Diesel Engine

Diesel generator on an oil tanker

The diesel engine (also known as a compression- ignition or 'CI' engine) is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel that has been injected into the combustion chamber is initiated by the high temperature which a gas achieves when greatly compressed (adiabatic compression). This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or gas engine (using a gaseous fuel as opposed to petrol), which use a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel mixture. The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency A Diesel engine built by MAN AG in 1906 (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high compression ra- The world’s largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä- tio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, which pro- by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided duces a peak power output of 84.42 MW (113,210 hp) at compared to two-stroke non-direct-injection gasoline en- 102 rpm.[4][5] gines since unburnt fuel is not present at valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is rel- 1 History atively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.[1][2] In 1885, the English inventor Herbert Akroyd Stuart be- Diesel engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four- gan investigating the possibility of using paraffin oil (very stroke versions. They were originally used as a more effi- similar to modern-day diesel) for an engine, which unlike petrol would be difficult to vaporise in a carburettor as its cient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the [6][7] 1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use volatility is not sufficient to allow this. in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity His hot bulb engines, built from 1891 by Richard Hornsby generation plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly and Sons, were the first internal combustion engine to began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, use a pressurised fuel injection system.[8] The Hornsby- the use of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road Akroyd engine used a comparatively low compression ra- vehicles in the USA increased. According to the British tio, so that the temperature of the air compressed in the Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU av- combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke erage for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, was not high enough to initiate combustion. Combustion including 70% in France and 38% in the UK.[3] instead took place in a separated combustion chamber,

1 2 1 HISTORY

A Hornsby-Akroyd oil engine working at the Great Dorset Steam Fair

the “vaporizer” or “hot bulb” mounted on the cylinder head, into which fuel was sprayed. Self-ignition occurred from contact between the fuel-air mixture and the hot walls of the vaporizer.[9] As the engine’s load increased, so did the temperature of the bulb, causing the ignition period to advance; to counteract pre-ignition, water was dripped into the air intake.[10] The modern Diesel engine incorporates the features of direct (airless) injection and compression-ignition. Both ideas were patented by Akroyd Stuart and Charles Richard Binney in May 1890.[6] Another patent was taken Diesel’s original 1897 engine on display at the Deutsches Museum out on 8 October 1890, detailing the working of a com- in Munich, Germany plete engine—essentially that of a diesel engine—where air and fuel are introduced separately. The difference between the Akroyd engine and the modern Diesel engine was the requirement to supply extra heat to the cylinder to start the engine from cold. By 1892, Akroyd Stuart had produced an updated version of the engine that no longer required the additional heat source, a year before Diesel’s engine.[11] igniting-point of the fuel, then gradually introducing fuel while letting the mixture expand “against resistance suffi- In 1892, Akroyd Stuart patented a water-jacketed vapor- ciently to prevent an essential increase of temperature and iser to allow compression ratios to be increased. In the pressure”, then cutting off fuel and “expanding without same year, Thomas Henry Barton at Hornsbys built a transfer of heat”. In 1894 and 1895 he filed patents and working high-compression version for experimental pur- addenda in various countries for his Diesel engine; the poses, whereby the vaporiser was replaced with a cylinder first patents were issued in Spain (No. 16,654), France head, therefore not relying on air being preheated, but by (No. 243,531) and Belgium (No. 113,139) in Decem- combustion through higher compression ratios. It ran for ber 1894, and in Germany (No. 86,633) in 1895 and the six hours—the first time automatic ignition was produced United States (No. 608,845) in 1898.[14] He operated his by compression alone. This was five years before Rudolf first successful engine in 1897.[15] Diesel built his well-known high-compression prototype engine in 1897.[12] At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel’s prime model, a single 10-foot (3.0 m) iron cylinder with a Rudolf Diesel was, however, subsequently credited with flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time. the innovation, and he was able to improve the engine Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in further, whereas Akroyd Stuart stopped development on 1896 demonstrated another model with a theoretical ef- his engine in 1893. ficiency of 75%, in contrast to the 10% efficiency of the In 1892 Diesel received patents in Germany, Switzerland, steam engine. By 1898, Diesel had become a millionaire. the United Kingdom and the United States for “Method His engines were used to power pipelines, electric and of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work”.[13] In water plants, automobiles and trucks, and marine craft. 1893 he described a “slow-combustion engine” that first They were soon to be used in mines, oil fields, factories, compressed air thereby raising its temperature above the and transoceanic shipping. 1.1 Timeline 3

1.1 Timeline • 1899: Diesel licensed his engine to builders Krupp and Sulzer, who quickly became major manufactur- Main article: History of the internal combustion engine ers. 1890s 1900s

• 1902: Until 1910 MAN produced 82 copies of the stationary diesel engine. • 1903: Two first diesel-powered ships were launched, both for river and canal operations: La Petite-Pierre in France, powered by Dyckhoff-built diesels, and Vandal tanker in Russia, powered by Swedish-built diesels with an electrical transmission. • 1904: The French built the first diesel submarine, the Z. • 1905: Four diesel engine turbochargers and intercoolers were manufactured by Büchl (CH), as well as a scroll-type supercharger from Creux (F) company. • 1908: Prosper L'Orange and Deutz developed a pre- cisely controlled injection pump with a needle injection nozzle. • 1909: The prechamber with a hemispherical combustion chamber was developed by Prosper L'Orange with Benz.

Rudolf Diesel 1910s

• 1910: The Norwegian research ship Fram was a • 1891: Herbert Akroyd Stuart invents the first inter- sailing ship fitted with an auxiliary diesel engine, and was thus the first ocean-going ship with a diesel nal combustion engine to use a pressurised fuel in- [17] jection system. engine. • 1912: The Danish built the first ocean-going ship • 1892: February 23, Rudolf Diesel obtained a exclusively powered by a diesel engine, MS Se- patent (RP 67207) titled "Arbeitsverfahren und Aus- landia.[17] The first locomotive with a diesel engine führungsart für Verbrennungsmaschinen". also appeared. • 1892: Akroyd Stuart builds his first working Diesel • 1913: U.S. Navy submarines used NELSECO units. engine. Rudolf Diesel died mysteriously when he crossed the English Channel on the SS Dresden. • 1893: Diesel’s essay titled Theory and Construc- tion of a Rational Heat-engine to Replace the Steam • 1914: German U-boats were powered by MAN Engine and Combustion Engines Known Today ap- diesels. peared. • 1919: Prosper L'Orange obtained a patent on a • 1893: August 10, Diesel built his first working pro- prechamber insert and made a needle injection noz- totype in Augsburg.[16] zle. First diesel engine from Cummins.

• 1897: Adolphus Busch licenses rights to the Diesel 1920s Engine for the USA and Canada.[16] • 1921: Prosper L'Orange built a continuous variable • 1898: Diesel licensed his engine to Branobel, a output injection pump. Russian oil company interested in an engine that could consume non-distilled oil. Branobel’s engi- • 1922: The ﬁrst vehicle with a (pre-chamber) diesel neers spent four years designing a ship-mounted en- engine was Agricultural Tractor Type 6 of the Benz gine. Söhne agricultural tractor OE Benz Sendling. 4 1 HISTORY

• 1934–35: Junkers Motorenwerke in Germany started production of the Jumo aviation diesel engine family, the most famous of these being the Jumo 205, of which over 900 examples were produced by the outbreak of World War II.

One of the eight-cylinder 3200 I.H.P. Harland and Wolﬀ— Burmeister & Wain Diesel engines installed in the motorship Gle- napp. This was the highest powered Diesel engine yet (1920) installed in a ship. Note man standing lower right for size comparison.

• 1923: The ﬁrst truck with pre-chamber diesel engine made by MAN and Benz. Daimler-Motoren- Gesellschaft testing the ﬁrst air-injection diesel- engined truck.

• 1924: The introduction on the truck market of the diesel engine by commercial truck manufacturers in the IAA. Fairbanks-Morse starts building diesel engines.

• 1927: First truck injection pump and injection noz- zles of Bosch. First passenger car prototype of Stoewer.

1930s

Rudolf Diesel's 1893 patent on his engine design • 1930s: Caterpillar started building diesels for their tractors. • 1936: Mercedes-Benz built the 260D diesel car.[20] • 1930: First US diesel-power passenger car AT&SF inaugurated the diesel train Super Chief. (Cummins powered Packard) built in Columbus, The airship Hindenburg was powered by diesel en- Indiana (USA).[18] gines. First series of passenger cars manufactured with diesel engine (Mercedes-Benz 260 D, • 1930: Beardmore Tornado diesel engines power the Hanomag and Saurer). Daimler Benz airship diesel British airship R101. engine 602LOF6 for the LZ129 Hindenburg airship. • 1932: Introduction of the strongest diesel truck in • 1937: The Soviet Union developed the Kharkiv the world by MAN with 160 hp (120 kW). model V-2 diesel engine, later used in the T-34 tanks, widely regarded as the best tank chassis of • 1933: First European passenger cars with diesel en- World War II. gines (Citroën Rosalie); Citroën used an engine of the English diesel pioneer Sir Harry Ricardo.[19] The • 1937: BMW 114 experimental airplane diesel en- car did not go into production due to legal restric- gine development. tions on the use of diesel engines. • 1938: General Motors forms the GM Diesel Divi- • 1934: First turbo diesel engine for a railway train sion, later to become Detroit Diesel, and introduces by Maybach. First streamlined, stainless steel pas- the Series 71 inline high-speed medium-horsepower senger train in the US, the Pioneer Zephyr, using a two stroke engine; GM’s EMD subsidiary introduces Winton engine. the 567 two stroke medium-speed high-horsepower engine for locomotive, ship and stationary applica- • 1934: First tank equipped with diesel engine, the tions; These GM and EMD engines utilize GM’s Polish 7TP. patented Unit injector. 1.1 Timeline 5

• 1938: First turbo diesel engine of Saurer. 1980s

1940s • 1985: ATI Intercooler diesel engine from DAF. Eu- ropean Truck Common Rail system with the IFA • 1942: Tatra started production of Tatra 111 with truck type W50 introduced. air-cooled V12 diesel engine. • 1986: BMW 524td, the world’s first passenger • 1943–46: The common-rail (CRD) system was in- car equipped with an electronically controlled invented (and patented by) Clessie Cummins[21] jection pump (developed by Bosch).[25] The same year, the Fiat Croma was the first passenger car in • 1944: Development of air cooling for diesel engines the world to have a direct injection (turbocharged) by Klöckner Humboldt Deutz AG (KHD) for the diesel engine.[26] production stage, and later also for Magirus Deutz. • 1987: Most powerful production truck with a 460 1950s hp (340 kW) MAN diesel engine. • 1989: Audi 100, the first passenger car in the world • 1953: Turbo-diesel truck for Mercedes in small se- with a turbocharged direct injection and electronic ries. control diesel engine.[27] • 1954: Turbo-diesel truck in mass production by Volvo. First diesel engine with an overhead cam 1990s shaft of Daimler Benz.[22] • 1991: European emission standards Euro 1 met with • 1958 EMD introduces turbocharging for its 567 se- the truck diesel engine of Scania. ries of medium speed, high horsepower locomotive, stationary and marine engines. Every subsequent • 1993: Pump nozzle injection introduced in Volvo engine (645 and 710) would incorporate this tur- truck engines. bocharger. • 1994: Unit injector system by Bosch for diesel engines. Mercedes-Benz unveils the first automo- 1960s tive diesel engine with four valves per cylinder.[28] Medium speed high horsepower locomotive, ship • 1960: The diesel drive displaced steam turbines and and stationary diesel engines have utilized four coal fired steam engines. valves per cylinder since at least 1938. • 1962–65: A diesel compression braking system, • 1995: First successful use of common rail in a pro- eventually to be manufactured by Jacobs (of drill duction vehicle, by Denso in Japan, Hino “Rising chuck fame) and nicknamed the “Jake Brake”, was Ranger” truck. invented and patented by Clessie Cummins.[23] • 1996: First diesel engine with direct injection and • 1968: Peugeot introduced the first 204 small cars four valves per cylinder, used in the Opel Vectra.[29] with a transversally mounted diesel engine and front- wheel drive. • 1997: First common rail diesel engine in a passenger car, the Alfa Romeo 156.[30] 1970s • 1998: BMW made history by winning the 24 Hour Nürburgring race with the 320d, powered by a two- • 1973: DAF produced an air-cooled diesel engine. litre, four-cylinder diesel engine. The combination of high-performance with better fuel efficiency • 1976 February: Tested a diesel engine for the allowed the team to make fewer pit stops during Volkswagen Golf passenger car. The Cummins the long endurance race. Volkswagen introduces Common Rail injection system was further devel- three and four-cylinder turbodiesel engines, with oped by the ETH Zurich from 1976 to 1992. Bosch-developed electronically controlled unit in- [31] • 1978: Mercedes-Benz produced the first passenger jectors. Smart presented the first common rail car with a turbo-diesel engine (Mercedes-Benz 300 three-cylinder diesel engine used in a passenger car [32] SD).[20] Oldsmobile introduced the first passenger (the Smart City Coupé). car diesel engine produced by an American car com- • 1999: Euro 3 of Scania and the first common rail pany. truck diesel engine of Renault. • 1979: Peugeot 604, the first turbo-diesel car to be sold in Europe.[24] 2000s 6 2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE

• 2002: A street-driven Dodge Dakota pickup with a 2 Operating principle 735 horsepower (548 kW) diesel engine built at Gale banks engineering hauls its own service trailer to the Bonneville Salt Flats and set an FIA land speed p: pressure record as the world’s fastest pickup truck with a one- Qin way run of 222 mph (357 km/h) and a two-way av- p V: speciﬁc volume erage of 217 mph (349 km/h). 2 3 p • 2004: In Western Europe, the proportion of passen- 2 ger cars with diesel engine exceeded 50%. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system in Mercedes, Euro 4 with EGR system and particle ﬁlters of MAN. W Piezoelectric injector technology by Bosch. out

• 2006: Audi R10 TDI won the 12 Hours of Sebring isentropic and defeated all other engine concepts. The same car won the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans. Euro 5 p4 isentropic 4 Qout for all Iveco trucks. JCB Dieselmax broke the FIA Win p diesel land speed record from 1973, eventually set- 1 1 ting the new record at over 350 mph (563 km/h). 0 V V V 2 3 1 V • 2007: Lombardini develops a new 440 cc twin- [33] cyinder common rail diesel engine, which two p-V Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the years later sees application in automotive use, in the numbers 1–4 in clockwise direction. The horizontal axis is Vol- Ligier microcars.[34] At the time, this engine was ume of the cylinder. In the diesel cycle the combustion occurs considered to be the smallest twin-cyinder engine at almost constant pressure. On this diagram the work that is with a common rail system.[35] generated for each cycle corresponds to the area within the loop.

• 2008: Subaru introduced the ﬁrst horizontally opposed diesel engine to be ﬁtted to a passenger car. This is a Euro 5 compliant engine with an EGR system. SEAT wins the drivers’ title and the manufacturers’ title in the FIA World Touring Car Champi- onship with the SEAT León TDI. The achievements are repeated in the following season.

• 2009: Volkswagen won the 2009 Dakar Rally held in Argentina and Chile. The first diesel to do so. Race Touareg 2 models finished first and second. The same year, Volvo is claimed the world’s strongest truck with their FH16 700. An inline 6-cylinder, 16 L (976 cu in) 700 hp (522 kW) diesel engine producing 3150 Nm (2323.32 lb•ft) Diesel engine model, left side of torque and fully complying with Euro 5 emission standards.[36]

2010s

• 2010: Mitsubishi developed and started mass production of its 4N13 1.8 L DOHC I4, the world’s ﬁrst passenger car diesel engine that features a variable valve timing system.[37][38] Scania AB's V8 had the highest torque and power ratings of any truck engine, 730 hp (544 kW) and 3,500 N·m (2,581 ft·lb).[39]

• 2011: Piaggio launches a twin-cyinder turbodiesel engine, with common rail injection, on its new range of microvans.[40] Diesel engine model, right side 2.1 Early fuel injection systems 7

See also: Diesel cycle and Reciprocating internal com- During this compression, the volume is reduced, the pres- bustion engine sure and temperature both rise. At or slightly before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the air. Chemical energy is released and this constitutes an gasoline powered Otto cycle by using highly compressed injection of thermal energy (heat) into the compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug gas. Combustion and heating occur between 2 and 3. In (compression ignition rather than spark ignition). this interval the pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increases; the temperature rises In the true diesel engine, only air is initially introduced as a consequence of the energy of combustion. At 3 fuel into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed injection and combustion are complete, and the cylinder with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 23:1 contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2. Between 3 resulting in 40-bar (4.0 MPa; 580 psi) pressure compared and 4 this hot gas expands, again approximately adiabat- to 8 to 14 bars (0.80 to 1.40 MPa; 120 to 200 psi) in the ically. Work is done on the system to which the engine petrol engine. This high compression causes the temper- is connected. During this expansion phase the volume ature of the air to rise to 550 °C (1,022 °F). At about the of the gas rises, and its temperature and pressure both top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly fall. At 4 the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This abruptly to atmospheric (approximately). This is unre- may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the sisted expansion and no useful work is done by it. Ideally piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the the adiabatic expansion should continue, extending the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken line 3–4 to the right until the pressure falls to that of the down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed surrounding air, but the loss of efficiency caused by this evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporizes fuel unresisted expansion is justified by the practical difficul- from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ig- ties involved in recovering it (the engine would have to be nited by the heat from the compressed air in the combus- much larger). After the opening of the exhaust valve, the tion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their exhaust stroke follows, but this (and the following induc- surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the tion stroke) are not shown on the diagram. If shown, they droplets has been burnt. Combustion occurs at a substan- would be represented by a low-pressure loop at the bot- tially constant pressure during the initial part of the power tom of the diagram. At 1 it is assumed that the exhaust stroke. The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ig- and induction strokes have been completed, and the cylin- nition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the der is again filled with air. The piston-cylinder system ab- vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt sorbs energy between 1 and 2—this is the work needed increase in pressure above the piston (not shown on the P- to compress the air in the cylinder, and is provided by V indicator diagram). When combustion is complete the mechanical kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of the combustion gases expand as the piston descends further; engine. Work output is done by the piston-cylinder com- the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston down- bination between 2 and 4. The difference between these ward, supplying power to the crankshaft.[41] two increments of work is the indicated work output per As well as the high level of compression allowing com- cycle, and is represented by the area enclosed by the p– bustion to take place without a separate ignition system, V loop. The adiabatic expansion is in a higher pressure a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine’s range than that of the compression because the gas in the efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark- cylinder is hotter during expansion than during compres- ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry sion. It is for this reason that the loop has a finite area, to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent damag- and the net output of work during a cycle is positive. ing pre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre (TDC), premature detona- 2.1 Early fuel injection systems tion is not a problem and compression ratios are much higher. Diesel’s original engine injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which atomized the fuel and forced it The p–V diagam is a simplified and idealised represen- into the engine through a nozzle (a similar principle to an tation of the events involved in a Diesel engine cycle, aerosol spray). The nozzle opening was closed by a pin arranged to illustrate the similarity with a Carnot cycle. valve lifted by the camshaft to initiate the fuel injection Starting at 1, the piston is at bottom dead centre and both before top dead centre (TDC). This is called an air-blast valves are closed at the start of the compression stroke; injection. Driving the three stage compressor used some the cylinder contains air at atmospheric pressure. Be- power but the efficiency and net power output was more tween 1 and 2 the air is compressed adiabatically—that than any other combustion engine at that time. is without heat transfer to or from the environment—by the rising piston. (This is only approximately true since Diesel engines in service today raise the fuel to extreme there will be some heat exchange with the cylinder walls.) pressures by mechanical pumps and deliver it to the combustion chamber by pressure-activated injectors without 8 2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE compressed air. With direct injected diesels, injectors gear train.[42] These systems use a combination of springs spray fuel through 4 to 12 small orifices in its nozzle. The and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load early air injection diesels always had a superior combus- and speed.[42] Modern electronically controlled diesel en- tion without the sharp increase in pressure during com- gines control fuel delivery by use of an electronic con- bustion. Research is now being performed and patents trol module (ECM) or electronic control unit (ECU). The are being taken out to again use some form of air injec- ECM/ECU receives an engine speed signal, as well as tion to reduce the nitrogen oxides and pollution, revert- other operating parameters such as intake manifold pres- ing to Diesel’s original implementation with its superior sure and fuel temperature, from a sensor and controls combustion and possibly quieter operation. In all major the amount of fuel and start of injection timing through aspects, the modern diesel engine holds true to Rudolf actuators to maximise power and efficiency and minimise Diesel’s original design, that of igniting fuel by compres- emissions. Controlling the timing of the start of injec- sion at an extremely high pressure within the cylinder. tion of fuel into the cylinder is a key to minimizing emis- With much higher pressures and high technology injec- sions, and maximizing fuel economy (efficiency), of the tors, present-day diesel engines use the so-called solid in- engine. The timing is measured in degrees of crank an- jection system applied by Herbert Akroyd Stuart for his gle of the piston before top dead centre. For example, hot bulb engine. The indirect injection engine could be if the ECM/ECU initiates fuel injection when the piston considered the latest development of these low speed hot is 10° before TDC, the start of injection, or timing, is bulb ignition engines. said to be 10° BTDC. Optimal timing will depend on the engine design as well as its speed and load, and is usually 4° BTDC in 1,350–6,000 HP, net, “medium speed” 2.2 Fuel delivery locomotive, marine and stationary diesel engines. Advancing the start of injection (injecting before the pis- Diesel engines are also produced with two significantly ton reaches to its SOI-TDC) results in higher in-cylinder different injection locations. “Direct” and “Indirect”. pressure and temperature, and higher efficiency, but also Indirect injected engines place the injector in a pre- results in increased engine noise due to faster cylinder combustion chamber in the head which due to thermal pressure rise and increased oxides of nitrogen (NOₓ) for- losses generally require a “glow plug” to start and very mation due to higher combustion temperatures. Delaying high compression ratio. Usually in the range of 21:1 to start of injection causes incomplete combustion, reduced 23:1 ratio. Direct injected engines use a generally donut fuel efficiency and an increase in exhaust smoke, contain- shaped combustion chamber void on the top of the piston. ing a considerable amount of particulate matter and un- Thermal efficiency losses are significantly lower in DI burned hydrocarbons. engines which facilitates a much lower compression ratio generally between 14:1 and 20:1 but most DI engines are closer to 17:1. The direct injected process is signif- 2.3 Major advantages icantly more internally violent and thus requires careful design, and more robust construction. The lower com- Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal pression ratio also creates challenges for emissions due to combustion engines: partial burn. Turbocharging is particularly suited to DI engines since the low compression ratio facilitates mean- • ingful forced induction, and the increase in airflow allows They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing capturing additional fuel efficiency not only from more the same work, due to the engine’s higher temper- [1] complete combustion, but also from lowering parasitic ature of combustion and greater expansion ratio. efficiency losses when properly operated, by widening Gasoline engines are typically 30% efficient while both power and efficiency curves. The violent combus- diesel engines can convert over 45% of the fuel en- [43] tion process of direct injection also creates more noise, ergy into mechanical energy (see Carnot cycle for but modern designs using “split shot” injectors or simi- further explanation). lar multi shot processes have dramatically amended this • They have no high voltage electrical ignition sys- issue by firing a small charge of fuel before the main de- tem, resulting in high reliability and easy adapta- livery which pre-charges the combustion chamber for a tion to damp environments. The absence of coils, less abrupt and in most cases slightly cleaner burn. spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a source of A vital component of all diesel engines is a mechanical radio frequency emissions which can interfere with or electronic governor which regulates the idling speed navigation and communication equipment, which is and maximum speed of the engine by controlling the rate especially important in marine and aircraft appli- of fuel delivery. Unlike Otto-cycle engines, incoming cations, and for preventing interference with radio air is not throttled and a diesel engine without a gov- telescopes. ernor cannot have a stable idling speed and can easily overspeed, resulting in its destruction. Mechanically gov- • The longevity of a diesel engine is generally about erned fuel injection systems are driven by the engine’s twice that of a petrol engine[44] due to the increased 2.4 Mechanical and electronic injection 9

strength of parts used. Diesel fuel has better lubri- 2.4 Mechanical and electronic injection cation properties than petrol as well. Indeed, in unit injectors, the fuel is employed for three distinct pur- Many configurations of fuel injection have been used over poses: injector lubrication, injector cooling and in- the course of the 20th century. jection for combustion. Most present-day diesel engines use a mechanical single plunger high-pressure fuel pump driven by the engine crankshaft. For each engine cylinder, the correspond- ing plunger in the fuel pump measures out the correct amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. These engines use injectors that are very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. Separate high-pressure fuel lines connect the fuel pump with each cylinder. Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high-speed engines the plunger pumps Bus powered by biodiesel are together in one unit.[50] The length of fuel lines from the pump to each injector is normally the same for each • Diesel fuel is distilled directly from petroleum. Dis- cylinder in order to obtain the same pressure delay. tillation yields some gasoline, but the yield would be A cheaper configuration on high-speed engines with inadequate without catalytic reforming, which is a fewer than six cylinders is to use an axial-piston distribu- more costly process. tor pump, consisting of one rotating pump plunger delivering fuel to a valve and line for each cylinder (function- • Diesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many ally analogous to points and distributor cap on an Otto applications. Although diesel fuel will burn in open engine).[42] air using a wick, it will not explode and does not release a large amount of flammable vapor. The low Many modern systems have a single fuel pump which sup- vapor pressure of diesel is especially advantageous plies fuel constantly at high pressure with a common rail in marine applications, where the accumulation of (single fuel line common) to each injector. Each injector explosive fuel-air mixtures is a particular hazard. has a solenoid operated by an electronic control unit, re- For the same reason, diesel engines are immune to sulting in more accurate control of injector opening times vapor lock. that depend on other control conditions, such as engine speed and loading, and providing better engine perfor- • For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass mance and fuel economy. burned per energy produced) of a diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol and tur- Both mechanical and electronic injection systems can be bine engines which use proportionally more fuel used in either direct or indirect injection configurations. with partial power outputs.[45][46][47][48] Two-stroke diesel engines with mechanical injection pumps can be inadvertently run in reverse, albeit in a very • They generate less waste heat in cooling and inefficient manner, possibly damaging the engine. Large exhaust.[1] ship two-stroke diesels are designed to run in either di- • Diesel engines can accept super- or turbo-charging rection, obviating the need for a gearbox. pressure without any natural limit, constrained only by the strength of engine components. This is unlike petrol engines, which inevitably suffer detonation at 2.5 Indirect injection higher pressure. Main article: Indirect injection • The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal.[49] An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a • Biodiesel is an easily synthesized, non-petroleum- chamber off the combustion chamber, called a pre com- based fuel (through transesterification) which can bustion chamber or ante-chamber, where combustion be- run directly in many diesel engines, while gasoline gins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber, engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fu- assisted by turbulence created in the chamber. This sys- els or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g., tem allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and ethanol added to gasohol). because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injector 10 2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE

for automotive usage, buyers have to decide whether or not the increased fuel eﬃciency would compensate for the extra noise. Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing much greater control over the combustion.[52]

2.7 Unit direct injection

Main article: Unit Injector

Unit direct injection also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine. In this system the injector and the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder controlled by the camshaft. Each cylinder has its own unit eliminating the high-pressure fuel lines, achieving a more consistent injection. This type of injection system, also developed by Bosch, is used by Volkswagen AG in cars (where it is called a Pumpe-Düse- System—literally pump-nozzle system) and by Mercedes- Benz (“PLD”) and most major diesel engine manufacturers in large commercial engines (MAN SE, CAT, Cummins, Detroit Diesel, Electro-Motive Diesel, Volvo). With recent advancements, the pump pressure has been raised to 2,400 bars (240 MPa; 35,000 psi),[53] allowing injection parameters similar to common rail systems.[54] Arrow indicates opening from pre-chamber 2.8 Common rail direct injection pressures can be lower, about 100 bar (10 MPa; 1,500 psi), using a single orifice tapered jet injector. Mechani- Main article: Common rail cal injection systems allowed high-speed running suitable for road vehicles (typically up to speeds of around 4,000 In common rail systems, the separate pulsing high- rpm). The pre-chamber had the disadvantage of increas- pressure fuel line to each cylinder’s injector is also elim- ing heat loss to the engine’s cooling system, and restrict- inated. Instead, a high-pressure pump pressurizes fuel at ing the combustion burn, which reduced the efficiency up to 2,500 bar (250 MPa; 36,000 psi),[55] in a “com- [51] by 5–10%. Indirect injection engines are cheaper to mon rail”. The common rail is a tube that supplies build and it is easier to produce smooth, quiet-running each computer-controlled injector containing a precision- vehicles with a simple mechanical system. In road-going machined nozzle and a plunger driven by a solenoid or vehicles most prefer the greater efficiency and better con- piezoelectric actuator. trolled emission levels of direct injection. Indirect injection diesels can still be found in the many ATV diesel applications. 2.9 Cold weather

2.9.1 Starting 2.6 Direct injection In cold weather, high speed diesel engines can be diﬃ- Direct injection diesel engines have injectors mounted at cult to start because the mass of the cylinder block and the top of the combustion chamber. The injectors are cylinder head absorb the heat of compression, preventing activated using one of two methods - hydraulic pressure ignition due to the higher surface-to-volume ratio. Pre- from the fuel pump, or an electronic signal from an engine chambered engines make use of small electric heaters controller. inside the pre-chambers called glowplugs, while direct- Hydraulic pressure activated injectors can produce harsh injected engines have these glowplugs in the combustion engine noise. Fuel consumption is about 15–20% lower chamber. than indirect injection diesels. The extra noise is gener- Many engines use resistive heaters in the intake mani- ally not a problem for industrial uses of the engine, but fold to warm the inlet air for starting, or until the en- 11

gine reaches operating temperature. Engine block heaters A two-stroke engine does not have a discrete exhaust (electric resistive heaters in the engine block) connected and intake stroke and thus is incapable of self-aspiration. to the utility grid are used in cold climates when an engine Therefore, all two-stroke engines must be fitted with a is turned off for extended periods (more than an hour), to blower to charge the cylinders with air and assist in dis- reduce startup time and engine wear. Block heaters are persing exhaust gases, a process referred to as scavenging. also used for emergency power standby Diesel-powered In some cases, the engine may also be fitted with a tur- generators which must rapidly pick up load on a power bocharger, whose output is directed into the blower inlet. failure. In the past, a wider variety of cold-start methods A few designs employ a hybrid turbocharger (a turbo- were used. Some engines, such as Detroit Diesel[56] en- compressor system) for scavenging and charging the gines used a system to introduce small amounts of ether cylinders, which device is mechanically driven at crank- into the inlet manifold to start combustion. Others used ing and low speeds to act as a blower, but which acts as a mixed system, with a resistive heater burning methanol. a true turbocharger at higher speeds and loads. A hybrid An impromptu method, particularly on out-of-tune en- turbocharger can revert to compressor mode during com- gines, is to manually spray an aerosol can of ether-based mands for large increases in engine output power. engine starter fluid into the intake air stream (usually through the intake air filter assembly). As turbocharged or supercharged engines produce more power for a given engine size as compared to naturally as- pirated engines, attention must be paid to the mechanical 2.9.2 Gelling design of components, lubrication, and cooling to handle the power. Pistons are usually cooled with lubrication oil Diesel fuel is also prone to waxing or gelling in cold sprayed on the bottom of the piston. Large engines may weather; both are terms for the solidification of diesel oil use water, sea water, or oil supplied through telescoping into a partially crystalline state. The crystals build up in pipes attached to the crosshead.[58] the fuel line (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running. Low- output electric heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel lines 3 Types are used to solve this problem. Also, most engines have a spill return system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank. 3.1 Size groups Once the engine has warmed, returning warm fuel pre- vents waxing in the tank. Due to improvements in fuel technology with additives, waxing rarely occurs in all but the coldest weather when a mix of diesel and kerosene may be used to run a vehicle. Gas stations in regions with a cold climate are required to offer winterized diesel in the cold seasons that allow operation below a specific Cold Filter Plugging Point. In Europe these diesel characteristics are described in the EN 590 standard.

2.10 Supercharging and turbocharging

Most diesels are now turbocharged and some are both turbo charged and supercharged. Because diesels do not have fuel in the cylinder before combustion is initiated, more than one bar (100 kPa) of air can be loaded in the cylinder without preignition. A turbocharged engine can produce signiﬁcantly more power than a naturally aspi- rated engine of the same conﬁguration, as having more air in the cylinders allows more fuel to be burned and thus more power to be produced. A supercharger is powered mechanically by the engine’s crankshaft, while a turbocharger is powered by the engine exhaust, not requiring any mechanical power. Turbocharging can improve the Two Cycle Diesel engine with Roots blower, typical of Detroit fuel economy[57] of diesel engines by recovering waste Diesel and some Electro-Motive Diesel Engines heat from the exhaust, increasing the excess air factor, and increasing the ratio of engine output to friction losses. There are three size groups of Diesel engines[59] 12 3 TYPES

• Small—under 188 kW (252 hp) output was producing a good seal where the piston rod passed through the bottom of the lower combustion chamber • Medium to the crosshead bearing, and no more were built. By • Large the 1930s turbochargers were ﬁtted to some engines. Crosshead bearings are still used to reduce the wear on the cylinders in large long-stroke main marine engines. 3.2 Basic types

There are two basic types of Diesel Engines[59] 3.4 Modern high and medium-speed engines • Four stroke cycle • Two stroke cycle

3.3 Early engines

Rudolf Diesel based his engine on Nikolaus Otto’s 1876 engine, with the goal of improving its efficiency. Diesel’s engine concepts were set forth in patents in 1892 and 1893.[60] As such, diesel engines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries used the same basic layout and form as industrial steam engines, with long-bore cylinders, external valve gear, cross-head bearings and an open crankshaft connected to a large flywheel. Smaller engines would be built with vertical cylinders, while most medium- and large-sized industrial engines were built with horizontal cylinders, just as steam engines had been. Engines could be built with more than one cylinder in both cases. The largest early diesels resembled the triple-expansion steam reciprocating engine, being tens of feet high with vertical cylinders arranged in-line. These early engines A Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine, installed in a sailboat ran at very slow speeds—partly due to the limitations of their air-blast injector equipment and partly so they would As with petrol engines, there are two classes of diesel be compatible with the majority of industrial equipment engines in current use: two-stroke and four-stroke. The designed for steam engines; maximum speeds of 100– four-stroke type is the “classic” version, tracing its lin- 300 rpm were common. Engines were usually started eage back to Rudolf Diesel’s prototype. It is also the most by allowing compressed air into the cylinders to turn commonly used form, being the preferred power source the engine, although smaller engines could be started by for many motor vehicles, especially buses and trucks. hand.[61] Much larger engines, such as used for railroad locomo- In 1897, when the first Diesel engine was completed tion and marine propulsion, are often two-stroke units, offering a more favourable power-to-weight ratio, as well Adolphus Busch traveled to Cologne and negotiated ex- clusive right to produce the Diesel engine in the USA and as better fuel economy. The most powerful engines in the world are two-stroke diesels of mammoth dimensions.[62] Canada. In his examination of the engine, it was noted that the Diesel at that time operated at thermodynamic Two-stroke diesel engine operation is similar to that of efficiencies of 32–35%, while a typical triple expansion petrol counterparts, except that fuel is not mixed with air steam engine would operate at about 18%.[16] before induction, and the crankcase does not take an ac- In the early decades of the 20th century, when large diesel tive role in the cycle. The traditional two-stroke design engines were first being used, the engines took a form relies upon a mechanically driven positive displacement similar to the compound steam engines common at the blower to charge the cylinders with air before compres- time, with the piston being connected to the connecting sion and ignition. The charging process also assists in rod by a crosshead bearing. Following steam engine prac- expelling (scavenging) combustion gases remaining from tice some manufacturers made double-acting two-stroke the previous power stroke. and four-stroke diesel engines to increase power output, The archetype of the modern form of the two-stroke with combustion taking place on both sides of the pis- diesel is the (high-speed) Detroit Diesel Series 71 en- ton, with two sets of valve gear and fuel injection. While gine, designed by Charles F. “Boss” Kettering and his it produced large amounts of power and was very ef- colleagues at General Motors Corporation in 1938, in ficient, the double-acting diesel engine’s main problem which the blower pressurizes a chamber in the engine 3.5 Modern low-speed engines 13

block that is often referred to as the “air box”. The the four-cylinder. Diesel engines for smaller plant ma- (very much larger medium-speed) Electro-Motive Diesel chinery, boats, tractors, generators and pumps may be engine[63] is used as the prime mover in EMD diesel- four, three or two-cylinder types, with the single-cylinder electric locomotive, marine and stationary applications, diesel engine remaining for light stationary work. Di- and was designed by the same team, and is built to the rect reversible two-stroke marine diesels need at least same principle. However, a significant improvement three cylinders for reliable restarting forwards and re- built into most later EMD engines is the mechanically as- verse, while four-stroke diesels need at least six cylinders. sisted turbo-compressor, which provides charge air us- The desire to improve the diesel engine’s power-to-weight ing mechanical assistance during starting (thereby ob- ratio produced several novel cylinder arrangements to ex- viating the necessity for Roots-blown scavenging), and tract more power from a given capacity. The uniflow provides charge air using an exhaust gas-driven turbine opposed-piston engine uses two pistons in one cylinder during normal operations—thereby providing true tur- with the combustion cavity in the middle and gas in- and bocharging and additionally increasing the engine’s power [lower-alpha 1] outlets at the ends. This makes a comparatively light, output by at least fifty percent. powerful, swiftly running and economic engine suitable for use in aviation. An example is the Junkers Jumo 204/205. The Napier Deltic engine, with three cylinders arranged in a triangular formation, each containing two opposed pistons, the whole engine having three crankshafts, is one of the better known.

3.5 Modern low-speed engines

Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) often have a thermal eﬃciency which exceeds 50%.[1][2]

3.6 Gas generator Three English Electric 7SRL diesel-alternator sets being installed at the Saateni Power Station, Zanzibar 1955 Main article: Free-piston engine

In a two-stroke diesel engine, as the cylinder’s piston ap- Before 1950, Sulzer started experimenting with two- proaches the bottom dead centre exhaust ports or valves stroke engines with boost pressures as high as 6 are opened relieving most of the excess pressure after atmospheres, in which all the output power was taken which a passage between the air box and the cylinder from an exhaust gas turbine. The two-stroke pistons di- [64] is opened, permitting air flow into the cylinder. The rectly drove air compressor pistons to make a positive air flow blows the remaining combustion gases from the displacement gas generator. Opposed pistons were con- cylinder—this is the scavenging process. As the piston nected by linkages instead of crankshafts. Several of passes through bottom centre and starts upward, the pas- these units could be connected to provide power gas to [65] sage is closed and compression commences, culminat- one large output turbine. The overall thermal efficiency [66] ing in fuel injection and ignition. Refer to two-stroke was roughly twice that of a simple gas turbine.[67] This diesel engines for more detailed coverage of aspiration system was derived from Raúl Pateras Pescara's work on types and supercharging of two-stroke diesel engines. free-piston engines in the 1930s. Normally, the number of cylinders are used in multiples of two, although any number of cylinders can be used as long as the load on the crankshaft is counterbalanced to 4 Advantages and disadvantages prevent excessive vibration. The inline-six-cylinder design is the most prolific in light- to medium-duty engines, versus spark-ignition engines though small V8 and larger inline-four displacement engines are also common. Small-capacity engines (gener- 4.1 Fuel economy ally considered to be those below five litres in capacity) are generally four- or six-cylinder types, with the four- The MAN S80ME-C7 low speed diesel engines use 155 cylinder being the most common type found in automo- grams (5.5 oz) of fuel per kWh for an overall energy con- tive uses. Five-cylinder diesel engines have also been pro- version efficiency of 54.4%, which is the highest con- duced, being a compromise between the smooth running version of fuel into power by any single-cycle internal of the six-cylinder and the space-efficient dimensions of or external combustion engine[1] (The efficiency of a 14 4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES VERSUS SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES

combined cycle gas turbine system can exceed 60%.[68]) crank). For example, a theoretical engine with a constant Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline (petrol) 200 ft/lbs of torque and a 3000 rpm rev limit has just engines of the same power rating, resulting in lower fuel as much power (a little over 114 hp) as another theoreti- consumption. A common margin is 40% more miles per cal engine with a constant maximum 100 ft/lbs of torque gallon for an efficient turbodiesel. For example, the cur- and a 6000 rpm rev limit. A (lossless) 2 to 1 reduction rent model Škoda Octavia, using Volkswagen Group en- gear on the second engine will output a constant maxi- gines, has a combined Euro rating of 6.2 L/100 km (46 mum 200 ft/lbs of torque at a maximum of 3000 rpm, mpg-ᵢ; 38 mpg-US) for the 102 bhp (76 kW) petrol en- with no change in power. Comparing engines based on gine and 4.4 L/100 km (64 mpg-ᵢ; 53 mpg-US) for the (maximum) torque is just as useful as comparing them 105 bhp (78 kW) diesel engine. based on (maximum) rpm. However, such a comparison does not take into account that diesel fuel is denser and contains about 15% more energy by volume. Although the calorific value of the fuel is slightly lower at 45.3 MJ/kg (megajoules per kilo- gram) than petrol at 45.8 MJ/kg, liquid diesel fuel is significantly denser than liquid petrol. This is significant because volume of fuel, in addition to mass, is an impor- 4.3 Power tant consideration in mobile applications. Adjusting the numbers to account for the energy density In diesel engines, conditions in the engine differ from the of diesel fuel, the overall energy efficiency is still about spark-ignition engine, since power is directly controlled 20% greater for the diesel version. by the fuel supply, rather than by controlling the air sup- While a higher compression ratio is helpful in raising effi- ply. ciency, diesel engines are much more efficient than gaso- The average diesel engine has a poorer power-to-weight line (petrol) engines when at low power and at engine idle. ratio than the petrol engine. This is because the diesel Unlike the petrol engine, diesels lack a butterfly valve must operate at lower engine speeds[72] and because it (throttle) in the inlet system, which closes at idle. This needs heavier, stronger parts to resist the operating pres- creates parasitic loss and destruction of availability of the sure caused by the high compression ratio of the en- incoming air, reducing the efficiency of petrol engines at gine and the large amounts of torque generated to the idle. In many applications, such as marine, agriculture, crankshaft. In addition, diesels are often built with and railways, diesels are left idling and unattended for stronger parts to give them longer lives and better relia- many hours, sometimes even days. These advantages are bility, important considerations in industrial applications. especially attractive in locomotives (see dieselisation). Diesel engines usually have longer stroke lengths chiefly Even though diesel engines have a theoretical fuel effi- to facilitate achieving the necessary compression ratios, ciency of 75%, in practice it is lower. Engines in large but also to reduce the optimal operating speed (rpm). diesel trucks, buses, and newer diesel cars can achieve As a result, piston and connecting rods are heavier and peak efficiencies around 45%,[69] and could reach 55% more force must be transmitted through the connecting efficiency in the near future.[70] However, average effi- rods and crankshaft to change the momentum of the pis- ciency over a driving cycle is lower than peak efficiency. ton. This is another reason that a diesel engine must be For example, it might be 37% for an engine with a peak stronger for the same power output as a petrol engine. efficiency of 44%.[71] Yet it is this characteristic that has allowed some en- thusiasts to acquire significant power increases with 4.2 Torque turbocharged engines by making fairly simple and inex- pensive modifications. A petrol engine of similar size Diesel engines produce more torque than petrol engines cannot put out a comparable power increase without ex- for a given displacement due to their higher compression tensive alterations because the stock components cannot ratio. Higher pressure in the cylinder and higher forces withstand the higher stresses placed upon them. Since a on the connecting rods and crankshaft require stronger, diesel engine is already built to withstand higher levels of heavier components. Heavier rotating components pre- stress, it makes an ideal candidate for performance tun- vent diesel engines from reving as high as petrol engines ing at little expense. However, it should be said that any for a given displacement. Diesel engines generally have modification that raises the amount of fuel and air put similar power and inferior power to weight to petrol en- through a diesel engine will increase its operating tem- gines. Petrol engines must be geared lower to get the same perature, which will reduce its life and increase service torque as a comparable diesel but since petrol engines rev requirements. These are issues with newer, lighter, high- higher both will have similar acceleration. An arbitrary performance diesel engines which are not “overbuilt” to amount of torque at the wheels can be gained by gear- the degree of older engines and they are being pushed to ing any power source down sufficiently (including a hand provide greater power in smaller engines. 4.6 Noise 15

4.4 Forced induction food production. When a diesel engine runs at low power, there is enough The addition of a turbocharger or supercharger to the en- oxygen present to burn the fuel—diesel engines only gine does not assist in increasing fuel economy, but will make significant amounts of carbon monoxide when run- increase power output in the same sized engine, mitigat- ning under a load. ing the fuel-air intake speed limit mentioned above for a given engine displacement. Boost pressures can be higher Diesel fuel is injected just before the power stroke. As a on diesels than on petrol engines, due to the latter’s sus- result, the fuel cannot burn completely unless it has a suf- ceptibility to knock, and the higher compression ratio al- ficient amount of oxygen. This can result in incomplete lows a diesel engine to be more efficient than a compara- combustion and black smoke in the exhaust if more fuel ble spark ignition engine. Because the burned gases are is injected than there is air available for the combustion expanded further in a diesel engine cylinder, the exhaust process. Modern engines with electronic fuel delivery can gas is cooler, meaning turbochargers require less cool- adjust the timing and amount of fuel delivery (by changing, and can be more reliable, than with spark-ignition ing the duration of the injection pulse), and so operate engines. with less waste of fuel. In a mechanical system, the injection timing and duration must be set to be efficient at Without the risk of knocking, boost pressure in a diesel the anticipated operating rpm and load, and so the settings engine can be much higher; it is possible to run as much are less than ideal when the engine is running at any other boost as the engine will physically stand before breaking RPM than what it is timed for. The electronic injection apart. can “sense” engine revs, load, even boost and tempera- A combination of improved mechanical technology (such ture, and continuously alter the timing to match the given as multi-stage injectors which fire a short “pilot charge” situation. In the petrol engine, air and fuel are mixed for of fuel into the cylinder to warm the combustion chamber the entire compression stroke, ensuring complete mixing before delivering the main fuel charge), higher injection even at higher engine speeds. pressures that have improved the atomisation of fuel into Diesel exhaust is well known for its characteristic smell; smaller droplets, and electronic control (which can adjust but this smell in recent years has become much less be- the timing and length of the injection process to optimise cause the sulfur is now removed from the fuel in the oil it for all speeds and temperatures) have mitigated most refinery. of these problems in the latest generation of common-rail designs, while greatly improving engine efficiency. Poor Diesel exhaust has been found to contain a long list of power and narrow torque bands have been addressed by toxic air contaminants. Among these pollutants, fine par- superchargers, turbochargers, (especially variable geom- ticle pollution is an important as a cause of diesel’s harm- etry turbochargers), intercoolers, and a large efficiency ful health effects. However, when diesel engines burn increase from about 35% for IDI to 45% for the latest their fuel with high oxygen levels, this results in high com- engines in the last 15 years. bustion temperatures and higher efficiency, and these par- ticles tend to burn off and reduce, but the amount of NOx pollution tends to increase. 4.5 Emissions NOx pollution can be reduced with diesel exhaust fluid, which is injected into the exhaust stream, and catalyti- Main article: Diesel exhaust cally destroys the NOx chemical species. Exhaust gas re- circulation which works by recirculating a portion of an engine’s exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders also has Since the diesel engine uses less fuel than the petrol en- very positive effects on NOx emissions. gine per unit distance, the diesel produces less carbon dioxide (CO2) per unit distance. Recent advances in production and changes in the political climate have increased the availability and awareness of biodiesel, an al- 4.6 Noise ternative to petroleum-derived diesel fuel with a much lower net-sum emission of CO2, due to the absorption The distinctive noise of a diesel engine is variably called [73] of CO2 by plants used to produce the fuel. Although diesel clatter, diesel nailing, or diesel knock. Diesel concerns are now being raised as to the negative effect clatter is caused largely by the diesel combustion process; this is having on the world food supply, as the growing the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into of crops specifically for biofuels takes up land that could the combustion chamber causes a pressure wave. Engine be used for food crops and uses water that could be used designers can reduce diesel clatter through: indirect in- by both humans and animals. However, the use of waste jection; pilot or pre-injection; injection timing; injection vegetable oil, sawmill waste from managed forests in Fin- rate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas re- land, and advances in the production of vegetable oil from circulation (EGR).[74] Common rail diesel injection sys- algae demonstrate great promise in providing feed stocks tems permit multiple injection events as an aid to noise for sustainable biodiesel that are not in competition with reduction. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating modify 16 4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES VERSUS SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES the combustion process and reduce diesel clatter.[73] CN care was not taken (especially in letting the engine cool (Cetane number) can be raised by distilling higher qual- before turning it off). ity crude oil, by catalyzing a higher quality product or by using a cetane improving additive. 4.8 Cylinder cavitation and erosion dam- A combination of improved mechanical technology such age as multi-stage injectors which fire a short “pilot charge” of fuel into the cylinder to initiate combustion before de- One phenomenon that can affect water-cooled diesel en- livering the main fuel charge, higher injection pressures gines is cylinder cavitation and erosion. This is due to a that have improved the atomisation of fuel into smaller phenomenon in high-compression engines where the ig- droplets, and electronic control (which can adjust the nition of the fuel in the cylinder causes a high-frequency timing and length of the injection process to optimise it vibration that causes bubbles to form in the coolant in for all speeds and temperatures), have partially mitigated contact with the cylinder. When these tiny bubbles col- these problems in the latest generation of common-rail lapse, coolant impacts the cylinder wall, over time caus- designs, while improving engine efficiency. ing small holes to form in the cylinder wall.[75] This damage is mitigated in some engines with coatings, or with a 4.7 Reliability coolant additive specifically designed to prevent cavitation and erosion damage. Engines damaged in this way For most industrial or nautical applications, reliability is will require the affected cylinder to be repaired (where considered more important than light weight and high possible) or will be rendered unusable. power. The lack of an electrical ignition system greatly improves 4.9 Quality and variety of fuels the reliability. The high durability of a diesel engine is also due to its overbuilt nature (see above), a benefit Petrol/gasoline engines are limited in the variety and that is magnified by the lower rotating speeds in diesels. quality of the fuels they can burn. Older petrol engines Diesel fuel is a better lubricant than petrol and thus, it fitted with a carburetor required a volatile fuel that would is less harmful to the oil film on piston rings and cylinder vaporise easily to create the necessary air-fuel ratio for bores; it is routine for diesel engines to cover 400,000 km combustion. Because both air and fuel are admitted to the (250,000 mi) or more without a rebuild. cylinder, if the compression ratio of the engine is too high Due to the greater compression ratio and the increased or the fuel too volatile (with too low an octane rating), the weight of the stronger components, starting a diesel en- fuel will ignite under compression, as in a diesel engine, gine is harder than starting a gasoline engine of similar before the piston reaches the top of its stroke. This pre- design and displacement. More torque from the starter ignition causes a power loss and over time major damage motor is required to push the engine through the com- to the piston and cylinder. The need for a fuel that is pression cycle when starting compared to a petrol engine. volatile enough to vaporise but not too volatile (to avoid This can cause difficulty when starting in winter time if pre-ignition) means that petrol engines will only run on a narrow range of fuels. There has been some success at using conventional automotive batteries because of the lower current available. dual-fuel engines that use petrol and ethanol, petrol and propane, and petrol and methane. Either an electrical starter or an air-start system is used to start the engine turning. On large engines, pre-lubrication In diesel engines, a mechanical injector system vaporizes and slow turning of an engine, as well as heating, are re- the fuel directly into the combustion chamber or a pre- quired to minimise the amount of engine damage dur- combustion chamber (as opposed to a Venturi jet in a ing initial start-up and running. Some smaller military carburetor, or a fuel injector in a fuel injection system diesels can be started with an explosive cartridge, called a vaporising fuel into the intake manifold or intake runners Coffman starter, which provides the extra power required as in a petrol engine). This forced vaporisation means to get the machine turning. In the past, Caterpillar and that less-volatile fuels can be used. More crucially, be- John Deere used a small petrol pony engine in their trac- cause only air is inducted into the cylinder in a diesel en- tors to start the primary diesel engine. The pony engine gine, the compression ratio can be much higher as there heated the diesel to aid in ignition and used a small clutch is no risk of pre-ignition provided the injection process is and transmission to spin up the diesel engine. Even more accurately timed. This means that cylinder temperatures unusual was an International Harvester design in which are much higher in a diesel engine than a petrol engine, the diesel engine had its own carburetor and ignition sys- allowing less volatile fuels to be used. tem, and started on petrol. Once warmed up, the operator Diesel fuel is a form of light fuel oil, very similar to moved two levers to switch the engine to diesel operation, kerosene (paraffin), but diesel engines, especially older and work could begin. These engines had very complex or simple designs that lack precision electronic injection cylinder heads, with their own petrol combustion cham- systems, can run on a wide variety of other fuels. Some bers, and were vulnerable to expensive damage if special of the most common alternatives are Jet A-1 type jet fuel 17 or vegetable oil from a very wide variety of plants. Some can work with the full spectrum of crude oil distillates, engines can be run on vegetable oil without modification, from natural gas, alcohols, petrol, wood gas to the fuel and most others require fairly basic alterations. Biodiesel oils from diesel oil to residual fuels. Many automotive is a pure diesel-like fuel refined from vegetable oil and can diesel engines would run on 100% biodiesel without any be used in nearly all diesel engines. Requirements for fu- modifications. This would be such a potential advantage els to be used in diesel engines are the ability of the fuel to since biodiesel can be made so much more cheaply than flow along the fuel lines, the ability of the fuel to lubricate it takes to have traditional diesel fuel from a fuel station’s the injector pump and injectors adequately, and its igni- pump.[77] tion qualities (ignition delay, cetane number). Inline me- The type of fuel used is selected to meet a combination of chanical injector pumps generally tolerate poor-quality service requirements, and fuel costs. Good-quality diesel or bio-fuels better than distributor-type pumps. Also, in- fuel can be synthesised from vegetable oil and alcohol. direct injection engines generally run more satisfactorily Diesel fuel can be made from coal or other carbon base on bio-fuels than direct injection engines. This is partly using the Fischer–Tropsch process. Biodiesel is growing because an indirect injection engine has a much greater in popularity since it can frequently be used in unmod- 'swirl' effect, improving vaporisation and combustion of ified engines, though production remains limited. Re- fuel, and because (in the case of vegetable oil-type fuels) cently, biodiesel from coconut, which can produce a very lipid depositions can condense on the cylinder walls of promising coco methyl ester (CME), has characteristics a direct-injection engine if combustion temperatures are which enhance lubricity and combustion giving a regular too low (such as starting the engine from cold). diesel engine without any modification more power, less It is often reported that Diesel designed his engine to run particulate matter or black smoke, and smoother engine on peanut oil, but this is false. Patent number 608845 performance. The Philippines pioneers in the research on describes his engine as being designed to run on pulveru- Coconut based CME with the help of German and Amer- lent solid fuel (coal dust). Diesel stated in his published ican scientists. Petroleum-derived diesel is often called papers, “at the Paris Exhibition in 1900 (Exposition Uni- petrodiesel if there is need to distinguish the source of verselle) there was shown by the Otto Company a small the fuel. diesel engine, which, at the request of the French Gov- Pure plant oils are increasingly being used as a fuel for ernment ran on Arachide (earth-nut or peanut) oil (see cars, trucks and remote combined heat and power gen- biodiesel), and worked so smoothly that only a few people eration especially in Germany where hundreds of decen- were aware of it. The engine was constructed for using tralised small- and medium-sized oil presses cold press mineral oil, and was then worked on vegetable oil with- oilseed, mainly rapeseed, for fuel. There is a Deutsches out any alterations being made. The French Government Institut für Normung fuel standard for rapeseed oil fuel. at the time thought of testing the applicability to power production of the Arachide, or earth-nut, which grows in Residual fuels are the “dregs” of the distillation process considerable quantities in their African colonies, and can and are a thicker, heavier oil, or oil with higher viscosity, easily be cultivated there.” Diesel himself later conducted which are so thick that they are not readily pumpable un- related tests and appeared supportive of the idea.[76] less heated. Residual fuel oils are cheaper than clean, refined diesel oil, although they are dirtier. Their main Most large marine diesels run on heavy fuel oil (some- considerations are for use in ships and very large genera- times called “bunker oil”), which is a thick, viscous and tion sets, due to the cost of the large volume of fuel con- almost flameproof fuel which is very safe to store and sumed, frequently amounting to many tonnes per hour. cheap to buy in bulk as it is a waste product from the The poorly refined biofuels straight vegetable oil (SVO) petroleum refining industry. The fuel must not only be and waste vegetable oil (WVO) can fall into this cate- pre-heated, but must be kept heated during handling and gory, but can be viable fuels on non-common rail or TDI storage in order to maintain its pumpability. This is PD diesels with the simple conversion of fuel heating to usually accomplished by steam tracing on fuel lines and 80 to 100 degrees Celsius to reduce viscosity, and ade- steam coils in fuel oil tanks. The fuel is then preheated quate filtration to OEM standards. Engines using these to over 100C before entering the engine in order to attain heavy oils have to start and shut down on standard diesel the proper viscosity for atomisation. fuel, as these fuels will not flow through fuel lines at low temperatures. Moving beyond that, use of low-grade fuels can lead to serious maintenance problems because of 5 Fuel and fluid characteristics their high sulphur and lower lubrication properties. Most diesel engines that power ships like supertankers are built so that the engine can safely use low-grade fuels due to Main article: Diesel fuel their separate cylinder and crankcase lubrication. Normal diesel fuel is more difficult to ignite and slower Diesel engines can operate on a variety of different fuels, in developing fire than petrol because of its higher flash depending on configuration, though the eponymous diesel point, but once burning, a diesel fire can be fierce. fuel derived from crude oil is most common. The engines 18 7 APPLICATIONS

Fuel contaminants such as dirt and water are often more seat and operated in open air, there is a risk to the opera- problematic in diesel engines than in petrol engines. Wa- tor of injury by hypodermic jet-injection, even with only ter can cause serious damage, due to corrosion, to the in- 100 pounds per square inch (690 kPa) pressure.[80] The jection pump and injectors; and dirt, even very fine par- first known such injury occurred in 1937 during a diesel ticulate matter, can damage the injection pumps due to engine maintenance operation.[81] the close tolerances that the pumps are machined to. All diesel engines will have a fuel filter (usually much finer than a filter on a petrol engine), and a water trap. The 6.3 Cancer water trap (which is sometimes part of the fuel filter) often has a float connected to a warning light, which warns Diesel exhaust has been classified as an IARC Group 1 when there is too much water in the trap, and must be carcinogen. It causes lung cancer and is associated with drained before damage to the engine can result. The fuel an increased risk for bladder cancer.[82] filter must be replaced much more often on a diesel engine than on a petrol engine, changing the fuel filter every 2–4 oil changes is not uncommon for some vehicles. 7 Applications

The characteristics of diesel have diﬀerent advantages for 6 Safety diﬀerent applications.

6.1 Fuel flammability 7.1 Passenger cars Diesel fuel has low flammability, leading to a low risk Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and of fire caused by fuel in a vehicle equipped with a diesel have been used in smaller cars such as superminis like the engine. Peugeot 205, in Europe since the 1980s. Diesel engines In yachts, diesel engines are often used because the petrol tend to be more economical at regular driving speeds (gasoline) that fuels spark-ignition engines releases com- and are much better at city speeds. Their reliability and bustible vapors which can lead to an explosion if it ac- life-span tend to be better (as detailed). Some 40% or cumulates in a confined space such as the bottom of more of all cars sold in Europe are diesel-powered where a vessel. Ventilation systems are mandatory on petrol- they are considered a low CO2 option. Mercedes-Benz in powered vessels.[78] conjunction with Robert Bosch GmbH produced diesel- The United States Army and NATO use only diesel en- powered passenger cars starting in 1936 and very large gines and turbines because of fire hazard. Although nei- numbers are used all over the world (often as “Grande ther gasoline nor diesel is explosive in liquid form, both Taxis” in the Third World). Diesel-powered passenger can create an explosive air/vapor mix under the right con- cars are very popular in India too, since the price of diesel ditions. However, diesel fuel is less prone due to its lower fuel there is lower as compared to petrol. As a result, vapor pressure, which is an indication of evaporation rate. predominantly petrol-powered car manufacturers includ- The Material Safety Data Sheet[79] for ultra-low sulfur ing the Japanese car manufacturers produce and market diesel fuel indicates a vapor explosion hazard for diesel diesel-powered cars in India. Diesel-powered cars also indoors, outdoors, or in sewers. dominate the Indian taxi industry. US Army gasoline-engined tanks during World War II were nicknamed Ronsons, because of their greater likeli- 7.2 Railroad rolling stock hood of catching fire when damaged by enemy fire. (Al- though tank fires were usually caused by detonation of the Diesel engines have eclipsed steam engines as the prime ammunition rather than fuel), while diesel tanks such as mover on all non-electrified railroads in the industrialized the Soviet T-34 were less prone to catching fire. world. The first diesel locomotives appeared in the early 20th century, and diesel multiple units soon after. While electric locomotives have replaced the diesel locomotive 6.2 Maintenance hazards for some passenger traffic in Europe and Asia, diesel is still today very popular for cargo-hauling freight trains Fuel injection introduces potential hazards in engine and on tracks where electrification is not feasible. Most maintenance due to the high fuel pressures used. Resid- modern diesel locomotives are actually diesel-electric lo- ual pressure can remain in the fuel lines long after an comotives: the diesel engine is used to power an elec- injection-equipped engine has been shut down. This tric generator that in turn powers electric traction mo- residual pressure must be relieved, and if it is done so tors with no mechanical connection between diesel en- by external bleed-off, the fuel must be safely contained. gine and traction. After 2000, environmental require- If a high-pressure diesel fuel injector is removed from its ments has caused higher development cost for engines, 7.6 Non-transport uses 19

and it has become common for passenger multiple units to use engines and automatic mechanical gearboxes made for trucks. Up to four such combinations might be used to get enough power in a train.

7.3 Other transport uses

Larger transport applications (trucks, buses, etc.) also beneﬁt from the Diesel’s reliability and high torque output. Diesel displaced paraﬃn (or tractor vaporising oil, TVO) in most parts of the world by the end of the 1950s with the U.S. following some 20 years later.

• Aircraft

• Marine

• Motorcycles

In merchant ships and boats, the same advantages ap- ply with the relative safety of Diesel fuel an additional beneﬁt. The German pocket battleships were the largest A 1944 V12 2,300 kW power plant undergoing testing & restora- Diesel warships, but the German torpedo-boats known tion as E-boats (Schnellboot) of the Second World War were also Diesel craft. Conventional submarines have used 7.6 Non-transport uses them since before World War I, relying on the almost total absence of carbon monoxide in the exhaust. Ameri- Diesel engines are also used to power permanent, can World War II Diesel-electric submarines operated on portable, and backup generators, irrigation pumps,[83] two-stroke cycle, as opposed to the four-stroke cycle that corn grinders,[84] and coﬀee de-pulpers.[85] other navies used.

8 Engine speeds 7.4 Non-road diesel engines Within the diesel engine industry, engines are often cat- Non-road diesel engines include mobile equipment and egorized by their rotational speeds into three unofficial vehicles that are not used on the public roadways such as groups: construction equipment and agricultural tractors. • High-speed engines (> 1,000 rpm), • Medium-speed engines (300–1,000 rpm), and 7.5 Military fuel standardisation • Slow-speed engines (< 300 rpm). NATO has a single vehicle fuel policy and has selected diesel for this purpose. The use of a single fuel sim- High- and medium-speed engines are predominantly plifies wartime logistics. NATO and the United States four-stroke engines; except for the Detroit Diesel two- Marine Corps have even been developing a diesel mili- stroke range. Medium-speed engines are physically tary motorcycle based on a Kawasaki off road motorcy- larger than high-speed engines and can burn lower- cle the KLR 650, with a purpose designed naturally as- grade (slower-burning) fuel than high-speed engines. pirated direct injection diesel at Cranfield University in Slow-speed engines are predominantly large two-stroke England, to be produced in the USA, because motorcy- crosshead engines, hence very different from high- and cles were the last remaining gasoline-powered vehicle in medium-speed engines. Due to the lower rotational speed their inventory. Before this, a few civilian motorcycles of slow- and medium-speed engines, there is more time had been built using adapted stationary diesel engines, but for combustion during the power stroke of the cycle, al- the weight and cost disadvantages generally outweighed lowing the use of slower-burning fuels than high-speed the efficiency gains. engines. 20 8 ENGINE SPEEDS

8.1 High-speed engines 8.3 Low-speed engines

High-speed (approximately 1,000 rpm and greater) engines are used to power trucks (lorries), buses, tractors, cars, yachts, compressors, pumps and small electrical generators. As of 2008, most high-speed engines have direct injection. Many modern engines, particularly in on-highway applications, have common rail direct injection, which is cleaner burning.

8.2 Medium-speed engines

Medium-speed engines are used in large electrical generators, ship propulsion and mechanical drive applications such as large compressors or pumps. Medium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel The MAN B&W 5S50MC 5-cylinder, 2-stroke, low-speed marine oil by direct injection in the same manner as low-speed diesel engine. This particular engine is found aboard a 29,000 engines. tonne chemical carrier.

Engines used in electrical generators run at approxi- Also known as slow-speed, or traditionally oil engines, mately 300 to 1000 rpm and are optimized to run at a the largest diesel engines are primarily used to power set synchronous speed depending on the generation fre- ships, although there are a few land-based power gen- quency (50 or 60 hertz) and provide a rapid response to eration units as well. These extremely large two-stroke load changes. Typical synchronous speeds for modern engines have power outputs up to approximately 85 MW medium-speed engines are 500/514 rpm (50/60 Hz), 600 (114,000 hp), operate in the range from approximately rpm (both 50 and 60 Hz), 720/750 rpm, and 900/1000 60 to 200 rpm and are up to 15 m (50 ft) tall, and can rpm. weigh over 2,000 short tons (1,800 t). They typically use As of 2009, the largest medium-speed engines in cur- direct injection running on cheap low-grade heavy fuel, rent production have outputs up to approximately 20 MW also known as bunker C fuel, which requires heating in the (27,000 hp) and are supplied by companies like MAN ship for tanking and before injection due to the fuel’s high B&W, Wärtsilä,[86] and Rolls-Royce (who acquired Ul- viscosity. Often, the waste heat recovery steam boilers stein Bergen Diesel in 1999). Most medium-speed en- attached to the engine exhaust ducting generate the heat gines produced are four-stroke machines, however there required for fuel heating. Provided the heavy fuel system are some two-stroke medium-speed engines such as by is kept warm and circulating, engines can be started and EMD (Electro-Motive Diesel), and the Fairbanks Morse stopped on heavy fuel. OP (Opposed-piston engine) type. Large and medium marine engines are started with com- Typical cylinder bore size for medium-speed engines pressed air directly applied to the pistons. Air is ap- ranges from 20 cm to 50 cm, and engine configura- plied to cylinders to start the engine forwards or back- tions typically are offered ranging from in-line 4-cylinder wards because they are normally directly connected to units to V-configuration 20-cylinder units. Most larger the propeller without clutch or gearbox, and to provide medium-speed engines are started with compressed air reverse propulsion either the engine must be run back- direct on pistons, using an air distributor, as opposed to wards or the ship will use an adjustable propeller. At least a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel, which three cylinders are required with two-stroke engines and tends to be used for smaller engines. There is no definitive at least six cylinders with four-stroke engines to provide engine size cut-off point for this. torque every 120 degrees. It should also be noted that most major manufacturers Companies such as MAN B&W Diesel, (formerly of medium-speed engines make natural gas-fueled ver- Burmeister & Wain) and Wärtsilä (which acquired Sulzer sions of their diesel engines, which in fact operate on the Diesel) design such large low-speed engines. They are un- Otto cycle, and require spark ignition, typically provided usually narrow and tall due to the addition of a crosshead with a spark plug.[77] There are also dual (diesel/natural bearing. As of 2007, the 14-cylinder Wärtsilä-Sulzer gas/coal gas) fuel versions of medium and low speed 14RTFLEX96-C turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine diesel engines using a lean fuel air mixture and a small built by Wärtsilä licensee Doosan in Korea is the most injection of diesel fuel (so-called “pilot fuel”) for igni- powerful diesel engine put into service, with a cylinder tion. In case of a gas supply failure or maximum power bore of 960 mm (37.8 in) delivering 114,800 hp (85.6 demand these engines will instantly switch back to full MW). It was put into service in September 2006, aboard diesel fuel operation.[77][87][88] the world’s largest container ship Emma Maersk which 21 belongs to the A.P. Moller-Maersk Group. Typical bore heat loss.[96] These engines are variously called adiabatic size for low-speed engines ranges from approximately 35 engines; due to better approximation of adiabatic ex- to 98 cm (14 to 39 in). As of 2008, all produced low- pansion; low heat rejection engines, or high temperature speed engines with crosshead bearings are in-line config- engines.[97] They are generally piston engines with com- urations; no Vee versions have been produced. bustion chamber parts lined with ceramic thermal barrier coatings.[98] Some make used of pistons and other parts made of titanium which has a low thermal conductivity[99] and density. Some designs are able to eliminate the 9 Current and future developments use of a cooling system and associated parasitic losses altogether.[100] Developing lubricants able to withstand See also: Diesel car history the higher temperatures involved has been a major barrier to commercialization.[101] As of 2008, many common rail and unit injection systems already employ new injectors using stacked piezoelectric wafers in lieu of a solenoid, giving finer control of the 10 See also injection event.[89] • Variable geometry turbochargers have flexible vanes, Aircraft diesel engine which move and let more air into the engine depending • Bore on load. This technology increases both performance and fuel economy. Boost lag is reduced as turbo impeller in- • Carbureted compression ignition model engine ertia is compensated for.[90] • Control theory Accelerometer pilot control (APC) uses an accelerometer to provide feedback on the engine’s level of noise and • Diesel locomotive vibration and thus instruct the ECU to inject the min- • Diesel automobile racing imum amount of fuel that will produce quiet combustion and still provide the required power (especially while • Diesel-electric transmission idling).[91] • Diesel cycle The next generation of common rail diesels is expected to use variable injection geometry, which allows the amount • Diesel generator of fuel injected to be varied over a wider range, and variable valve timing (see Mitsubishi’s 4N13 diesel en- • Dieselisation gine) similar to that of petrol engines. Particularly in • Forced induction the United States, coming tougher emissions regulations present a considerable challenge to diesel engine manu- • Gale Banks facturers. Ford’s HyTrans Project has developed a system which starts the ignition in 400 ms, saving a sig- • Gasoline direct injection nificant amount of fuel on city routes, and there are • Glow plug (model engine) other methods to achieve even more efficient combustion, such as homogeneous charge compression ignition, being • Hesselman engine studied.[92][93] • Hulsebos-Hesselman axial oil engines Japanese and Swedish vehicle manufacturers are also developing diesel engines that run on dimethyl ether • History of the internal combustion engine (DME).[94] [95] • Hot bulb engine Some recent diesel engine models utilize a copper alloy heat exchanger technology (CuproBraze) to take advan- • Hybrid power source tage of benefits in terms of thermal performance, heat • Indirect injection transfer efficiency, strength/durability, corrosion resistance, and reduced emissions from higher operating tem- • Junkers Jumo 205—The more successful of the first peratures. series of production diesel aircraft engines. • Napier Deltic—a high-speed, lightweight diesel en- 9.1 Low heat rejection engines gine used in fast naval craft and some diesel locomotives. A special class of experimental prototype internal com- • Otto engine bustion piston engines has been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing • Perkins Engines 22 11 NOTES

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[79] “Microsoft Word—MSDS Low Sulfur Diesel #2.doc” [96] http://topics.sae.org/adiabatic-engines/papers/ (PDF). Retrieved December 21, 2010. [97] http://papers.sae.org/930988/ [80] Agha, F.P. (1978). “High-pressure paint gun injuries of hand: clinical and roentgen aspects”. NY State Journal of [98] http://papers.sae.org/931021/ Medicine 78: 1955–1956. [99] http://papers.sae.org/930985/ [81] Rees, C.E. (1937). “Penetration of Tissue by Fuel Oil Under High Pressure from a Diesel Engine”. Journal of [100] http://papers.sae.org/930984/ the American Medical Association 109 (11): 866–867. doi:10.1001/jama.1937.92780370004012c. [101] http://papers.sae.org/950979/ 12.1 Patents 25

12 External links

• “The Diesel Story” 1952 documentary on YouTube

12.1 Patents

• US Patent 845140 Combustion Engine, dated February 26, 1907.

• US Patent 502837 Engine operated by the explosion of mixtures of gas or hydrocarbon vapor and air, dated August 8, 1893. • US Patent 439702 Petroleum Engine or Motor, dated November 4, 1890.

• U.S. Patent 608,845 26 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

• Diesel engine Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine?oldid=691361607 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Mav, Robert Merkel, Tarquin, BlckKnght, Malcolm Farmer, Rjstott, Css, Andre Engels, Ortolan88, Ray Van De Walker, Europrobe, Rcingham, Topory, Ericd, Leandrod, Edward, Ceaser, Nealmcb, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Rschroev, Jeromewiley, Fred Bauder, Kku, Liftarn, Gabbe, Collabi, Menchi, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, CamTarn, Egil, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Theresa knott, Rlandmann, Andrewa, Kragen, Glenn, Chris karakas, Michael Shields, Tristanb, Grin, Samw, Lukobe, Mulad, Harris7, Random832, Bex, Dysprosia, Doradus, Tb, Greglocock, Jnc, Taxman, LMB, Rnbc, Morven, Archivist~enwiki, Lumos3, Chuunen Baka, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Frank A, TomPhil, Modulatum, Tim- othyPilgrim, Academic Challenger, Hadal, Danceswithzerglings, Psb777, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Wizzy, Oddible, Wolfkeeper, Angmer- ing, Leflyman, Leonard G., Per Honor et Gloria, Mboverload, Matthead, Bobblewik, DougEngland, 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oFighter, SupervisingWiki, Mpringle, Elizabethm4591, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Henfracar, Mean as custard, Adibmeo, Palmeira, Ripchip Bot, Disolveinarow, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Katherine, Ibbn, GoingBatty, Blunten~enwiki, RenamedUser01302013, Enviromet, Pas- sionless, TuHan-Bot, RememberingLife, Wikipelli, K6ka, Poersz, John Cline, Checkingfax, East of Borschov, Matt tuke, H3llBot, World- dieselparts, Aflafla1, Dezerth, Ocdncntx, Mccrora, Cmfusco53515, Δ, Peterh5322, TealList, L Kensington, Noodleki, Joshuatitsworth, Quite vivid blur, Peter Karlsen, Sven Manguard, G4oep, Holdenmcrutch1, Petrb, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Astatine211, BaboneCar, Frietjes, Wiki edits 198, Sax master90, Brazzersnetwork, Brickmack, Wademaharg, TakeYourStinkingPawsOffMe, Shaeraku, Widr, Help- ful Pixie Bot, Secundinius, HMSSolent, Calabe1992, WNYY98, BG19bot, Maheshbiomedical, Snaevar-bot, Krontach, Vagobot, Bobod- abad, MusikAnimal, Amp71, Kendall-K1, GKFX, Sr47, $oliton, Michael Cockrell, Kookoodieselpower, Klilidiplomus, Recklesspyro, Mr- locoruiz, EvoSLR, BattyBot, PatheticCopyEditor, Fdsdh1, StarryGrandma, Cyberbot II, Bobteree, ChrisGualtieri, Garritth, EuroCarGT, VitisAestivalis, Ducknish, Qxukhgiels, Mogism, Cerabot~enwiki, Screejunk, Pulkitgarg1990, Yourmomma7777, Freedyjr, Vyacheslav84, Skeledzija, CsDix, I am One of Many, Eyesnore, Limefrost Spiral, Butterzzzzz75, SnappishGinger, Metadox, Jackhab, Vwhonest, Wolfxvi, JaconaFrere, DiggerWalters, Monkbot, Vozul, BethNaught, Biedpietz, Xlylegaman, Tinietim, Ashowells, 616greg, Anamol Sapkota, Nim- rainayat6290, KH-1, Mario Castelán Castro, Caliburn, Mitchpussyslayer, Spencerburton12, CheesieDoodle, Kumar.nura, S.Tokariuk, I love drinking diesel, Horses hit with conrete blocks, KasparBot, Aronpye, CucumberFun, Kurousagi, Chinchoola and Anonymous: 1251

13.2 Images • File:5S50MC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/5S50MC.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Xtrememachineuk at English Wikipedia • File:8_cylinder_Burmeister_&_Wain_Diesel_engine_for_MS_Glenapp_1920.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ en/4/41/8_cylinder_Burmeister_%26_Wain_Diesel_engine_for_MS_Glenapp_1920.png License: PD-US Contributors: Paciﬁc Marine Review, v.17 July, 1920), page 66 (https://archive.org/stream/pacificmarinerev17192paci#page/n735/mode/1up) Original artist: unknown • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Diesel’{}s_Engine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Diesel%27s_Engine.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chris Thomas • File:DieselCycle_PV.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/DieselCycle_PV.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tokino (original PNG ﬁle) • File:Diesel_Indirect_Injection_Toyota_motor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Diesel_Indirect_ Injection_Toyota_motor.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ll1324 • File:Diesel_engine_(PSF).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Diesel_engine_%28PSF%29.png Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Archives of Pearson Scott Foresman, donated to the Wikimedia Foundation Original artist: Pearson Scott Foresman • File:Diesel_generator_on_an_oil_tanker.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Diesel_generator_on_ an_oil_tanker.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: http://www.marine-marchande.net/ Original artist: Hervé Cozanet • File:Dieselmotor_vs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Dieselmotor_vs.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Flominator • File:Hornsby_Akroyd_lamp_oil_engine_no.10171_of_1905_at_GDSF_08.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/2/2d/Hornsby_Akroyd_lamp_oil_engine_no.10171_of_1905_at_GDSF_08.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (BulldozerD11) Original artist: BulldozerD11 • File:Lumbar_patent_dieselengine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Lumbar_patent_dieselengine. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Model_Engine_B_Luc_Viatour.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Model_Engine_B_Luc_ Viatour.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • own work • Nikon case D50 optical Sigma 17-70mm F2,8-4,5 Macro Original artist: Luc Viatour • File:Model_Engine_Luc_Viatour.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Model_Engine_Luc_Viatour. jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • own work • Nikon case D50 optical Sigma 17-70mm F2,8-4,5 Macro Original artist: Luc Viatour • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Rudolf_Diesel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Rudolf_Diesel.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: unknown Original artist: Unknown photographer • File:Soybeanbus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Soybeanbus.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Adrignola using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Vincecate at en.wikipedia 28 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-182-9.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/The_ National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-182-9.jpg License: OGL Contributors: Africa Through a Lens Original artist: The National Archives UK - Flickr account • File:V12_2300HP_Power_Plant.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/V12_2300HP_Power_Plant.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Amckern • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Yanmar_2GM20.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Yanmar_2GM20.JPG License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: PHGCOM

13.3 Content license

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