American Presidents and Their Attitudes, Beliefs, and Actions Surrounding Education and Multiculturalism

A Series of Research Studies in Educational Policy Second Installment: Examining Presidents Andrew Jackson, Woodrow Wilson, & Dwight D. Eisenhower

By H. Prentice Baptiste & Blanca Araujo

Introduction rights. Many advances have been made The Presidents due to the hard work, determination, and The presidents of the United States struggles of different individuals and The presidents have almost always have had a lasting impact on the history of groups. People have fought to have equal been portrayed as wonderful, brave, and the United States. From the founding of rights in the workplace as well as in the honest human beings. We always hear this nation to the new century, the presi- schools and communities. Groups have about how good and moral these men are dents have set the tone of the nation in formed and together have changed laws or have been. Rarely do we hear about their matters of race. For centuries, the ideology that denied them the same rights given stance on racism and civil liberties. The of the country has been one in which only to others. media neglects to be honest with us or one perspective that of the white, Euro- From slavery and civil rights, to the makes us believe that presidents have al- pean man has been dominant. The presi- Chicano and women’s movements, laws ways done what is best for the nation. The dents have had the power to change this and political decisions have had a big in- media chooses selectively what is known perspective but have failed to do so for fluence on the power and advancement of about these men although their decisions many reasons, such as greed, weakness, these groups. Through the advancement of as chief executives have had a lasting im- timidity (Brands, 2003; Steinfield, 1972). multiculturalism in United States society, pact on the history of our nation. This article focuses on three presi- the presidents have many times played a Kenneth O’Reilly (1995) reveals that dents — Andrew Jackson, Woodrow Wil- major role in its success or failure. instead of being the agents of progress in son, and Dwight D. Eisenhower — and their Presidents have served as inspirations racial relations, American presidents have legacy to a nation still fighting towards as well as warnings. They have provided a long and consistent history of supporting racial equality. bad examples as well as good (Remini, slavery, obstructing civil rights and delib- 2002). And in their leading the country, they erately fanning racism. Almost every presi- The United States Presidents have also led a nation to become a more dent has been known to have sacrificed black just and pluralistic society or have en- votes for white votes. Through word as well and Multiculturalism dorsed a society which values only one race, as deed, over and over again, American For many years, certain groups in the one color, and one perspective. They have Presidents have reflected the racism of the United States have been fighting for equal led a nation to become richer by valuing wider society from which they sprang. The other cultures or they have continued the victims have been white, red, brown, and yellow, as well as black (Steinfield, 1972). H. Prentice Baptiste is a professor legacy of racism that many of them have helped institutionalize. It is this role of According to Steinfield (1972) virtually ev- of multicultural and science education the president that will be examined in this ery American President has been racist and and Blanca Araujo is a doctoral student, article, in particular the roles of Jackson, has shown his racism in many ways. both with the Department of Curriculum Wilson, and Eisenhower. With few exceptions, the deeds and and Instruction dreams of our presidents, and the choices at New Mexico State University, they made and did not make on matters of Las Cruces, New Mexico race, deepened the racial rut, a rut that

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 36 has existed in the United States since enrolled at the University of Virginia, George Washington’s administration where he studied law. He got bored with (O’Reilly, 1995). From slavery to affirma- law after a short time of practicing it and tive action, the presidents have had the enrolled in the graduate school of the John choice to change the nation to a more just Hopkins University in Baltimore. He and free one. Unfortunately, most presi- earned a doctorate and became a scholar dents have chosen to turn their back on of national reputation (O’Reilly, 2003). In racial matters and to continue the in- 1902, he accepted the presidency of grained ideologies of a white, Eurocentric Princeton University (Clements, 1992). perspective. Through these choices, racism As president of Princeton, he turned and division continue to be a potent part of away Black applicants (Freund, 2003). This American ideology, thought and action. made Princeton the only major Northern university that refused to admit Blacks Andrew Jackson (Loewen, 1995). To Wilson’s mind, the para- mount issue in this matter was not the Andrew Jackson was born on March admission of Blacks, but rather the social 15, 1767, in South Carolina. His parents peace and harmony of the university which, had left Ireland in search of a better life. he feared, would have been disturbed (even Andrew’s dad died suddenly after working though Blacks had been attending this uni- hard to build a home for his family and versity peacefully for years). He did not bringing in enough crops to feed them. At want to create complications for the many the time, Andrew’s mom was pregnant Southern students who attended Princeton with Andrew. Jackson attended common Andrew Jackson (Garrett, 1982). It is said that while he backcountry schools. He was often in was president at Princeton, no Black ever trouble as he was hot-tempered and he liked what he considered the American produc- received a degree from that university to frighten and bully other children. He re- ing class as contrasted to the non-produc- (Garrett, 1982). mained uninformed most of his life. He ing financial and commercial class (Cole, Pledging “New Freedom” and guaran- refused to take his studies seriously be- 1993). His policies did often side with the teeing “fair and just treatment for all” was cause he liked reckless freedom Osinski, working class. Woodrow Wilson’s platform as he ran for 1987; Remini, 1988). Andrew Jackson was seen as a very president. It became evident that “all” re- Jackson never really acquired an ad- temperamental man. He had an absolute ferred only to whites as he took office as equate education, even for the late eigh- determination to win at whatever cost. As the President of the United States in 1912. teen century, and this severely hampered a consequence, he was capable of extraordi- Wilson was an outspoken white su- his efforts as President to achieve some of nary feats of courage and daring, feats of premacist and his wife was even more so his most cherished goals (Remini, 1988). perseverance in the face of incredible odds. (Loewen, 1995). It was during his term in He relied more on his instincts and intu- Nothing less than victory was acceptable to office that the position of Blacks, Native ition as he is considered one of the most him. Defeat was unthinkable (Remini, Americans, and immigrants deteriorated. poorly educated of the American presidents 1988). Ironically, Jackson was also seen as He used his power as president to segre- (Osinski, 1987). It was well known that a very cautious and prudent man. He was a gate the federal government and to reduce Andrew was the most roaring, rollicking, conservative and deliberate man whose am- the land that belonged to Native Ameri- game-cocking, horse-racing, card-playing bition and determination to succeed condi- cans. He permitted a White House screen- mischievous fellow that ever lived in tioned everything he did (Remini, 1988). ing of the racist film Birth of the Nation Salisbury (Osinski, 1987). He acquired an which is said to have sparked a major Ku unsavory reputation, a reputation as a Woodrow Wilson Klux Klan revival (Freund, 2003; O’Reilly, leader of a hooligan gang (Remini, 1988). 2003; Loewen, 1995). Woodrow Wilson was born on Decem- Yet there was a quality about him that Wilson is seen by many as a great ber 28, 1856, in Stauton, Virginia. As a boy. commanded attention, respect, and occa- leader, but that leadership did not include Woodrow moved to Augusta, Georgia, and sionally fear (Remini, 1988). issues in support of anyone who was not then to Columbia, South Carolina, when he In 1828 Andrew was elected the sev- white. Wilson has been seen by many his- was fourteen (Brands, 2003). Through his enth president of the United States. He was torians as a man of words and peace. He own family, Wilson received an early and the first (and arguably the only chief execu- led the nation to World War I and fought convincing introduction to orthodox South- tive in American history) not to consider sla- hard for a vision of collective action and ern attitudes about race (Clayton, 1972). very a moral evil (O’Reilly, 1995). He traded peace through the formation of the League His father was pro-slavery and a supporter in men, became master of the Hermitage in of Nations. Although he fought hard for of the Confederacy. Wilson grew up amid Tennessee and owned eighty-three slaves. world peace, the same cannot be said of the Civil War and Reconstruction (Freund, He became the southwest’s biggest slave the nation he was leading. 2003). Throughout his life, he remained very holder. Throughout his presidential term, During the Wilson administration, proud of his Southern heritage, which was he stood with the South and for slavery. outbreaks of mob violence against Blacks to become very obvious through his actions He has been seen as a defender of the increased greatly. At least eighteen major as President. working class, but when he worked against interracial disturbances occurred between At age seventeen, Woodrow went to a the Bank Act he hurt the farmers, mechan- 1915 and 1919 (Garrett, 1982). When race small college in North Carolina and in ics, and laborers. However, his idea of work- riots broke out in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1875 he went on to Princeton in New Jer- ing class did not refer to factory workers 1917, Wilson left the matters to locals to sey. From there he returned to Virginia and and day laborers, but to the members of deal with (Brands, 2003).

SPRING 2004 37 deal with in order to win re-election or please the many groups that pressure them to make changes. The first presidents had to deal with the tough issue of slavery and the latest presidents have had to deal with civil rights issues. How they dealt with these issues says a lot about the presidents and the stance and feelings they had towards other races and minority groups. Many times when we read about the presidents one of the facts that is always omitted from the history books is their ownership of slaves. Slavery is a horrible part of the United States history that many would rather not remember, but it is cru- cial that even as these men are being portrayed as good and brave, they also be portrayed as slave owners. Jackson was one of the biggest slave owners in the South. He owned a big plantation, the Hermitage in Tennessee, and had more than 83 slaves. By the time he Woodrow Wilson Dwight D. Eisenhower became President of the United States he had 95 slaves, and a few years later that number reached 150 (Remini, 2001). Own- Black lynchings increased, and women erupted so explosively in the 1960s (Am- ership of slaves was as American to Jack- both Black and white, went to jail, pick- brose, 2003). As president his political son as was capitalism, nationalism, and eted the White House, and chained them- strength was his dedication to middle-of- democracy (O’Reilly, 1995). Jackson’s goal selves to it’s fence in hopes that the presi- the-road policies and his insistence that was to protect slavery forever. He saw the dent would finally listen and pass an he was guided only by devotion to duty and abolitionist as a monster who intended to amendment that would allow them to vote. a sense of the national interest (Wicker, th free the Negro and drive him north to drive Wilson eventually signed the 18 amend- 2002). Critics contend that Eisenhower down working class wages (O’Reilly, 1995). ment granting women the right to vote, but was content to merely administer over the Jackson used slaves to gain economic status quo (Ambrose, 2003). He is criti- only after years of women’s struggles and power and to run and expand his mercan- cized for always getting someone else to do him dodging the issue (Clements, 1992). tile interests. Slaves produced a variety of his dirty work. crops for Jackson like cotton, corn, and Eisenhower was known to be honest, Dwight D. Eisenhower wheat and made him a very rich man. self-reliant, hard working, ambitious, and Throughout his presidency Jackson Dwight D. Eisenhower was born on Oc- God-fearing. He had a ferocious temper was unwilling to support abolitionism. He tober 14, 1890 in Denison, Texas. He was which he learned to control. He loved to continued to own slaves in Washington and one of six boys. His father worked in a play golf and bridge, usually in the com- in the Hermitage while he was president creamery and the family raised almost all pany of the same group of wealthy busi- and he was surrounded by past or present their own food (Ambrose, 2003). He was nessmen, “achievers like himself whom he slaveholders (Cole, 1993). Jackson feared raised in Abilene, Kansas, were there was admired and from whom he accepted ex- that the Union faced an immediate threat little racial and political diversity in a town pensive gifts that might well make a presi- from abolitionist literature. He ordered the in which virtually everyone was white, Re- dent today the target of a special prosecu- Postmaster General to deny the use of mail publican, Christian, and of European de- tor” (Wicker, 2002). by abolitionists (O’Reilly, 1995). Anti-abo- scent. The Eisenhowers encouraged Dwight Eisenhower was known to be a pres- litionist mobs roamed the land destroying to be independent and self-reliant. ence anywhere he went. He had a lot of con- th printing presses and even murdering edi- In 1952, Eisenhower became the 34 fidence and a magnetism that greatly at- tors of abolitionist newspapers. president of the United Sates. As a presi- tracted people. But it appears he did not Jackson proposed to Congress a law dent he was seen more as a “caretaker” have the courage to do the right thing and prohibiting the circulation of publications president rather than a strong chief ex- instead turned the other cheek or let people against slavery (Cole, 1993). The bill died, ecutive in the White House (Wicker, 2002). take care of his problems. Although he is a but it is a good example of Jackson’s feel- He is seen as a father figure and was very well liked president (maybe more for ing towards the abolition of slavery. It was strongly conservative in domestic affairs his success as a military general), he failed during Jackson’s presidency that the “gag and a convinced internationalist in foreign to provide leadership to the nation through rule” was passed. This bill proposed that relations — though a hard- line anti-Com- one of the biggest critical issues in our his- the House receive all antislavery petitions, munist. tory, the civil rights movement. He is credited with ending the Korean and then immediately table them (Cole, War but also for avoiding personal involve- 1993). All this was done to protect slavery. ment in school desegregation. He mini- Jackson and Slavery Many argue that Jackson opposed abo- mized the importance of racial tensions Many American presidents have been lition because he loved the union. Others and of socioeconomic antagonism that faced with tough issues that they have to say that he was pro-slavery because as a Democrat he would oppose almost any ob-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 38 stacle to party unity. We can give many rea- 1972). He also helped frame race and eth- the sending of troops to Little Rock. But sons to why Jackson was against abolition- nic relations through the legal elements of action was taken only because the presi- ism, but above all it is clear that Jackson a model based on a superior-inferior mode dents believed it was their duty to uphold needed slaves. He needed them to run his (Boyer & Baptiste, 1996). the Constitution and not because they truly plantation and serve his interests. With- believed or wanted change. out them, he would lose many crops and Eisenhower and Civil Rights All three presidents were at some maybe even lose his plantation (Beschloss, point pressured or forced through their own 2003; Wilkins, 2001; Wills, 2003). His be- Although slavery no longer existed dur- self-interest to do something about the lief in slavery was so strong that he was a ing Eisenhower’s presidency, racism and the situations at hand. None of the three re- slave owner to his deathbed. idea of equality amongst all races in America ally believed in the advancement of any was non-existent to most whites. Through- other than the white man. They used their Wilson and Segregation out his presidency, Eisenhower chose to con- power to continue the belief that whites tinue a legacy of racism and injustice not were superior and should remain that way. Before Wilson took office his predeces- only to Blacks but to those of low socio-eco- sors had routinely appointed Blacks to nomic backgrounds also. Eisenhower was Policies, Laws, and Cases important offices. Wilson changed all that uncomfortable in Black company, believed (Loewen, 1995). He was responsible for in segregation of the armed forces, and knew The presidents are responsible for segregating the federal government. He very little of racial matters in the United many of the laws and political policies that permitted subordinates to segregate, dis- States (O’Reilly, 2002). run and change the course of the country. charge, or downgrade Black employees, of- One of Eisenhower’s biggest failures Many times these policies have great con- ten in cruel ways (Clement, 1992). An ex- as a president was his non-active role in sequences in the progress of racial rela- ample is given by Clement (1992) from the the civil rights movement and efforts to tions in the United States, as was the case Post Office Department where Wilson desegregate schools. He chose to remain with the Brown vs. Board of Education de- transferred all but one black employee to at a distance from the civil rights move- cision by the Supreme Court in 1954. Ac- the dead letter office. The only employee ment. One of the best ways to describe the cording to Boyer and Baptiste (1996), in who remained worked at a desk surrounded president on these issues of racism was spite of that Supreme Court decision, the by screens so that white workers would not his silence. According to Tom Wicker sociology of the 1950s and 1960s did not have to look at him. (2002), Eisenhower avoided direct personal support equity educational programs for Wilson appointed southern whites to involvement in the two great moral issues all students. offices traditionally reserved for Blacks. It of 1950s America — school desegregation American presidents have a long and seemed his goal during his administration and McCarthyism — although he was re- consistent history of supporting slavery, ob- to remove all people of color from repre- sponsible for the appointment of Chief structing civil rights, and deliberately fan- sentation in the federal government. Never Justice Earl Warren to the Supreme Court. ning racism (O’Reilly, 2002). Many times had there been more segregation in the Eisenhower grew up in a part of the with a veto or a strong stance on racial is- country since Reconstruction than during United States where there were no people sues a president can create much change in Wilson’s presidency. Jim Crow began to of color. He was in a segregated army, which the racial tensions of the country and the take control of the nation. For the first time he believed should continue, and worked advancement of all society. Historically, since the Civil War, the Treasury and Post in a White House where only one Black presidents have made choices based on per- Office Departments and the Bureau of En- man, Fred Morrow, was part of the staff sonal interests or feelings and pressures by graving and Printing, with the President’s (Morrow was seen to many as merely win- political groups that have hurt many and approval, provided segregated offices, dow dressing to make it appear that the have not improved things. Jackson, Wilson, lunch rooms, and lavatories for their white Eisenhower administration was interested and Eisenhower have their place in history and Black employees (Garrett, 1982). in civil rights) (O’Reilly, 2002). when it comes to making the wrong choices Blacks got demoted or lost their jobs and Eisenhower believed civil rights should or remaining silent when strong action and all of this was a crushing blow to those be handled by the states and that such leadership was greatly needed. active in the cause of racial democracy. rights should vary from state to state. This People tried to justify the Wilson’s ac- was his way of avoiding issues like deseg- The Indian Removal Act of 1830 tions by claiming that he did not know what regation and racism. His own feelings of As was the case with slaves, Jackson was happening. When the first minor racial superiority led him to remain silent felt Native Americans were inferior and changes were performed in spring and sum- on important issues that have had a last- likened their culture to that of the dark mer of 1913, many people blamed only the ing negative impact on equality and jus- ages. As far as he was concerned, Native cabinet members (Steinfeild, 1972). They tice in the United States. Americans were savages who needed to be said that perhaps the president was not removed and sent elsewhere where they aware of what was going on in the nation Similar Thinking would not “brutally” kill whites. since there had never been an executive Jackson wanted to expand the United order. But not only did he know, he fully As has been discussed, Jackson, Wil- States. During the Monroe Administration, supported it and believed it was in the in- son, and Eisenhower had similar thinking Andrew Jackson was sent to Florida with terests of both races (Steinfield, 1972). when it came to other races. All three be- his army in search of Indians who had Wilson is said to have brought intelli- lieved in the superiority of the white race killed Americans. Jackson not only shat- gence, leadership, and democratic idealism and all three made decisions to keep other tered Indian resistance, killed many Semi- to the White House, yet under his direc- races from the forefront of American soci- nole chiefs and warriors, and destroyed tion and with his full approval the federal ety. Wilson and Eisenhower seemed to have their villages, but he seized Pensacola and government strengthened the color line and helped people of color on some occasions, St. Marks, raised the American flag over th supported the forces of racism (Clayton, like the passing of the 18 amendment and both Spanish towns, and executed two Brit-

SPRING 2004 39 ish nationals for arming the Indians and (Remini, 1988). The cost in human life and chose to not advance the cause. Nothing encouraging their assaults on American suffering can not be measured. made this more evident than the decisions settlements (Remini, 2002). In his so called attempt to “save the taken by Eisenhower on civil rights and At the time of Jackson’s presidency, Indian,” Jackson was responsible for the the 1954 decision of Brown vs. the Board the United States had acquired Indian land horrors, suffering, deprivation, and death of Education. through the treaty-making clause of the of many men, women, and children. The Civil Rights Act was passed in Constitution, necessitating Senate ratifi- Wilson also thought of Native Ameri- 1957 and provided for a Civil Rights Com- cation. Those treaties implied that the cans as inferior. Under the Dawes Act of mission, a Civil Rights Division in the Jus- tribes were sovereign, independent states, 1887, the Curtis Act of 1898, and the Burke tice Department, and empowered the at- just like European powers. But the United Act of 1906, federal policy was developed to torney general to seek an injunction when States had no intention of recognizing the dissolve tribal governments, divide up tribal someone was deprived of the right to vote. tribes as independent. property, and allot tribal lands to individual But it’s penalties were slaps on the wrist, Still, rather than seize the land and natives, all with the supposedly benign goal and the compromise jury trial amendment fight off resisting “savages” (the Native of integrating them into white society would put few rights offenders behind bars Americans were just trying to defend their (Clements, 1992). During Wilson’s admin- (Wicker, 2002). Eisenhower wanted this land), the government signed treaties that istration, Native Americans were allotted bill because it was very mild. Pressured by were rarely enforced and constantly vio- 10,956 patents taking the land away from Southern senators the bill that passed was lated by settlers who continued to move the Native Americans and opening up large weak on the most important civil rights south and west and encroach upon Indian areas to white farmers and cattlemen. Na- issues of that time. territory (Remini, 2002). tive Americans land was reduced from 138 Eisenhower considered himself a Jackson had never been a friend of the million acres to 47 million acres (Clem-ents, “moderate” on the race issue. He wanted Indians. He participated in the removal of 1992). Wilson simply ignored protests and to uphold the Supreme Court, but he did tribes from their native land and in the justified his actions in the name of progress. not want to offend his many Southern senseless murders of many Native Ameri- friends. He wanted to enforce the law, but cans. First as a general he was in charge of The Espionage Act he did not want to use force to do so. He did the removal and killing of the Seminoles Because of World War I, the Wilson not want to antagonize anyone, but “any- from Florida. Later as president he was administration passed the Espionage Act one” always seemed to turn out to be white responsible for passage of the Indian Re- in June, 1917. This act is seen as one of the Southern segregationists. He had waged moval Act of 1830. This act authorized the most serious attacks on civil liberties of two successful campaigns to become the government to establish an area west of Americans in our history (Loewen, 1995). nation’s leader, but he did not want to lead the Mississippi to be divided into enough The act had the power to suppress all mail on the issue of civil rights. The upshot of his districts to accommodate as many tribes that was socialist, anti-British, pro-Irish, conflicting emotions and statements was as might choose to go west, and then relo- or that in any other way might have threat- confusion, which allowed the segregation- cating them there. The scheme also in- ened the war effort (Loewen, 1995). ists to convince themselves that the Presi- volved an exchange of land for all the tribes The Espionage Act provided heavy dent would never act (Ambrose, 1984). residing in the east (Remini, 1988). fines and jail terms for spying, sabotage, It was this thinking that led Governor This bill was harsh, arrogant, racist, refusing military service, or obstructing re- Orval Faubus of Arkansas to present and was the doom of the Native American. cruitment (Clements, 1992). The act also Eisenhower with the problem he had most Biographers argue that Jackson was afraid authorized deportation of any alien who wished to avoid. In 1954, Brown vs. the for the safety of the United States and was advocated the destruction of property or Board of Education went to the Supreme concerned that Indians living as tribes overthrow of the United States government Court and the court ruled that segregated within the boundaries of the sovereign states (Clements, 1992). Because of this, in the schools were inherently unequal and in vio- constituted a distinct threat to the nation autumn of 1919, the Justice Department lation of the 14th amendment. Eisenhower and must be expelled (Remini, 1988). His- began the roundup of leftist immigrants, condemned the decision and promised that torians also claim that Jackson’s objective many of whom were deported (Brands, he would not enforce school desegregation. was not the destruction of Indian life and 2003). The act was responsible for many When a newsman asked him what he would culture, but rather that he thought that their innocent people (mostly immigrants) do about the schools, Eisenhower replied removal was the Indians’ only salvation spending time in jail and being mistreated. that he never gave answers to suppositions against extinction (Remini, 1988). It also demanded that foreigners living in or to possible future situations, that he In a sense, Jackson thought he had America give up all loyalties to their former would have to look at the facts at the time. saved the Indians from certain death. He countries, learn English, and merge as He said, however, that any decree is- implemented their removal in an inefficient, quickly and as completely as possible into sued by a duly constituted Federal court confused, and disorganized manner with- American society (Clements, 1992). must be respected by all citizens and offi- out regard for the Indians rights as human cials, regardless of their personal views beings. Determined to save costs in order to The Civil Rights Act (Morrow, 1963). He tried to delay the court reduce the budget and eliminate the fed- and the Desegregation of Schools orders until he was obliged to act in 1957 eral deficit, Jackson cut costs of the removal Although Eisenhower did not deal during the desegregation of Central High operation (Cole, 1993). This caused much with Native American issues like Jackson School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The suffering. The Native Americans were hun- and Wilson, he set a tone of opposition dur- president tried to avoid federal interven- gry, cold, and getting sick with cholera, and ing the civil rights movement and the de- tion but could not when Governor Faubus proper care was impossible. The removal segregation of schools. As president he was of Arkansas used State Guard troops at became known as “The Trail of Tears” and a strong internationalist, but when it came the school to keep nine black students is one of the most disgraceful and heart- to dealing with domestic problems such from entering the school. rending episodes in American history as racial justice and civil liberties, he Eisenhower then made it clear that

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 40 he would put his personal feelings aside to It was obvious that he would never take dents, they allowed their personal feelings enforce the law. He sent the 101st Airborne any positive giant step to prove that he and biases to get in the way of upholding Division to restore order. He did not be- unequivocally stood for the right of every the Constitution and the Declaration of In- lieve in forced integration. He had tried American to walk this land in dignity and dependence. They failed morally to lead a desperately to keep the integration prob- peace, clothed with every privilege as well nation to become a true democracy for all lem “under control,” but according to him as every responsibility accorded a citizen people. They continued a legacy of racism agitators wouldn’t let it be that way of the Constitution (Morrow, 1963). and inequality in which only a few elite are (Ambrose, 1984). In a statement to the Eisenhower could well have swung the able to taste the fruit of the labor of many. nation, the President emphasized that he nation into acceptance, however reluctant, Why did they make the choice they did? was not sending U.S. troops into the South of the Supreme Courts interpretation of One can’t help but wonder how the United to desegregate the schools, but only to the Constitution (Wicker, 2002). His ac- States would be different if these men, our maintain the law. tions were a reflection of how he really felt presidents, would have made different He went out of his way to state that as a human being. He truly did not believe choices. How would our history be differ- his personal opinion on Brown vs. Board of in desegregation or racial equality. His si- ent? How different would our society be? Education had no bearing on its enforce- lence and his decisions to look the other Would we have more Blacks, Latinos, ment (Ambrose, 1984). He used troops, but way were no doubt his biggest failures as women, Native Americans, and other some think only because Governor Faubus President of the United States. people of color in more positions of power? had insulted him, and not from any strong Would we still be dealing with issues such conviction that a serious injustice had been Their Legacies as affirmative action and English Only? inflicted upon a large segment of the Ameri- and Some Suppositions How would our cities be different? Would can people (Morrow, 1963). Southern seg- we still have as much crime and a large regationists were outraged by Eisen- All three of these presidents passed percentage of our people of color in jail? hower’s actions, but he had to do something and enacted laws that have had a lasting Would our varied cultures have remained if he wanted to remain president. To him, impact on the history of the United States. intact and our languages alive? Little Rock was about order. Order was a Our country could have been so different A denial of civil rights still prevails in principle of justice. Civil rights were a mere if these men would not have given in to the entire nation. Maybe we have made abstraction that varied from state to state their greed, corruption, and self-interest. positive advances in racial equality, but a and city to city (O’Reilly, 2002). Maybe this country would be richer in the history of racism and injustice can still be Of course Eisenhower had hoped that cultures, traditions, and languages of the found throughout the country and in the matters could be taken care of by the state. many Native American tribes that lost presidency. He did his best to forget about what was their humanity because of men whose only going on in Little Rock by playing golf and concern was for more land and the expan- Concluding Thoughts bridge with his friends. He had tried to di- sion of the Union. vorce himself from civil rights problems, If Jackson would have condemned sla- All of this is not to say that our presi- especially the desegregation of schools. He very, maybe things would have been so dif- dents were not men who made changes and had always thought and hoped desegrega- ferent for Wilson and Eisenhower. Maybe led a nation during their administration. tion would remain a responsibility of the they would not have had to deal with issues Maybe they went in to the White House courts and that the judges would take care of racial inequality. In his acceptance of sla- expecting to make changes but were not of the problem. very, Jackson continued to instill the notion able to do so. Morrow (1963) states that While generally he refused to take re- that only one race was of value, only those the man does not make the Presidency, the sponsibility, with the situation in Little people of white, European descent. This per- Presidency makes the man. No matter Rock he had no choice. If he had done noth- ception still continues in today’s society. what great convictions and determinations ing, he would have been accused of defying We see it everyday in media use of a candidate may have about burning is- the orders of the Supreme Court and not people of color depicted as “dumb,” “lazy,” sues when he is on the stump, their com- living up to his oath of office. People would and “criminal.” We see it when school chil- plexity and solution change when he be- have seen him as disrespecting the Con- dren read about only one history and per- comes President (Morrow, 1963). stitution and ignoring his duties and re- spective of the United States, that of the Morrow goes on to say that every Presi- sponsibilities. If he could have, he would white man, in school textbooks. We see it dent finds certain inevitable forces at work have remained hands-off on the subject of when people of color are denied a higher against him when he enters 1600 Pennsyl- civil rights and continued his legacy of in- education by being administered tests that vania Avenue. No matter what a candidate justice towards people of color. have no relevancy to them or by being promises, the stark reality of political life Eisenhower has been highly criticized tracked to vocational schools. The legacy greets him the minute he crosses the for his reluctance to get involved in the civil continues in laws that benefit only the rich, threshold of the White House and he is rights movement and the desegregation of white, and elite and that work against never the same man again (Morrow, 1963). schools. At a time when he could have done Blacks, Latinos, Native Americans, and In opposition to Morrow’s view, many positive changes in race issues in a women. And we see it when history books Schlesinger (Brands, 2003, p. xiii; Wicker, nation torn between racial lines, his per- portray only one view of our presidents as 2002, p. xiii; Willis, 2003, p. xv) states, sonal feelings of white superiority and rac- men who were brave, moral, and strong but The president is the central player ism, and his need for approval from his neglect to mention the fact that they were in the American political order. . . . Southern friends got in the way of the de- also slave owners or racist. The executive branch alone is struc- segregation of a nation. Just when a nation might have been turally capable of taking that initia- Eisenhower had the moral responsi- ready for action, change, and equality for tive. The founders must have sensed bility as president to talk against racial all, men who had the power to lead the this when they accepted Alexander Hamilton’s proposition in the Sev- segregation, but he chose to remain silent. nation to change failed to do so. As presi-

SPRING 2004 41 entieth Federalist that “energy in the Note Freund, C. (2003). Dixiecrats triumphant. Re- executive is a leading character in trieved July 22, 2003 from Reason Online the defintion of good government.” Photographs of Presidents Jackson, Wil- Website: http://reason.com/0303/ They thus envisged a strong presi- son, and Eisenhower are from the United co.cf.dixiecrats.shtml dent . . . . (italitcs not in original) States government website on presidents, ac- Garrett, R. (1982). The presidents and the cessed at http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/ Negro. Peoria, IL: Bradley University The three presidents portrayed in this ar- presidents Press. ticle were soldiers, thinkers, fighters. But Loewen, J. (1995). Lies my teacher told me. they failed in many cases to fight the most References New York: Simon & Schuster. important battles of all, the ones that Morrow, F. (1963). Black man in the white house. New York: Coward-McCann. needed the most attention and the fights Ambrose, S. (1984). Eisenhower the president. O’Reilly, K. (1995). Nixon’s piano. New York: New York: Simon & Schuster. that nobody else wanted to fight. The Free Press. Ambrose, S. (n.d.) Dwight D.Eisenhower. Re- We think such moral leadership should Osinski, A. (1987). Andrew Jackson. Chicago: trieved June 3, 2003, from Grolier Online be the role of the president. He (forty-two Childrens Press. Web site: http://gi.grolier.com/wwii/ white males) should be willing to put aside Phillips, K. (2002). Wealth and democracy. New wwii_eisenhower.html York: Random House. all biases to try to create a nation where Beschloss, M. (2003). The presidents. New Remini, R. (1988). The life of Andrew Jack- all can live freely and democratically. A York: American Heritage. son. New York: Harper & Row. president should be willing to help those Boyer, J. & Baptiste, P.H. (1996). Transform- Steinfield, M. (1972). Our racist presidents who are in most need and those who have ing the curriculum for multicultural from Washington to Nixon. San Ramon, understandings. San Francisco: Caddo been marginalized for so long, not just those CA: Consensus Publishers. Gap Press. who look like and feel like the president. The Suffrage Battle in Delaware (n.d.) Re- Brands, H.W. (2003). Woodrow Wilson. New The president sets the tone of the nation trieved July 22, 2003, from http:// York: Henry Holt & Company. and leads by example. If a president does www.hsd.org/Woman_Suffragist Clayton, B. (1972). The savage ideal, Balti- BattleinDE.htm. not believe in equality of all races, how can more, MD: John Hopkins University Wicker, T. (2002). Dwight D. Eisenhower. New she or he lead a nation to believe in equal- Press. York: Henry Holt & Company. ity? To be a truly great president, one must Clements, K. (1992). The presidency of Wilkins, R. (2001). Jefferson’s pillow. Boston: genuinely believe in equality and social Woodrow Wilson. Lawrence, KS: Univer- Beacon Press. sity Press of Kansas. justice for all, and do anything in her or his Wills, G. (2002). James Madison. New York: DeGregorio, W. (2001). The complete book of power to uphold these ideals. Henry Holt & Company. U. S. presidents. Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Wills, G. (2003). Negro president. New York: Books. Houghton Mifflin.

The first installment in this series of research articles on Presidents of the United States and educational and multicultural policy appeared in the Winter 2003 issue of Multicultural Education, presenting information on President James Madison, Rutherford B. Hayes, and John F. Kennedy.

Look for additional installments in the next issue and future issues of Multicultural Education.

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