easily be distinguished from all other species by its yellowish green, thick thallus; long, conspicuous, black, simple radiately and proflisely branched lirellae; entire, completely carbonized exciple and having stictic and constictic acids in its thallus. Graphis subassimilis Miill. Arg. is close to the present species which, however, has much larger ascospores of 60-68 x 7-8 pm.

Graphis foliicola var. major Awasthi & Singh Norweg. J. Bot. 19: 242, 1972.

The only foliicolous species reported from India is characterized by its prominent 1-1.7 mm long, simple unbranched lirellae; laterally carbonized, complete exciple, outer margin is slightly wavy; ascospores 35-47 x 5-8 ^xm in size, (vide Awasthi, 1991). This is the only foliicolous species of Graphis found in India.

Distribution: Palni hills of India.

Graphisformosana Zahlbr. (fig.: 601 Fedde Reportorium 31: 208, 1933.

Thallus pale yellowish, to whitish, thick, distinctly cracked, irregularly warty, delimited by hypothallus, epruinose. Ascomata lirelline, 1-7 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, simple to rarely dendroidly branched, black, immersed, scattered, very few, acute narrow ends. Disc narrow, black, pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin till the top, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline to sometimes light brownish.

77 thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 109-184 |am high and 105-138 \im broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 8-12 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, unitunicate, 8 sporate, 90-100 x 8-10 |im. Ascospores 10-14 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 42-59 x 4-5 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; stictic, hyposalazinic acids present.

Distribution: Formosa and now India.

Remarks: Ascospores in Graphis formosana Zahlbr. were recorded to be 54-66 x 7-9 [im (Zahlbruckner 1933). In the specimen at hand the ascospores are infact slightly narrower. The species is found to be associated with a species of Anisomeridium.

Specimen Examined: Nicobar Island: Kamorta, 87.245.

Graphis fulvescens sp. nov. [Fig.: 61]

Type: India, Kamataka, South Canara, Hogga, foot hill of Charmudi ghat, on Mangalore- Mudigere road, 30.1.1976, C.R. Kulkami, 76.1174-Holotype (AMH) !.

Thallus offwhite, rough, cracked, unevenly thickened, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-6 mm long, simple to branched, concolorous, scattered, immersed to slightly raised above, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow to moderately broad, brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, entire, non carbonized. Epithecium indistinct, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 96-134 ^im high and 138-147 Mm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline to pale yellowish orange. Paraphyses simple, long. Asci 8 sporate, 95-110 x 8-10 ^m. Ascospores 9-12 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 29-42 x 4-6 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic, stictic, constictic and protocetraric acids present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka).

78 Remarks: The occurrence of protocetraric acid is extremely rare in Graphidaceae. The new species, Graphis distincta is the only other species having protocetraric acid in its thallus which however, has laterally carbonized exciple and is not comparable with this species. This species has been collected in dry deciduous forest.

Specimens Examined: Karnataka: Sringeri, 2 km, Sringeri-Balehonur road, 74.3196; Hebri, Agumbe-Udipi road, 74.2957, 74.2958, 74.2959, 74.2961.

Graphis furfuracea Leighton Trans. Linn. Soc. London 27: 454,1866.

Graphis furfuracea Leighton, reported from Sri Lanka is characterized by the gray, fiirftiraceous thallus; ascomata dense, oblong to linear, small, upto 1 mm long; exciple convergent, non carbonized, absent at the base; ascospores 22-36 x 12-16 urn and absence of lichen substances (Awasthi 1991). The type of this species, however was not available for my studies. G. karstenii Zahlbr. can easily be distinguished from the closely related G. furfuracea in having smaller ascospores and much longer ascomata with broad disc.

Distribution: Sri Lanka.

Graphis garoana Nagarkar & Patw. [Fig-: 62] Biovigyanam S: 126, 1982.

Type: India, Meghalaya, Garo hills, Darugiri Reserved Forest, 6.12.1978, M.B. Nagarkar, 78.387-Holotype (AMH)!.

Thallus pale green to whitish, rough, minutely cracked, verruculose, granulose. Ascomata 3-8 mm long, emergent, mostly simple rarely sparsely branched, flexuose. Disc narrow, slit like, invisible. Thalline margin concolorous, entire. Exciple entire, apically carbonized, rarely laterally carbonized, convergent. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 170-190 urn high and 290-310 ^m broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, pale yellowish.

79 Asci 8 sporate, 100-120 x 10-12 |im. Ascospores fusiform, 12-15 transeptate, 60-75 x 5- lO^im, 1+blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red. C-, KC-, P-; UV-; norstictic and salazinic acids present.

Distribution: India (Meghalaya).

Remarks: Graphis garoana Nagarkar &. Patw. is closely allied to G. exalbata Nyl. in respect of thallus morphology and chemistry, but has much smaller ascospores (23-40 ^m long) and has only norstictic acid in its thallus.

Graphis glaucescens Fee [Fig.: 63] Essai Cryptog. Ecorc. Officin. P. 36, 1824.

Thallus glaucous gray, farinose, rough, continuous. Ascomata lirelline, immersed, 1-6 mm long, concolorous, mostly simple, sparsely dendroidly branched, flexuose, emergent, acute to obtuse ends. Disc grayish, narrow to moderately broad, pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, entire. Exciple entire, present at the base, carbonized only at the tips. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 75-100 ^m high and 90-140 um, broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium pale yellowish, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 90-100 x 8-10 |im. Ascospores 9-11 transeptate, 38-46 x 6-8 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and Tropical America.

Remarks: Graphis glaucescens Fee is comparable with G. comparilis Nyl. in gross lirellae morphology; exciple nature and chemistry but differs in ascospore size. G. comparilis has smaller, 4 celled ascospores, less than 20 ^tm long.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Interview Island, Mayabandar Range, 85.2901. Kerala: Wyanad forest, 73.2783, 73.1790, 73.2802. Tamil Nadu: Palni hills, Kodaikanal, Dastoor villa, 75.360; Silver Caskade, 75.84, 75.396, 75.405.

80 Graphis glauconigra Vainio IFig.: 64] Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A, 15(6): 242, 1921.

Thallus olivaceous buff to brownish, warty, uneven, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-2 mm long, black, semi-emergent, mostly simple, rarely sparsely branched, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin entire, concolorous. Exciple present at the base, striate, 2-3 striae on each side, convergent, completely carbonized. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 180-240 |im high and 200-250 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, indistinct. Asci 4-8 sporate, 100-120 x 10-12 ^m. Ascospores 12-18 transeptate, 50-80 (-100) x 8-11 ^im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Kerala and Tanil Nadu) and Philippines.

Remarks: The species has been collected in evergreen forest of Kerala.

Specimens Examined: Kerala: Thekadi, 73.2466, 73.2474, 73.2476, 73.2479. Tamil Nadu: Palni hills, Kodaikanal, 73.1764, 73.1786, 73.1804.

Graphis grammitis Fee Essai sur les cryptogames des ecorces exoaatiques officinales p. 47, 1824.

This species is characterized by pale brown, glossy thallus; ascomata upto 10 mm long, semi emergent, irregular, simple to asteroid branched; exciple thick, pale brown, slightly convergent, covered by thick thalline tissue; ascospores 3-transeptate, 10-12 x 3- 5 jam in size and absence of lichen substances, (vide Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India, Dominica, Florida, and South America

Graphis granulata Fee Bull. Soc. Bot. France 21: 25, 1874.

81 Graphis granulata Fee is characterized by black, upto 1-3 mm long ascomata; striate, totally carbonized exciple, present at base; 1-2 sporate ascus, 88-96 x 11-13 ^m ascospores and absence of lichen substances, (vide Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (North West Himalaya) and Brazil.

Graphis guimarana Vain. (Fig.: 65] Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A. 15(6): 248,1921.

Thallus buff, smooth, cracked, tightly attached to substratum, moderately thick, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-8 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to profusely branched, flexuose, immersed to semi emergent, scattered all over,concolorous, tapering acute ends. Disc moderately broad, distinctly black, epruinose. Thalline margin entire, overarching the exciple. Exciple orange brown, smooth, present at the base, converging at the apical portion, laterally carbonized. Epithecium greenish black, 14-18 |im thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 53-67 ^m high and 140-210 nm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 14-25 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, septate, thickened and branched at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 54-56 x 11-12 ^m broad. Ascospores fusiform to oblong, 8-11 transeptate, 25-50 x 7-10 |xm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+, C-, KC-, P+; constictic (trace) and norstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu) and Philippines.

Remarks: Graphis guimarara Vain, resembles G. exalbata Nyl. in ascospore size, exciple nature and chemistry. But G. exalbata has immersed and almost concolorous lirellae and is a saxicolous species. Externally similar G. persicina Meyen & Flotow. reported from Philippines however, has no lichen substances in its thallus.

Specimens Examined: Karnataka: Haveri, Harihar road, 73.267; Bandipur forest, 73.359; Manjeshwar, near Mangalore, 76.997; Hebri, 80.513; Balehonur, 74.3240, Bangalore, Lalbag, 81.88; Nandi hills, 81.132; Kalghatgi, 77.5; Kalghatgi to Yellapur road, 77.7; Yellapur forests, 5 km from Yellapur town, 74.2529; Sringeri, 2 km from

82 Sringeri, Sringeri to Balehonur road, 74.3157; Kerala, Poonmodi, 73.2659; Kumily, 73.2279; Munnar, 73.2250. Maharashtra: Dabhole ghat, 74.1993; Hirdoshi, 74. 1979; Kamala forest, 74.610; Warandha ghat, 74.1952, 74.1969. Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, 73.1971, 73.1974, 73.1979; Silver Caskade, 75.72; Nilgiri hills, Korakundha, 73.1460; Sim's Park, Coonoor, 73.644, 73.657, 73.3088; Dodapetta, 73.3044, 73.3052, 73.3055; Gudalur, 73.313, 73.326, 73.360; Windicap, Pykara road, 73.1031; Palni hills, Kodai road, 76.589, 76.632.

Graphis homichlodes Redinger Ark.Bot.llA.{^)'. 61,1935.

Graphis homichlodes Redgr. is characterized by: thallus yellowish, ascomata 0.2- 1 mm long, immersed, simple to furcate, straight to curved; exciple brown, non carbonized, absent at the base, convergent, covered by the thalline exciple till top; ascospores 3-transeptate, 12-16 x 5-6 |im in size. No lichen substances present, (after Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (Palni hills) and Brazil.

Graphis hossei Vainio [Fig.: 66] Ann. Soc. Zool. Bot. Fenn. 1(3): 54, 1921.

Thallus gray, rough, delimited by thin hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, black, immersed to semi-emergent, simple to branched, flexuose, 0.5-4 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, indistinct. Exciple entire, indistinctly present at the base, covered by the thalline exciple till the top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-150 ^m high and 110-150 ^m across, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, yellowish. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 120- 125 X 8-10 ^m. Ascospores 15-20 transeptate, 60-80 x 8-12 \im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Nagaland, Tamil Nadu) and Siam.

83 Remarks: Graphis jlavens Miill. Arg. from Java is somewhat similar to G. hossei Vainio in respect of entire exciple, ascospore size and absence of lichen substances, however, it differs from G. hossei in having completely carbonized exciple. G. hossei also resembles G. regularis Mull. Arg. in respect of their chemistry, entire exciple and ascospores size. But the exciple in G. regularis is completely carbonized and the ascomata are smaller upto 4 mm long.

Specimens Examined: Nagaland: Tuensang, Heliphong forest, Sinha N948 (ASSAM).Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, 73.1781, 73.1812, 73.2629.

Graphis hypocrassa sp. nov. [Fig.: 67]

Type: India, Nicobar Island, Great Nicobar, Campbell Bay to Laful Bay, beach forest, 2.1.1987, P.K. Sethy & M.B. Nagarkar, 87.5-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus brownish green, thick, rough, uneven. Ascomata lirelline, very short, 1-3 mm simple to branched, concolorous, few, immersed to slightly raised, irregular, subacute to round ends. Disc narrow, not visible, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, corticiform layer till top, with crystals. Exciple complete, orange brown, indistinctly present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, entire, non carbonized.. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 63-76 jim high and 168-176 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium distinct, very thick, 40-42 |am high; pale yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 70-80 x 6-8 jim. Ascospores always 3-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 12-14 x 4-6 \xva, I-. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Nicobar Islands).

Remarks: The new species Graphis hypocrassa is very distinct and unlikely to be confused with any other Graphis of the fissurine group especially by the virtue of very thick hypothecium. G. hypocrassa has been collected in the tropical beach forest often associated Wi\h Arthothelium aphanocarpum.

84 Graphis hypolepta Nyl. [Fig-: 68] Acta. Soc. Sci. Fenn. 7: 472, 1863.

Thallus whitish gray, pale yellowish, rough to smooth, unevenly thickened, warty, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-7 mm long and ca. 0.1-0.25 mm broad, scattered, simple, dendroidly or irregularly branched, black, irregular, acute to round ends. Disc narrow, blackish brovm to black, pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple present at the base, convergent apically, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium pale brown, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 63-84 |im high and 105-126 |im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 4-6 \im thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 100-110 x 6-8 nm. Ascospores 5-7 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-25 x 4-5 \xm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substance present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Assam), Borneo and Nova Granata.

Remarks: Graphis hypolepta Nyl. apparently resembles G. tenella Ach. from which it differs in having small ascomata with entire exciple. The type material of G. tenella Ach. at Helsinki has striate labia (Wirth & Hale 1978). The species is found to be associated with member of Arthoniaceae. The species was previously reported from Borneo and Nova Granata and now being reported for the first time from India.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Dhaninala, 85.2027, 2529. Assam: Balaparai 77.1236.

Graphis illinata Eschw. in Martins Flora Brasiliense 1: 82,1833.

Graphis illinata Eschw. reported by Awasthi (1991) is characterized by 1-5 mm long ascomata, oryzaeform when young and elongate when mature, flexuose; entire, completely carbonized exciple, present at base, covered by thalline tissue; 2-4 spored asci; 9-18 transeptate, 84-132 ^lm long and 18-24 ^m broad ascospores and presence of

85 norstictic, salazinic, and stictic acids in its thallus. The material was not available for this study.

Distribution: Tropical regions of America and India (Eastern Himalaya and Palni hills in South India.

Graphis illota Miill. Arg. Hedwigia^A: 22, n95.

Graphis illota Miill. Arg. is characterized by its yellowish to brownish gray thallus; 1-4 mm long, immersed, simple to dichotomously branched, flexuose ascomata; exciple striate, 3 to many striae on each side, present below, completely carbonized, covered by thalline exciple till top and laterally expanded at base; 2-4 sporate asci, (68-) 80-120 (-160) X 10-15 urn ascospores and absence of lichen substances(vide Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu) and Brazil.

Graphis implexula Stirton Proc. Roy. Philos. Soc. Glassgow 13: 186, 1882. Type: India, Assam, leg. A. Watt, Lectotype-(BM) !

Thallus pale luteous to ochraceous, smooth, glossy. Ascomata lirelline, minute, aggregated, linear, rarely branched, immersed. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple pale brown, indistinct at the base, convergent, non carbonized. Epithecium colouriess, thin. Hymenium hyaline, I-, K/1-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate. Ascospores 3-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 12-14 x 7-8 ^m (spore size based on Stirton's observations). Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Assam).

86 Remarks: The specimen is sterile (also annotated by Awasthi and Singh, 1973). Hence this taxon is not typifiable. No other specimen of this taxon is available at BM or GLAM. Moreover, this taxon is not recollected by us from this area.

Graphis inamoena Zahlbr. [Fig-- 69] Ann. Cryptog. Exot. 1: 126, 1928.

Thallus citrine green to light green to somewhat yellow, smooth. Ascomata lirelline, 1.5-5 mm long, completely immersed, concolorous, flexuose, branched. Disc narrow, blackish, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin thick, overarching. Exciple striate, striae fused, undulate-crenulate on outer side, narrow in the apical region, present below, rounded and thick at base, completely carbonized. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 92- 113 nm high and 88-109 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Epithecium indistinct. Hypothecium hyaline to pale yellowish, thin. Paraphyses simple, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 105-110 X 8-10 [im. Ascospores fusiform, 8-12 transeptate, 32-60 x 6-8 ^m, 1+ blue violet. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, KC-, C-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Assam and Nagaland) and Java.

Remarks: The present species is distinguished from the apparently similar Graphis elegans (Smith) Ach. which has very distinct striae. In G. inamoena Zahlbr. the striae are not distinct but crenate.

Specimens Examined: Assam: on Jagi raod, 77.1331. Nagaland: Dimapur to Kohima road, 77.1378, 77.1380.

Graphis indica sp. nov. W^^-'- 70]

Type: India, Maharashtra State, Sindhudurg district, Amba, near rest house, 6.12.1974, A.V. Prabhu & M.B. Nagarkar, 74.2192-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus buff to greenish-gray, smooth, to distinctly verrucose, cracked with age, delimited by a black hypothalloidal region at the periphery. Ascomata lirelline, semi-

87 emergent, or distinctly raised above the thallus, concolorous with the thallus, woody, straight or curved, flexuose, with obtuse ends, mostly simple, rarely branched, 0.1-8 (-12) mm long and 0.1-0.5 mm broad. Disc reddish-brovm or brown, narrow slit-like to moderately open, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple orange brown to reddish-brown, present at the base, entire, to distinctly striate, with 2-4 striae on each side, often carbonized at the tips. Epithecium greenish-brown, 14-21 ^im thick. Hymenium hyaline, 53-105 ^m high and 77-95.5 \im broad. Hypothecium hyaline, 13- 20 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple long, slender, sometimes branched at apices, with colourless or brown apical cell. Asci cylindrical, 84-104 x 11-18 ixm. Ascospores 4-8/ ascus, oblong, with one end acute, 7-15 (-17) transeptate, 30-55 x 6-11 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C- KC-, P+ orange red; UV-; constictic, norstictic, and stictic acids are present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra).

Remarks: Graphis indica is one of the most dominating species in Maharashtra and appears to be restricted to this area only. The specimens were previously identified as G. nakanishiana Patw. & Kulk. (Patwardhan & Kulkami 1979) from which it can be easily distinguished especially by the presence of norstictic acid in addition to constictic and stictic acids in its thallus. Moreover the holotype specimen of G. nakanishiana has profusely branched lirellae, completely non carbonized exciple and has only stictic and constictic acids in its thallus. The species has been collected on road side trees in both moist and dry conditions.

Specimens examined: Maharashtra: Ajra to Amboli road 74.2241, 74.2251; Amboli, 76.1221, 74.1384, 74.1388, 74.1392, 74.1393, 74.1394, 74.1398, 74.1410, 74.1412, 74.1413, 74.1414, 74.1417, 74.1418, 74.1419, 74.1429, 74.1440, 74.1486, 74.1640, 74.1644, 74.1645, 74.1647, 74.1648, 74.1650, 74.2277, 74.2336, 74.2342; Amboli to Ajra road, 6 km from AmboH, 74.2260; Amboli to Sawantwadi road, 74.2301; Amba, 74.1267, 74.1341, 74.1344, 74.1331, 74.1339; Near Rest House, 74.2173, 74.2192, 74.2203; Amba to Gajapur Road, 74.2218; Amba to Gajapur road, Vishalgardh, 74.2227, 74.2230- Amboli to Sawantwadi road, 74.2241, 74.2260, 74.2266, 74.2300, 74.2301, 00.238, 00.239; Amboli to Shirgaonkar point, 00.225, 00.241; On the way from Amboli to Ajra, 00.210; Bhimashankar, 74.768, 74.832, 74.846, 74.884; Gagan Bavda, 74.1663, 74. 1665; On the way to Kumbhi from Gaganbavda, 00.344; 00.346; Phonda to Vaibhavwadi, 00.331; Radhanagari to Phonda, 00.264, 00.265, 00.266, 00.270, 00.280; Panhala, 74.1087, 74.1102, 00.381, 00.384, 00.389, 00.391, 00.477, 00.478, 00.481; near Guest house, 74.1120; Shirgaonkar Point, 00.224, 00.229,00.230; Khandala, Boma hills, 74.652; Dongarwadi, 00.131, 00.134, 00.136; Purandar fort, 73.157; Lonavala, 00.86; Sinhagad, 00.53 Warandha: Bhor to Mahad road, 74.1956; Raigad District, Kamala, 74.354, 74.359, 74.363, 74.367, 74.369, 74.365, 74.387, 74.392, 74.394, 74.397, 74.554; Kamala, 74.346, 74.357, 74.376, 74.548, 74.565, 74.569, 74.590, 74.613; Nivali village, Chiplun to Hatkhamba road, 74.1996, 74.2066, 74.2105;

Graphis induta Miill. Arg. [Fig" 71] Hedwigia 30: 185,1891.

Thallus greenish gray, thick, uneven, cracked, glossy. Ascomata lirelline,l-8 mm long, 0.1-0.2 mm broad, concolorous, simple to rarely branched, immersed to slightly raised, scattered, roimd ends. Disc very narrow, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, slightly irregular outline, thick, completely carbonized. Epithecium brownish, thin. Hymenium light orange yellowish tinged, 176- 189 |am high and 163-168 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium pale yellowish, 6-8 |im high. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 6-8 sporate, 110-120 x 10-11 ^m. Ascospores 18-21 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 96-105 x 10-12 ^m, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; norstictic and con-norstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu) and Tonkin.

Remarks: Graphis induta Miill. Arg. resembles G. congesta (Fee) Mull. Arg. in respect of external morphology and exciple nature. However, G. congesta has much smaller ascospores of 50-75 x 9-15 ^m in size and presence of only norstictic acid in its thallus. G. induta was previously reported from Tonkin and now being reported for the first time from India. In India this species has been collected in semi-evergreen forest at higher elevation.

89 Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu:Anamalai hills, Topslip, 82.142, 82.173.

Graphis inquinata (Kn. & Mitt.) Hooker [Fig^ 72] Handbook hlew Zealand Flora, p. 586, 1867. = Fissurina inquinata Kn. & Mitt. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 23: 102, 1867.

Thallus pale yellowish green to yellowish orange, smooth, uneven. Ascomata concolorous, short, 0.2-0.4 mm long, fissurine, immersed, scattered in groups of 4-5 lirellae, individually distinct. Disc slit like, narrow. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple entire present at the base, apically carbonized. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100- 150 ^m high and 90-120 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Paraphyses simple, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 60-70 X 4-6 nm. Ascospores always 3-trasnseptate, 13-15 x 4-5 |am, I-. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands) and New Zealand.

Remarks: In the fissurine allience Graphis inquinata is well differentiated from other species by its thick thallus, ascomata non gaping, and average size of the ascospores. G. triticea Nyl. is very close to this species but differ in having non carbonized exciple.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: South Andaman, Wimberliganj, Kaltang, 85.107, 87.115; Wandoor, Alexandria Island, 85.1152; Baratang Island, Lorojig, 85.289.

Graphis insidiosa (Knight & Mitten) Hooker [Figs.: 5,73] Handbook of New Zealand, Flora p. 586,1867. = Fissurina inquinata Knight & Mitten Trans. Linn. Soc. London 23: 102,1860.

Thallus yellowish green, smooth, rugose, tightly attached to the substratum, thick, cracked, uneven. Ascomata lirelline, fissurine, concolorous, 1-5 mm long, mostly simple, raised, scattered all over the thallus, distinct. Disc very narrow, pale brown,

90 epruinose. Thalline margin moderately thin, entire, concolorous, covered by a poorly developed prosoplectenchymatous upper layer, studded with crystals. Excipel smooth, entire, indistinct at the base, non carbonized, converging at the apical region and broad at the base, covered by the thalline margin up to the top. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-160 ^m high and 180-200 |im broad, I-, KI-. Hypothecium not clear. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, thin, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 60-75 x 6-8 ^m. Ascospores oval, always 3-transeptate, 12-25 x 8-10 \im broad, I-. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu), Dominica, Florida, New Zealand.

Remarks: G. insidiosa is most similar to G. triticea Nyl. from which it differs in lacking stictic acid, and having lower ascomata with a less elaborate exciple, and in a less prominently prosoplectenchymatous cortex. The two species are, however, quite similar and are most easily separated by their chemistry.

Large patches of Graphis insidiosa have been collected in moist deciduous forests in India.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Tugapur Range, Pathar Tikri, in moist deciduous forest, 85.2647; Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Pitcher Nala, 85.2437; Little Andaman, Vivekanandpur, 85.974. Karnataka: Agasthi hills. Upper Kodayar, 83.224, 83.225, 83.226, 83.227, 83.238. Tamil Nadu: KoUimalai, 85.1558,85.1559.

Graphis insularis sp. nov. [Fig-* 74]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, Middle Andaman, Guitar Island, near Long Island, 23.12.1985, P.K. Sethy & M.B. Nagarkar, 85.2158-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus yellowish to whitish gray, rough, unevenly thickened, cracked with age, ferrinaceous, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-9 mm long.

91 slender, radiately to irregularly branched, black, scattered, immersed, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, dark blackish brown, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline to pale yellowish brovm, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 75-109 ^m high and 121-159 nm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline, 12-16 ^m high. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 95-100 x 8-10 ^m. Ascospores 4-9-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-33 x 4-5 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic, constictic and salazinic acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: The new species Graphis insularis resembles in all its morphological characters with G. bakeri Vainio and G. bougainvillea Zahlbr. and appears to be an intermediated form between these two species on account of their chemical contents. G. bakeri has salazinic acid and G. bougainvillea contains stictic and constictic acids. G. insularis, however, has stictic, constictic and salazinic acids in its thallus. The was found to be associated with species of pyrenolichens, thelotremes, and Lecidea.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: Middle Andaman, Guitar Island, 85.2155, 85.2156, 85.2157, 83.2158, 85.2134, 85.2166; Parlobjig Island, 85.2262.

Graphis intermediella Stirton [Fig.: 76] Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow 11:316,1879.

Type: India, Assam, near Chinsurah, on Jack fruit tree, leg. G. Watt-Lectotype and

Isotype-(BM)!

Thallus glaucous green, cracked, or smooth, thick. Ascomata lirelline, simple, flexuose to dendroidly branched, concolorus to somewhat slaty, immersed to slightly raised above. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple entire, (± bifid in the isotype), pale brown, carbonized at the tip only, complete.

92 present at the base, convergent, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, non carbonized. Epithecium colourless, thin. Hymenium hyaline, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 90- 100 X 8-10 |im. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 30-45 x 7-10 [im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances found. Distribution: India (Assam, Orissa and Kerala).

Remarks: Graphis intermedialla Stirton is identical with G. glaucescens Fee, in respect of the morphology of the thallus and lirellae, exciple carbonization (confined only to exciple apices), ascospore size and chemistry. The type of G. glaucescens Fee has not been seen by me and hence its disposition awaits further study.

Graphis intricata Fee Essai Cryptog. Ecorc. Officin. 42, 1824.

Graphis intricata is characterized by its crowded, black, semiemergent ascomata; entire, completely carbonized exciple, 24-38 x 7-8 ^m ascospores and thallus containing constictic and norstictic acisd. The material was not available for my study. The species was reported fi-om Himalaya.

Graphis isidiza sp. nov. [Fig^ 75]

Type: India, Kamataka, Kulhalli, 4.11.2001, U.V. Makhija and A.V. Bhosale, 01.106- Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish gray, rugulose, uniform, tightly attached to substratum, cracked, epruinose, distinctly isidiate, isidia small, globose, spread all over the thallus, concolorous to slightly darker, delimited by thin brown hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 2-8 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm across, simple to dichotomously branched, slightly elevated, semiemergent, straight to irregularly curved, flexuose, all over the thallus, concolorous to slightly darker, elongate, pointed to slightly rounded at apices. Disc narrow to little open, light brownish to blackish-brown, covered with white pruina. Thalline margin moderately raised, studded with crystals, overarching the exciple.

93 concolorous. Exciple light brownish, exposed with longitudinal concolorous striae, thick, present at the base, brown, becoming blackish at the apical region only, converging at the apical portion, entire to 3-4 superficially striate, with pale streaks of thalline material between the striae, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top of exciple. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 84-126 ^m high and 169-294 [im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to pale yellowish, 12-13 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, dense, thin filiform, septate, thickened at the apices, moniliform. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 97-109 x 12-17 ^m. Ascospores fusiform, straight, rounded at the tip, 5-9 transeptate, 21-30 (-34) x 4-8 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; constictic and stictic acids (trace) present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka).

Remarks: Graphis isidifera Hale and G. patwardhanii Kulk. resemble the new species G. isidiza with respect to the presence of isidia. These species, however, differ in their exciple characters, ascospore size and chemistry. G. isidifera has non carbonized, entire exciple, ascospores always 4-locular and has norstictic acid. G. patwardhanii has multi striate exciple, ascospores 17-20 locular and has no lichen substances.

Graphis karnalensis sp. nov. [Figs.: 4,77]

Type: India, Maharashtra State, Raigad District, Kamala, 28.8.1974, M.B. Nagarkar & A.V. Prabhu, 74.524-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus whitish gray to grayish green, rough, cracked, uneven, moderately thick, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, short, 0.1-2 mm long and 0.1- 0.3 mm broad, simple to rarely branched, semi emergent, straight to curved, black, ends obtuse. Disc narrow, brown to dark brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, thin. Exciple concolorous, smooth, present at the base, converging at the apical portion, entire or with 1-3 superficial striae, non-carbonized. Epithecium brownish to greenish brovm, 10-18 ^m thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 42-70 |im high and 77-126 ^m broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline,ll-18 [im thick. Paraphyses simple, long, septate,

94 unbranched, thickened at the apices. Asci 2-8 sporate, 70-88 x 10-11 ^im. Ascospores fusiform-oblong, 9-12 transeptate, 21-60 x 5-9 ^im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; stictic, and constictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra).

Remarks: Graphis karnalensis apparently resembles G. nakanishiana Patw. & Kulk. from which, however, it differs in having black, semi-emergent, mostly simple ascomata. The species is found abundantly in Kamala. The species has been collected in moist deciduous forest, associated with Anisomeridium flavopallidum and Anisomeridium indica.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Raigad District, Kamala, on the way to Ransai, 74.353, 74.358, 74.364, 74.366, 74.368, 74.370, 74.381, 74.383; 74.386, 74.395, 74.512, 74.462, 74.524, 74.561, 74.570, 74.571, 74.572.

Graphis karstenii Zahlbr. Ann. Ciyptog. Exot. 1: 130, 1928. = Graphis batavana Zahlbr. Ann. Crypto. Exot. 1: 130, 1928.

Graphis karstenii Zahlbr. is characterized by brown, shiny thallus, 1-5 mm long ascomata; broad open disc; yellowish-brown exciple, divergent, thin at base, thick and round at the apical region, covered by the thalline exciple till the top with crystals on the outer side; ascospores 3-transeptate, 13-22 x 5-10 ^m and absence of lichen substances, (vide Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (Kamataka and Kerala) and Java.

Graphis khasiana sp.no\. l^^'S-"- I

Type: India, upper Shillong, Khasi hills, near Satmile, 2.12.1978, M.B. Nagarkar, 78.25 l-Holotype(AMH).

95 Thallus grayish green, smooth, cracked, pruinose. Ascomata lirelline, 2-4 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, simple to irregularly branched, black, immersed, scattered, narrow, acute to subacute ends. Disc narrow, black, indistinct. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin till the top, entire, slightly carbonized at the tips. Epithecium indistinct to thin, light brown. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-100 um high and 120-130 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Periphysoides short, smooth at the tips. Asci cylindrical, 6-8 sporate, 50-60 x 6- 8 ^im. Ascospores 3-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-19 x 8-10 ^im, I-. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; constictic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Meghalaya).

Remarks: This species collected in the evergreen forests at higher elevations in Meghalaya, is closely related to the previously knovm Graphis inquinata (Knight & Mitten) Hooker from which it can be easily distinguished by the presence of periphysoides. This lichen was previously reported by Nagarkar & Patwardhan (1982) as G. inquinata (Kn. & Mitt.) Hooker.

Graphis leptocarpoides sp. nov. [Fig.: 79]

Type: Nicobar Islands, Kamorta Island 17.1.1987, P.K. Sethy & P.G. Patwardhan, 87.348-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus pale glaucous green, thin, very irregularly distributed in small elongate patches, discontinuous, appears as if the thallus is flaking, rough, membranaceous epruinose. Ascomata lirelline, 1-15 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, mostly simple to rarely and sparsely branched, very few, black, immersed, acute to rounded ends. Disc very narrow, thin, not seen. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 122-126 ^m high and 113-126 m

96 broad, I-, K/1-. Hypothecium hyaline, 4-6 |am thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 100-110 x 4-8 ^im. Ascospores 10-14 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 38-46 x 4-6 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substance present.

Distribution: India (Nicobar Islands).

Remarks: Graphis leptocarpoides is distinguished by its long, thin, black, slender, slightly branched, black lirellae; exciple entire, present at the base, totally carbonized, and lacking lichen substances. The species is comparable with G. anfractuosa Eschw., on the basis of spore size and chemistry, however, G. anfractuosa has completely carbonized exciple and simple to much branched long, thin, slender ascomata. This is also close to G. sauroidea Leighton which differs from the new species only in having small ascospores of 21-34 x 4-5 |im. The species was collected in tropical rain forest of the Nicobar Islands.

Specimen Examined: Nicobar Island: Kamorta Island, 87.347.

Graphis librata Knight [Fig.: 80] Trans. & Proc. New Zealand Instit., 16: 404, 1884.

Thallus continuous, rough, smooth to plicate or wrinkled, tightly attached to substratum, buff to greenish brown, thick, delimited by black hypothallus. Ascomata round to lirelline, short, 0.1-2.5 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple, semiemergent, straight to curved, scattered all over the surface and crowded, black, obtuse ends. Disc narrow to broad, brown to blackish brown, epruinose. Thalline margin distinct, thin, encircling exciple. Exciple entire, black, exciple present at the base, and converging at the apical portion, laterally carbonized, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top. Epithecium blackish brown, 11-21 (im thick. Hymenium hyaline, inspersed with oil globules, 49-70 ^m high and 95-193 nm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 11-14 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the tips and

97 surrounded by oil globules. Asci cylindrico-clavate to cylindrical, 4-8 sporate, 53-77 x 7- 14 [im. Ascospores fusiform to oblong, 3-10 transeptate, 17-42 x 5-9 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; constictic and norstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra), Dominica, Guadeloupe, and New Zealand.

Remarks: Graphis librata is very closely related to G. leptocarpa Fee in all morphological and anatomical characters, however, G. leptocarpa has stictic acid in its thallus. The species is being reported for the first time fi-omIndia . The species is found in coastal areas of Maharashtra.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Bombay, Tulsi Lake, 74.106; Warandha, Bhor to Mahad Road, 74.1970; Dabhole Ghat, 74.2042; Nerur, 75.449, 75.450; Nivali village, Chiplun to Hatkhamba Road, 74.2129, 74.2130, 74.2132, 74.2136, 74.2142, 74.2147.

Graphis longiramea Mull. Arg. [Fig.: 81] J. Linn. Sac. Bot. 29: 225, 1892.

Type: India, Manipur, leg. G. Watt, No. 78, Lectotype-G (!).

Thallus glaucous green, grayish to pale brown, smooth, thick, tightly attached to substratum, delimited by black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 5-16 mm long and 0.1- 0.3 mm broad, simple to radiatly dichotomously branched, furcate, immersed to semiemergent, scattered all over the thallus, black, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow black, epruinose. Thalline margin distinct, entire, thin. Exciple entire, present at the base, and converging at the apical portion, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, 110-150 |im high and 180-220 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 10-12 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the tips. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 102-105 x 8-10 urn. Ascospores fiasiform-oblong, 10-18 transeptate, 45-87 x 9- 10^m, 1+blue.

98 Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Kerala, Manipur, Meghalay, Nagaland, Nicobar Islands, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal).

Remarks: Graphis longiramea Miill. Arg. is widely distributed in India and is comparable with G. aracae Vain, regarding its morphology and chemistry but differs in having smaller ascospores (less than 50 |im in length) in G. aracae.

Specimens Examined: Assam: 20 km to Bhalukpong, evergreen forest, 77.1269, 77.1272, 77.1275. Karnataka: South Canara, near Sringeri, 74.3180, 74.3188, 74.3204, 74.3205, 74.3235, 74.3353, 74.3607; Hosar ghat, 81.704. Kerala: Silent Valley, 81.762, 81.777, 82.5, 82.21; Anamalai hills, Rajmalai, 76.520. Meghalay: near Sohararim, on the way to Cherapunji, 77.866; Cherapunji road, in primary forest, 77.832; Mawsynram, 77.1143, 77.1144, 77.1145, 77.1154; Mohmtheid to Cherapunji road, 77.1012, 77.1015, 77.1016, 77.1019, 77.1020; Mawsmai, near Cherapunji, 77.1056, 77.1061; Shillong peak, 78.20; Nongstoin, Dorrangiri road, 78.15, 78.492, 78.493; 20 km to Bhalukpong, evergreen forest, 77.1277; Upper Shillong, Elephanta falls, 78.607, 78.618. Nagaland: Phek, Ketachapi forest, Sinha N 1369 (ASSAM). Nicobar Islands: Kamorta, 87.265; Sikkim, Gangatok, near Tangshi view point, 77.1922, 77.1955. Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hills, Naduvattam, elev. approx. 5000 ft. in open moist shoal forest, 78.116. West Bengal: Darjeeling, Tiger hill, 78.205

Graphis longispora Awasthi & S. Singh [Fig" S2] Norweg. J. Bot. 24: 3,1977

Thallus whitish gray, rough to verrucose, thick, tightly attached to the substratum. Ascomata lirelline, 2-9 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to branched, emergent, straight to curved, scattered all over the surface, concolorous, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thaliine margin distinct, entire, thick, overarching the exciple. Exciple entire, black, exciple present at the base, and converging at the apical portion, laterally carbonized, covered by a thick thaliine margin up to the top. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, 130-150 ^m high and 100-110 ^m broad.

99 I-, K/1-. Hypothecium hyaline, 8-10 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the tips. Asci cylindrical, 6-8 sporate, 80-110 x 10-11 |im. Ascospores fusiform-oblong, 11-27 transeptate, 44-133 x 9-16 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow-reddish, C-, KC-, P+ yellow orange; UV-; norstictic and salazinic acids present.

Distribution: India (Meghalaya and Nagaland).

Remarks: Graphis longispora, the only saxicolous species known from India can easily be distinguished and characterized by whitish gray thallus; strongly emergent ascomata; entire, black, laterally carbonized exciple; ascospores 11 -27 transeptate, very large 44- 133 X 9-16 nm ascospores.

Specimen Examined: Nagaland: Kohima, Phulabadge protected forest, Sinha N 214 (ASSAM). Th 8737

Graphis longissimea sp. nov. [Fig.: 83]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, North Andaman, Pathar Thikri, Tugapur Range, deciduous forest, 29.12.1985, P.K. Sethy & P.G. Patwardhan, 85.2715-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus stramineous, yellowish brown, unevenly thickened, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-20 mm long, 0.1 mm broad, black, simple to irregularly branched, flexuose, immersed, scattered with obtuse ends. Disc white pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, crenate at the outer side, basally broad, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 121-130 nm high and 84-105 ^im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 6-8 sporate, 110-120 x 6-8 |im. Ascospores 12-17 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 76-88 x 4-8 ^m, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; stictic, constictic acids present.

100 Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: Graphis longissimea is extremely similar to G. longula Krempelh., which is distinguished from the present species in having much smaller (up to 10 mm long ) ascomata with deeply striate exciple. The species is found to be associated with the members of Arthoniaceae and Graphidaceae.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: Tugapur Range, Father Tikri, 85.2600, 85.2631, 85.2715; South Andaman, Shol Bay, near Wright Myo, 86.696, 86.717.

Graphis marginata Raddi Mem. Mat. Fis. Soc. Ital. Sci. 18: 344,1820.

Graphis marginata Raddi has whitish to brownish gray thallus; ascomata 1-6 mm long, prominent, emergent, simple ascomata, oryzaeform when young; entire, present below, completely carbonized, convergent exciple; (11-) 18-25 transeptate, (48-) 72-120 X 9-16 (-18) ^im ascospores and presence of norstictic, constictic acids in the thallus. (videAwasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (Arunachal Pradesh, Eastern Himalaya, Kerala and Palni hills) and Brazil.

Remarks: G. longiramea Miill. Arg. differs from G. marginata in having laterally carbonized exciple and containing stictic acid.

Graphis meghalayensis sp. nov. W^?,-'- 84]

Type: India, Meghalaya, Wiloe, 30.10.1977, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 77.1115-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus olivaceous, rough, thin, warty, verruculose. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-6 mm long, mostly simple to rarely branched, concolorous, scattered, semiemergent, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple

101 complete, present below, convergent, spreading at the apical region, covered by a thalline exciple till top. multistriate, striae not separated from each other, apically carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 60-75 [im high and 80-90 |am broad, 1-, K/1-. Hypothecium thin, pale orange. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 120-130 x 8-10 |im . Ascospores 24-30 transeptate, long, ellipsoidal, 84-93 x 3-4 [xm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic, and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India.

Remarks: The new species Graphis meghalayensis resembles with respect to the multistriate exciple and over all morphology with Graphis proserpens Vainio, and G. persulcata Miill. Arg. Both of which, however, differ from the present taxon by completely carbonized exciple and not producing lichen substance. Another close species namely G. endoxantha Nyl. differs in producing only norstictic acid in its thallus.

Graphis modesta Zahlbr. apud Rechinger [Fig.: 85) In Denkschrift. Math.-naturw. KJ. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 88: 19,1911.

Thallus glaucous gray to olivaceous, smooth, thick. Ascomata lirelline, black, semiemergent to emergent, simple, curved, flexuose, 1-8 mm long, obtuse ends. Thalline margin distinct, concolorous. Disc narrow, slit like to slightly broad, black, pruinose. Exciple entire, present at the base, laterally carbonized, convergent, covered by thalline exciple till top. Epithecium indistinct, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-90 |im high and 100-130 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline to pale yellowish. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 70-80 x 8-10 ^m. Ascospores 5-8 transeptate, 20-38 x 5-8 \im, 1+

blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; constictic and stictic acids

present.

Distribution: India (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) and Bougainvilla Island.

102 Remarks: Graphis bougainvillea Zahlbr. and G. modesta which were described from the same locality seems to be identical in all characters. However, the types have not seen by me. Therefore they are treated separately in the present work.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: Litle Andaman, South bay, 85.993. Nicobar Islands: Kamorta Islands, Daring, 87.371.

Graphis nagalandica Singh & Sinha [Fig-: 86] Lichen Flora of Nagaland p. 95, 1994.

Type: India, Nagaland State, Wokha district, Vonkshong peak, ah. 1500 m, 29.10.1984, G.P. Sinha N 744-Holotype (ASSAM) !

Thallus gray, smooth to slightly uneven. Ascomata lirelline, concolorous, 8-15 mm long, 0.4-0.5 mm broad, simple to branched, curved, semi emergent to distinctly emergent, round to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, pale brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, thick. Exciple heavily crenate, dentate outside with nvmierous projections, non carbonized, studded with crystal in between the incisions. Epithecium indistinct, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 105-170 fim high and 150-170 [im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline. Paraphyses simple, thin, unbranched. Asci cylindrical, 4-8 sporate, 120-130 x 25-35 ^m. Ascospores 10-25 transeptate, (45) 52-122 x 8-12 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; norstictic acid and an unidentified spot at Rf class 3 in BDA.

Distribution: India (Nagaland).

Remarks: This species is characterized by very large lirellae with thick, subverrucose margin; complete, non carbonized, hyaline to yellowish brown and much dissected exciple; large 52-122 x 8-12 ^m ascospores and norstictic acid and an unidentified spot at Rf0.3inBDA.

103 Graphis nakanishiana Patw. & Kulk. [Fig- 87] Norweg. J. Bot. 26: 46-47, 1979.

Type: India, Karanataka, South Canara, Sringeri, C.R.Kulkami & A.V. Prabhu, 74.3288 (AMH)!

Thallus greenish glaucous to pale olivaceous buff, continuous or cracked, smooth. Ascomata semi-emergent to emergent, concolorous with the thallus or pale woody brown, flexuose to dendroidly branched, 2.0-7.0 mm long, ends subobtuse to acute. Disc narrow, slit-like. Thalline margin raised, partly covering the exciple, concolorous with the thallus. Exciple entire or indistinctly striate, convergent, crimson red to slaty, completely non-carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 120-180 |im high and 150-200 |im broad, I-, K/I-. Paraphyses simple, thin, unbranched. Asci cylindrical, 4-8 sporate, 90-110 x 6-8 \im. Ascospores 8-10 (-15) transeptate, 30-40(-60) x 6-9 ^im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ orange red; UV-; constictic, norstictic (trace) and stictic, acids present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Kerala).

Remarks: Graphis aphanes Mont. & v.d. Bosch is comparable to Graphis nakanishiana in respect of exciple, chemistry, and external morphology, but differs in having larger ascospores (80-100 ^m long).

While describing this species a large number of specimens were kept under this name by Patwardhan & Kulkami (1979). Careful examination of these specimens has resulted into the segregation of 4 new species namely Graphis indica, G. norindica, G. amboliensis and G. aphanescens which have been descibred separately in this work.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Amboli, 74.1388, 74.1431, 74.1515, 74.1641, 74.1649, 74.2278; Bhimashankar, 74.907; Nanapali, 74.2386; Panhala, 00.483.

104 Graphis nematoides Leighton Trans. Linn. Soc. London 27: 176,1869.

Type: Ceylon, Dolsbagey, G.H.K. Thwaites, CL 152, Lectotype-(BM)!

Thallus gray olivaceous, cracked, rough, dull, thick. Ascomata lirelline, simple, flexuose to dendroidly branched, white, emergent. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple entire, laterally carbonized, complete, present at the base, convergent. Epithecium colourless, thin. Hymenium hyaline, I-, K/I- .Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate. Ascospores 4-5 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 18-24 x 5-7 |im. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow. TLC not done.

Distribution: Ceylon.

Remarks: Graphis nematoides apparently resembles G. afzelii Ach. Both possess white, emergent Iirellae, partially carbonized exciple and smaller ascospores (less than 25 |im length). However, G. afzelii differs from G. nematoides in producing lecanoric acid. Even though the ascospore size in both taxa is similar G. afzelii has always four locular ascospores.

Specimens Examined: Ceylon: South of the Island, leg G.H.K. Thwaites, CL. 151. (BM).

Graphis nerurensis sp. nov. [Figs.: 16,18, 88]

Type: India, Maharashtra, Nerur, 16.3.1975, A.V. Prabhu, 75.489-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus whitish gray, finely cracked, smooth to uneven, moderately thick, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-6 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to dendroidly branched, immersed to semiemergent, scattered all over, concolorous, acute ends. Disc narrow, slit like, blackish, covered with white pruina. Thalline margin entire, overarching the exciple. Exciple smooth, present at the base.

105 and converging at the apical portion, entire to 2-4 striate, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, carbonized at the tips. Epithecium brown, 10-18 ^m thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 70-98 |im high and 105-122 |am broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to yellowish, 14-21 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, septate, unbranched. Asci cylindrical, 4-8 sporate, 75-80 x 10-12 |^m. Ascospores fiisiform-oblong, hyaline, with 7- 11 transeptate, 21-49 x 5-10 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; consalazinic, constictic, con- norstictic and norstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra).

Remarks: Graphis nerurensis differs from the most closely related with the new species G. exalbida in having constictic, consalazinic and connorstictic acids in addition to the norstictic acid in its thallus. G. exalbida has only norstictic acid in its thallus. G. exalbata Nyl. is identical in all morphological and anatomical characters differs from the present species especially by its saxicolous habit.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Nerur, 75.451, 75.452, 75.463, 75.488, 75.504.

Graphis nigrocarpa sp. nov. [Fig.: 89]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Kollimalai, 15.10.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.G. Patwardhan, 85.1526-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus green, flaking, cracked, thick. Ascomata lirelline, 1-6 mm long, 0.1 mm broad, black, simple to triradiately branched, irregular, flat to slightly raised above, scattered, obtuse ends. Disc narrow to slightly broad, dark blackish brown. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 150-160 ^m high and 200-210 nm broad, I, K/1-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 100-105 x 8- 12 nm. Ascospores 9-13 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 50-71 x 8-12 ^m, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic acid present.

106 Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present new species seems to be similar to Graphis tenuescens Nyl. from which it differs in having 8 sporate asci. In G. tenuescens the asci are 1-2 sporate. This new species is associated with the pyrenocarps.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Kollimalai, 85.1525, 85.1636, 85.1637.

Graphis nigrocarpa var elongata van nov. [Fig.: 90J

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Munnar to Kodai, 24.1.1976, M.B. Nagarkar & K.D. Gole, 76.623-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish green to yellowish buff, unevenly thickned, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-8 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, black, simple to irregularly branched, immersed to slightly raised, scattered, acute to subacute ends. Disc very narrow, indistinct. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, crystals within, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear to sometimes crystals seen within, 126-168 |j.m high and 84-168 |im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 6-8 \xm high. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 4-6 sporate, 90-105 X 10-12 \xm. Ascospores 8-14 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 33-63 x 4-6 ^m, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: Graphis nigrocarpa var. elongata differs from G. nigrocarpa in having much larger (up to 9 mm long) ascomata and has narrower ascospores. Other characters are more or less identical.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Munnar to Kodai, 76.623, 76.586, 76.587, 76.113.

107 Graphis nigroglauca Leighton [Fig- 91] Trans. Linn. Soc. London 27: 174, 1869.

Type: Ceylon, Central Province, leg. G.H.K. Thwaites, CL 82, Lectotype-(BM) !

Thallus pale olivaceous buff to pale citrine green, cracked, rough, thick. Ascomata lirelline, simple, flexuose, unbranched, black, distinctly emergent. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple entire, present or indistinct at the base, convergent, completely carbonized. Epithecium colourless, thin. Hymenium hyaline, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 95-100 x 6-8 |im. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 30-50 x 6-10 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; constictic, norstictic, and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Nagaland) and Ceylon.

Remarks: Graphis nigroglauca is comparable with G. capillacea Stirton in exciple nature and ascospores size. But G. capillacea differs in having semi-emergent, branched ascomata and produces salazinic acid in addition to norstictic and stictic acids.

Specimen Examined: Nagaland: Phek, Ziphu-Phokhungri track, at 4 km point, Sinha N 1679 (ASSAM).

Graphis nilgiriensis sp. nov. [Fig^ 92]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri hills, Naduvattam, in Shola forest, app. 5000 ft., 25.2.1978, P.O. Patwardhan, 78.109-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus yellowish green, thick, smooth, glossy, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-5 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, simple to branched, black, raised, scattered, narrow, with acute to subacute ends. Disc narrow to somewhat broader. Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, indistinct at

108 the base, convergent, covered by a thick thalline margin till top, striate, 5-6 striae on each side, striae fused, much expanded at the apical region, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 60-70 ^m high and 120-149 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 90-100 x 10-12 |am broad. Ascospores 9-13 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 38-42 x 4-6 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UY-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present species is characterized by its stramineous thallus; conspicuous, black, narrow, semi-emergent ascomata; striate, completely carbonized exciple; 38-42 ^m long ascospores and presence of stictic acid. It resembles to Graphis proserpens Vainio in gross morphology, but differs from the latter in having completely carbonized exciple and less number of striae. G. proserpens has partially carbonized and multistraite exciple. G. persulcata Stirton, which resembles closely to the present species, however, lacks lichen substances.

Graphis norindica sp. nov. [Fig.: 93]

Type: India, Maharashtra, Bhimashankar, 29.9.1974, M.B. Nagarkar & C.R. Kulkami, 74.784-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus grayish white to buff, glaucous, thin, smooth to cracked, sometimes warty, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-9 mm long and 0.5 mm broad, simple to rarely branched, sulcate, immersed to semi-emergent, straight to irregularly curved, flexuose, scattered, concolorous, with tapering acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, dark brown, 0.1-0.2 mm broad, epruinose. Thalline margin entire, concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, converging at the apical portion, internally striate, non carbonized, to rarely carbonized at tips. Epithecium dark brown to greenish brown, 14-18 jam thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 53-81 \xm high and 158-210 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 10-18 |im thick. Paraphyses simple, long.

109 thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the apices, occasionally branched at the tips. Asci 2-8 sporate, 81-84 x 10-11 fam. Ascospores 7-14 transeptate, 25-56 x 7-8 i^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+, C-, KC-, P+; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra)

Remarks: Graphis norindica is very much similar to G. aphanes Mont et v.d. Bosch in its morphology and anatomy but differs from G. aphanes in having only norstictic acid. G. aphanes has stictic, constictic and norstictic acids in its thallus. G. indica another new species from Maharashtra is close to G. norindica in exciple characters, ascospores size, but has constictic, norstictic and stictic acids in its thallus. The present new species is found in dry deciduous forest and collected from the Maharashtra only.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Amba, 74.1336, 74.1644; Bhimashankar 74.773, 74.778, 74.786, 74.815; 00.137; Mahabaleshwar, Dhobighat, 74.76; Malshej Ghat, Neemgiri, 02.16, 02.20, 02.21, 02.22,02.29, 02.30; Sinhagad, 00.52.

Graphis occulta sp. nov. [Fig.: 94]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Chitteri, 14.10.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.G. Patwardhan, 85.1446-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus grayish white, thin, smooth, cracked. Ascomata lirelline, 0.3-0.4 mm long, short to occasionally long, simple to radiately branched, crowded and intermingled, concolorous, scattered, totally immersed, acute ends. Disc narrow to moderately broad, blackish brown in dry condition when wet becomes dark cheery red, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, orange yellow, present below, convergent to divergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, non carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 40-45 ^m high and 80-90 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 6-8 sporate, 80-90 x 8-10 nm. Ascospoes 5-7 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-29 x 4-8 nm, 1+ blue.

no Chemistr)': Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-: UV+ yellow fluorescence; constictic, lichexanthone, and norstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: Graphis occulta is characterized by minute upto 0.4 mm long, concolorous, simple to radiately branched, immersed ascomata; disc cherry red to blackish brown; entire, orange yellow exciple; 21-29 x 4-8 ^im ascospores and presence of lichexanthone with norstictic and stictic acids.

Graphis occulta appears to be most similar to the UV+, lichexanthone containing species from Florida namely G. anguinoides (Harris 1995) from which it differs in having norstictic and stictic acids in addition to lichexanthone.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Chitteri, 85.1372, 85.1415, 85.1416, 85.1425.

Graphis occulta var. areolata var. nov. [Fig.: 95]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Kollimalai, 15.10.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.G. Patwardhan, 85.1500-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus whitish buff, smooth, verrucose, aereolate, distinctly cracked,. Ascomata lirelline, 0.2-0.6 mm long, short, concolorous, scattered in groups, completely immersed, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, non carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear to sometimes crystals within, 50-60 ^m high and 100-120 nm broad, I-, K/1-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 80-88 x 8-12 Hm Ascospores 5-7-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 12-25 x 3-4 urn, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV+ yellow fluorescence, lichexanthone present; norstictic (trace) acid present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Ill Remarks: The specimen at hand is identical in all respects with the new species Graphis occulta, from which it differ in having distinctly areolate and verrucose thallus containing only norstictic (trace) acid in addition to lichexanthone.

Graphis pallidomaculata sp. nov. [Fig.: 96]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, South Andaman, Baratang Island, Nilambur Forest Guest House, 20.12.1985, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 85.437-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus brown, thick, rough, rugose, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.3-2 mm long, simple to branched, concolorous, in scattered whitish patches, immersed, fissurine, irregular, flexuose, acuminate, pointed hair like ends. Disc narrow, slit like, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple absent below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, broad and flattened at the basal region, non carbonized, orange brown. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 30-45 jim high and 75-81 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, pale yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, slender. Asci unitunicate, 8 sporate, 60-70 x 10-13 \im. Ascospores always 3- transeptate, ellipsoidal, 10-12 x 3-4 )im, 1+ blue. Chemistry:.Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Island).

Remarks: Graphis pallidomaculata is very well distinguished from the other species of Graphis having 4-locular ascospores, by its short ascomata (upto 2 mm long) grouped in whitish patches.

Specimen Examined: Andaman Islands: South Andaman, Baratang, Nilambur, 85.430.

112 Graphis palmicola sp, nov, [Fig-: 97]

Type: India, Nicobar Islands, Kalchal, Beach forest, on coconut tree, 30.12.1986, P.K. Sethy &. P.G. Patwardhan, 86.820-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus grayish white, smooth, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-6 mm long, 0.1-0.2 mm broad, black, almost always simple to rarely sparsely branched, emergent, scattered, acute to obtuse ends. Disc broad, blackish red, boat shaped, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, crystals within, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear to sometimes inspersed with crystals, 120-150 ^m high and 170-200 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 4-6 sporate, 70-90 x 10-12 |am. Ascospores 4- 12 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-29 x 4-8 ^m, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Nicobar Islands).

Remarks: On account of the morphology of the ascomata and general appearance this new species somewhat resembles G. assimilis Nyl which has black disc, larger ascospores of 23-40 (-54) ^m in length and has norstictic acid in its thallus. Externally similar G. sauroidea Leighton differs from the present taxon by the striate exciple and much larger ascospores. The associated species belongs to Arthoniaceae and some members of Graphidaceae.

Specimen Examined: Nicobar Islands: Katchal, 86.821.

Graphis parvicarpa sp. nov. l''8" ^^1

Type: India, Andaman Islands, South Andaman, Baratang Island, Nilambur, 20.2.1985, P.G. Patwardhan, 85.368-Holotype (AMH).

113 Thallus yellowish gray, buff, olivaceous, smooth, slightly glossy, unevenly thick, wrinkled, folded, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.1-1 mm long and 0.25 mm broad, simple, blackish brown, scattered, semi-immersed, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like, brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple indistinct below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, broad and flattened at the basal region, non carbonized, yellowish. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 50-63 |am high and 134-147 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, pale yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 60-85 x 10-12 |am broad. Ascospores always 3-transeptate rarely 4-septate, ellipsoidal, 12-16 x 3-4 |im, \+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: This new species having minute ascomata of 0.1-1 mm in length is distinctly distinguished by its yellowish gray to olivaceous, glossy and plicate thallus; ascomata blackish brovm; entire, non-carbonized exciple; ascospores 12-16 x 3-4 \im and the absence of lichen substances.

The closely related species Graphis canlaonensis Vainio differs from G. parvicarpa in having stictic acid and G. chrysocarpoides Vainio differs from this in having whitish gray thallus and having fissurine ascomata. The species has been found associated with Parmentaria nilamburenis and unidentified species ofRelicina.

Graphis patwardhanii Kulk. [Fig- 99] Biovigyanam 3: 115-116, 1977.

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri hills, Ootacamund to Kottagiri Road, 5 kms from Dodapetta diversion, A.V. Prabhu and M.B. Nagarkar-74.3534 (AMH) !.

Thallus brownish yellow, rough, uniform, continuous, tightly attached to substratum, cracked in between, distinctly isidiate, isidia simple or coralloid, globose.

114 delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 2-6 mm long and 0.1 mm across, simple to dendroidly branched, immersed to semiemergent, straight to irregularly curved, flexuose, grouped together in spots, black, pointed at apices. Disc very narrow, slit like, not distinct, epruinose. Thalline margin moderately raised, not overarching the exciple, entire, concolorous with the thallus. Exciple brownish, smooth, thick, present at the base, carbonized at the apical portion and frequently extends to the lateral sides, distinctly striate with 3-5 striae on each side, frequently with pale streaks of thalline material between the striae, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the half of exciple, convergent. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 101-105 ^m high and 84- 105 |im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 13-17 \im thick. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, dense, thin filiform, septate, sparsely branched, thickened at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 6(-8) sporate, 84-93 x 16-18 ^m. Ascospores fiisiform, straight, 12-17 transeptate, 59-97 (-101) x 8-13 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, UV-; no lichen substances detected.

Distribution: India ( Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: Graphis patwardhanii Kulk., is abundantly found at higher elevations in Nilgiri and Palni hills situated in western ghats of south India, is among the few Graphis species which have isidiate thallus. Graphis isidifera Wirth &. Hale from Dominica is distinguished from this species by entire, non carbonized exciple, 4-locular ascospores and presence of norstictic acid in its thallus.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hills, Sim's Park, Coonoor, 73.647, 73.831; Pyakara, Windicap, 73.958, 73.976, 73.1142, 73.1149, 73.1154, 73.1186, 73.1188, 73.1193, 73.1199, 73.1200, 73.1201, 73.1202, 73.1207, 73.1209, 73.1218, 73.1221, 73.1224, 73.1230, 73.1246; Ootacamund, Govt. Botanical Garden, 73.1248, 73.1267, 73.1274; Dodapetta, 73.3040, 73.3041, 73.3043, 73.3045, 73.3048, 73.3050, 73.3051, 73.3054, 73.3056, 73.3057, 73.3059; on the way to Dodabetta, 82.383; Korakundha, 73.1479, 73.1483; Ootacamund to Kottagiri Road, near Dodapetta diversion, 74.3487, 74.3505, 74.3535, 74.3565; Palni hills, Kodaikanal, 75.71, 75.223, 75.305, 75.338, 75.347,75.368,75.419.

il5 Graphis persicina Mayen and Plot. |Fig" 100] hi ova Ada Acad. Leopoldin. Carolin. 19: 229, 1843.

Thallus greenish gray, smooth, thin, sometimes delimited by thin hypothallus. Ascomata black, semiemergent, 0.5-3.0 mm long, simple to rarely branched, curved, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like, blakish. Thalline margin concolorous, raised upto the half of the exciple. Exciple entire, present at the base, laterally carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-125 urn high and 120-170 f^m broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to pale yellowish, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 90-100 x 12-14 |jm. Ascospores 8-11 transeptate, 21-48 x 4-6 |am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances.

Distribution: India (Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu) and Philippines.

Remarks: Graphis intermediella Stirt. is comparable in respect of exciple nature, ascospore size and chemistry with G. persicina but differs in having immersed and concolorous ascomata. G. guimarana Vain, differs from the present species in producing norstictic acid only and thus can be considered as the norstictic acid containing counterpart of G. persicina.

In India this specis occurs in evergreen forests of higher elevation.

Specimens Examined: Kerala: Cardamom hills, Kumily road, 76.848; Munnar road, app. 40 km from Kodaikanal, 73.2144, 73.2145. Nagaland: Dimapur to Kohima road, Dhipimi, 77.1411; Mon, Chenloiosho forest, Singh & SinhaN 4204 (ASSAM). Sikkim: Gangatok, Near Tangtshi View Point, 77.1963; Tamil Nadu: Coonoor, Sim's Park, 73.876; Munnar road, 73.2146, 73.2147; Dodapetta, 73.471,73.483; Dodapetta to Ootacamund, 73.3052, 73.3058; Kodaikanal, 73.1644, 73.1700, 73.1702, 73.1719, 73.1807, 73.1813, 73.1983, 73.1988, 73.1996, 73.2002, 73.2007; Kodai road, 76.585, 76.633; Kodai to Munnar road, 10 km to Berijam Lake, 75.182; Nilgiri hills, Pykara, 73.1045. 73.1046, 73.1056; Poonmudi, 76.2622, 76.2635, 73.2652, 73.2655; Peermade, 73.2581; Pykara road, Windicap, 73.938, 73.939; 73.1048, 73.1219, 73.1220, 73.1226, 73.1229; Kottagiri road, 15 km from Ooty, 74.3557; Ootacumund, 76.849; Ootacmund,

116 Govt. Botanical Garden, 73.1238, 73.1442; West Bengal, near Kurseong, Chatapani, 77.1719.

Graphis persulcata Stirton [Fig-: 101] Proc. Roy. Philos. Soc. Glassgow 11: 315, 1879.

Type: India, Nilgiris, leg. A. Watt-Lectotype (BM)!.

Thallus olivaceous buff to citrine green, thick. Ascomata lirelline, black, semi emergent to distinctly emergent, 0.5-3 mm long, mostly simple, occasionally branched, acute to subacute ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, thin. Exciple striate, complete, present below, 3-4 striae on each side of the exciple, completely carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-100 |im high and 100-130 [im broad. Hypothecium thin, hyaline to yellowish, I-, K/I-. Asci 8 sporate, 100-110 x 12-14 |am. Ascospores 30-45 x 7-8 um, 1+ blue. Chemistry: K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Kerala,Tamil Nadu) and Australia.

Remarks: Graphis persulcata is one of the few examples of Australia-Asia disjunct distribution.

Specimens Examined: Karnataka: Sirsi jog road, near Jog, 74.2789. Kerala: Cardamaom hills, Devicolam, Kumily road, 76.705, 76.707, 76.709, 76.710; Thekadi, 73.2408, 73.2479. Tamil Nadu: Nilgiri hills, Dodabetta, 73.469; near Berijam lake, 75.157, 75.165, 75.181, 75.202.321.

Graphis proserpensV ainio [Fig" 102] Bot. Tidsskr. 29(2): 132, 1909.

Thallus pale greenish gray to yellowish green, smooth, slightly glossy. Ascomata lirelline, distinct, black, 1-4 mm long, emergent, simple to dichotomously branched, furcate, acute ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, thin.

117 Exciple striate, present at base, 2-3 internal striae on each side, slightly expanded in the upper region, carbonized at the tip of striae. Epithecium hyaline, thin, Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-100 ^m high and 120-130 |im broad, 1-, Kyi-. Hypothecium hyaline to yellowish, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 80-95 x 10-12 |im broad. Ascospores 10-14 transeptate, 26-38 X 4-8 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substance present.

Distribution: India (Eastern and Western Himalaya, Manipur, Nagaland), Brazil, China, Indonesia, and Japan.

Specimen Examined: Nagaland: Kohima, Near Jakhama, Sinha N 1524 (ASSAM). West Bengal: Dargeeling, Tiger hill, 78.204.

Graphis pyrrhocheiloides (Vain.) Zahlbr. [Fig.: 103] Cat. Lick Univ. 2: 321, 1924. = Graphis pyrrhochelia Vain. Hedwigia 66: 179, 1907.

Thallus brownish gray to greenish gray, thick, smooth to distinctly, finely cracked, tightly attached to substratum, surrounded by thin, black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline to round, concolorous, 0.5-6 mm long and 0.5 mm broad, simple to rarely branched, immersed, flush with the thallus, flexuose, scattered, ends obtuse. Disc broad, blackish to chestnut red, 0.25-0.6 mm broad, epruinose. Thalline margin entire, studded with crystals, overarching exciple. Exciple entire, present at the base or sometimes absent, converging to moderately divergent at the apical portion, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium brovm to blackish brovm, 17-28 |jm thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 87-116 pm high and 175-350 pm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium yellowsish to colourless, 17-70 pm thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 2-8 sporate, 96-109 x 13- 17 pm. Ascospores fusiform-oblong, 8-16 transeptate, 18-67 x 5-11 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic acid present.

118 Distribution: India (Maharashtra) and Siam.

Remarks: The species is close to Graphis inamoena Zahlbr. in respect of anatomy, ascospore size and chemistry, however, it differs in the nature of exciple. Graphis inamoena has carbonization only at the tip. The species is associated with Pertusaria.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Bhimashankar, 97.14, 97.17; Dabhole ghat, 74.1992; Ganpati Pule, 74.2045; Vishalgad, 74.2207.

Graphis rigidula Miill. Arg. [Fig.: 104] Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique 30: 78, 1891.

Thallus buff to off white, smooth, thin, finely cracked. Ascoamta lirelline, 305 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to irregularly branched, scattered, black, immersed to slightly raised above the thallus, thin, acute ends. Disc light brovm, narrow to slightly broad, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple entire to sometimes rarely striate, 1-2 striae on each side, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 70-105 ^m high and 112-175 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium yellowish to pale orange, 10-15 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform. Asci cylindrical, 6-8 sporate, 90-110 x 8-12 ^m. Ascospores 7-15 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 25-56 x 8-12 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu), Costarica, and Dominica.

Remarks: Graphis rigidula is extremely similar to G. longula Kremelph. in almost all morphological characters. However, G. longula has sunken ascomata, without exciple at base and having larger ascospores (40-) 70-90 x 9-13 ^m. This is a new record to India.

Specimen Examined: Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, 73.1847.

119 Graphis rimulosa (Mont.) Trevisan [Fig- 105] SpigheePaglie\h\^S2. - Opegrapha rimulosa Mont. Ann. Sci. Nat., Bot. 2,18: 271, 1842.

Thallus whitish gray to pale greenish-gray, thick. Ascomata lirelline, black, 4-7 mm long and 0.2-0.3 mm broad, simple to rarely branched, semi emergent, flexuose, scattered, obtuse to round ends. Disc narrow, black epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple striate, 4-5 striae on each side, present at the base, completely carbonized, converging at the apical portion, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-110 \xm high and 120-140 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium colourless, 8-10 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate, thickened at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 96-109 x 13-17 |im. Ascospores fusiform-oblong, 10-14 transeptate, (-24) 30-45 (-50) x 5-9 jxm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (N.W. Himalaya, Nagaland), South America and tropical regions of the world.

Remarks: Graphis rimulosa (Mont.) Trevisan is comparable with G. duplicata Ach. on the basis of striate, completely carbonized exciple and absence of lichen substances. However, Graphis duplicata differs from the present species in having smaller ascospores of 27-30 nm in length.

Specimen Examined: Nagaland: Tuensang, Kiphire-Kohima road, at 3 km point, Sinha N 1111 (ASSAM).

Graphis rimulosa var.parallela Miill. Arg.

Type: Manipur, leg. G. Watt, field No. 6982, Lectotype-(BM)!

Thallus dark olivaeous buff, smooth. Ascomata lirelline, simple, flexuose, unbranched, black, distinctly emergent. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin

120 concolorous with the thallus. Exciple striate, present at the base, convergent, completely carbonized. Epithecium colourless, thin. Hymenium hyaline, 1-, K/l-. Hypothecium hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate. Ascospores not seen. Chemistry: K+ yellow-red, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Remarks: The above specimen was found sterile. Muller Arg. (1892), neither in the original publication nor on the specimen sheet, has given any information about ascospores. I am not aware if there is any duplicate specimen of this taxon in BM. This is different from Graphis rimulosa in having ascomata 0.5-4 mm long, subparallely disposed, straight to flexuose; ascospores 8-10 transeptate, 32-40 x 7-8 |am in size.

Distribution: India (Manipur).

Graphis sauroidea Leighton [Fig.: 106] Trans. Linn. Soc. London 25: 452,1860.

Thallus grayish green, rough, unevenly thickened to distinctly verrucose, distinctly cracked. Ascomata lirelline, 3-5 mm long, 0.1.-0.2 mm broad, black, simple to branched, emergent, round ends. Disc black, narrow. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium distinct pale brown, thin. Hymenium hyaline to brownish tinged, clear, 130-140 [im high and 168-315 \im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 100-110 x 8- 12 |im. Ascospores 3-6 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-34 x 4-5 nm, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances.

Distribution: India (Sikkim) and Tropical region.

Remarks: Graphis sauroidea is close to G. persicina Meyen & Plot, in exciple characters, ascospores size and chemistry, but differs from G. persicina in having verrucose thallus and emergent ascomata.

121 Specimens Examined: Sikkim: Gangtok, near Tangshi View Point, 77.1953, 77.1963.

Graphis scariosa sp. nov. [Fig.: 107]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, Middle Andaman, Long Island, on the way to Lalaji, 22.12.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.G. Patwardhan, 85.2120-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus greenish-stramineous, rough, thick, cracked, somewhat wrinkled, unevenly thickened. Ascomata lirelline, 1-4 mm long, slender, irregularly branched, flexuose, concolorous, scattered, immersed to slightly raised, acute ends. Disc narrow, light brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, corticiform layer distinct, entire, non carbonized, woody brown. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100- 109 |am high and 142-147 fim broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline, 12-16 ^m high. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 120-125 x 10-12 \xm. Ascospores 15-22-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 63-88 x 6-8 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic, salazinic, constictic (trace) acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: The new species is characterized by its bright green, stramineous, somewhat wrinkled thallus; concolorous, immersed to slightly raised ascomata; non carbonized, entire exciple; 63-83 ^m long ascospores and having constictic, salazinic and stictic acids in its thallus. The species is associated with Porina.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: Middle Andaman, Long Islands, on the way to Lalaji, 85.2116, 85.2120; Betapur Range, Pitcher Nala, in evergreen forest, 85.2357.

Graphis schiffnerii Zahlbr. Ann. Cryptog. Exot. 1: 127, 1928.

122 Graphis schiffneri Zahlbr., is characterized by yellowish thallus; short upto 1 mm long, immersed, simple to branched ascomata; 2-3 striate, completely carbonized exciple, present at the base; 24-32 x 7-9 ^m ascospores and presence of norstictic acid, (vide Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (North West Himalaya) and Java.

Graphis schizograpta Mull. Arg. [Fig-* 108] F/ora 65: 335,1882.

Thallus off white, smooth to rough, thick, continuous, cracked, flaking away, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-5 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to rarely branched, immersed to semi emergent, irregularly curved, flexuose, scattered all over, black, acute ends. Thalline margin entire, concolorus. Disc fissurine to moderately narrow, blackish brown when seen, pruinose. Exciple black, indistinctly present at the base, 2-4 (6) striate, covered by a thick thalline margin up to the top, striae separated by thalline exciple, completely carbonized, and converging at the apical portion. Epithecium not clearly seen. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 53-70 |im high and 80-88 pm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline, 11-18 pm thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, septate, brown, capitate at the tips. Asci cylindrical to cylindrico- clavate, 8 sporate, 110-120 x 12-14 ^im. Ascospores fusiform, 6-9(-12) transeptate, 21-35 (-46) X 5-7 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Nagaland) and Java.

Remarks: Graphis schizograpta was previously reported from Khandala (Maharashtra) by Miill. Arg. The exciple of this species was reported to be absent at the base in the protologue.

Number of specimens of this species have been examined by us which have been collected from Maharashtra and found to have completely carbonized exciple. We have not seen the type of this spcies but we have the photograph of the type of G. schizograpta

123 together with Dr. Hale's observations which, however, shows the multistriate. completeh carbonized exciple. Therefore we are keeping our specimens in this species.

Specimens Examined: Karnataka: Budangiri road, in Shola forest, 80.40, 80.43, 80.44; Kemmengundi, elev. approx. 400 ft. 80.19, 80.21, 80.37. Kerala: Thekadi, 73.2466. Maharashtra: Nivali village, Chiplun to Hatkhamba Road, 74.2116; Dongarwadi; Nagaland: Tuensang, Tuensang Forest Department compound, Sinha N 998, and N 1000 (ASSAM).Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, 73.1714B.

Graphis scripta (L.) Ach. Akad. NyaHandl. P. 145, 1809. = Lichen scriptus Linnaeus Speciesplantarum 2: 1140, 1753.

I have not seen any collection from India matching to this species.

Graphis sikkimensis Nagarkar & Patwardhan [Fig.: 109] Biovigyanam 8: 129, 1982.

Type: India, Sikkim, Gangatok, Tangshi View Point, 14.11.1977, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 77.1806-Holotype (AMH) (!).

Thallus yellow to olivaceous buff, forming large patches upto 30 cm in diameter, smooth, thin. Ascomata lirelline, 8-20 (-30) mm long, radiately branched, flexuose, black, semi-emergent, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, striate, 5-6 striae on each side, apically carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 130-150 ^m high and 100-125 pm broad, I-, K/1-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline, 12-16 pm high. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 90-110 x 10-12 pm.. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 24-44 x 6-8 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

124 Distribution: India (Sikkim, West Bengal).

Remarks: The species is very distinct in having its large thallus reaching upto 30 cm in diameter and very long (upto 30 mm), black ascomata; striate, apically carbonized exciple and absence of lichen substances.

Specimens Examined: Sikkim: Gangatok. Tangshi View Point 77.1967. West Bengal: Darjeeling, Tiger Hill, 77.1806, 77.1808, 77.1809.

Graphis sorediosa Nagarkar & Patwardhan lF>g" HO] Biovigyanam 8: 129, 1982.

Type: Meghalaya, Garo hills, Ningwal Bibra, 5.12.1982, M. B. Nagarkar, 78.364- Holotype (AMH)!

Thallus whitish, smooth, sorediate; soredia spread all over the thallus surface, granulose. Ascomata lirelline, immersed, 5-10 mm long, grayish black, flexuose. Disc narrow, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin thin, concolorous, overarching the exciple. Exciple entire, complete below, carbonized at the tip. Epithecium brown to dark brown. Hypothecium yellowish orange, thick, 16-21 |im thick. Paraphyses simple, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 105-110 x 10-12 ^m.. Ascospores 7-10 transeptate, 21-25 x 4-5 nm, 1+ blue. Chemistry:Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; constictic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Meghalaya).

Remarks: Graphis sorediosa Nagarkar & Patwardhan is unique in having soredia. Vegetative propagules are rare in Graphidaceae and none of the other species has sorediate thallus. This is knowTi only from the type and so far reported only from India..

Graphis stenotera Vainio IF'g-- 1111 Ann. Acad Sci. Fenn., S'er. A. 15(6): 243, 1921.

125 Thallus off white, yellowish to stramineous, thin, rough, uneven, sometimes evanescent, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-6 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, mostly simple to occasionally branched, thin, irregularly curved, black, narrow, semi-emergent, acute ends. Disc black, narrow, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margine up to the top, striate, 5-6 striae on each side, apically carbonized, carbonization extends laterally on the outer straie and the innerpart is reddish orange. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 54-63 ^m high and 84-96 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 6-8 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 100-115 x 10-12 nm. Ascospores 5-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-38 X 4-6 urn, 1+blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; constictic (trace) and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) and Phillippines.

Remarks: Graphis stenotera Vainio is distinguished by its off white to stramineous thallus; black, mostly simple to occasionally branched long lirellae; striate and laterally carbonized exciple and presence of stictic and constictic acids in the thallus.

The species was previously reported form Philippines and now reported for the first time fromIndia .

Specimens Examined: Kamataka: Kemmengundi, 82.467; Silent Valley, 81.776, 82.19. Kerala: Wyanad, 76.61; Anamalai hills, Valparai forest, 76.405; Upper Kodayar, 83.344. Tamil Nadu: Nandi hills, 81.480.

Graphis strandneus sp. nov. [Fig.: 112]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, Little Andaman, South Bay, 3.3.1985, P.G. Patwardhan, 85.1023-Holotype (AMH).

126 Thallus whitish, stramineous, cream, thin, smooth. Ascomata lirelline, 1-7 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, black, simple to irregularly branched, thin, irregularly curved, narrow, acute ends. Disc blackish brown, narrow, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, indistinctly present at the base, entire to rarely single striate, laterally carbonized, convergent, and covered by a thalline margin up to the top. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 84-101 |im high and 118-160 |jm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 6-8 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 95-100 x 8-12 \im.. Ascospores 7-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-30 x 4-5 nm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow-red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic, constictic and salazinic acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: On account of the nature of the exciple and the ascospores, Graphis stramineus is similar to Graphis aracae Vainio but G. aracae differs from the new species in lacking salazinic acid in its thallus.

Specimen Examined: Andaman Islands: Netaji Nagar, KrishnaNala, 85.856a.

Graphis striatula (Ach.) Sprengel. [Fig.: 1131 Syst. Feg. 4:250, 1827. =Opegrapha striatula Ach. Synopsis methodica lichenum: 74, 1814.

Thallus greenish to whitish gray, smooth to rough. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-2 mm long, short, simple, fiarcate, flexuose, black, emergent, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple striate, not deeply striate, 2-3 crenations at apical region, absent below, convergent, apically carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-110 |am high and 120-130 |im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline, 4-8 \im thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thick.

127 unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 110-115 x 12-14 |im. Ascospores 8-13 transeptate, ellipsoidal. 40-50 x 8-10 ^^m, 1+ blue. Chemistn': Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-: no lichen acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Manipur and Tamil Nadu), tropical and subtropical regions of the world.

Remarks: Graphis striatula resembles with G. rimulosa (Mont.) Trevisan in its morphology and chemistry, but latter species has much larger ascomata upto 7 mm long.

Specimen Examined: Nagaland: Mokokchung, near Ungma village, Sinha N 888, Singh & Sinha N 4098 (ASSAM).

Graphis subasahinae Nagarkar & Patw. [Fig.: 114] Biovigyanam 8: 130, 1982.

Type: India, Assam, Jagi road, 5.11.1977, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 77.1345- Holotype (AMH).

Thallus pale yellow to gray, olivaceous, smooth. Ascomata lirelline, 1-3 mm long, radiately branched, black, scattered, flexuose, semi emergent, acute ends. Disc narrow to slightly broad, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple entire, indistinct to absent below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-110 |im high and 120-135 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, hyaline to pale yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate. Ascospores 5-7 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 14-24 x 4-7 \im, 1+ blue. Chemistry:Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic, salazinic, stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Assam).

128 Remarks: Graphis asahinae Patw. & Kulk., is well distinguished from G. subasahinae by its simple asocmata; presence of norstictic, stictic and constictic acids and slightly larger ascospores of 25-30 (-50) )jm long and specially by the presence of norstictic acid in G. subasahinae.

Graphis subassimilis Miill. Arg. F/ora65: 333, 1892.

Graphis subassimilis is characterized by greenish to yellowish brown thallus; immersed to semiemergent, dichotomously, dendroidly branched, flexuose, 1 -4 mm long ascomata; entire, completely carbonized, not covered by thalline margin till the top of exciple; 52-64 (-90) x 8-12 ^m ascospores and presence of stictic, constictic and salazinic acid in its thallus. (vide Awasthi 1991).

Distribution: India (Palni hills).

Graphis subchrysocarpoides sp. nov. [Figs.: 3,115]

Type: India, Andaman Island, Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Pitcher Nala, 26.12.1985, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 85.2440-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus pale brown, greenish yellow, rough, slightly glossy, thick, cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 8-13 mm long, simple, radiating, or dichotomously branched, concolorous, scattered, irregular, flexuose, immersed to slightly raised, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple indistinct below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple with distinct yellowish corticiform layer till the top, entire, apical region swollen, (puff like), broad and flattened at the basal region, non carbonized, orange yellow to brownish, when wet it turns dark orange red. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 142-155 nm high and 184-189 ^m broad, sometimes inspersed with crystals, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, hyaline to pale yellowish. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 95-110 x 10-12 ^m.. Ascospores always 3-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 8-16 (-21) x 3-4 (-6) |am, I-.

129 Chemistry:Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Karnataka, and Nicobar Islands).

Remarks: The new species Graphis subchrysocarpoides is somewhat similar to the species G. chrysocarpoides Vainio which, however, has orange exciple and has much smaller ascospores of the size 12-13 x 5-6 ^m. Besides this the exciple in G. chrysocarpoides gives purple colour with KOH, while the exciple turns reddish orange with KOH in the present species. This species has been collected in the tropical rain forests and found associated with Melanotheca arthoniodes and Thelotrema sp.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Interview Island, Mayabandar Range, 85.2911; Middle Andaman, Long Island, on the way to Lalaji, 85.2070, 85.2071; Betapur Range, Pitcher Nala, 85.2539, 85.2441; Little Andaman, Vivekanadpur, 85.974. Karnataka: Hiriyadka, Udupi to Hebri road, in moist rain forest, approx. 150 ft. 78.48. Nicobar Islands: Kamorta, 87.3, 87.37, 87.41, 87.247, 87.248, 87.298; Great Nicobar, Campbell bay to Laftil Bay, 86.63, 87.53, 87.125.

Graphis subdisserpens Ny\. [Fig-: 116] Bull. Soc. Linn. Normandie, ser. 2, 7: 175, 1873.

Type: Andaman Islands, leg S. Kurz, No. 37, H.NYL. No. 7156-Lectoytpe-(H) !

Thallus greenish gray, olivaceous, buff, slightly glossy, smooth, thick, cracked. Ascomata lirelline, 3-10 mm long, rarely simple to mostly dichotomously branched, black, scattered, flexuose, semi emergent to emergent, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, completely carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-150 ^m high and 100-150 [im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 110-115 x 10-12 jam. Ascospores 10-16 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 36-70 (-84) x 6-10^m,I-. Chemistry:Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

130 Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu)

Remarks: Graphis. subdisserpens is comparable with G. flavens Miill. Arg. and G. regularis Miill. Arg. in their exciple nature, ascsopores size and chemistry. But G. flavens and G. regularis have rather short (ca. 4 mm long), simple, unbranched ascomata.

Graphis subglauconigra Nagarkar & Patw. [Fig" 117] Biovigyanam 8: 130, 1982.

Type: India, Manipur, Kohima to Imphal Road, Mao, in ravine, 8.11.1977, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar, 77.1495-Holotype (AMH)!.

Thallus olivaceous buff, granulose, thin, evanescent, minutely cracked. Ascomata lirelline, short, 0.5-2 mm long, simple to rarely branched, black, scattered, emergent, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow, black. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple striate, 3-5 striae on each side of the exciple, indistinctly present at the base; convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, laterally carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 65-85 ^m high and 80-100 |am broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, hyaline. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 75-80 X 10-12 i^m. Ascospores 5-7 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-19 x 3-7 ^im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Manipur).

Remarks: From the most closely related species Graphis glauconigra Vainio, the present new species differs in having smaller ascospores. G. glauconigra has larger ascospores of 10-40 X 8-11 |am but has all other characters similar.

Graphis subhypolepta sp. nov. lF>g" US]

Type: India, Andaman Islands, North Andaman, Diglipur Range, Sitapur, in moist deciduous forest, 2.1.1986, P.K. Sethy &. P.G. Patwardhan, 86.145-Holotype (AMH).

131 Thallus pale ashy gray, rough, thin, cracked, unevenly thickened. Ascomata lirelline, 1-5 mm long, simple to irregularly branched, black, scattered, immersed, irregular, flexuose, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow to moderately broad, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the half of the height, entire, rarely apically carbnonized but mostly laterally carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 84-88 ^m high and 105-126 |tim broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, pale yellowish brown. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 2-8 sporate, 125-130 X 12-14 |am. Ascospores 13-17-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 63-84 x 4-8 |am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; constictic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands).

Remarks: In resepect of the ascomata structure and chemistry the present Graphis subhypolepta is very much similar to Graphis subassimilis Miill. Arg. which, however, differs from the present new species in having emergent lirellae and smaller ascospores 60-84 X 4-8 ^m.

Graphis subnitidula Nyl. in Tuckerman [Figs.: 2,119] Synopsis of North American Lichens 2: 123, 1888.

Thallus yellowish brown to olive green, tightly attached to the substratum thick, verrucose. Ascomata fissurine, short lirellae, upto 1 mm long, simple, unbranched, straight, immersed to slightly raised, arising as a swelling which then cracks and gaps, scattered all over the thallus, pale brown to concolorous with the thallus, obtuse to acute ends. Disc very narrow, sunken, usually not visible but brown when seen. Thalline margin thin, entire, concolorous. Exciple thick, indistinct at the base, converging at the apical portion and broad at the base, entire, covered by the thalline margin up to the top with a distinct prosoplectenchymatous corticiform layer, studded with crystals, non- carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 60-80 ^m high and 100- 140 pm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium not clear. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, thin.

132 septate, sparsely branched. Asci 8 sporate, 60-75 x 8-10 |im. Ascospores oval, hyaline, always 3-transeptate, 14-16 x 6-8 |am, 1-. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-. KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Island, Kamataka and Meghalaya), Cuba, Dominica, and North America.

Remarks: This species seems to be most closely related to Graphis humilis Vainio which, however, differs from the present species by its carbonized exciple and ascospores 1+, another allied species G. comparilis Vainio differs in having large ascospores of the size 15-24x7-13 urn.

Graphis subvirginea Nyl. in Leighton Trans. Linn. Soc. London 25: 452, 1866. = Graphis scripta var. subvirginea Nyl. F/ora 50: 8, 1867.

Thallus gray to browoiish, smooth, glossy, thick. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-3 (-5) mm long, simple to dichotomously branched, flexuose, immersed to slightly raised, obtuse ends. Disc very narrow, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin thin, entire, concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, completely carbonized, convergent. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-120 ^m high and HO­ MO \im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium not clear. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, thin, septate, sparsely branched. Asci 8 sporate. Ascospores 8-12 transeptate, 24-44 (-50) x 5- 7 |xm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal).

Remarks: Morphologically the specimen from Calcutta (H.NYL. No. 7162) is similar to Graphis subvirginea. Other specimens from Calcutta differ in having non carbonized, and entire to striate exciple. Ceylon specimens collected by G.H.K. Thwaites, probably do not belong to G. subvirginea. They differ in having partially carbonized exciple and

133 it's absence at the base and have slightly larger ascospores 13-15 locular, 40-60 ^m in length.

Specimens Examined: Calcutta: leg. S. Kurz, No. 148, H. NYL. No. 7162; No. 146, H. Nyl. No. 7365 (H). Ceylon: Cayenne, leg. G.H.K. Thwaites, CL 80a, b and 85 (BM).

Graphis supertecta Miill. Arg. Bull. Soc. Bot. Belgique 30: 77, 1891.

Type: Costa Rica, San Jose, leg. Durand, Miiller Arg. No. 05135-Holotype (G)!.

Thallus glaucous green to pale yellowish, smooth to ferrinaceous, glossy, thin. Ascomata lirelline, 1-3 mm long, black, simple to sparsely branched, flexuose, immersed to slightly emergent, obtuse ends. Disc narrow, slit like. Thalline margin thin, entire, concolorous. Exciple absent at the base, rarely entire, mostly striate, 2-3 striae on each side, laterally carbonized, convergent. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-100 ^m high and 110-130 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium not clear. Paraphyses simple, unbranched, thin, septate, sparsely branched. Asci 8 sporate. Ascospores 11-13 transeptate, 40-54 x 9-11 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Manipur).

Remarks: Graphis supertecta has striate exciple, the incisions on the exciple are not so deep as that are in G. persulcata Stirt. G. persulcata is comparable with G. supertecta in ascospores size, chemistry and exciple carbonization, but has distinctly emergent ascomata. The specimen on which Miill. Arg. recorded G. supertecta from Manipur was not available for rechecking.

Graphis taeniocarpoides sp. nov. [Figs.: 1,13,15,120]

Type: Nicobar Island, Great Nicobar, Campbell Bay to Laful Bay, beach forest, 2.1.1987, P.G. Patwardhan & P.K. Sethy, 87.123-Holotype (AMH).

134 Thalius stramineous yellow to brownish green, smooth to rough, cracked, delimited by thin, black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 1-5 mm long, thin, flat, ribbon like appearance with distinct dark orange red coloured margin, simple to rarely branched, concolorous, scattered, immersed to slightly raised, straight to curved, intricate and anastomosed, acute to subacute ends. Disc narrow, slit like, black, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, indistinctly present below to sometimes absent, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till the top, crystal studded, with a distinct, prosoplectenchymatous corticiform layer, entire, slightly swollen ('"puff like") round at the apical region, broad and flattened at the basal region, non carbonized,. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 35-45 ^m high and 80-91 |jm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, pale. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 60-70 x 8-10 |im. Ascospores always 3-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 8-12 x 3-4 ^m, I-. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-;. no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands, Kamataka).

Remarks: Graphis taeniocarpoides is distinctly distinguished from other species of this genus by its stramineous thallus; concolorous, long, ribbon like, branched, intricate and anastomosed ascomata; non carbonized, distinct dark orange red to reddish brown exciple and small ascospores of 8-12 x 3-4 \\.m. Somewhat similar G. homichlodes Redgr. has very short, simple ascomata (0.2-1 mm in length) and larger ascospores of 12- 16x5-6 |am. G. albocinerea Vainio which is known from the Philippines is somewhat close to this species in respect of fissurine ascomata, 4 locular ascospores, but has psoromic acid in its thallus and has slightly larger ascospores of 17-20 x 8-9 urn.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Interview Island, Mayabander Range, 85.2861, 85.2912, 85.2908; Middle Andaman, Betapur Range, Dhaninala, 85.2520, 85.2477, 85.2478, 85.2521; Long Island, on the way to Lalaji, 85.2062, 85.2083; Elphiston Bay, Long Island Range, on beach forest, 85.2215; South Andaman, Kalatang, Wimberliganj, 85.176; Tarmugli Island, Wandoor, 85.1970,

135 85.1928. Karnataka: Agumbe, 2 km from Agumbe to Udupi road, 74.2965; Rippon Peth, Tirthhalli road, 13 km to Tirthhalli, 74.2876; Agumbe to Shringeri road, 77.442. Kerala: Anamalai hills, Silent Valley, 76.246, 76.248. 76.399; Attapadi, Chalgudi to Palghat road, 76.170. Nicobar Islands: Great Nicobar, Campbell Bay to Laful Bay, beach forest, 87.42; Kamorta, 87.329. Tamil Nadu: Singhalamtheri, app. 1100 m, Tirunelvelli dist., in moist evergreen forest, 84.76; Nilgiri hills, Coonoor, Sim's Park, 99.35.

Graphis tenella Ach. [Fig.: 121] Synops.Lich.V.U, 1814.

Thallus greenish gray to pale yellowish white, uneven, rough, distinctly cracked, evanescent, delimited by thin black hypothallus, epruinose. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-7 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, simple to irregularly branched, black, immersed, scattered, narrow, thread like to moderately broad, acute ends. Disc narrow, fissurine, black when seen, covered by white pruina, Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin till the top, entire to sometimes 2-striate, laterally carbonized. Epithecium indistinct, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 50-63 |am high and 105-126 |im broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 8- 12 ^im thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 75-80 X 10-12 \ixn. Ascospores 4-6 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-21 x 4-5 |am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: Tropical regions of the world and India (Andaman Island).

Remarks: Graphis caesiella Vainio and G. leptocarpa Fee are allied to this species in respect of their exciple nature, however, they differ from G. tenella in the nature of ascomata and ascospores size. G. caesiella has radiately dichotomously branched ascomata and ascospores of 20-30 x 6-10 ^m while G. leptocarpa has small upto 2 mm long ascomata and ascospores of 16-23 x 6-10 ^im. Moreover, both have lichen substances. The species is found to be associated with a new species of Acanthothecis nivalis Mahkija & Adawadkar, species of Cryptothecia and Stirtonia.

136 Specimens Examined: Andaman Island: Middle Andaman, Long Island, on the way to Lalaji, 85.2050; Little Andaman, Vivekanandpur. 85.965, 85.978. Ceylon: H.NYL. No. 7756; Paradeniya, leg. Almquist, H. NYL. No. 7292.

Graphis cf. tenuissima Fee [Fig.: 122] Bull. Soc. Bot. France 21: 26, 1874.

Thallus white with greenish tinge, thick, cracked, unevenly thickened, ferrinaceous, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-2 mm long, delicate, simple to branched, concolorous, scattered, immersed, acute to round ends. Disc narrow, reddish brown when wet, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Excipie complete, present below, convergent, slightly spreading at the apical region, covered by a thalline excipie till top, entire to superficially striate, non carbonized, orange brown. Epithecium thin, hyaline, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 63-76 pm high and 63-71 pm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium thin, pale orange. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 115-120 x 12-14 pm. Ascospores 5-7-transeptate, fusiform- ellipsoidal, 21-29 X 4-5 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic, constictic acids present and an unidentified orange spot just below norstictic on TLC plate in TEF.

Distribution: India (Kamataka, Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present species is distinguished by its ferrinaceous whitish-green thallus, short (upto 2 mm long), concolorous, immersed ascomata; excipie non carbonized, entire to sometimes internally striate and contaning stictic, constictic and unidentified orange spot just below norstictic. The species apparently resembles Graphis tenuissima Fee in its morphological and anatomical characters. Unfortunately, the type specimen was not available for our studies and I don't know the chemistry of this species. Therefore the speciemen at hand have been kept at present as a closely related form of G. tenuissima.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, Silver Caskade, 75.405, 75.412; Kodai Lake, Dastoor Villa, 75.360; Karnataka:Devimane ghat, Sirsi Kumtha road, 74.2611.

137 Graphis treubii Zahlbr. |Fig.: 123] Ann. Crypwg. Exot. 1: 129, 1928.

Thallus grayish green, rough, thick, cracked, verrucose. Ascomata lirelline, 0.3-3 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, simple to irregularly branched, concolorous to blackish, immersed, scattered, narrow, acute to subacute ends. Disc narrow, brown, covered by white pruina, Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, indistinctly present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin till top, striate, orange brown, apically carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, very thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 100-123 ^m high and 147-200 nm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to pale, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 100-105 X 8-10 |im. Ascospores 6-10 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 25-42 x 4-6 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kamataka) and Java.

Remarks: Graphis vittata Mull. Arg. and G. stenotera Vainio are comparable with G. treubii in morphology and chemistry, but, G. vittata and G. stenotera have laterally carbonized exciple. The species was previously reported from Java and now being reported for the first time from India.

Specimens Examined: Karnataka: Kuddremukh, 80.283.

Graphis triticea Nyl. (F«g.: 124] Acta Soc. Sci. Fenn. 7: 470,1863.

Thallus olivaceous green or citrine green, continuous, smooth to warty, thick. Ascomata lirelline, semi-emergent, concolorous to pale amber brown, simple, curved to flexuose, unbranched, 0.5-1 mm long, subacute ends. Disc narrow, slit like, invisible. Thalline margin concolorous to slightly paler. Exciple entire, non carbonized, indistinctly present at the base. Hymenium hyaline, 150-200 ^m high and 150-220 ^m broad, I-, KI-. Epithecium indistinct. Hypothecium indistinct. Paraphyses thin, simple.

138 Asci 8 sporate, 90-105 x 10-12 [am. Ascospores always 3-transeptate, hyaline, 16-24 x 10-12 urn, ]-. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow. C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; stictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kerala), Colombia, and Dominica.

Remarks: Graphis triticea Nyl. is comparable in respect of exciple nature and ascospore characters with G. canlaonensis Vainio and G. comparilis Nyl. Both these species infact do not produce any lichen substances.

Specimen Examined: Kerala: Cardamom hills, Devicolam forest, 76.698.

Graphis tubercularis sp. nov. [Fig.: 125]

Type: India, Tamil Nadu, Kollimalai, 15.10.1985, M.B. Nagarkar & P.G. Patwardhan, 85.1625-Holotype(AMH).

Thallus buff with pinkish tinge, pale grayish brown to brownish gray, thick, warty, cracked. Ascomata lirelline, 1-5 mm long, 0.12 mm broad, concolorous, simple to branched, immersed, crowded, acute to obtuse ends. Disc blackish, covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 120-150 \xm high and 170-200 \im broad, I- K/1-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 4-6 sporate, 110- 125 X 12-14 ^m. Ascospores (4) 8-11 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 33-63 x 4-8 i^m, I + blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present new species can easily be distinguished by its buff coloured thallus with pinkish tinge; concolorous, crowded ascomata; disc black, white purinose; entire, completely carbonized exciple; ascospores 33-63 x 4-8 ^m and having norstictic acid in its thallus.

139 The species resembles G. anguilliformis Taylor but is distinguished from the present species by the tall, heavily carbonized, robust exciple, larger (75-110 \xm long) ascospores and absence of lichen substances in G. anguilliformis.

Specimen Examined: Tamil Nadu: Kollimalai, 85.1626.

Graphis urandrae Vainio [Fig.: 126] Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn. Ser. A. 15(6): 255, 1821.

Thallus glauocus green, smooth, glossy, thin, small 2 cm broad, cracked, delimited by thin, black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 2-3.5 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, mostly simple to rarely branched, black, slightly raised, flexuose, acute to round ends. Disc very narrow, when exposed blackish brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple indistinctly present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to half of the height of the exciple, entire, laterally carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 84-92 urn high and 168-176 |am broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 12-16 \xm thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, unitunicate, 6-8 sporate. Ascospores 4-7 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 12-16 x 4-5 )im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; no lichen acids present.

Distribution: India (Andaman Islands) and Philippines.

Remarks: Graphis urandrae, a very distinct species is being reported for the first time from India. The species has been collected in association with Physcia and other graphids in the tropical rain forests of the Andaman Islands.

Specimens Examined: Andaman Islands: North Andaman, Diglipur Range, Sitapur 86.196, 86.197, 86.232.

Graphis verminosa Miill. Arg. IF>g- 127] J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 29: 224, 1892.

140 Type: India, Manipur, leg. G. Watt, No. 76, Lectotype-(G )!

Thallus glaucous green, smooth, continuous, thick. Ascomata lirelline, black, 1-6 mm long, emergent, simple, unbranched, curved. Thalline margin thick, distinct. Disc narrow, slit like. Exciple striate, laterally carbonized, indistinct and pale brown at the base. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 80-100 ^im high and 150-170 |xm broad, I-, K/I-. Epithecium indistinct. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Asci 8 sporate, 120-125 x 12-14 ^m. Ascospores hyaline, vermiform, long, 25-28 transeptate, (80) 110-150 x 8-10 |am, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ deep yellow; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Manipur).

Remarks: Graphis verminosa, was described by Muller Arg. based on the specimen collected by G. Watt, from Manipur. It has never been recollected from this locality and also from the other parts of India. This species was also reported by Patwardhan & Badhe (1973) which, now has been identified as G. schizograpta.

Graphis verruciformis sp. nov. [Fig.: 128]

Type: India, Kerala, near Chinnar, Muimar to Udumalpet, 19.10.1985, P.G. Patwardhan & M.B. Nagarkar- 85.1756-Holotype (AMH).

Thallus dull grayish green, thick, minutely cracked, rough, warty. Ascomata lirelline, 1-4 mm long, 0.1 mm broad, black, simple, semi-emergent, scattered, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow to moderately broad, dark blackish brown, pruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, completely carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin, K- Hymenium hyaline, clear, 110-130 ^m high and 150-190 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, thin. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 8 sporate. Ascospores 6-12 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 37-50 |im x 4-6 ^m, 1 + blue.

141 Chemistr>': Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-: UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kerala).

Remarks: Graphis verruciformis resembles in its chemical contents to G. congesta (Fee) Miill. Arg. having completely carbonized exciple. But G. congesta has rather larger ascospores of 50-75 |xm long.

Graphis v/«a/a Vainio [Figs.: 11,12,129] Ann. Acad. Sec. Fenn., Ser. A. 15(6): 243, 1921.

Thallus continuous, cracked, tightly attached to the substratum, grayish green, smooth to uneven, moderately thick, epruinose, surrounded by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-4 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to branched, semi emergent, scattered all over the thallus, straight to curved, black, ends acute. Disc narrow, fissurine, black, epruinose. Thalline margin thin, concolourous, overarching the exciple, studded with crystals. Exciple entire or 2-4 striate, laterally carbonized, absent at the base, converging at the apical portion. Epithecium blackish brown to brown, 7-16 |am thick. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 74-77 ^m high and 92-120 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 14-32 \xm thick. Paraphyses simple, septate, unbranched, thickened at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 80-95 x 10-14 j^m. Ascospores fusiform-oblong, hyaline, with 7-9 transverse septa, 21-39 x 4-7 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; Stictic, constictic (trace) acids present.

Distribution: India (Maharashtra) and Java.

Remarks: Graphis stenotera Vainio is similar to this species in all respects except the thallus containing stictic and norstictic acids. G. persukata Stirton is also comparable with G. vittata which does not have any lichen substance. The species was collected on the bark of Mangifera indica in moist area.

Specimens Examined: Maharashtra: Kolhapur District, Panhala, near Guest House, 00.476.

142 Graphis vittata var. distincta var. nov. [Fig-'-130]

Type: India, Karnataka, Nandi hills, 26.9.1981, M.B. Nagarkar & P.K. Sethy, 81.508- Holotype (AMH).

Thallus cream whitish, rough, cracked, uneven, delimited by black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.2-2 mm long, simple, black, distinctly raised above, scattered, round ends. Disc narrow, not visible, Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin till the top, stirate, 3-4 striae on each side, apically to laterally carbonized. Epithecium indistinct. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 92-105 \xm high and 126-147 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to light orange yellow. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate. Ascospores 8-11 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 25-30 (-33) X 4-5 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow to red, C-, KC-, P+ orange red; UV-; stictic, constictic and norstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Karnataka).

Remarks: Graphis vittata var. distincta is characterized by conspicuous, black, emergent lirellae; 3-4 striate, apically carbonized exciple and constictic, norstictic and stictic acids. This new variety is distinguished from G. vittata especially by the presence of norstictic acid in its thallus.

Graphis sp

This species is characterized by ascomata 2-10 mm long, simple to dichotomously branched, semi-emergent to emergent; exciple present at the base, striate, 3-4 striae on each side, striae laterally carbonized, yellowish at the base, expanded at base and at the apical region, covered by thalline exciple; ascospores 2-4/ascus, 9-25 transeptate, 60-125 (-160) X 12-16 |im in size and presence of stictic and constictic acids. This is known from Eastern Himalaya, (vide Awasthi 1991)

143 Graphis sp. A [Fig.: 131]

Thallus yellowish green, rough, uneven, verruculose, cracked. Ascomata lirelline, 1-6 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, mostly simple to branched, black, immersed to slightly raised, scattered, narrow, round ends. Disc narrow to moderately broad, black, epruinose, Thalline margin concolorous with the thallus. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin till the top, inspersed with crystals, striate, 5-8 striae on each side, expanded at the apical region, apically carbonized, orange brown laterally. Epithecium indistinct to light brown. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-100 Hm high and 120-135 ^m broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline to yellowish orange. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, septate. Asci cylindrical,6-8 sporate, 60-70 x 8- 10 \xm. Ascospores 8-11 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-29 x 4-5 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; stictic, constictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present species has similar excipular characters and chemistry, as in Graphis treubii Zahlbr. which, however, has concolorous to brown ascomata with pruinose disc and larger ascospores of 21-42 [im in length. Since, I have only single small specimen at hand I do not wish to described it as a new species.

Specimen Examined: Tamil Nadu: Gudalur, 76.319.

Graphis sp. B [Fig.: 132]

Thallus grayish, pale green to gray, yellow within or offwhite, smooth, cracked, delimited by black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.3-9 mm long and 0.2 mm broad, black, simple, curved, scattered, immersed to slightly emergent, separated from the thallus with a narrow fissure, irregular, flexuose, acute ends. Disc narrow barely visible, blackish brown to black when exposed otherwise covered by white pruina. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, striate, 2-3 striae on each side, apially carbonized, studded

144 with crystals between striae. Epithecium pale, thin. Hvmenium hyaline, clear, 84-109 |am high and 117-134 i^m broad, 1-. K/I-. Hypothecium yellow, 6-8 |im high. Paraphyses simple, long, thin. Asci 6-8 sporate, 90-110 x 10-12 [im. Ascospores 4-8 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 16-25 x 3-6 |im, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P+ orange; UV-; norstictic and stictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present species somewhat resembles to Graphis longula Krempelh. and G. persulcata Stirton in having sriate exciple. G. longula, however, has much longer ascospores of 70-90 ^m and has no lichen substances and G. persulcata has laterally carbonized exciple.

Specimen Examined: Tamil Nadu: Kodaikanal, near Daisy Bank, 75.337.

Graphis sp. C [Fig.: 133]

Thallus greenish, rough, uneven, thick, epruinose, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-1.5 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, simple to branched, immersed, curved, flexuose, scatterd all over the thallus, ends acute to obtuse. Thalline margin entire, concolorous. Disc narrow, black, covered by white pruina. Exciple complete, present at the base, entire to sometimes 2 striae seen on each side, convergent, laterally carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 90-110 |im high and 100-120 nm broad, K-. K/I-. Hypothecium orange broad, 4-6 ^m thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform, sepate, thickened at the apices. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 85-90 x 8-10 nm. Ascospores ellipsoidal, 5-7 transeptate, 17-25 x 3-4 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ red, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; norstictic acid present.

Distribution: India (Kerala).

145 Remarks: The most closely G. exalbata Nyl. differs from the present species only in having saxicolous thallus. It is being kept as an unnamed species until we can collect more material of this species.

Specimen Examined: Kerala: Paranthal, near Changaneshi-Trivandrum road, 76.884

Graphis sp. D [Fig.: 135]

Thallus greenish gray, thick, uneven, distinctly cracked, delimited by thin black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-5 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, mostly simple to rarely branched, thin, irregularly curved, black, immersed, thin, scattered, narrow, separated by distinct fine cracks, acute ends. Disc brown, narrow, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous, separated from the exciple by a fine crack. Exciple orange yellow, plane at the apical region, complete or indistinctly present at the base, convergent, covered by a thalline margin up to the top, entire, apically carbonized. Epithecium hyaline, thin. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 75-84 pm high and 92-105 pm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium hyaline, 6-7 pm thick. Paraphyses simple, long, thin, filiform. Asci cylindrical, 8 sporate, 90-115 x 10-12 pm. Ascospores 5-9 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 21-28 X 4-5 pm, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P+ yellow; UV-; no lichen substances present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: Graphis glaucescens Fee and G. chlorotica Mass. having exciple carbonized only at the tip and thallus without lichen substances, however differ from the present species especially in having larger ascospores. In G. glaucescens ascospores are of 27- 45 X 8-10 urn and in G. chlorotica 33-38 x 5-6 ^m. The specimen was collected on the road side tree in undisturbed forest at higher elevation.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu: Upper Kodayar, on the way to Kakachi, elev. approx. 1400 m., 84.133.

146 Graphis sp. E |Fig.: 134]

Thallus greenish-gray, distinctly cracked, thick, delimited by thin, black hypothallus. Ascomata lirelline, 0.5-3.5 mm long and 0.1-0.2 mm broad, mostly simple to occasionally branched, concolorous, scattered, immersed, narrow, acute ends. Disc narrow, black, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple yellowish, complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, apically carbonized. Epithecium thin, hyaline. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 126-189 |am high and 168-210 nm broad, I-, K/I-. Hypothecium pale brown, 8-12 |im high. Paraphyses simple, long, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 110-125 x 10-14 urn. Ascospores hyaline, 15- 23 transeptate, ellipsoidal, 76-100 x 8-12 ^m, 1+ blue. Chemistry: Thallus K+ yellow, C-, KC-, P-; UV-; stictic, con-norstictic acids present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: This species of Graphis is distinguished by its apically carbonized exciple, large ascospores of 76-100 x 8-12 nm and presence of stictic and connorstictic acids in its thallus.

Specimen Examined: Tamil Nadu: Anamalai hills, on the way to Valparai, 200 ft., 82.262.

Graphis sp. F [Figs.: 136]

Thallus grayish, farinaceous white, rough, finely cracked, uneven. Ascomata lirelline, 0.2-0.5 mm long, simple to mostly radiately branched, brown, scattered, immersed to semiemergent, acute to obtuse ends. Disc narrow to moderately broad, brown, epruinose. Thalline margin concolorous. Exciple complete, present below, convergent, covered by a thalline exciple till top, entire, non carbonized, orange yellow to woody brown. Epithecium thin, brown, K-. Hymenium hyaline, clear, 60-67 ^m high and 125-140 ^m broad, 1-, K/I-. Hypothecium indistinct, thin, hayline. Paraphyses simple, long, thick, unbranched. Asci 8 sporate, 75-85 ^m. Ascospores 3-7-transeptate, ellipsoidal, 12-25 x 4-5 urn, 1+ blue.

147 Chemistry: Thallus K-, C-, KC-, P-; UV+ yellow fluorescence, Hchexanthone present.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu).

Remarks: The present species is comparable in respect of overall morphology with Graphis alboglauca Vainio which has larger ascospores of 27-34 x 7-8 |iim \xm and with G. grammatica Fee which has smaller ascospores of 10-12 x 3-5 |am.

Specimen Examined: Tamil Nadu: Chitteri, 83.32.

148 Discussion

The crustose lichens are neglected on the global scale, by the economic botanists probably due to their small and economically less important thalli and by the systematists due to the complex nature and somewhat confusing relationships of the genera. Among the lichen genera which received monographic treatment on the worldwide or regional basis, the number of the crustose genera is very small.

The large crustose families such as Thelotremataceae and Graphidaceae are important components of tropical diversity, with many undescribed species. In these families generic concepts are in need to be reconsidered in the light of tropical material.

Zahlbruckner's system is acceptable as a provisional arrangement of the known taxa, but its subsequent adoption by other authors has proved strongly detrimental to the development of a more natural system of classification. The intention and aim of taxonomy is the 'uniting of related organisms into natural groups of different ranks' (Santesson 1952) and lichenologists must exercise greater caution during identification of lichen taxa.

We can undoubtedly see that lichen families and species to some extent should be characterized primarily by the ontogeny and structure of the ascocarps. Yet this area of lichenology is still the most neglected, probably due to the fact that lichen reproductive structures are scarce and controversial. There has, however, been a stampede in the last few decades to reassess long accepted but patently heterogenous generic groups and to subdivide them into more homogenous and hopefully natural genera.

The present work is a step towards our predestined goal, " A monograph of the family Graphidaceae", a herculean task, since over 900 species are known at world level. To achieve this goal a thorough study of all the taxa in this family, their species and perusal of all the existing literature is a pre-requisite. In the time span allocated for this thesis, it was not possible to study all the genera within the family.

149 The present investigation has been carried out with the aim to investigate the species diversity in the lichen genus Graphis sensu Miill. Arg. (Family Graphidaceae) in India, and to understand the delimitation and circumscription of the genus and species, evaluation of characters for speciation and correct nomenclature in the light of modem trends in lichen taxonomy. The survey of Graphis is a first step towards producing the comprehensive taxonomic account of the family Graphidaceae in India.

In this work, however, I have tried to conglomerate all the species of Graphis found in India. The species of the Graphis which have already been studied thoroughly and described, albeit by different workers, are enumerated into practical key along with their descriptions to aid their easy identification.

Critical taxonomic studies of over 1500 sepcimens from India have resulted into the recognition of 137 species, and 8 varieties in the genus Graphis which includes 11 new records to India and as many as 48 new species, and 7 xmnamed species.

I found that the size of the ascospores, number of septa to some extent and ascomatal characters especially the carbonization, and presence or absence of the exciple at the base (carbonized or non carbonized) together with secondary chemistry are the important characters in speciation. The characters which I used for species delimitation are summarized in the following paragraphs.

The thallus in some species show a distinct prosoplechtechymatous upper layer. The hyphae seem to align perpendicularly to the ascomata and hence cross section of the lirellae almost always exhibit characteristic parallel filaments. This condition seems to be consistent within species, and is useful to some extent in distinguishing members of certain species particularly in the fissurine members e.g. in Graphis insidiosa, G. triticea, G. dumastii, G. dumastioides, and G. inquinata.

The thallus is variable in its texture and it is smooth, granulose, glossy, rough, or warty. It is smooth in Graphis nilgiriensis, G. stenotera, smooth and glossy in G. implexula, G. insularis while it is distinctly warty in G. glauconigra, G. asterizans, G. meghalayensis, G. distincta and sometimes it is granular e.g. in Graphis suhglauconigra,

150 G. capillacea, G. insularis, and G. coarclata while the thallus is evanescent in G. nematoides, G. stramineus, G. lenella, G. dispersa and is effuse in G. exalbida.

The isidia and soredia are in general of rare occurrence in crustose lichens and have been rarely recorded in Graphis. Very few species of Graphis show pronounced surface features as soredia or isidia. G. sorediosa from Assam has sorediate thallus from Assam and G. patwardhanii, and a new species G. isidiza collected from Western Ghats of India and G. isidifera from Dominica have isidiate thallus.

Ascomata in Graphidaceae is mainly characterized by the long, elongate lirelline, simple, unbranched, radiately or irregularly, sparsely or profusely branched ascomata.In colour they exhibit a variation of concolorous or white, yellowish brown, red, or black in colour. The size of the ascomata, and the branching pattern of lirellae have been found to be the useful characters for delimiting species. They vary in size from less than 1 mm to as long as 30 mm as in G. atrobrevis and G. sikkimensis.

The ascomata are distinctly short and unbranched as in Graphis pallidomaculata, G. exalta, G. triticea, G. parvicarpa, G. subnitidula and G. furfuracea. They are short and branched viz. in G. treubii, G. bougainvilli, or long and branched in G. grammitis, G. subchrysocarpoides, G. longispora and G. garoana etc. They are long and unbranched in G. insidiosa, G. nematoides. Typical dendroidly branched pattern is seen in species like G. sorediosa, G. patwardhanii, G. isidiza, G. sikkimensis and G. longispora and radiately branched ascomata are seen in G. caesiella.

The nature of the exciple has been found to be the most significant character in Graphidaceae and is very useful at the species level and has traditionally formed the backbone of species delimitations. Almost all subgeneric taxa are based on excipular characters. For easy segregation of species it can be differentiated into entire verses striate exciple, carbonized verses non carbonized exciple, and its presence at the base verses it's absence at the base.

1 do not agree with Wirth & Hale (1978) who opined that excipular characters appear to be quite variable and unreliable. I observed that, the extent of carbonization in

151 the excipular region in a particular species is constant and can be the most useful character in species segregation. In several species carbonized or non carbonized exciple is a distinct feature. Some species like G. subverginea, G. congesta, G. intricata, G. assamensis, G. anfractuosa, G. anguillaeformis have completely carbonized exciple. Laterally carbonized exciple is present in G. afzelii, G. subasahinae, G. capillacea, G. bakeri, G. inamoena while G. chlorotica, G. indica have carbonization only at the apical region. A large number of specimens have been examined where carbonization has been found to be confined to only at the apical region and does not extend even a little more than that along the length of the exciple. Invariably non carbonized exciple is seen in species like Graphis aphanes, and G. nakanishiana. I have maintained several species on the basis of these characters and a very few species show variation or combination of this character within the same species.

I have also studied a large number of species of the allied genera. The carbonization, infact, has been found to be one of the most important characters in speciation not only in Graphis but also in allied genera like Graphina, Phaeographis and Phaeographina. A new species of Graphina (yet to be described) from our collection is a good example to quote. More than 300 specimens of this species have been examined where the carbonization is invariably restricted to the small apical region.

Ascospores in the genus Graphis sensu Miill. Arg. are hyaline £ind transversely septate with lenticular cell lumen. Ascospores size, and number of septa are also useful for the delimitation of species. Since within the family spore size ranges from 8 ^m long e.g. in Graphis exalta, G. implexula, and G. pallidomaculata etc. to as long as 100(-150) ^im long in some species like G. aphanes, G. contortuplicata, and G. cinerea etc.

The number of spores per ascus also remains constant for most species and can be regarded as a good criterion. In most Graphis species it is 8/ascus, however, in G. illinata, G. celata, and G. illota it is 2-4/ascus while it is 1-2 spores per ascus in G. granulata.

152 The number of locules per ascospore though roughly correlated with ascospore size, may be useful where only four locules per ascospore occurs or it is more than 10 septa per ascospore. This condition seems to be constant and species can be distinguished by four locules verses more than four locules per ascospore

Periphysoides: Occurrence of smooth periphysoides is rarely known in this genus. I have recorded two species having periphysoides with smooth surface. A number of species previously decribed under Graphis have been now placed in the genera Acanthothecis and Fissurina on account of the presence of warty/spiny apices of paraphyses or periphysoides. (Staiger & Kalb 1999).

Chemistry: Ever since colour reactions were invented by Nylander, the occurrene of lichen substances and their use in lichen taxonomy as aides in speciation has attracted attention of lichenologists.

In most species of the Graphis ascospores react with almost any concentration of iodine solution and turn dark blue-violet. The hymenium is iodine negative, never violet. Many of the fissurine Graphis have ascospores that are iodine negative. Most of the species have compounds like stictic acid, norstictic acid, constictic acid either alone or with combination of their satellites. Species segregation is easy on the basis of presence of lichen substances or absence of lichen substances.

The occurrence of salazinic acid is recorded in moderate number of species but protocetraric acid is uncommon in the genus. Graphis subasahinae, G. capillacea, G. assamensis, G. subassimilis, G. garoana, G. stramineus, G. insularis, G. argentius, G. cinnamomeus, G. scariosa have salazinic acid along with the other lichen substances like stictic, constictic, norstictic acids. G. bakeri have only salazinic acid. G. distincta and G. fulvescens have protocetraric acid along with other lichen substances.

Lichexanthone, often indicated by the yellow fluorescence under UV (365 nm) light, is rarely found in the family Graphidaceae and has been recorded in Graphis anguinoides, G. candidata, G. chinophora, G. haleana, G. lucifica, G. stipitata and now

153 in the new species G. commescens, G. occulta, and G. occulta var. aereolata and thus presence of lichexanthone can be a useful character in separating species.

The genera Graphis, Graphina, Phaeographis and Phaeographina were formulated on spore charaters by Miiller Arg (1882). I agree with Wirth & Hale (1978) who speculates the ambiguity of spore based genera citing innumerable instances where very similar taxa have been placed in different genera because of difference in spore colour and septation which he has referred to as sporomorphs. However, if we reject spore based genera we would have to restrict ourselves to a single genus Graphis and thereby giving rise to numerous practical difficulties or else resort to chemical and excipular characters which would result in the creation on numerous genera thereby making this group impossible to handle.

Although a system of ascospore based genera in the family established by Muller Argovensis is still in use, the inappropriateness of Zahlbruckner's ascospores concept had long been recognized by several lichenologists (Santesson 1952; Wirth & Hale 1978; Staiger & Kalb 1999) stated it as an unnatural and artificial system and therefore needs to be revised.

I agree with Lucking (2002) who opined that the concept now presented by Staiger (2002) is indeed revolutionary. Although, Graphis, Phaeographis and Phaeographina still exists, these genera are no longer what they used to be. Graphis now comprises species with a carbonized excipulum and hyaline, both tremsversely septate and muriform ascospores, while Phaeographis unites taxa with non carbonized excipula and brownish, transeversely septate or muriform ascospores. In addition, no less than 16 genera, described more than a century ago and long forgotten by most lichenologists, have been reinstated, and two further genera are newly established. Staiger's treatment of Graphidaceae is different because it terminates an artificial arrangement already accepted for too long. The taxonomic concept applied by Staiger, chiefly based on excipular structures and supported by ascomata morphology, hamathecium structure, ascospore type and secondary chemistry.

154 1 do not wish to entertain the merits or demerits of the delimitation according to the new concept proposed by Staiger, but 1 have treated the Indian Graphis s'm the sense of Miill. Arg. (1880, 1882) and as understood earher by Wirth & Hale (1978). This preference neither reflects my conservation for lumping the taxa nor opposes the modem progessive developments. It only reflects the belief that, as far as possible, the new concept proposed by Staiger (2002) has to be understood and evaluated with reference to our own experience before it can be implemented, especially when the book is in German and difficult for a person like me to understand who does not know the language and lastely because the book was available to me in the last phase of compilation of my thesis and rules of university do not allow the changes after submission of synopsis to the university. However, the necessary changes will be made before any taxonomic account can be published.

Earlier lichen monographs, numbering few, have a comprehensive phytogeographic account of the taxon monographed. Now a days, however, much attention has been paid towards phytogeographic affinities of a particular taxon on the world level. According to J0rgenson (1983) "Intimate knowledge of taxonomic relationship are of fiindamental importance for a proper imderstanding of phytogeography, as well as data on the ecology."

When the distribution of the species of Indian Graphis is analyzed, the following distribution pattern become apparent:

I) Species having wide (Pantropical) distribution (occurring in India and tropical parts of three or more continents): Graphis afzelii, G. anfractuosa, G. cinerea, G. glaucescens, G. grammitis, G. rimulosa, G. sauroidea, G. striatula, G. subvirginea, and G. triticea.

(II) Species having disjunct distribution. A. Occurring in Asia and America: Graphis caesiella, G. dumastioides, G. glaucescens, G. grammitis, G. illinata, G. intricata, G. striatula, and G. subnitidula.

155 B. Occurring in Asia and Australia/New Zealand : Graphis anfractuosa, G. elegans, G. insidiosa, G. inquinata, G. librata, G. persulcata, G. tenella, and G. triticea.

(Ill) Species having restricted Asian Distribution (occurring in India & other parts of Asia): Graphis aphanes, G. aphanescens, G. arecae, G. asterizans, G. bakeri, G. flavens, G. glauconigra, G. inamoena, G. karstenii, G. schiffherii, G. subassimilis, G. urandrae, and G. vittata.

Distribution and Diversity of Graphis species in Indian Subcontinent

The diversity in the phytogeographical regions of Indian subcontinent is largely influenced by the altitudinal increase from the sea level upwards and the prevalent climate. In the tropical-subtropical areas bordering subtemperate regions of the peninsular India, where rainfall is high, several corticolous lichens abound. Notable amongst the crustose forms are the species of the genera Graphis, Graphina, Phaeographis, Phaeographina, Pertusaria, Myriotrema, Ocellularia and Thelotrema. It has also been observed that though no lichens usually grow on the bark of Eucalyptus trees, but when the trees have been cut the young coppiced shoots often develop growth of Graphis and allied genera on them, which with aging may lose the lichens with the falling bark.

The central part of India comprising Madhya Pradesh and the adjacent parts of other states is compartively drier, comprising a deciduous vegetation of the flowering plants. Lichens are usually found in special niches where requisite moisture is available. However, only 1 species namely Graphis balaghattensis has been found from this region.

The insular areas of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are decidedly different than the main land. They have a thick forest vegetation as a tropical rain forest and majority of the lichens growing there belong to the pyrenocarpaceous taxa, and a good

156 number (37 species) of Graphis has been recorded from this area and 60% of these species are expected to be endemic.

The tropical and subtropical forests in the peninsular India possess an abundance of the microlichens, particularly the corticolous taxa of Graphidaceae together with Arthoniaceae, Thelotremateceae and Trypetheliaceae. As many as 79 species of Graphis (i.e 57.66%) have been recorded from this region. A large number of species are apparently localized and thus endemic.

Out of 2450 species of lichens now known from India, 137 species and 8 varieties (i.e 5.59%)) belongs to Graphis. The distribution of these species in different phytogeographical regions has been given below:

Phytogeographic distribution of Graphis in India

No. Botanical Regions No. of Graphis species 1 North West Himalaya 4 2 Eastern Himalaya 6 3 Western Dry Regions 0 4 Gangetic Plains 5 5 Eastern India 31 6 Deccan Plateau 1 7 Western Ghats 79 8 Eastern Ghats 1 9 Andaman & Nicobar Island 37

157 Figures 19-34

19. Graphis afzelii 86.2581 (AMH) 20. Graphis afzelii var. indica 86.706 (AMH) 21. Graphis ajarekari 74.3281-Holotype (AMH) 22. Graphis albidoferrunaceae 73.2254.Holotype (AMH). 23. Graphis alboglaucescens 81.578-Holotype (AMH). 24. Graphis amboliense 76.1260-Holotype(AMH). 25. Graphis aphanes 70.40 (AMH) 26. Graphis aphanescens 76.1230 (AMH) 27. Graphis aphanomicrospora 85.2757-Holotype (AMH). 28. Graphis arecae 73.2811 (AMH) 29. Graphis argentius 85.2226-Holotype (AMH). 30. Graphis asahinae 75.220-Holotype (AMH). 31. Graphis assamensis 77.1334-Holotype(AMH) 32. Graphis asterizans 85.1721 (AMH) 33. Graphis atrobrevis 77.2063-Holotype (AMH) 34. Graphis bakeri 83.490 (AMH) Scale: Bar = 2 mm

Figs. 35-50

35. Graphis balaghattensis 86.614-Holotype(AMH). 36. Graphis cf. bougainvilli 85.2871 (AMH) 37. Graphis caesiella 88.1 (AMH) 38. Graphis chloroalaba 86.529-Holotype (AMH). 39. Graphis chlorotica 85.1085 (AMH) 40. Graphis cinerascea 77.1194-Holotype (AMH). 41. Graphis cinnamomeus 75.184-Holotype(AMH). 42. Graphis collaterils 85.259-Holotype (AMH). 43. Graphis colliculoides 76.701-Holotype (AMH). 44. Graphis commiscens 85.1577-Holotype(AMH). 45. Graphis contortuplicata N3864 (ASSAM) 46. Graphis crosea 85.2486-Holotype (AMH). 47. Graphis dispersa 87.314-Holotype (AMH). 48. Graphis disposita 00.262-Holotype (AMH). 49. Graphis distincta 85.2-Holotype (AMH). 50. Graphis dumastioides 87.328 (AMH)

Scale: Bar = 2 mm li frr ''is^^'V^^

^•2,^36 r^^:!x!J^V37 38, ^ ^•. / ?•• • >• ( 1 \ k HP ^

'" •1 i^'f^^y^, ^ r

r^ ^ '

%

r-*- Figs. 51-66

51. Graphis dumastioides var. salazinica 85.2461Holotype(AMH). 52. Graphis eburneus 70.70-Holotype (AMH). 53. Graphis exalbida 76.891-Holotype (AMH). 54. Graphis exalta 86.709-Holotype (AMH). 55. Graphis exipuloflabillata 82.226-Holotype (AMH). 56. Graphis filiformis 71.54-Holotype(AMH). 57. Graphis flavens 84.76 (AMH) 58. Graphis flavens var. microspora 85.1751-Holotype (AMH). 59. Graphis flavovirens 85.2264-Holotype (AMH). 60. Graphis formosana 87.245 (AMH) 61. Graphis fulvescens 76.1174-Holotype (AMH). 62. Graphis garoana 78.387-Holotype (AMH) 63. Graphis glaucescens 85.2901 (AMH) 64. Graphis glauconigra 81.519 (AMH) 65. Graphis guimarana 74.1993 (AMH) 66. Graphis hossei 73.1812 (AMH)

Scale : Ban= 2 mm

Figs. 67-82

67. Graphis hypocrassa sp. nov. 87.5-Holotype (AMH). 68. Graphis hypolepta 85.2529 (AMH) 69. Graphis inamoena 77.1378 (AMH) 70. Graphis indica 74.2192-Holotype (AMH). 71. Graphis induta 82.142 (AMH) 72. Graphis inquinata 85.289 (AMH) 73. Graphis insidiosa 83.226 (AMH) 74. Graphis insularis 85.2158-Holotype (AMH). 75. Graphis isidiza 01.106-Holotype(AMH). 76. Graphis intermediella Lectotype (BM) 11. Graphis karnalensis 74.524-Holotype (AMH). 78. Graphis khasiana 78.251-Holotype (AMH). 79. Graphis leptocarpoides 87.348-Holotype (AMH). 80. Graphis librata 74.2042 (AMH) 81. Graphis longiramea 74.3180 (AMH) 82. Graphis longispora N214 (ASSAM)

Scale: Bar = 2 mm ;\

•TV • ^^r V jM-'ii Figs. 83-98

83. Graphis longissimea 85.2715-Holotype(AMH). 84. Graphis meghalayense 77.1115-Holotype(AMH). 85. Graphis modesta 85.993 (AMH) 86. Graphis nagalandica N 744-Holotype (ASSAM). 87. Graphis nakanishiana 74.3288-Holotype (AMH). 88. Graphis nerurensis 75.489-Holotype (AMH). 89. Graphis nigrocarpa 85.1526-Holotype(AMH). 90. Graphis nigrocarpa var elongata. 76.623-Holotype (AMH). 91. Graphis nigroglauca 82.404 (AMH) 92. Graphis nilgiriensis 78.109-Holotype(AMH). 93. Graphis norindica 74.784-Holotype (AMH). 94. Graphis occulta 85.1446-Holotype (AMH). 95. Graphis occulta var. areolata 85.1500-Holotype (AMH). 96. Graphis pallidomaculata 85.437-Holotype (AMH). 91. Graphis palmicola 86.820-Holotype (AMH). 98. Graphis parvicarpa 85.368-Holotype (AMH).

Scale : Bar = 2 mm

Figs. 99-114

99. Graphispatwardhanii 74.3534-Holotype (AMH) 100. Graphis persicina 77.1502 (AMH) 101. Graphis persulcata 76.705 (AMH) 102. Graphis proserpens 78.204 (AMH) 103. Graphis pyrrhocheliodes 74.1992 (AMH) 104. Graphis rigidula 73.1847 (AMH) 105. Graphis rimulosa Nlll( ASSAM) 106. Graphis sauroidea 77.1963 (AMH) 107. Graphis scariosa 85.2120-Holotype(AMH) 108. Graphis schizograpta 80.45 (AMH). 109. Graphis sikkimensis 77.1806-Holotype(AMH) 110. Graphis sorediosa 78.364-Holotype (AMH) 111. Graphisstenotera 81.480 (AMH) 112. Graphis stramineus 85.1023-Holotype(AMH). 113. Graphis striatula N4098 (ASSAM) 114. Graphis subasahinae 77.1345-Holotype(AMH).

Scale : Bar= 2 mm

Figs.: 115-130

115. Graphis subchrysocarpoides 85.2440-HoIotype (AMH). 116. Graphis subdisserpens H.NYL.7156-LectotypeH 117. Graphis subglauconigra 77.1495-Holotype(AMH). 118. Graphis subhypolepta 86.145-Holotype(AMH). 119. Graphis subnitidula 85.2436 (AMH) 120. Graphis taeniocarpoides 87.123-Holotype(AMH). 121. Graphis tenella 85.965 (AMH) 122. Graphis cf. tenuissima 75.412 (AMH) 123. Graphis treubii 80.282 (AMH) VIA. Graphis triticea 77.498 (AMH) 125. Graphis tubercularis 85.1625-Holotype(AMH). 126. Graphis urandrae 86.196 (AMH) 127. Graphis verminosa Lectotype (G) 128. Graphis verruciformis 85.1756-Holotype(AMH). 129. Graphis vittata 00.476 (AMH) 130. Graphis vittata var. distincta 81.508-Holotype(AMH).

Scale : Bar= 2 mm

Figs. 131-136

131. Graphis sp. A 76.319 (AMH) 132. Graphis sp. B 75.337 (AMH) 133. Graphis sp. C 76.884 (AMH) 134. Graphis sp. D 84.133 (AMH) 135. Graphis sp. E 82.262 (AMH) 136. Graphis sp. F 83.32 (AMH)

Scale: Bar = 2 mm

Appendix

Exotic Specimens of Graphis studied

Graphis afzelii Ach. Guinea, AFZELIUS s.n.-H Singapore, E. Almquist 1897, s.n. H.Nyl. NO. 1579-H North American Lichens, Lauisiana, A.B. Langlois No. 174 - H

Graphs anguilliformis Tayl. Ceylon, South of the Islands, G.H.K. Thwaites CL 153 - BM

Graphis assimilis Nyl. Chili, CL. Gay s.n. H. Nyl. No. 6033, 6034,6036 - H Ceylon, E. Almquist 1879, s.n. H.Nyl. No. 6035 - H Ceylon, Peradenyia, E. Almquist 1879, s.n. H. Nyl. NO. 7129 - H Singapore, E. Almquist 1879, s.n. H. Nyl. No. 7122 - H

Graphis capillaceae Stirton India, Chinsurah, G. Watt s.n. -Lectotype-BM India, Nilgiri hil, near base, G. Watt Ex Herb. Stirton, s.n. - BM

Graphis celata Stirton India, Assam, Prope Chinsurah, G. Watt No. 98-Lectotype & Isolectotype - GLAM India, Assam, Prope Chinsurah, G. Watt W 98 - GLAM

Graphis ceylonica (Nyl.) Zahlbr. Ceylon, Point de Galle, E. Almquist 1879, s.n. - Lectotype H.Nyl. No. 7900 - H

Graphis contortuplicata Mull. Arg. India, Manipur, G. Watt Ex Herb. Kew, 1891, s.n. - G

Graphis implexula Stirton India, Assam, A. Watt s.n. - Lectotype-BM

Graphis intermediella Stirton India, Assam, near Chinsurah, G. Watt s.n. - Lectotype - BM India, Assam, near Chinsurah, G. Watt s.n. - Isolectorype - BM

Graphis longiramea Miill. Arg. India, Manipur, G. Watt No. 78-Lectotype-G

Graphis nematoides Leighton Ceylon, Dolsbagey, G.H.K. Thwaites CL 152-Lectoytpe - BM Graphis nigroglauca Leighton Ceylon, Central Province, G.H.K. Thwaites CL 82-Lectotype-BM

Graphis rimulosa Trevis var. Parallela Miill. Arg. India, Manipur, G. Watt field No. 6982-Lectotype-BM

Graphis script a (L.) Ach. Ceylon, Paradeniya, E. Almquist H. Nyl. No. 7524-H

Graphis subdisserpens Nyl. India, Andaman, S. KurzNo. 37-Lectotype H.Nyl. No. 7156-H

Graphis subvirginea Nyl. India, Calcutta, S. Kurz No. 146, 148, H. Nyl. No. 7365,7162-H Ceylon, G.H.K. Thwaites CL 80a, b, and 85-Bm French Guiyana, Cayenne, Leprieur NO. 207, H. Nyl. No. 7160-H Cuba, C. Wright No. 221, H.Nyl. No. 7161-H

Graphis supertecta Mttll. Arg. Costa Rica, San Jose, Durand, Miill. Arg. No. 05135-Holotype-G

Graphis tenella Ach. Ceylon, H.Nyl. No. 7756-H Ceylon, Paradeniya, E.Almquist H.Nyl. NO. 7292-H Labuan, E. Almquist, H.Nyl. No. 7297-H

Graphis verminosa Mull. Arg. India, Manipur, G. watt No. 76-Lectoytpe-G Type/authentic data of Graphis by Dr. Mason Hale

G. albocinerea Vainio G. grammatica'Hy]. G. alboglauca Vainio G. guimarana Vainio G. albonotata Nyl. G. guineensis Dodge G. aphanes Mont. G. hossei Vainio G. arecae Vainio G. inamoena Zahlbr. G. asiatica Nak. G. induta Miill. Arg. G. assimilis Nyl. G. intricata Fee G. asterizans Nyl. G. irradians Fee G. auritica Eschw. G. karstenii Zahlbr. G. bakeri Vainio G. lecanorima Miill. Arg. G. batavana Zahlbr. G. longiramea Miill. Arg. G. bougainvillea Zahhl. G. marginata Mont. G. candidata Nyl. G. malacoderma Vainio G. canlaonensis Vainio G. modesta Zahlbr. G. ceylanica Zahhlbr. G. palmyrensis Zahlbr. G. chlorotica Mass. G. persicina Mey. Et Flot. G. chrysocarpoides Vainio G. pyrrhocheloides Zahlbr. G. comparilis Nyl. G. regular is Miill. Arg. G. confines Knight G. rimulosa Mont. G. congesta (Fee) MUll. Arg. G. rustica Kremeplh. G. consocians "Nyl. G. sauroidea Light. G. contortuplicata Miill. Arg. G. schiffneri Zahlbr. G. dumastii Fee G. stenotera Vainio G. elongata Zenk. G. subassimilis Mull. Arg. G. endoxantha Nyl. G. subdisserpens Nyl. G. erythrocardia Miill..Arg. G. subnitidula Nyl. G. exalbata Nyl. G. subrabdotis Nak. G. flavens Miill. Arg. G. tachygrapha Nyl. G. flavicans Miill. Arg. G. timidula Nyl. G. flurorescens Nak. G. treubii Zahlbr. G. formosana Zahlb. G. triticea Nyl. G. fumosa Miill. Arg. G. turgidula Mull. Arg. G. furfuracea Leight. G. urandrae Vainio G. glaucescens Fee G. verminosa Miill. Arg. G. glauconigra Vainio G. vittata Mull. Arg.