Catla Catla, Raj (1916); Shaw and Tiled Row Along the Base of the Anal Fin

FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 32 Rev. 1 FRIS 32(Rev. 1) (Distribution restricted) SAST - Catia - 1,40(02), 0,30,01

SYNOPSIS OF BIOLOGICAL DA ON CATLA

TçIa ca fia (Hamilton, 1822)

Prepared by

V. G. Jhingran

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS F O Rome, 1968 DOCUMENTS OF THE FISHERY DOCUMENTS DE LA DIVISION DES DOCUMENTOS DE LA DIRECCION DE RESOURCES AND EXPLOITATION RESSOURCES ET DE L'EXPLOITATION RECURSOS PESQUEROS Y EXPLOTA- DIVISION OF FAO DEPARTMENT DES PECHES DU DEPARTEMENT DES ClON DEL DEPARTAMENTO DE PESCA OF FISHERIES PECHES DE LA FAO DE LA FAO Documents which arenotofficial Des documents qui ne figurent pas Esta Subdirección publica varias se- FAO publications are issued in several parmi les publications officielles de la ries de documentos que no pueden series. They are given arestricted FAO sont publiés dans diverses séries. considerarse como publicaciones ofi- distribution and this fact should be ils font seulement l'objet d'une distri- ciales de la FAO. Todos ellos tienen indicatedifthey are cited. Most of bution restreinte, aussi convient-il de distribución limitada, circunstancia que them are prepared as working papers le préciser lorsque ces documents sont debe indicarse en el caso de ser ci- formeetings,or are summariesof cités. Il s'agit le plus souvent de docu- tados. La mayoría de los títulos que information for use of member governments de travailpréparés pour des figuran en dichas series son documen- ments,organizations, and specialists réunions, ou de résumés d'information tos de trabajo preparados para reunio- concerned. à l'intention des gouvernements des nes o resúmenes de información des- pays membres, ainsi que des organisa- tinados a los estados miembros, orga- tionsetspécialistesintéressés. Ces nizaciones y especialistas interesados. séries sont les suivantes:

FAO Fisheries Report FR IR (No.) FAO Fisheries Circular FR IC (No.) FAO Fisheries Synopsis FR IS (No.)

Special groups of synopses are iden- Des catégories spéciales de synop- Grupos especiales de sinopsis se dis- tified by symbols followed by classi- ses sont identifiées à l'aide de symbo- tinguen con las siglas siguientes, se- ficationnumbers based on indexed les suivis des chiffres de classification guidas por números de clasificación code of "Current Bibliography": basés sur le code d'indexation de la que se basan en las claves de los "Current Bibliography": índices de la "Current Bibliography". SAST Data concerning certain species SAST Données sur certaines espèces SAST Datos relativos a ciertas espe- and fish stocks. et populations de poissons. cies y poblaciones.

MAST Informationonmethodsand MAST Renseignements sur des mé- MAST Sinopsis sobre métodos y ma- subjects. thodes et des sujets. terias. OT Oceanographic data. OT Données océanographiques. OT Sinopsis sobre oceanografía. IT Limnological data. IT Données limnologiques. IT Sinopsis sobre limnologia.

and et y CART Information concerning fisheries CART Renseignements sur les pêche- CART Información sobre los recursos and resources of certain coun- rieset les ressources de cer- acuáticos vivos de algunos tries and regions (FID/S). tains pays et régions (FID/S). países y regiones (FID/S).

FAO FIsheries Technical Paper FR IT (No.)

Special groups of Technical Papers Des catégories spéciales de docu- Grupos especiales de documentos are identified by: ments techniquessontidentifiéesà técnicos se identifican por las siglas l'aide des symboles suivants: siguientes: RE Indexedlistsofexperts and RE Listes indexéesd'expertset RE Listas índices de expertos y de institutions drawn from Regis- institutions tirées des registres instituciones tomadas de los re- ters maintained by the Fishery tenus à jour par la Division des gistros que se llevan en la Di- Resources and Exploitation Di- ressources et de l'exploitation rección de Recursos Pesqueros vision. des pêches. y Explotación. CB Listsofperiodicals,special CB Listes de périodiques, des sec- CB Listas de periódicos, secciones sections of "Current Bibliogra- tions spéciales de la "Current especiales dela"CurrentBi- phy for Aquatic Sciences and Bibliography for Aquatic Scien- bliography for Aquatic Sciences Fisheries," special bibliogra- ces and Fisheries", des biblio- and Fisheries", bibliografías es- phies and papers concerning graphiesparticulièresetdes peciales y trabajos relativos a documentation problems. articles sur les problèmes de los problemas de documenta- documentation. ción. MFS Provisionaleditionsof"FAO MFS Editions provisoires des « Ma- MFS Ediciones provisionales de los Manuals inFisheries Science." nuels FAO de science halieuti- "Manuales de la FAO de Cien- que cias Pesqueras". Some documents also have another Il arrive que certains doc.iments por- Algunos documentos tienen también identification, if, for example, they have tent d'autres numéros d'identification, otra identificación si, por ejemplo, son been contributed to a meeting for which comme c'est le cas s'ils ont été pré- contribuciones a una reunión cuyos do- papers have been numbered according parés pour une réunion dont les docu- cumentos han sido marcados con arre- to another system. ments ont été marqués à l'aide d'un glo a otros sistemas. autre système. FAO Fishories Synopsis No. 32 Rev. ]. FR/S32(Rev. i) (Distribution restrioted) SÄST - CATLA - 1,40(02),030,O].

SYNOPSIS OF BIOLOGICAL DATA ON CATLA

Catla cat].a (Hamilton, 1822)

Prepar.d by

V.G. JHINGRAN

Centrai Inland Fisheries Research Institute Barrackpore (West Bengal) India

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, November1968 PRPABATION OF TElS SYNOPSIS

A revision of the provi ional version issued in May1966for presentation at theFAOWorld Symposium on Warm-Water Pond Fish Culture, Rome,18-25May1966.

This synopsis was prepared by the author with the assistance of Messrs. H.A. Khan, A.G. .Jbingran and R.K, Saxena of the Allahabad Substation of the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, India.

Distribution "Current Bibliography" entry

Author Jhingran, V.G.(1968) 14-6F290 FAODepartment of Fisherioc FAO Fich Synnpc, (32)Rev.1:pag.var. FAO Regional Fisheries Officoro Synopsis of biological data on ostia, Regional Fisheries Councils and Commissione Catla catia (Hamilton, 1822) FBCB Selector SI Identity. Distribution. Bionornics arid life history. Population. Exploitation. Fisheries management. Pond culture. NE 11-23136, Do9-091mo. FR1532 Catin (Rev,l) 111 CONTENTS

Page no.

1 IDENTITY 1:1

1,1 Taxonomy 1

1.1.1 Definition 1 1.1.2 Description 1

1.2 Nomenclature 1

1.2.1 Valid scientific names i 1.2,2 Synonyms i 1,2.3 Standard common names, vernacular names 1

1.3 General variability 1

1.3.1 Subspecifio fraentation (races, varieties, hybrids) 1 1.3.2 Genetic data (chromosome number, protein specificity) 4

2 DISTRIBUTION 2*1

2.1 Delimitation of the total area of distribution and000loical characterization of this area i

2.2 Differential distribution i

2.2,1 Areas occupied by eggs, larvae and other junior stages: annual variations in these patterns, and seasonal variations for stages persisting over two or mori seasons 1

2.2.2 Areas occupied by adult stages: seasonal and annual variations of these *

2.3 Behaviouristic and ecolo ical determinants of the oneral limits of distribution and of the variations of those limita and. of differential distribution

3 BIONOMICS AND LIFE HISTORY 3:1

3.1 Reproduction 1

3.1.1 Sexuality (hermaphroditism, heterosexuality, intersexuality) i 3.1.2Maturity (age and size) i 3.1.3 Mating (monogamous, polygamous, promiscuous) i 3.1.4 Fertilization i 3.1.5 Fecundity i Relation of gonad size and egg number to body size and to age i Coefficient of fecundity * 3.1.6 Spawning i - Spawning season 1 -Frequency of spawning 2 - Spawning time of day 2 -Induction of spawning, artificial fertilization 2 3.1.7 Spawning grounds 3 - Coastal (surface, vegetation, shore, shoal, sand, shelter); bottom * -Oceanic (surface, bottom) * 3.1.8 Eggs: structure, size, hatching type, parasites and predators 4 iv. FR1532Catla(Rev,1)

Page no.

3.2 Larval history 3:5 3,2.1 Account of embryonic and juvenile life (prelarva, larva, postlarva, juvenile) 5 -Feeding 7 - Rates of development and survival 7 - Parental care 13 - Parasites and predators 13 3.3 Adult history 14 3.3.1 Longevity 14 3.3.2Hardiness 14 3.3.3 Competitors 14 3,3,4Predators 14 3.3.5 Parasites and diseases 15 3.3.6 Greatest size 16 3.4 Nutrition and growth 16 3.4.1 Feeding (time, p1ae,manner, season) 16 3.4.2 Food (type, volume) 17 3,4.3Relative and absolutegrowth patterns and rates 17 3.4,4Relation of growth tofeeding, to other activities, and to environmental factors 22

3.5 Behaviour 22

3.5.1Migration and local movements 22 3.5.2 Schooling * 3.5.3Reproductive habits 25 4 POPULATION (SToCK) 4:1

4.1 Structure 1

4.1.1 Sex-ratio 1 4.1.2Age composition 1 4.1.3 Size composition 1 4.2 Size and density 4.2.1 Average size * 4.2.2 Changes in size * 4.2.3 Average density * 4.2.4 Changes in density *

4.3 Natality arid recruitment 1

4.3.1 Nata].ity 1 4.3.2Natality ratei * 4,3,3Recruitment 1

4.4 Mortality, morbidity 1

4.4.1 Rates of mortality 1 4.4.2Factors or conditions affecting mortality 1 4.4,3Factors or conditions affecting morbidity 1 4.4.4 Relation of morbidity to mortality ratse *

4,5 Dynamics of population 3

4.6 Relation of population to community and ecosystem, bioloioal production, etc. 3 FRJS32Catla (Rev.1) V

Page no.

5 EXPLOITATION 5:1 5.1 Fishing equipment i 5.1.1 Fishing gear i 5.1.2 Fishing boats i

5.2 Fishing areas 1

5.2.1 General geographic distribution 1 5.2,2Geographical ranges (latitudes, distances from coast, etc.) i 5.2.3 Depth ranges i

5,3 Fishing seasons i

5.3.1 General pattern of fishing season i 5.3.2 Duration of fishing season 6 5.3.3 Dates of beginning, peak and end of season 6 5.3.4 Variation in time or duration of fishing season 6 5.3.5 Factors affecting fishing season * 5.4 Fishing operations and results 6 5.4.1 Effort and intensity * 5.4.2 Selectivity * 5,4.3 Catches 6 5,5 Fisheries management and regulations 6

5.6 Fish farming, transplanting and other intervention 6

5.6.1 Procurement of stocks 6 5.6.2 Conditioning lO 5.6.3 Transport 12 5.6.4Holding of stock 16 5.6.5 Pond management (fertilization; aquatic plant control, etc.) 16 5.6.6Paddy-oumfish culture 23 5.6.7 Diseases and parasite control 23 5.6.8 Harvest 23

6 REFERENCES 6z1

These items have been omitted in the text as either no information is available to the author on them, or they are inapplicable to catla, the fish being exclusively a freshwater species.

FR S 2 CatinRev.i l;l

1 IDENTITT the body, and with a concave upper edge; pectoral extends to the ventral;anal shorter 1.1 Taxonomy than dorsal; caudal deeply forked; all fins rather elongated; body groyish above, 1,1.1 Definition silvery on sides and below; fins dark.

(According to Berg, 1947) 1.2 Nomenclature

Phylum Vertebrata l2,l Valid scientific names Subphylum Craniata Superclass Onathostomata Catin catla (Hamilton) 1822 Series Pisces Class Teleostomi The species rinus catin was first Subclass Actinopterygii described by Hamilton (1822), the type Order Cypriniformes locality being the rivers and tanks of Bengal, Division Cyprini. The genus Cyprinus, being a composite one, Suborder Cyprinoiciei Valenciennes proposed a separate genus for (Eventognathi) Gyprinus catin in 1844, tautotypionily Family Cyprinidae designating Hamilton's species as the type of Subfamily Cyprinini his new. genuc Catla The species thereafter Genus Catin came to be known as Catin buchanani and iau Valenciennes, 1844 adopted as such by subsequent orkors, till Species Catin catin Raj (1916) re-designated it as Catla catin (Hamilton) 1822 (Umnilton).

No closely related species of the genus l2.2Synonyms Catin has been reported. yprinus catin, Hamilton (1822); 1,1,2 Description MoCleiland1 39); Valenciennes (1842).

Gonuc Catla Valenciennes, 1844 Leuciscus catla, Valenciennes (1834). Gibolion, Hockel, 1841 Hypselobarbus, Bleeker, 1860 Cyprinus abramioides, Sykes (1840).

"Head broad; snout with very thin intogu- Hypselobarbug (Tainbra) abramloides, mente, upper lip absent, the lower moderately Bleeker (1860). thick, having a continuous and free posterior margin. The lower jaw with a moveable articu- Catin buohanani, Valenciennes (1844); lation at the symphysis, but lacking Bleeke7T533; Hrrtle (1864); Günther prominent tuberole, No barbels. Gill rakors (1868); Day (1869; Day (1873); Beaven long, fine and closely met. Eyes with free (1877); Day (1878 ; Günther (1880); orbital margins, Pharyngeal teeth plough- Vinoiguerra (1889 ; Day (1889); Thomas shaped,5, 3,2I2, 3,5.Dorsal fin rather (1897); Jenkins (1909); Chaudhuri (1911); long, without osseous ray, commencing some- D'Abreu (1925). what in advance of the ventrale; anal short; caudal forked. Scales of moderate size, no Catla catla, Raj (1916); Shaw and tiled row along the base of the anal fin. Shebbearo (1937); Miora (1959). Latezal line continuous to the centre of the base of the caudal fin." (Day, 1878), 1.2,3 Standard common nanee, vernacular names Catin catin (Hamilton) 1822 (Figure 1) See Pable I

The following description of Catin catin is 1.3 General variabilit based on Hamilton (1822), Günther (1868), Day (1878 and 1889), Shaw and Shobbear. (1937), 1,3,1 Subspecifio fr:entation Miam (1959), (races, varieties, hybrìds) B.3; D.3-.4/l4-16; P.21; V.9; Aa3/5; C,l9 L.l.40-43; L.tr,7/9; barbels nil; head 4.2 to No distinct races or varieties of catin 4.7; depth 3 to 3.5 in total length; body deep; are known, Memistio counts of Catin catin, dorsal profile more convex than that of ventral; as described by various authors, aro head broad; mouth wide; lower jaw prominent and presented in Pable II. However, this with moveable articulation at the symphysis, species has been confused with na allied but lacking prominent tubercle; eyes in front form occurring in Thailand, Catiocarpio of head, 6 to 7 in head; dorsal commences some- siamensia (Boulenger), due to extraordinary what in advance of ventrale, is 2/3 as high as superfioial resemblance of the two, more Figure 1. Catla catla (Hamilton) FR/S32 Catla (Rev.l)

Table I Standard coon nanee,ernaoular U62

Country Standard common naine Vernacular naine

Burma lga-thatng India Catla Baudhekra (Assamese) Catla (Bengali) Tainbra (Gujarati) Bhakur, Boassa, Chepti, Katla (Hindi) Karakatla (Malayalain) Catla (Marathi) Bahkur, Barkur (Oriya) Theil, Theila (Punjabi) Kriahnabotcha, Botchee, Bocha (Telegu) ICoOra-ICendai, Tainaneri-Kendai, Kanavi Theppu-meenu, Thoppa-meen Thoppa, Japankendai (Tanil) Pakistan Katla. Catin (Bengali) Boassa (North-West Frontier Provinces, in Hindi) Theila (Punjabi) Paylee (Sindhi)

These language.s are s;oken in India and Pakistan,

Table II Meristic counts of Catis catla

D P VA C L.l.L.tr,Vert. Au tho rs

3 18 - 8 19+ - - Hamilton (1822)

17-19 7 40-41 - Giinthcr (1868) o 3. 3-4/14 21 9 3/5 - 40-43 7 17/18 Day (1869) 9 3 3-4,/14 21 9 3/5 19 40-43 17/18 Day (1871) ILq - 17-18 -- 8 40-43 iL Day (1673) 9 3 17-19(3-4/14-16) 21 9 8(3/5) 19 40-43 17/18 Day (1869) iLo 17-19(3-4/14-16) 21 9 8(3/5) 19 40-43 IL 17/18 Thomas (1927) 9 - 3-4/14-16 21 9 3/5 19 38-43 - Shaw and Shebbeare(1937) 17-19(3-4,/14-16) 21 9 8(3/5)19 40-43 - - McDonald (1948)

3-4/14--16 2]. 9 3/5 - 40-43 - Misra (1959) 9 1:4 FR 532 Catla Rev.l

especially in the enormous head. Catlocarpio catis and bats is significant at 1 percent is often mistakenly referred to as catla even level and those between ostia and mrigai in ichtbyoiogicai literature in Indo-China and catis and kalbasu at 5 percent levels. and Cambodia, The former has 4 pharyngea]. On both«- and -lipoprotein, the t values tooth in one row on each sido and the latter between catla and mohn and catla and bats 109 arranged in three rows (5,3,2I29395), are significant at 1 percent and 5 percent on each sido, Other characters of Catlocarplo levels respectively, while that between catis ero a very broad domai fold bordering tho and kaibasu is not significant (Chandi'asekhar, gill cover, numerous gill makers (110 on 1959). first arch), eyes invisible from cbovo, mouth extending as far back as eyelower lip thick Means and standard deviations of biochemi- and the po8t-labial groove interrupted cal and eletrophoretio measurements of ostia medially and completo lateral line with are presented in Table III. Figure 2 39-40 scales (Smith, 1945). presents the densitometric curve of the electrophoretic pattern of the plasma protein In 1960, several thousands of coloured fractions of catla (Das, 1961). (golden) catis fry were obtained from one induced-bred specimen, and when these coloured arkad differences were observed in blood catla were interbred, all the progeny were sugar, globulin, plasma protein and upe- found coloured (Chaudhuri, personal communi- protein fractions of different carps. While cation). ostia is the heaviest of the species investigated, its blood sugar is notably less than Five hybrids, namelys malo ostia X female that of Labeo rohuta and Cirrhina rohu, malo oatla X female kalbasu, male ostia One lipoprotein fraction,designated« was X female mrigal (Chaudhuri, 1959), male rohu X found absent in ostia and present only in female catla, and male fimbriatus X female Cirrhina Catis and mrigal hava catla (Chaudhuri, personal communication), similar values for theß-iipoprotein have been produced artificially by pituitary fraction, 1ectrophoresie for haomoglobin hormone administration, followed by stripping. has shown two bands in ostia, as *&ainst only In 1962, ono pair of catla-rohu hybrid was one each in Cirrhina mrigala and Labeo rohita induced to spawn by injecting pituitary hormone, (Das, 1961), which resulted in the successful production of a second generation of the hybrid. A study of the free amino aoid pattern of seventeen different species of fish, uaed. 1.3.2 Genetic data for confirming the taxonomioni differences (chromosome number, between them, indicated that aianine, protein specificity) glutamio acid, glycine, histidine and taurine were pre8ent in all the species. Haematological studios of cala, carried Proline and cystine were, however, absent in out by Da (1958), have revealed average counts catia. Plie free amino acid pattern of of r,b.c. to be 431,500 and that of w,b,c. different species of fish being similar, 8,172, The haemogiobin content of the blood taxonomio differentiation of the species as found to be 10 g. The author st&od that) even up to genera was not possible compared to human beings, the average r,b,c, (Sreenivasi and Chandrasekaran, i961), count is only 1/10, but other figures aro comparable.

A comparative study of the albumin value of Catla ostia vlith those of the other Indian carps Labeo rohita, Cirrhina ga1a, Labeo beta and. Labeo calbasu showed little difference excepting for L. which hoc the maximum (58.6 percent)o On this component, the t value between bato end ostia is significant at 1 percent level. The c i-globulin value io the lowest in catla and t valuo ratios between '(1-globulin values of catis and the rest of the four species are significant at 1 percent level. The high concentration of B-globulin (23 percent) in catis is noteworthy. The values of this component between ostia and the rest of the species are all significant at 1 percent level. r -globulin concentrations are high in catla and. t valua of y-globulin between catla and wrigal is significant at 1 percent level, Of the total serum protein, which is highest in catla, the t value between FR1332 Catla (Rev.1) 15

Table III

Biochemical and electrophoretic characters of catla (after Chandrasekhsz,1959; Das, 1961)

Standard Measurement Me an deviation

Blood sugar (milligrams per bCO millilitres) 67.29 8.17 Total plasma protein in*n per 100 millilitres (micro-joldahl) 3,11 0.45 Plasma albumin (percentage) 42.58 9.27 i plasma globulin (percentage) 8.83 3.51 22plasma globulin (percentage) 15.17 4.36 ¡3plasma globulin (percentage) (26.00 (2.71 (23.0e (2.71 Yplasma globulin (percentage) lC,42 5.77 OEF lipoprotein (percentage)

a lipoprotein (percentage) 53.11 18.69 lipoprotein (percentage) 46.89 18.89 Plasma albumin (g/lOO ml) 0.99 0.28 lplasma globulin(a/leoml) 0.21 0.09 plasma globulin (g/l0O ml) 2 0.41 0.26 /3plasma globulin (gibo ml) 0.58 0.29 rplasma globulin (g/l00 ml) 0.28 0.23 Total plasma protein (electrophoresis) 2.47 1.07 lipoprotein (gibo ml)

cJ lipoprotein Cg/lOO ml) 1.20 0.82

lipoprotein ml) /. Cg/loo 1.04 0.72 Total lipoprotein (electrcphoresis) 2.24 1,16 16 i/32 Catla (Rev.1)

I50

oOO o

Figure 2 Densitometric curve for plasma protein fraction of catla, The albumin fraction and globulin fractions and appear when the graph is read. from left to right (after Das, 1961) FRJS32 Catla (Revel) 2:1

2 DISPRIBUTION fully established itself as a result of trans- plantations9 while Table IV shows the rivers 2,]. Delimitation of the total area of and lakes where its occurrence has been distribution and ecolo ical oharac- reported in iclithyological ].itorature terization of this area Catin can thrive in nearly all frssh Plie original natural range of distribution waters below an altitude of approximately of catla was freshwater rivers throughout India, 549n (Motwani, unpublished)0 David (personal down to the Krishna river, Pakistan (w. Punjab communication) has recorded stray specimens of andE0Bengal) and Burma. The fish has also catla as far up the river Tunga no Shimoga been reported from Nepal (De Witt, 1960). (Mysore Stats) at an elevation of about 1,000 n However, because of successful transplanta- tians carried out since the beginning of the It has been reported that in the upper 20th century, and the wanderings of the fish, reaches of the rivers Ganga9 Yemuna and Sarda facilitated by the develo.ent of extensive in Utter Pradssh9 catla and other major carps canals, catla has now spread over the whole occur for a part of the year in certain of peninsular India. Catla fingerlings were sections of the rivers0 Pemporatu.rs and not introduoed in 1909 from the river Godavari altitude or latitude was attributed by them to into the CuddapahKurnool canal (at present in limit 4istribution of catla in these rivers. Andhra Pradesh), where they established them- A temperature of 570 P appears to be the selves and spread in the Pennar river, as well minimum temperature tolerated by catla, as the connected tanks in the Nellore district However, the (Jones and Sarojini, 1952), The fish was first favourite habitat of catla is broad deep pools recorded in the markets of Madras Cit7 in 1912 of the rivers, where they largely remain (Raj, 1916). Stray records of catla also appear localised during winter and summer months, to have been made close to the Tungabhadra Dam ascending, for local breeding migration, during site during 1945-47 just prior to its oonstruo- the period of the south-'west monsoon, June- tion which could be due to the escape of September (Setna and Kulkarni, 1946).Catla is individuals from the canal into the main river. also able to live in slightly brackish waters However, catla is now being recorded as stray (Raj, 1939; Devanesan and Ckìidambarani, 1948; individuals in the headwaters of the Tunga Jones and Sujansingani, 1954), in the lower river as a result of the stocking operation reaches of the rivers or lagoons, where there being carried on in the reservoir from l95657 is slight tidal effect, The salinity of the onwards (David, personal communication). Catla relevant sector of the Chilka lake, where fingerlings, from the God.avari, were introduced catla was reported to occur, ranges from 0.29 in 1921 into the Cauvery river, below the to 35.19 ppt during the year (Jhi4Lran, 1963), Hogainakal falls, and into the Bhavani (Hornell, 1924), where the species is now established. 22 Differential distribution About 150 catla fingerlings were procured by the Superintending Engineer and stocked in 1934 2,2,1 Areas occupied by eggs9 in the Vanivilas Sagar lake, built in 1904-5 on larvae and, other junior a seasonal stream Vedavathi, where the species stages: annual variations in now exclusively dominates the commercial catches. these patterns, and seasonal In 1945, catla fingerlings wore sent to Cochin, varia lions for stages where again the species is thriving well. They persisting over two or more were also introduced from the Godavari into scasOno Periyar lake in October 1946 (Chacho, 1948). The Bombay Fisheries Department first introduced the The differential distribution depends fry of catla from Patna (Bihar) into Powai lake, upon the breeding habitat, Catla breeds during Greater Bombay, in 1937 (Goldschmidt, 1953), the southwest monsoon in shallow pockets in the where the fish has established itself (Kulkarni, marginal areas, in fields adjacent to the 1947). It has also been transplanted to Ceylon, rivers which are inundated after hsavy showers whore it Is believed not to have thrived, In and in bundhe (Khan, 1924; Mookarjoe9 1945; 1954, catla fingerlings were sent in two ship- Abmad, 1955; Khan, 1959; Dubey and Puli9 ments from India to Israel, where they were 1961). Spawning grounds are found in the stocked in the Dor station ponds. These speci- middle reaches of most of the rivers, where mens, which on an average weighed 12.5 g in flood water spreads in more or less limpid February 1954, attained an average weight of shallows over fertile flats, well above 3847.0 g in December 1957. However, doubt has tidal reaches(Anon.,1962), The breeding in been eipressed about the identification of the bundhs takes place in shallow marginal areas imported species (Yashouv, 1958), Fish Seed or flooded fields (Ghoah and Ohosh, 1922; Syndicate, Calcutta, has exported 1600 and 1200 Mookerjee, 1945a; Than, 1947; Rai, 1948; catla fingerlings to Japan and Mauritius in Ganapati and Chacho, 1954; SsAa a1,9 1957; 1960 and 1961 respectively (Anon., l965a). Khanna, 19 58 Alikunhi et al9 1964T Figure 3 portrays the geographical distribution Ganapati and Chacho (l95)' observed the depth of oatla, including areas where it has success- at the spawning spot to vary from 05 to 1 m 2:2 /332Cat.a (Rev.l)

Figure 3. Geographioal distribution of catie: crosses in3ioate areas where the fish has been successfully transplanted Habitat Rivers and important Burma GangaRiver tri butane s Pegu GangaSys tern Yaxeuna Ghaglira GomtiRapti RaxngangaSarda Hast Coast DainodarKosiChambalSone Betwa Rive r Ken ManjMahanadiGodavaniSys ratern Krishna Tu.ngabhadra Distribution in rivers and. lakea* Tabla 1V UraongarliaSouthSuvarnarekha Keel WestRiver Coast Cauve ny NahNarbadaTaptiSystem SystemBrahmaputraRiver Miudhola MeshwaKhanPadmavatiVatrakHathmati K alBrahmaputra angBurhi Dhing Dhansiri SystemRiverIndus PakistanWest Pakistan Pakistan East Dhiko

BeasSutleIndus Indusotheiand. Padmatributaries and its rivers of plains Lake s Indawgyi BhopalRanchi lor Pennarpuri)Sur(near BaehanBokhPowai Manchar Relevant references are included. in the bibliography.On1 rivers have been mentioned from where eatla has been reported. in ichthyologioal literature. 2i4 FR $32 Catla Rev0]. in the bundha of Bengal0 In dry bundhs over hard or sandy soil and even on rocky (bund.hs which are completely dry- for a part embankments. of the year), spawning somtimes takes place in deeper areas (Alikunhi 5lO9l964) Eggs of oatla are first demersal. They Dubey arid Pull (1961)9 w13110 describing the gradually become buoyant and eventually come spawning of major carpa!/in various environ- to floaat the surface (Mazunidar, 1957), monts in Madhya Pradssh9 observed that catla, Spawn ./ generally remain in surface or sub- being a deep bodied fish9 reaches the breeding surface waters while adult catla inhabit deep ground when the rain fall raises the depth of waters0 water in the nullah (a small rivulet or a drain) to about i n or more0Spawning occurs

/ The expression 'major carps' commonly in chides four species1,viz0Catla catla9 Cirrhina mriala9 Labea rohita and L0calbasu0

/ Under 'spa'. are included hatohlings from 25-8 in total length0 FR S 2 CatlaRev.l

3 BIONOMICS AND LIFE HISTORT 3.1.4 Fertilization

3.1 Reroduotion Fertilization Is external, The fertilized eggs are abandoned by the parente and, depending 3.1.1 Sexuality (hermaphroditism, on the location of the spawning around, either heterosexuality, inter- drift to the edges of the bundh (Ghosh and sexuality) Ohosh, 1922)9 ox' get washed. down the nuflab (Khan, 1959) In bundhe, a large number of Catla is heterosexual. Sexes are diffi- eggs aooumu1ae in shallow water9 giving the cult to distinguish externally, except during latter a charaoaristio palo whitish appearanoe. the breeding season when maturo females show When spawning is over, a thick blanket of eggs a prominently bulging abdomen and a swollen remains over the spawning ground (A].ikunhl et reddish vent. According to Day(1878)the al,, 1964). The spent fish in natural riverino males ventral fin extends to the anal. breeding grounds flounder about and start Chaudhuri (1959a) stated that during the their homeward journey along with the receding breeding season, the pectoral fin in mature water, Many aro left behind, stranded amidst malos is slightly stouter and longer, shallow pools and puddles, and ultimately die extending farther towards the posterior end (Dubey and Tuli, 1961). than in the caso of mature females. In the few specimens examined by him, he found that 3.1.5Fecundity the pectoral fin in males,whenextended backwards and towards the dorsal side of the Relation of gonad size body, reaches the 8th and 9th lateral line and egg number to body scale, whereas in females, it reaches only size and to age the 6th or 7th lateral line scale, The pectoral fin in mature males, during the Khan (1924) found 400,275 eggs In a breeding season, has a very rough dorsal speoimen weighing 5.1 kg. The number of eggs surface (i.e. the surface close to the body) per kg body weighs was estimated by him to be which, in the case of females, is very smooth, 77,832. 1ntara,ian and Jhlngran (personal According to him, the rough surface of the communication) found the fecundity of catin pectoral fin could be of help in gripping the to vary from 2309831 to 49202,2509 depending female during courtship. upon the length and, weight of the fish and the weight of the ovary, as shown in Table V, 3.1.2 Maturity (age and size) 3,1,6 Spawning Catla attains maturity in the second year of life, Alikunhi (1957) mentioned that - Spawning season in ponds catla becomes mature when it is 22 months old, Natarajan and Jhingran (1963) The spawning season of catla coincides estimated the maturity age of catla from the with the south'west monsoon in North-eastern river Yamuna by plotting the length-weight India and East Pakistan, where it lasts from relationship curves of sexed epeoimens, May to August, and in North India and West The length of which the two curves inter- Pakistan, from June to September. In South sected fell under the size-range of the Indian rivers the spawning season appears to second year age-group. be somewhat variable as shown below:

The length at which catla attains its Authority Spawning Season first sexual maturity has been stated by different workers as shown below: Chacho (1946) July-September

Chacko and Kuriyan (1948a and 1950) 558.8 mm Chacho and Kuriyan (1948a) July-November Alikurthi (1957) 457.2 inn Monon et al. (1959) 550.0 min Chacho and Kurlyan (1950) End of May-End of Natarajan and Jhingran (1963) 441.595 mm October

3.1.3Mating (monogamous, Alikunhi et al, (1952) Twice a year, once polygamous, each during south- promiscuous) west and north-west monsoons Studies on ova-diameter and gonadosomatic index by Natarajan and Jhingran (1963) have Menon et al, (1959) June-September revealed that catla has a single specific spawning, implying that each specimen spawns Ibrahixn (1961) July-October only once during the breeding season. The species appears to be promiscuous (Khan, Hora and Pillay (1962) Twice a year during 1924), monsoons FR 532 CatinRev0].

Frequency of spawning F (Kurnool District) in Andhra Pradesh

Catla spawns only once a year (Natarajan Badami and David (1964) conducted oxpori. and Thingran, l963) After ono spavraingho meats at Tungabhadra da and got as much as ovarios are in a opent conditions Liacoid. end 62percent hatchuinga from one set. Alikunhi bloodshot with a foci dead detached ova lying eta]., (1964) were successful in inducing one in the lumen ofho ovcry0 paiz of catia to breed wider a controlled temperature of 28°C, Attempts to breed Spawning tino of day catla in Ad.hra Pradesh met with sucooco only in 5.5 to l05% of the cases (Anono, 0cit0)0 According to Chacko and Kuriyan (1949) and tan (1959) catin generally opat?n atnight0 For administration of the pituitary The opposite tins obeorved in a reservoir by hormone in catin, the pituitary glands were Dubey and Pull (1961)v7hofound catla breeding collected from fresh or freshly killed, fully during br1ghsun in the forenoon0 Alikunhi ripe major carps, end ware immediately pro etal0(1964) otated that wililie urigeJ. and. served in absolute alcohol0 The required rohu, v7hicli coinnenced breeding in the morning9 quantity of gland was macarated with a little catin tiers seen actively spawning only from dis Ulled water or 03 percent common salt about noon to evening0 Because of their large soluion0 The gland suspension was then sise and deep body they remained in relatively centrifuged. and the superaatan fluid. dee, water awey from the marginal arcee injected intramuscularly to the breedere0 occupied by mrigal end rohu0 Ueully, the glands from the same speciec as the recipient fish were used. (Chaudhuri,1960, Dubey and Peli (1961) differed from Chacho 1963and. 1964g Das and ieu9 1962) and Kuriyan (1949) and 1thmEd (1955) end. stated that celestial bodies9 li1:eho uooi2 have no Vas gape exist in cor knowledge regerd effect on opawning0 Jthnad (1955) oberired ing the standardization of hormone dosage0 spawning of major carps lahe river Halda9 Arbitrary dosages of p!ui.ary glande were took placo generally duringho £ult or new initially used to induca major c.ee te opavro0 mOon0 Ho fe1 however9 that there was not Das and IGian (1962) suggased a oub.dosago adoquato evidence to oorro1ao apavieLng pith system, which they designated no 'TÎ97 U51to' moon phases0 (0u0)and subclassified.liem luto Lero Fish Unit0 (L0FU0), 0Mec1iurich Um' Induc±on of epac9ing9 (ri.0u0) and 'Small Fish Ualt°(si'0u0)0 arifiola1 fertilLeaion equivalente of oe fish uui in erma of other are au indicated. bolovic Attempts to induce catin to brood9 by injecting fish pi uitary !oroaebave mo i L.F,U. ' 2 .F,U0 -'"--- 450F0U0 wih varying dereoe of encoosen diferont parts of India (Chaudhui-19 196091963 and.1964; L.F,U,,k.F.U, and SOFOU. are the units of Piennon and Sulochanan9 l962i llajen ad pituitary glands of fish weighing 4,500, Madhusudhana !lao91962j Badarni end David.9 1964; 1,800 and900g respectively0 Alikunhiet 5109 !964 Aaou9 l963.64 and l96i=65) Though experliesota on induced Similar to the 'Loach Units' or 'Vy'ta breeding of catin were carried out during Units', basad on the European vieaher ficL, 19559 1957 and 1958 at 0uacI (Indla)q fossilis, used by ICasanshil and ful spawning vins not achieved. until May 1959 Persov (T9T)7s and IGan (1962) advocated a Joyasagar in Asean0Au a result c' one the use of 'Mager Units' (LG0 Uuls) which pituitary injection one female cat1cweighing they defined as bhe amount of goandotroplu. l27 kg9 released 11GO laithe of eggs9 32% of that would cause ovulation in 50percent o which hatched0 A second eat1e9 509 kg in maturo mager (Glanas batrachus)7 The oquiTa- weigh9 laid over 70 lakho of eggs end 90% lents of F0U0 in terms of M0G0 Unie arec hatched0 From 1959 oneardo, induced breeding 1 LT.D'0U0 10.l5U0 Units0 of catin has been carried. ou on a large ecale (Chaudhuri9 personal oonmunioaioa)0 Chaudhuri (1963) obtained successful The largest fish so far bred tine aatla results in the induced breading of major fmalo weighing l45 kgvthich afor one carps by administering 5.10 mg of pituliary injection laid about 20 lekhe of eggs, 70% gland (dried for two minutes) per 1g body of which hatched0 Mammea end Sulochanan weight of female and2-6mg of gland per kg (1962)successfully induced one pair of body weight of the malo. Better results catin to breed at Metttzr dem and obtained viera obtainedwhen apreliminary doze ci' approximately 509000 fsri1ized sgge0 Rajan 2-3mg perkgbodyeight was gion to ¿]s and Madhusudhana Rao (1962) euecossfvlly ripe female. After cix hots, theregular induced two sets of catin to breed and doses were injected and the ripebreeders, of obtained 1609000 fertilized eggs from cao oot both sexes, were released togehein wao' and two hatchiinge and three wriggling eao ranging in temperature from 24...31C0 eggs from the other set at Snakosula Fish FR, 532 CatlaRev,

A] ±kunhl et ai. (1964) gave a preliminary (Ichan, 1942 Ganacati and. Chac1to1954). doso of 1 mr per kg body weight to the male According to llora (1945), flusaiu (1945) and brcodee.loo, when ivraa not freely oozing. Klianna (1958), 1acvy monsoon floods, capable riZic1a1 IortiJioatiom of catia has seldom of inundating vart ohallow areas which form been dono in India.Chaudhuri (1959) and he breeding groundo of the fish stimulate Alikunhi eal, (l964)however, had to resort spanningnd aro believed to be o primary to stripp&ng of ca-.le. for artificial factor for spanning. Khan (1947) end ferti1izaiom, after the breeders were Ganopati and Al1u.hi (1950), however, administered hypophysial hormone, believed the availability 01' shallow sDnwning ground to be a deciding factor for spawning. 3,1.7Spawning grounds Khan (19h17) end Ganapai end Chacho (1954) observedhaflooding in the early phase of Catla does not breed naturally in small the southwest moesoon io necosoa'y and the confined waters,It breeds in rivers, fish do no-L spann J reins are delayed.. reservoirs and 'bundh- type t s where fluviatile conditions prevail during the The depth of weLer where breeding takes spawning season. plaoe has been eteted to vary from 8 cm to 1,2 n (Khan, 1924çGanapati and Chacho, 1954; Ghosh and Ohosh (1922) observed that in Dubey and Pull, 1961), llowovorGenapati the bundhe of Midnapore, Bengal, Singhabhum and Chacho (1954) concluded that cuff icient and Bihar, hard and gritty beds with a depth of water which will enable the fish to gradually sloping bottom and a large catoh' swim to and from the spanning ground inhe ment area, proved suitable for carp spawning. bund.h will suffice for spawnIng. Khan (1924) observed carp spawning in flooded fields adjoining a nullah in the The rise in the level of water, which may Punjab. Mookerjeo (1945) found that catla be caused naturally or artificially, has been epavined in shallot areas forming pockets observed by Khan (1942), Ganapatl and Alikunhi adjaceuto rivers. According to Chacko (1950) and Ganapati and Chacko (1954) to bring (1946), Chacko and Kurlyan (].948a) and about spawning,Studies conducted by the Menoneal. (1959), sections of the rivers Central Inland Fisheries Reeearoh Institute, Godavar-!, Ith.risham and Cauvery, Barrackpore, (India), in 1955 revealed that characterized by largo submerged rocks oi spawning of carps wes probably stimulated. by emergent. vegetation, constitute the spawning sudden heavy rains resulting in abrupt rise grounds of catla. Job and Chacko (1948) of water level in the bundlis so au to submerge described 22 breeding grounds of catla and the contiguous shallow spanning grounds, other major carps in the rivers Godavari, Khrishna, Tungabhadra and. Cauvory. Khan Opinione onhe pattera of water current (1959)recorded spanning of catla and on -the spawning ground are divided,A majority other major carps in shallow areas adjacent of the workers (Des, l97 Khan, 1924! to a nullah (Garns nullah off river Betwa, Mookorjee et al,, l944a Ganapati and Chacho, Bhopal) in Macthya Pradesh oovor.d with a 1954!Dubey end Tuli, l96l Alikunhi eta]., species of grass (Viiveria indica), 1964) have stated. that spanning occurs in David (1959) stated that in Bihar major still waters,Ghosh and Ghosh (1922), however, carps breed in a 647,5 sq.lnn area in an observed strong current on the spanning ground interlacing channel system of river Kosi in the bundlia in Bengal and Bihar, while Khanria in Saharsa and Darbhanga districts, near (1958) noticed moderate currents at the Muzaffarpur in river Burhi Gandak and in breeding site in a fish fern in the Punjab. 'river Ganga near Sakrigalighat.Duboy and Tuli (1961) observed spawning of major carps The colour of uater on the breeding both over hard. and sandy soils and even on ground vins found, to bnuddy by Khan (1924), rocky embankmonts in rivers (several brickred byookerjso0tei. (19i1.4a) and of tributaries of river Chambal) reservoirs and a hue corresponding to a mithuio of tea and. bundhs of Madhya Pradesh,Alikunhi et al. milk, but ei varying ShadoCQ by Ganapati and (1964) reported carp spawning on muddy soil Chacko (195), both heforo end after spanning, in budhe of Madhya Fradesh and recommended indicating high urbldity ir- cil the oases. a provision therein of levelled spawning Canapa-ti enel Alikunbi (1950) found eggs and grounds, at different elevations, with sparso hatcbliuga in clear wetar au well,Ganapeti or no growth of grass.Recently, spawning and Chacko (1954) pre.cuiaed that the colour grounds of catla have been reported in the of water depende onhe nature of the main Vedavathi river above Vanivilas Sagar particular area and tho amount of rainfall in South India, and that the colour has no independent influence on spawning. No single factor can be said. to be responsible for spawning,The act involves fulfilment of a chain of interrelated conditions as a prerequisiteo spanning FR S 2 Catla Rev,1

Pable V

Relation of egg number to body size and age

Estimated oge of Total Weight of Weight of Number of Number of ova per fish length fish (g) ovary (g) ova wt of in of body ovary ye ars fish (mm)

111+ 783 11,329.0 301.1 230,831 20. 767

111+ 795 10,875.4 424.4 348,220 32 821 111+ 795 14,373.4 3,005,1 2,348,351 163 781 Iv 840 13,013.4 3,118.5 2,963,125 228 950 V 923 11,772.6 2,239,7 2,073,065 176 926 V 925 17,095.0 4,422.6 4,202,250 246 950 V 935 18,909.4 2,608,0 2,432,390 126 933 950 18,455.8 3,118.5 3,077,800 167 987

The optimum temperature of water at the and slightly lower temperature (by 1°C than spawning ground, according to Khan(1942), is in the pre- and post-spawning periods) 24..3l°C according to Chacho and Kuriyan stimulated carps to breed. Generally, (1950) 22..28°Cand according to Dubey and intensive major carp spawning occurred in Pull (1961) 26..33°C, Saha et al.(1957) floods II to IV in the Indo-Gangetic plain in observed no spooifie influence of temperature the middle and later parts of the monsoon, on spawning, and stated that cloudy days, rather than its commencement or the terminal accompanied by thunderstorm and rain, phase (Anon., 1965). These observations seem to have some influence on spawning0 corroborate Mitra's (1958) findings, that in Alikunhi et al, (1964) observed spawning river Mahanadi, major carps spawn after bothin cooland warm weather. 22-40 days of the onset of monsoon, and spawn has never been recorded till silt-laden Other factors like high pH and high flood water entered the river. In river 02content of ateraro incidental to Narbada, it was observed that carp spawning floods and are not essential in themselves ocourred only when the flood level attained for spawning (Mookerjee et al,,l944a a particular height, signifying a 'table Mookerjee,1945a). Low alkalinity land' at which elevation important breeding (Sa et al..,1957),minerals either in grounds lie (Anon.,1965), solution or in suspension (Raj, 1945) and low salinity (Rai,1948)do not seem to 3.1.8 Eggsz structure, size, play any significant part in the spawning of hatching type, parasites carps, and predators

jor carp spawn prospecting Fertilized eggs of catla are mostly investigations carried out by the Allehabad aperical, but some are oval in form. They Substation of the Central Inland Fisheries aro transparent, light red in colour, non- Research Institute (India)ineight riverine floating and non-adhesive. The yolk sphere stretches in the states of Uttar Pradesh and contains no oil globule (Mookerjes,1945). Gujarat revealed that widespread rains They have a large perivitelline space, flooding the breeding grounde, high turbidity FR1532 Catis (Rov,l) 3,5 measuring 3 in width (Chacho, 1946), The incubation period, observed by The diameter of the fully ripe ovarian egg different authors, io as shown below8 has been recorded as 2,22 (lLookerjee, 1945) and 2.0-3,2 (Anono, 1962). The oo1cerjoo (1945) 16 h 40 min fertilized eggs, after being laid in water Jagannadhan (1947) 16 - 24 h are reported to swell to 5.36.5 Chacho and Ituriy. (l948a) 16 - 18 h (Moolzerjee, 1945), 41 û (Anon., 1962), 6,0 aim (Mazumdar, 1957), 4.0-5.2 n (Hora and The newly hatched larva measures 4.2 to Pillay, 1962), 4.3-5.1 (Chaoko and 407 smi (Mookerjee, 1945) or 4q38 to 5.25 Kuriyaa, l948a and 1950) and 4.6 mm (Chacho and Kurlyan, 1948a) or 4,5 to 5,3 (Chaudhuri, 1963). The embryo becomes (Anon,, 1962). prominent 10 hours after fertilization and measures 2.1 to 2.5 in length (Chacho and It lias a transparent, laterally Kuriyan, 1948a). No information is compressed body and. is charaoteried. by the available on the parasites and predators of presence of conspicuous eyes, otooysts catis eggs in nature. During experiments rudiments of gill slits, pectoral fin and in induced breeding it has been observed that median fin fold. (Mookerjeo, l945 Chaoko mortality may occur due to funga]. infection. and Kuriyan, 1948a)o

3.2 Larval history The different stages in the larval development of catis are presented. in Table 3.2,1 Account of embryonic and VII and Fig. 4. juvenile life (prelarva, larva, postlarva, juvenile) The pulsation of the heart begins 13 h after fertilization according to Chacho and The developmental features of fertilized Kurlyan (l948a) and. after 15 h according to eggs according to Mookerjee (1945) are given Mookerjee (1945). Menonet alo (1959) in Table VI. described the fry, 8-10 in length as having a large head., rod-tinged operoulum Pable VI and a wide mouth. Mookerjoe (1945) stated Development of fertilized eggs that catis fry have a largo head, (after Mookerjee, 1945) transparent opercular flaps, lon snout, compresped chin, anterior mouth without teeth and barbels and a body ruth scales, Kanal (in press) while studying the Time after differentiation of alimentary canal and fertilization Developmental features associated structures in catis hatchiingo, from the day of their hatohiû till the 19th day, observed that the alimentary canal appeared on the third day after hatching, 35 - 40 min Segmentation commences, regular and thenoe the fry (7,2 mm in length) started. feeding, 1h 29 min 8 celled stage 1k45 min 16 oelled stage 2k 19 min 32 celled stage Detailo of development and the stages 6h 30 min Completion of yolk invasion and of coiling of the alimentary canal, formation formation of blastopore of gill rays, gill filaments and gill rakers, 8h50 min Appearance of embryonic rudiment from the first day after hatching till the 11h 5 min Appearance of optic rudiment 19th day are presented in Table VIII0 12h 45 min Appearance of median fin fold 4h 30 min Appearance of heart and. otocyst Catis attains its adult characteristics rudiments in about six weeks after hatching (Chacho 5h Omm Beginning of pulsation of heart and Kuriyan, 1948a and 1950). 6k Omm Beginning of gill rudiments 6h 10 min Beginning of peotoral fin buds 6h 40 min Period of incubation :6 FR S32 CatieRev

Pablo VII 11,2 Moderately large hend, light Larvt1 devolopzeent ai0 catla (Figure 4.2) red tinge of galls noiceeblc (icokerjoo ota]., i944b ìookerjea 1945g through tran soaron operouL Chacho and Iuriyan,l948oiDovundaran, 1952) flaps, doraal pofiJ e frulu sxiçut to end el' dorad Lia eoirer, while lo:;er o' vearel pi'ol'ile concave, tio píaaat ape s at Larva]. etace base of caudsl one corro- ponding to ceci'. lobe0 ea dis-incbroad epo; separated Days afterhatching from hem Dy a hie ares present on beso oÎ ceudJ. fin, 2 Ap renco of oír bladdor colour of b® fin llghyellow 3 Aooraeco of liver and andhe t of body nignonetto alimentary canal groen, (Mookerjee et al., 1944b), 5 Caudal fin doreatad 6 Pigutatioyt of body 13,0-14,0 Head prominent, lower jaw bigger, commences (Figure4.3) mouth obliquely upwards, gape 7 Appearance of dorsal fin of mouth 2.7 mm, eye 1.7 mm in ru cent diameter, a depression across 10 Appearance of 1 fin middle of snout, snout rounded rudiment dorsally and longer than diamote 13 Apoarasco of pelvic fin of eçe, no barbels or fringed rudiment lips, ventral f in-fold parsie- 31 Appearance of scales tent, but pelvic fins differ- entiated, polvic exactly below Length in xml 9.0-l00 origin of dorsal fin, posterior Head conopicuous, snout flat end of dorsal fin crosses anus, (Figure 4,1) andoinod, head. moro cipo gills bright red, margins of ted han body, dorsal and dorsal and caudal fins begin to caudal flu &Lfferentiatod. and be covered with black dots which ventral fin-fold OpottOdq impart a black colour to these, persiste, a faint b1ooh a (Mookerjee et a1, 1944 b; the beginning of caudal fin, Mookorjee, Devasundarani, axcat for a littlo nn 1945; piontod. space, entire caudal 1952), fia spotted, gills roddsh, 17,0-18,0 Same structures as above, colour body colour iight'greon but (Figure on first ray of dorsal fin more subject to variatione 4,4) prominent, snoutrather long aocordinto different back and chin compressed, mouth 'ounde (Devasundarom, 1952) anterior and arched, anterior margin of snout elliptical an 10.0 Lovor javT bigger and u- seen from aboveno barbels tu-ned, gape of mouth 1071515, (Mookerjee et al,, 1944 b). oye 1 ssnosri1a ot prosoat (Mookerjec,i915), 19,0-20,0 Body appears sharply tapering behind arid stumpy in appearance, dorsal fin long having 17 to 19 rays and 2/3 height of body, body colour greenish (Devasundarani, 1952)t

22,0 Lower jaw much bigger, mouth upturned, gape of mouth 5,2 mm, lips fleshy but non-continuous, no taste buds, nostrils completely formed, eye 1.9 mm (Mookerjee, 1945). F332 Catis11evi) 3L

27»4 Co2w oZ' bodr along dorsal less, thereby showing the preference of the C o45) idcj ricoto grcom aud that fish for 000plankton (Iamei, im proao) of VO11al s.dci including tbiur ì-lto or groy b].ac!z The food consumed by catis fryduring coior mo-ioaablG on dorsa3. variousstagesof develonont, as atotod by anal and caudal fina0 With A].ikunhi(1957),is given in Table IX0 fareroth colour of body' bocomsa goldc».i yollot or dark According to ookerjeo (1944, 1945)5to olivc'buf. and rod colour of 10 mm long fry feed oolusivoly on unicoliular ].!.o bocomea moro intonso algae, lO='20 mmiog ones on protozoa of various (Mookarjoo oto 1944b)0 kinds end20 to 100 mm longindividuale ouni.= cellular olo (].o),protozoona and rotii'ozs 3OO iy attain this sise in f (6g),crusaooa (80)sandparticlea(ip)and to] mouth upaarö.sbocLy wuidentifiod maso(3)oItamal (inpress) 1a'brovn im coiovr. vãth observed that catie fry in the length-rango goldon i,ingo ovar tha boad 72 to l65 mm 'eod mainly onzooplaokton0 rogiom (cnnokoiìd iyan Aecording o Alikunhi(1952)9zooplankton, .9ì8c)o particularly Encmostracaandrotifore, appear to constituteho 9maim fo0 of carp fry, while Jaws and. mouth same as in ploriktomio algae couldonly be considered ea (FLg1rcoi6 previous no i'atc buda 'emergency fod0The younfrye with a ahort g'çc of owh lipa not sraight inteatiseappear to be incapable of arj 25mm digesting, at1eat,acmeof the algae oonavmed.0 OfoParculamako ho ro Ujo of giU' im oteroular Catis fry, 15-2O mm long, aroapt to rogiocui omLrì iuot digo at 000plankton, particularly cladocerzins, (MccaTjao 945 iLooIzorjoo iii about an hour after ingestion0 Alikushi (1957) stato 1he eaiofry from lloOto 1L)l0 mm mainly food on omimalouloci end water 57OiOO, O DO bac1lips thick but not fr1)OEe., oc distinct spot on ìoy - GEUCial rdanelo Ratasof dv lopmsntand ouxvivsl o& or ofzie gradually b000moo (1OC) yco1ito groan ad that In a contmuovsi2ovi cyatom,ho larvae L:y aemichhitecolear andry or ca ia upc cm end fagorlinga of fio xtuo of grey sud îO-l5 embug eon lio far 24houror moro in gb ad or blacl alcne or water conaiming 05 and lO ppm 02 respeotivoly, &: J2cmì oh0 other conditiono resiningcpimum,but dio (kookxjec at alo1944b)0 within e ohort time below thebov otatod cenoontrziono ofO2 :perimoto on the off000 o'renoua 000binsi.ono of 02 aM 002 conconiiretiojao onlarmmo2 and fiogarlingo ofatbe showha'the laevao (o5nat)cannot gevo5ahoaoùo dovslomamt of mouth aLead 05 ppm 02 with 25 ipm002, butwith parta of oatlfry-oo the dayo' ita hatching 1= pim 02 they can a Lend up -Le75 ppm CO20 to the 5th da von tho alimamary canal and thoThe fry (12 and 44)cm) canstand 005 ppis 02 aaaoaiatocl atruoturonro fully formad and the with 15ppm CO22 butdio in 005ppm02 with frotartaziag thai: maturai diet0They begin rpm feeding on tou ho third day after l75 0020 1°)hem 02 ici increased from i up ba&ing while the ruôinont of theo1k sao stEll to4ppm, the fry camcitand 125 ppmCO20 while poreioi The fry ao plaktopegio0 The moutb half' of thondioin 15C175 n 002 and alldie to atart 'jhio o'th-ermimalbut later mayeo bobween i75'250ppo Thofingarlinge(lo.ol5 to 'elighly doroaleoítoaThe gill fila' on) eon stand i ppm 2 wth 25 and 50 ppm of tlio gill rake ea incroaoo in mvaibor 002e With LarLlior increasein the concentration o'ho frythe latter atraining of 002, 02 remaining the came,theydioat the imgetod foo6. itorcr The fey measuring 52 7o5ppm 002,indicating that fingerlingo have a te79ri hove e rol ;ivoJ abort and atraight mi;thnum andmaximua 002 toleranceoptima, which iiuo oi oarnivorosand theio absent in the osee of' larvae and, fry upto ool1eg ;f thi. olir&antcryceaci ccaimencoa onthe8 cm (Basu,1950 and 1950a)o 6 h d of-Loo 1atching(iigo6)0 Im catia $ry performed for 72 end56 heure,in environmonto 165 am loegiboh rood on aooulanto» the uiLh 52 to.600 and 1,76 -to 28 ppm 02and lO a sho about 6759 of the bo 150 ppm and 7oflO ppm 002 roapootivoly, catie lgh while im ac1o.t oa;1e (500 mm in total fingerlings vierefound-Lo utilicie 1463 mg 02. !egth) . ir 2timae;i3c bcy length0The dûf e of Lb o1auary canal In caL rcecops-nLo eLbermajor oavps9 is FR/532Catla (Rev.l)

Figuxe 4. Developmental stagee of catla

10.0 1ølt1 stage X5 After Devasundaram, 1952) 2 11.2 untlong stage X2 After Mookorjee et al.,1944) 3 13.5 mm long stage X5 After Devasundaram,1952) 4 17.8mm long stage X2) After Mookerjee et al,,1944 r.5 27.4mm long stage X2) After Mookerjee et al.,1944 (6 44.2mm long stage (x2) After Nookerjes et al,, 1944) FR S2Catis Rev. i 3g

Table VIII Development of alimentary canal, gill rays, gill filaments and. gill rakers (after Kanal, in press)

e in Average Average Ratio 01' Io, of No,of days tota]. length alimentary Stce ofNo,ofgill gill fter length S.D. of mt- S.D. canal to coiling Gill fila- rakers atohing (mis) satine total rays meats (isa) length

0 5.2 +0.2372 3.0 0.576 1 6.5 +0,1466 3.0 0,461 2 6,0 +0.3000 3.0 0,500 4 10 3 7.2 +0.1888 3.4 ±0.1251 0.472 I 4 10 5 7,9 +0.1000 3.6 0.455 I 4 3.4 9 7 11,3 +0.4715 5,3 ±0,4715 0,469 III 4 23 10 9 12,2 ±0.2359 7.0 0.573 IV 4 23-24 10 11 13.7 +0,2359 8.0 +0.8165 0.583 IV 4 22-23 10-].3 13 16,5 ±0.3497 10,0 ±0. 8165 0.606 V 4 31-32 16-18 15 16.3 +0,9429 10.3 ±2,0548 00631 VII 4 30-31 17-21 17 15.8 +0,2359 10,2 ±1.6477 00645 VII 4 32 20-21 19 1605 +0,5282 11,2 +0,2359 0.678 VII 4 31-32 19-21

Table IX Food consumed by catis during various stages of its life (after Aliktìrthi,1957)

eagth Aver&e percentage of items of food generally encountered. in the stomach and gut (mm) Unicellular Fil amentous Vegetabi e niiza1 cul es Insects Sand. or mud algae algae debris and water fleas li-20 10,0 300 8700

21-40 909 2,5 87.6 41-100 10.0 18.5 70,0 - 1.5 100 and longer 803 0.7 38.0 4401 - 8,9 $10 FR 832 Catis (Rev.l)

3:18

1MM.

Figur. 5, Dovalo.nent of mouth parte of catis (after 1aal in presa) (i) Neily tohed. larva (2) 2nd day after hatching (3) 3rd day after hatching (4) 5th day after hatching FR/532 Catla (Rey,l) 3:11

II VI

III Vt' H

Figure 6, Diagrammatic representation of the sieges I to VII of the coiling of alimentary canal of catie (after ICal9 in prese) FR S2CatlaRev i

Table XI Survival of catla fingerlings at various temperatures (after Mookorjee et al.,1946)

Length Temp aratura Period of () (Oc) survival Remarks (minutes)

70 12.0 4 Survival period very short; temperature unsuitable 65 16.8 No mortalityNo mortality, but when kept in this temperature for15days, a decrease in body weight takes place 65 18.3 No mortality or decrease in weight 70 37,8 do- 65 38.9 Vorked. decrease in weight when kept in this temperature for 15 clays 70 39.5 375 Mortality begins 70 41,1 8 Survival period decreases rapidly

3.3 thiotor ILwnmen and Su1ochu (1962) described successful transportation of catla breeders 3.3.1Lonrevity tied with a nylon rope through the nares, in a tow-box behind a motor launch, moving at Aging of catis9 basod on scalo studies, t7ac 3-4knots over s distance of en miles and done by Uatarajan and Jhingron(1963)t7ho over a short distance0 The salinity observed up to5 +age-groups of catla in the tolerance of catin in chilka Lake is0.2 commercial catches of river Yasiuna at Allahabad, and in &akhra Dhand in the Punjab,0,28to the mnximum total length of fish in their 2,21'(Rai, i948) The iimltcs of semples being123cm0 Hoviovor, ho length of tolerance of different physioo.rnchemical the 1arest recorded ontla is approinatoly factors by fry and fingerlings of catla 180cm(Day91871, 1878 and l889 Raj,1939 are described under3.2.i Chacko and Jurlyan,1950) 3.3,3 Competitors 3.32Rardineu Catla faces different types of competition in natural end artificial Catis is a hardy fish thlch, uhan youii, habitats, During fry stegs in both tho stands transportation vTell over long distances habitats, almost aU. the iahahiing species involving considerable tina, The species is of fish are planktophagic and bhero occurs very strong and active end often leaps over an interspecific competition oi' a high dsgroo0 the seine, Consequentlyhs fisherman usually Ostia fingerlings and adults continue to folias' the net in canoes (Hamilton,i822 remain predominantly plankton feeders and, Day,1889e Thomas9 i927 Devansoan and ruth ago, the degree of competition Chidanbarom,1948) Theranafor from lotie declines as other species take to feeding in to lentie iaters and the change in the snviron different niches, The competitors of catin mental fctore involved, do not ordinsrly are all plankton feeders, notably a eunber of affect the young catin, Transplantation to clupeoida and ninnovue, the lentio habitat does not adversely affect catin in respect to grou-th and development of 3,3,4Predators gonads, though the fish dooc not ordinarily breed in confined ratero (Alikunhi et al,91952), No information is available on predation Renouai transplanto of oaia, described under by other animals on adult catia, Advanced finger- ooetio 2q39 have proved successful mainly bocauso of the hardiness of he flak0 FR/S)2 Catis (Rov.1) 3: 1.

Pablo XII Predatory and weed fishes (after Das Gupta, 1957;Alikunhi, 1957;Ksramchandani, 1957 and Anon., 1965)

Predatory fishes Used fishes

Chaima marulius Ainbassis ranga 2 auno tatus A,,naina C. Aspidoparie. morar C. aohua Puntius C, stewarti P, ìhutunio P. sarana Anabas testudineus P, sophore P.tico Nandus nandus P, conohon lue G1ossoobius giuria Rohtes cotio Laubuca bu 2erus notopterus Rasbora dan[onius N.chitaìa har od-on mola Barilius barila Heteropneustes fossills B. bend.elisjs Clarias batrachus B,bola Lates osloarifer B,vagra Esomudanrica ygastr bacaila O. phuJ.o Chain Si1ozja siondia Allia coils Clupisorna parua Rusa ilisha ichts vaoha Gudusia Conca soborna cerda Ilisha inotixts iorasp, Pellona sp. 1'ystus Gonialosa manmin,a L aor L cavasius Sei.ipiima sa M,bloekeri Rhinomugil corsula peina Sicain 'fil cascasia Pseu.d.osciaena coitor Keneatodon canoila Mas acemb el usancalus Colisa sp. L armatus rothus acul eatus Tetrodon cutcutia ben alensis Botia dayi Amphipnous ouch ja Nemachulus zonatus Garra sp. linge and yearlings of catla encounter many 3.3.5Parasites and diseases predators, notably Wallago attu, Chaima marulius, C.st.riatus, Notopterus notopterue, Parasitism, often resulting in mortality N,chitala, Silonia silondia andystus sp. among catla, prevails particularly during the among fish;crocodiles, corinorants, gulls summer months when the water level in ponds is king-fishers, kites , crows, herons, storks low (Alikunhi, 1957).A great variety of para- ducks and otters etc., among other animals sites and diseases stay afflict catis (Southwell (AlIkurthi, 1957). and Prashad, 1918;Cbakravarty, 1943; Uora, 1943 a and b; Chakravarty and Basu, 1948; Thapar, l948 :16 FR1532 Catis (Rev.1)

Basu, 1950b; Gaanamuthu and 1951a; 195]. Daotylogyrus cat ai ius Jam Karamohandani, 1952; Sarkar, 1954; Tripathi, (from gill filamentsj 1954, 1955 and 1960; Ganapati and Rao, 1954; Iaoparorchjs sp. (from air A].ikunhi, 1957; Chauhan and Ramkrishna, 1958; bladder) Gopalakriahnan and Gupta,1960;Gopa1akrishnan Dipiostomuin flexicauduin 1961 and 1962; Hora and Pillay, 1962). Heavy mortalities of catis, caused by diseases and from muscles beneath the akin) parasites, have been reported (Chacko and Job, 1948; Ganapati and Rao, 1954; Gopalakriahnan Cesto da $ and Gupta, 1960; Ligula intestina],is (from Gopalakriohnan, 1961) in intestine) various parts of the country0 Acanthocephala, Acantho'yrug acantho A disease, symptoxaisad by the presence of gas bubbles in gill filaments, heart, blood Thapar (from intestino vessels and gut with bursting of the air bladder 33.6 Greatest size through the peritoneun, causing heavy mortality among young ostia in a pond in ?adraa, tisa Next to Mahseer, catis is the largest reported by Chacho and Job (1948) Ganapeti and carp in India (Raj, 1939; Rae reported on b2sck'grnb disceso in Menonetal.,i959), (1954) Hamilton (1822) reported that ostia catla in a pond in Semalkot caused by black, grows to about 92 to 122 cm in length, Day (1871 ovoid9 irregular metaceroaria of Di4ostomum and 1878), Raj (1939) and Chacko andKuriyan BPoo Gopalakrlshnau and Gupta and (i90, (1950) observed that ostiaattains a maximum Gopelaitrishnan (1961) reported on a nevi epidn length of about 180 orn, Rao and Prasad. (1953) cal syo disease9 commonly afí0eoing 3585 o recorded the maximum size of catis as 252 long catla, the eio1og±oal agent being a cmi, variant of jomouas li uefaciens0 ienon et al,, (1959) observed ostia attaining imong major a length of 112 cm in reservoirs. carps, catis was observed to be most susceptible Natarajan and Jhingran (1963) observed that catis to a bacerium, tenativslydontifiod as reaches asymptotic growth when it attains 1275 Aeromonas5o9vihich causeddopsy0 cm in length0 The m1mum length of catis in hc coismerojai catches from river 'L'manna The following parasites have been recorded was from catla, observed by thorn to be 123 cine, The maximum weight of catis recorded by Raj (1939) and Devanesan and Chidanbaran (1948) Bacteria: Aeromonas faciens (trom eye) was about 63 kg0 Thomas (1927) mcnioneci a catis Aeromonas5o(from bocLy cavity, weighing 45kgcaught with a hook in a scales, aye end intestins) Calcutta pond0 Fungi: eia arseltica (from any 3,4 tion and owth part of he bocLy Branchiom 5o(fron gills) 341 Feeding (time, place, manner, season) Protozoa: yxobolue eetlao Chakravarty (from i1lo) According to Mookerjee (1945) 10ben alensio Chahravery and Beau Mookerjee end Ganguly (1948) and. Miera Tfron gills (l953, eatia is a surface feeder, Chacho and ICuriyan Thelohaneilus oatlae Chakrave.rty and and (1943e Bau from gills 1949)described i es a surface end mid' water feeder, occasionally browsin T0sani (Southwell and Prashad) (fron on marginal substratum, and !Xlikianhi(1957) Bodominou designated the species to bea surface and robas Tripathi (from gills) column feeder, Triohodine. indica Tripathi (from Naare.jan and Jhingrsn (1963) observed that while catis is primarilya surface feeder it is prone to exploro Scy lidia all riform1s Tripahi (from layers and sections of gills hs river, According to them, though dominant occurrence of Icht zoo- o hthirius multifilis Fouget plankton in the gut primarily indicates from skin, gills and fins a surface feeding propensity of the fish, the Coatia necatrix (from skin occurrence of organio detritus mingled with Popopoda, Argulus follacous Linnasus (from sand, mud and rooted aquatice, Indicatesa bo&y and fins) bottom browsing habit as well0 The presence Eragasilus bati Karamchandanj (from of certain unattached su.erged floating gill s vegetation indicates that the fish also Lernaea dhaokoens&s Gnanamuthu (from explores the middle layers of water. gills) Catlaphulla ejnta Tripathi Mookerjee and Gariguly (1948) described catis as a sight-feeder, Possessing large Trematoda: Paradactylorus catal lus Thapar (from skin and fins) /S32CatJ.a (Rev.l) 3:17 eyes and a big upturned mouth without sensory Natarajan and Jhingren(1961)proposed an papillae and barbels0 The slightly upturned index of preponderanoe for grading the food mouth of catla enables it to gulp in large items encountered in the stomachs of fishes quantitiés of water which is filtered through and the index was applied in food studies of its gills retaining all the particulate juvenile and adult ostia. The new index of organisms in the buccal cavity (AJ.ikunhi, 1957). preponderance synthesises and According to Natarajan and Jhingran(1963)each "volumetric" methods of food analysis and Is branchial arch in oatla bears gill rakors in defined by the authors as two rows in the form f long slender processes 100 V.0. which act as strainers. The gill rokors project - 11 xlOO into the pharyngeal cavity and serve to filter ViOi the water that passes out into the branchial chamber. where V1 and Oj are volume andocourrenoe indices of food item i andI,the index of The feeding intensity of catla and the preponderance of the food item 1. Based on gastrosomatic index during various months of this method the indices of prepondorance of the year were examined by Natarajan and Jhingran different food items met within the guts of In the female, a gradual drop in juvenile and adult catla are as given in (1963). Pable XIV, feeding intensity during the maturation phase (April to June) and omehat subdued feeding, Pable XIV extending into the post-spaning phase until Idics of preponderance of different fobd October, were noticed, after which the gastro.. items of juvenile and adult catla somatic index shot up. In the males the feeding (Natarajam and Jhingran,1961) intensity was not seen to be affected during Food item Inctex of preponderance maturation phase, but the index did drop in the Juvenile Adult post-spawning phase between August and October, Das and Moitra(1963)observed an annual Crustacea 79.68 (i) 64.20 (i) variation in the diet of catla, according to the Algae 9.68(2) 30.062) periodic abundance of the org&isms in the Plants 1.03 (5 2.41 3 environment. Rotifors 5.66(3 1.194 Insects 2.87 (4) 0.99 (5 3.4.2 Iced (type, volume) Protozoa o.o(6) 0,01(8 Molluscs 0.03(9) While casual and cursory references to food Polyzoa 0.02 (io) of oat].a have been made by many workors, dotailod Decayed organic natter0.13(8 o.o (6 analyses of food have been done only by a fem Sand and mud 0.40(7 0.54 (7 The food items, in their order of preponderanoo, encountered in the gut of catla in different looa1ities, as reported by different workers, As seen in Table XIV, while orustacea and are shown in Table XIII, algae occupy (1) and(2)rarks both in juvenile and adult ostla, the (3),(4)and(5)positions Thomas(1887and1897)observed that large- are held respectively by plants, rotifers and sized oatla feed on fish fry but no other worker insects in adults and by rotifors, insects and plants in juveniles. has substantiated this observation. Raj(1931) observed remarkable growth of catla in vicod,y ponds with plenty of snails, and Menan and 3,4.3 Relative and absoluto growth Chacko(1956)suggested culture of ostia in patterns and rates rural areas for controlling molluscs which act as intermediate hosts to many a helminth para- Catia is the fastest growing of theindi- gnoua Indian carps. site. Natarajan and Jhingran(1963)noted the Numerous workers hava presence of gastropods (Ìilelanoidee sp.), though made passing remarks on its growthbut few have sparingly, in the diet of catla juveniles, but furnished detailed biometrical data,Dey(1889) cited an instance of growth of none whatsoever in that of the adult fish, As catis in a next to crustacea and algae, plant matter forms stocking tank (o.19.8 X 17.7X4m) near the important food of catla, utilizing this Calcutta, in which some fry of thespecies propensity of the fish, thick growths of 12.7to254mm or less in length were stooked in May Hydrilla, Oscillatoria and Spirogyra have been 1875. On September22,when the tank successfully removed in the Cheiput fish farm, was netted and several dozens of fish captured, one of the largest weighed Madras (Menon and Chacko,1956). George(1963) 396.9g observed that catla consumed large quantities measuring27.9cm in length and the others wore of crustaceans and rotifers which unre found to 28,3to56.7g lighter. Raj(1931) indicated that be completely digested. Intake of a].gal food 10.2to22,9cm long catla was far less in quantity and algae, which have fieriings attain a length of43.2cm in four months, aresistant continuous cell-wall or a oovering His observations (Raj,1939)also sheath of mucilago, seemd difficult or impo. indicate that catla fry,12.7to25.4 nus In albio to digest. sio whon stocked in weody pondswith piouty of snails, attaina length of30.5 ou in six months and :18 FR 52 Catla Rev.1

Table XIII

Food, preponderance according to locality

Food items Locality Feeding type Authority

Crustacea, rotten vegetation, Bengal Generally surface Mookerjse (1945) algae, protozoa and rotifers, feeder sand particles

Vegetable matter, crustacea, South India Surface and. mid-water Chaoko and Kuriyan diatoms and. desmide, protozoa, feeder, occasionally (1948a) sand particles, polyzoa, browsing along the rotifers marginal substratum

Vegetable matter, diatoms and South India Surface and mid-water Chacko and Kuriyan desmida, micro-crustaoea feeder (1949)

Archigoniates, diatoms, South India Surface and mid-water Chaoko and Kuriyan crustaoea, algae, sand particles(rivers Godavari,feeder (1950) and small twigs, rotifers, Krishna, Cauvery, protozoa, molluscs, polyzoa Thngabhadra)

Algae, higher plants, orustacea,Madras Surface feeder Menon and Chacko protozoa, mud and sand, molluscs (1956)

Diatoms, algae, protozoa, Madras Plankton feeder, Menon i. (1959) rotifers, oruatacea, polyzoa, occasionally browsing on aquatic vegetation, molluscs, marginal bottom sand and small twigs

Crustacea, algae, plants, Allahabad. (riverPrimarily a surface Natarajan and rotifers, insects, deca'ed Yaniuna) feeder but prone to Jhingran (1961 organic matter, sand and mud, explore all leyere and and 1963) protozoa (inollusca and sections of river polyzoa in juveniles only) FR/S32 Catia (Rev,1) 3:19

45,7 to 61.0 cm in the first year of stocking. for age dotormination (Figure 7).Spawning Bukht (1940) studied the growth of catia in ex- stress was found to be the causative factor perimenta]. tanks in Bidyadhari spill area. for ring formation, The first ring is laid. in Mitra (1942) studied variations in growth rate the socond year of the life of catla when it of catia in different districts of Orissa. attaino maturity. These authors back-calculated Hora (1944) recorded an instance of very fast sizes at different ages derived from scales, growth of catin to 30.5 on (510.3 g) in just with the modal locations derived from Petersen's 2* months. He further observed oatla and rohu length-frequency distribution method, further to attain a weight of 5.4 to 6.4 kg in ono dissecting multimodal distribution, following season. Chaoko and Kuriyan (1948a, 1948b and Harding (1949) and. Cassio (1954). Von 1950) reported the size of catla as 66.0 to Bertalan.ffy's growth fit, according to thcm, 73.7 cm (weight o. 400 kg) in the first year of describes the growth pattern in catla. The life and 0.91 to 1.8in(weight 13.5 to 22.5 kg) theoretical growth equation, applying to catla, in three years in various South Indian waters. was found to bei Chacko (1948a and b) recorded growth of catia r -0,28(t-O.11 to be 25.4 cm in five months, 68.6 cm (weight ltl275 Li_e 3.2 to 4.1 kg) in the first year and 91.4 cm (weight 15.7 kg) in three years in Ma&ras Pable XVI waters. Chacko and Ganapati (1950) recorded The lengths at different ages, ainst von a phenomenal growth of catin in two tanks in Bertaianffy's growth fit Kanoheepuraza, Madras, where the fish was Length at age Length at agevon observed to have grown at the rate of 7.6 to (soale method)(Petesens Berta1anffs 10.2 cm per month during the first half-year method) fit mm of its life, Alikunhi (1952), citing Moses (1940) mention that oatla attains II marketable size in six months and a weight of 514 505 524 III 10.9 kg in two years and 18 kg in three years. 716 682 696 IV 823 800 According to Aiikunhi (1957), in normally 846 V 900 stocked waters, a growth of 38.1 to 45.7 cm can 917 951 ordinarily be expected in the first year. If understocked., catla grows to over 50.8 cm in Having derived lengths of catin at various length in the first year. Normal average growth ages (Figure 8), Natarajan and. Jhingran (1963) (in weight) of catla in its first year of life further estimated the weights and the instan- is about 907 g. In Kuria tank, Bombay, catin taneous rates of growth of the fish as shown attained o. 57.2 orn in length and 3.6 kg in in Pable XVII, weight in just about 9 months (Hora, 1944). Bao and Prasad (1953) mention that catin finger- Table XVII linge, 5.1 to 7,6 cm long, grow as much as 45.7 Annual and instantaneous rates of growth of to 61,0 cm in the first year of stooking. catin (Natarajan and Jhingran, 1963) Menon et ai. (1959) reoorde& the growth rato of eatla as shown below: Average Average Annual Instantan- length at weight at eous rate Table XV age (nun) age (g) of growth Growth rate of catin (Menon et al, 1959) I 295 Year Length in mm 354 519 1.82248 in reservoir in tank II 514 2,193 196 1.08810 I 600 320 III 716 6,501 II 950 530 58 0.46044 III 1120 700 IV 823 10,282 43 0, 35577 V 917 14,665 Das (1959) determined the differential growth rates of Indian oarps. Samples from a population of carps of known ago were weighed at Ohosh and Bhattacha.rya (personal communic- regular intervals over a fifteen-month period. ation) observed oatla to attain a length of and a second degree polynomial fitted to growth 400 mm in the first eleven months of its life data over time, using log weights. For catla, in the lower sector of the Ganga system. the derived equation was: Alikunhi and Sukumaran (1964) conducted Log W = 0.954457 + 0,006584 t - 0.00001123t2 an experiment of 4 months' duration in three nursery ponds, each 0.04 ha in area, to find Natarajan and. Jhingran (1963) studied the out the growth of catla as compared with that age and growth of catin from its scales, Accord- of the silver oarp, gypophthalmichthys ing to them the scales of catin show growth molitrix. (Table XVIII), checks in the form of carved-out grooved rings, which were found to be annular and hence suitable FR/832 Cfttla (Rev.l) :20

Figure 7. Scale of catla 935 mm in total length showing 4 age rings: Scale length 28 nun: Estimated age 5+ years (Natarajan and Jhingran, 1963) F/S32 Catla (Rev.l) 3g2].

800

600

400 z L'J -J

200

o t 2 3 4 AGE IN YEARS AGE IN YEARS A B

Figure 8. Age and growth of oatla (Watarajan and Jhingran,1963) Curve depicting absolute values of length (mm) at ages derived from length frequency distribution

Absolute values of length against complete years ¡22 FR S2 Cat].aRev,l

The data on grow-h, attained by both length of 40 ., each weighing 793.8g. species, shown in Table XVIII (data in Table Kulkarni (1952) observed that the growth of XVIII on R,molitrix also are presented in view catla manifests an extremely wide range of of wide-spread interest attached to this problem) diversity, dependi largely on the ecological clearly reveals that grow-th of silver carp is conditions of individual tanks. It grows faster than that of catla, under comparable fastest in the first three years and there- conditions. after the growth slows down, Chacko (1956) reported that catla attains a length of 30.5 A 5-6 month-old specimen of catia, cm in six months and 45,7 to 61.0 cm in the measuring 142 mm in total length, was tagged first year of stocking, in temple tanks, where and released in the Ganga at Mirzapur (Utta myxophyceae occur permanently, According to Pradesh, India) on 30.12.63. when recovered Alikunhi (1957) the growth of oatla slows 301 days later, on 26.10.64, it measured 280 dwn when the stock exceedsL' 2,471 finger- Discounting the tagging shook, this recovery linge per ha, The fish has been noted to agrees fairly well with the data shown in grow very fast in highly alkaline waters Table XVII, containing large quantities of aquatic weeds (Menon et al,, 1959). Das (l960a) found Ihingran (1952) studied the length-weight growth of catla influenced by the volume of relationship of catla (Figure9),ranging in water available in the tanks or, conversely, furcal length from 41 to 405 mm and found it the amount of crowding. Gopalakrishnan and to be: Srinath (1963) observed. that sludgeappears to Weight 0,8917 x 1O5 x Length 3.15172 have a direot influence on the growth of which in logarithmic forts is: catla and produotion of plankton due to release of nutrients, Fingerlings of catla responded Log weight - 5.04976177242 + 3.15172 log positively to the three doses of sludge length, the standard error of estimate in terms experimented with by the authors. The of logs being ±0.094257. average increase in length of catla withina period of 71 days was as under* Natarajan and. Jhingran (1963) studied the length-weight relationship of catla separately Control initial length 16.2 cm for juvenile, male and female specimens. The final length 23.]. cm equations derived by them are shown in Pablo XIX, 62.5 g sludge initial length 11.7 cm final length 26.6 cm The exponential indices for length showed variability between male and female. The 125 g sludge initial length 20,8 cm observed differences in the regression coef- final length 35.5 cm f icient of male and female and between juvenile and. female were not found to be air if icant, 250 g sludge initial length 13.7 cm The difference in coefficient between juvenile final length 38.4 cm and male was 1.89 times the S.E., having a probability of more than 5 percent. The Explaining the occurrence of oertain authors pooled the entire length and weight ring-like markings (winter-rings) on the measurements into a singlo equation, irrespective scales of catla-of-the-year, Natarajan and. of size and sex, which wás formulated to be: Jhingran (1963) remarked that the drop in temperature in winter months in river Yaznuna Log W,44009+3,28325 LogL (with S.E,0,00755) at Allahabad caused. a growth deceleration among the fish, which was not sufficient to They indicated that the cube law is not evoke a similar response indiderage-groups. statistically valid for catia, 3.5 Behaviour 3.4.4Relation of r:ow-th to feeding, to other activities, and to 3.5,lMigration and boa]. move- environmental factors ments

According to Raj (1939), the growth of catin Catla is said to be a local migrant, in brackish water is stunted and very poor, undertaking short journeys in search of Chacko and Ganapati (1950) attributed the suitable spawning grounds in the breeding phenomenal growth of catin at the rate of 7.6 to season, Khan (1924) observed that oatla 10,2 cm per month in two tanks in Kancheepuram, ascend rivers during monsoon rains insearch to the presence of abundant food and the large of suitable spawning grounds, and after area, 2,8 to 5.7 ha, providing freedom for un- spawning return to the main stream. Groups of restricted movement. The tanks wore rich in fish are seen at the water surfaoe,splashing phyto- and zooplankton, though macrovegotation and apparently fighting with each other. was poor. Basti (1950e) observed that in the Khan (1940) observed catla ascendinga fish course of a yea-, in sewage-irrigated fish farms ladder in the Punjab only during July to near Calcutta, 1 cm long fry of catla attained September, when the difference between the !/S32 CatlaRev.1 3:23_

Table XVIII Growth of silver carpandcatla fingerlings in nursery ponds at Cuttack during 1960 (Alikunhi and Sukumaran1964)

Pond. No. Species Dato of Length (cm) Average Total Remarks sampling Range Average weight weight (g) (kg)

Silver carp 6.1.60 15.9-24.1 20.1 77.2 7.7 alone 6.2.60 17.7-26.5 23,2 132.0 13.1 7.3.60 20.1-30.2 27.2 219.0 21.7 6.4.60 20,7-32,7 28.7 257.0 25.5 stock thinned out to half 6,5,60 30.0-37.0 33,2 424.0 20.8

2 Catla alone 6.1.60 13,5-26.6 17.7 74,9 7.5 6.2.60 14.5-27.8 19.7 104,6 8.2 allowing for mortality 7.3.60 15.7-27,2 21,6 125.4 9.8 6.4,60 17,4-32,2 22.5 179.0 14.0 -stock thinned out to one third 6.5.60 22.7-30.7 26.4 253.2 7.1

3 Silver carp 6.1,60 14.8-24.0 19.5 74.9 3.75 6.2.60 18.4-28.0 22.9 127.4 6.37 7.3.60 19.9-31.0 .25.4 169.1 8.45 6.4,60 22.8-32.9 28.3 218.0 10.9 stock thinned out to half

Catla 6.5.60 22.9-34,9 29.8 270.0 6.75 6.1.60 13.7-26.0 17.7 74.9 3,75 6,2,60 15.2-27.8 19.5 91.8 4.3 7.3,60 17.0-27.9 20,4 106,0 5.0 6.4.60 17.1-28,0 21.1 110.4 5.2 stock thinned out to half 6.5.60 18.8-24.3 21,6 131.5 2.9

TableXIX Length-weight relationship in catla (Natarajan and Jhingran, 1963)

Regression Eq.uation S.E. Variance S.D. coefficient at 95% confidence limit

' Juvenile log w..6.17482+3.39826 logL 0.07 0.00405 0,06668 3.26 106-3.53546

Male log w'..494703.26446 logL 0.03253 0.00332 0,05768 3,20070-3.32882

Female log w'..672433.19869 logL 0.01312 0,03429 0.18535 3.17295-3.22441 32 FR/S32 Catla (Bevl)

C., z ISO 500 w

0 50 lOO 150 200 250 LENGTH IN MM

Figure9. Curves depiotinlengthweight relationship of oatla (Jhingran, 1952) .LJ._at1a (Rev,1) 3:25 water level up and downstream of the weir was 3,5.3Reproductive habits not groat Catla arid other major carps are known to congregate in large numbers below dams, According to Ghosli and Ghosli (1922), 2 aflaute, weirs, etc., especially in the to 3 males to one female is the usual ratio breeding season, and their occurrence in such in the breeding grounds. Kh& (1924) stated situations has been reported by Chacko (1952) that a female is often chased by three or in a number of rivers in South India,According more males, but the reverse has also been to Raj (1941) waterfalls act as natural observed by him, Rarely is a single couple barriers to the distribution of the fish, seen, If a mate is separatedfaits Catla are sedentary by nature and breed, feed companion, it has been heard to produce and live their lives within a limited range, gutteral sounds calling the other partner, The fish undertake only short journeys, to breed and feed, into the shallow tributaries The mating behaviour of major carps or inundated banks, During the floods, how-. has been described in detail by Dubey and over, they travel further afield wherever a Puli (1961) and Alikunhi eta].. (1964). The flow occurs and push their way into even the fish first indulge in a courtship. The males shallowest water courses and drains in their chase the female, darting about in the water. search for nev waters, Chacko (l946a) The female is then held by the male, the observed that catla move into the upper reaches latter bonding ito body round the female, of the river sections in small groups in search rubbing, knocking and nudging her, At the of favourable breeding grounds. Chacko and climax of this activity, the pairs are soon Kuriyan (1948a) reported that after the to be locked in embrace, their bodies introduction of fish into the Kurnool- twisted round each other with the fins erect Cuddapab Canal by the Madras Fisheries Depart. and caudal fin quivering. Sometimes, the mont, catla has migrated into the Pennar and coiling of the male may be behind the dorsal other waters in Nollore district. Chacko (l949a) fin of the female, In this posture mating observed catla showing local movements within occurs with vigorous splashing of water, the Coloroon River. According to Menon . wherein many fish lose a number of scales (1959) spawning migrations of catla are mainly and also sustain other minor injuries. restricted to the plains and migrations to upper roaches are seldom seen. Thesexplay lasts for a short timas, The coiling and. intertwining of the two From recoveries of 63 specimens out of a sexes exerts pressure on the abdomen of the total of 3,718 catin fingerlings tagged in the mating pair, resulting in the extrusion of Ganga River systems in Uttar Pradesh, India, by the ova and ejection of the milt,According the Allahabad Substation of the Central Inland to Ghosh and Ghosh (1922) the extent of the Fisherioa Research Institute during the years extrusion of ova and mut depends upon the 1961-1965, it was revealed that the maximum rush of water into or out of the bundli; the distance travelled by them was only 16 kin up- greater the rush, the moro complete the or downstream in a manum number of 301 da's, extrusion. All the eggs aro not laid at one place and at ono time, but at intervals, during which the pair keeps on moving (Khan, 1924).

FR 532CatlaRev.1 4:1

4 POPULATION(spocic) breeders to be introduced in the bund.h: average weight of female (kg) -8-10; 4,1 Structure number of females to be Introduced -12-15; number of males to be introduced -20-30. 4.1.1 Sex-ratio 4.3,3Reoruitment The sex-ratio of the species, as evidenced by samples from river Yamuna, was found not to The natural spawning of catis may differ significantly from 1:1 (Natarajan and eom1enoo early or lato depending on the onset Jhingran, 1963). Alikunhi et al.(1964), of the southweot monsoon. recording carp breeding in bundhs, have recommended a release of breeders of catla in 4,4 Mortality, morbidity the ratio 1:1 by weight and one female to two males by number. 4.4.1Rates of mortality 4.1.2Age composition Mortality rate bétween the fingerling and yearling stages of all the spooles of Detailed data on age composition of catla major carps in a208km stretch of river Ganga are not available in the literature except for was determined by Jhingran and Chakraborty the river Yaznuna at A].lahabad furnished by (1958), Natarajan and Jhingran (1963).According to them the f ish-of-the-'year show up first in the 4.4.2 Factors or conditions commercial fishery in September. Age groups I affecting mortality and II (see also Tablexx)formed43.97%(by number) of the total landed, in the years1959 High fishing mortality o! catin and and1960, other major carp finer1ings has been described Table XX by Jhimgren and Chekraborty (1958) in a seotion The percentage composition of the numbers of of the middle reaches of river Ganga. catla of age groups I-VI (Nats.rajan and Natarajan and Jlilagran (1963) have briefly Jhingran,1963) discussed the intensive exploitation of catla of the first and second yeargroups, from Age group 1959 1960 river Yemuna at Allahabad, when the fish is undergoing Its fastest growth rato.

I 9.45 33,95 Sei2,2,1, 3.2.1, 3,3.4and3.3.5 II 24,74 20,64 Large.aoale mora1ity of finhec oaueod III 13,96 12.23 by oxygen deficiency has boon observed in IV 26.93 21,10 lakes, ponds and tanks V usually in summer when 19.61 10,09 continuous sultry weather is fo11odb sudden VI 5.36 1.83 showers (Ioitra, l955 Jllikunhi,1957).

The higher percentage in the first-year Severo fichsiortality, ocourrin( in the Shandra fish farm, Delhi, wan attribued by class in1960was attributed to greater Chaturvedi to the highly alkaline abundance of the fish-of-the''year In the catches (1962) condition of the water ppm) which of that year, and, when the 0-year class was (570 exceeded the tolerance limit of 500 ppm eliminated, the combined numerical strength of first and second age groups was reduced to (Alikunhi, 1957) of the Indian major carps. Chaturvedi (1964) observed in 1959 and in1960, 28%mortality of 31.83% 42.51% catis fingerlings in Shandra tank, Delhi, caused by a drastic fall in temperature. Size composition (see The 4.1.3 author remarked that the water temperature in Table XxI) Delhi goes as high as36°Cin summer and down The size composition of catla, as revealed to near freezing point in winter.As these from random samples from the catches of River fishes are used to high temperature, any Yamuna at Allahabad (Notarajan and Jhingran, drastic fall in temperature seems sufficient 1963)is given in Table XXII. to cause gross mortality, 4.3 Natality and recruitment 4.4,3 Factors or conditions affecting morbidity 4.3.1Natality Khan (1939 and 1943) reported mortal it Alikunhi et al, (1964), setting an arbitrary of fish in ponds and tanks and Maiden(1943 production target of50laklis of spawn in one in the river Sohan in the State of Punjab. breeding in a small bundh of 0,12-0.20 ha area, Hora and Nair (1944) discussed the effects of allowing for 100% breeding,90%fertilization of effluents of the quinine factory at Mungpoo eggs,60%recovery and50%hatching and survival in Bengal. Bhimacha.r and David (1946) up to spawn stage, recommended the following described the deleterious effects of the 4:2 FR 532Catla (Rev,l)

Table XXI Size-group frequency distribution of oatla and. other major carps landed from the river Ganga at Buzar during the years 1952-1954 (Jhingran 1956)

Sise o ogory Size-range in mm Approximate age Percentage frequency Period, of abundance

Juvenile 71-160 oege group 7,7 September to November Small 161-340 6-18months 66.0 September to December Mediwa 341-790 3-4years 19.0 November Large 791-1060 Older than4years 703 March

Table XXII Pooled percentage length-frequency distribution of catla for the years 1959and1960(Natarajan and Jhingran,1963)

Class-range Jan, Feb. Mar, May (mm) Apr, June July Aug, Sept. Oct. Nov, Dec.

100149 ------2.09 0.70 1.63 1.66 150-199 10.53 - 1,61 --- - 14,08 8.1319.92 200-249 1.33 - 15.79 - 11.29 1.17 - - 1,26 8,45 5,6929,46 250-299 - - 1.75 2,44 1,75 7,53 3.52 3.2521,16 300-349 1,33 - 1,61 0.58 1,22 0.8814.23 4,23 5.69 5.39 350-399 5,33 2.44 - - 3.23 - 1.22 6.1412,55 3.52 5.69 3,73 400-449 6.67 4.88 1,61 - 4.88 17,54 5.86 6,34 4,88 3.73 450-499 7.80 4.88 - 3.23 = 6.0910.53 7.53 3,52 1.63 0.41 500-.549 7.80 2.941,61 4.88 12,28 7.53 5,63 2.44 0.41 550-599 9.33 - 2.6314,716.45 - - 5.26 2,51 3.52 0.81 2.90 600-649 7.80 2.44 - 14,714,84 - 4.88 5.26 2.92 11,97 3.25 2.07 650-699 6. 67 7.32 5,26 2.944,84 1,75 4.88 8.77 8.79 11.27 4.88 2.07 700-749 2.67 21,9510,53 8.823.23 2.34 8.54 9.6510.04 10.5310,57 0,41 750-799 19.20 21.9515.7920,594.84 4.09 9.7611,40 5,02 5.6317,87 2,90 800-849 6,67 19.5121,0511.76 11,2926.9012.20 0.88 1.26 3.52 4.88 0.83 850-899 7.80 2,44 5.26 8,829.6825.1512.20 2,63 1.67 2,8210,57 1.24 900949 5.33 7.3210,53 8.82 17.7424,5617.07 6,14 3,35 0.70 5.69 1,24 950-999 1.33 4.88 2.63 5,88 9,68 8.77 9.76 0.88 0,42 - 2,44 0,41 1000-1049 1.33 - - - 3,23 2.92 -- - - 1050-1099 -- - - - 0,42 - Number 75 41 38 34 62 171 82 114 239 142 123 241 sampled FR S32 Catie. Rovi wLB;;o1 from Mysoro Paper and bring about synergetic action after the Mi1ieid Lsor Irrn Worke. on the fieherieB of suspended. matter enters the gastrointestinal Bliadra river0 Mookorjoe and. Bhattaoharra (1949) tract,The suspended colloids of the pulp reported on aphyxiation of catla and. other major effluent accalorato the toxic effect of carps, reeulti.ng in mortality in two tanks near chlorine.Ray and David (1962) observed a Calcutta, cauoed by the presence of suipharetted caso of fish mortality caused by the precipi-- hydrogen and high alkalinity in combination with tation of f erric iron in the river Daha organic mat-ber0 Gaxapati and. AlIktUthI. (1950a) (N.Bihar) polluted by sugar and distillery an'i Menen et a1.(1959) reported on the tozic wastes. r (1963) showed, ir a stream poi- effects of the factory effluents from Mettur luted by sugar factory and distillery wastes, Chemical azd Industria]. Corporation, Madras, on that an absolute increase either in organic the fisheries of river Cauvery. Seth and matter, carbon or nitrogen does not indicate Bhaskaran (1950) studied the effects of the dis- pollution and. that C/N ratio is the crucial posai of industrial wastes on the sanitary con- factor,Gopalakrishnan and Srinath (1963) dition of the Hooghly river in and around Calcutta; reported considerable mortality of fish, in- Ganapati and Chacho (1951) and Menen et al. (1959) cluding catia, when the dose of activated studied the pollutional effect on fish life of the sludge exceeded 312,5 g per 240 1 of water, effluents from a paper mill at Rajahnundry, discharged in River Godavari;Srinivasan and Ganesan 4,5Iynamios ofo ulation (1955) and Menon et al. (1959) investigated poi-. lution in river Cauvery caused by the effluents There is a belief among the-fishing com- from the Erode Cauvery Textiles, Bhavani;Motwani munity, especially of the Ganga river system,. e-t al, (1956) studied arid reported on the pollut- that the major carp. fishery including that of iona]. effects of the factory effluents of the catin, is dwindling year after year,This Rohtas Industries at Dammiariagar on river Sono and belief is based on vague memories of the fish- Banerjea et ai. (1956) observed. a case of heavy fish ermen of past heavy landings but has no scien- mortality in the sanie river at Dohri.-on-.Sono, tific basis,Rai (l948a) stated that in David (1956) studied the pollution of the Bhadra Pakistan abundance of catla has boon greatly river at Bhadravati caused by industrial wastes; reduced in rivers Ravi and Chenab and their Saha et ai. (1958) reported on the inimical effects tributaries after the construction of weirs of raw sewage (ir in high conoentration) on fish- athe head.works of numerous canals.Studies life due to the presence of CO2, H2S, NHand sus- of the dynamics of catie populations of the pended solids0Menon et al, (1959) observed con- different river systems he-vs not been attempted. siderable dwindling ofhe fishery of Chandriya so far, Kalwa, in which oat1c formed an important component due to pollution by the effluents from a cane sugar 4.6Relation of .opuiation to commuril and. factory at Vuyyur. Qasim and Siddiqi (1960) re- biolo lealroduotion etc, corded a case of mortality among fish caused by wastes from sugar and. textile mills and a distillery Po utilize -the food. available in different dischargein river Kali ¿n West Uttar Pradesli, strata and zones in a body of water, mixed due to increase in, the B000D, load, depleting the farming of carps: of different feeding propen- dissolved onrgen in river water;Banerjea and sities is practised. in various tropical coun Motwani (1960) reported on the pollutional effects tries, The Indian major carps catla, rohu of the wastes from a sugar factory at Balrampiir on and mrigal are often co-stocked with varying the fish arid fishery of river Suvaon, a tributary numbers of kalbasu, bata arid reba in ponds in of river Rapti, caused by oreatiòn of anaerobic Bengal, Bihar, Crissa, Punjab, Assam etc. conditions and low rod-ox potential;David and, Hora (1947) advocated a ratio of 50 percent Roy (1960) studied pollution of river Ganga at catla, 30 percent rohu and 20 percent mrigal, Janpur, caused by wastes from textile mills and bata and kalbasu in mixed. farming of carps. leather tanneries but reported that the discharged .Alikurthi (1957) recommended stocking of catla, liquids undergo high dilution first in the city robu and mrigal in the ratio of 30, 30 arid 40 sewage arid later in the great volume of river percent respectively, However, ho obtained water, losing their individual harmful effects. satisfactory growth when these species were These waters, when discharged into small river stocked in equal numbers, Ling (1961) stated systems and ponds or reservoirs, causo ill effects that the most profitable combination of major on aquatic life, Ray (1961) evaluated the tox- oarp speoieeinmixed farming is 30 percent icity of the effluents from sugar, pulp and paper catla, 60 percent rohu and 10 percent mrigal. factories and distilleries on fish by bio-assay Hora arid Pillay (1962), while recommending experiments. Normai sugar wastes proved lethal the sane ratio as suggeated. by Ling to fish due to absence of orygen which can be (1961), further stated that if kalbasu is in- remedied by saturating the water with orygen. cluded, the percentage of rohu may be dec- Distillery wastes need a dilution of at least reased to 50 percent and the difference made 12-17 times, and those from pulp and paper factoriesup with kaibasu. 4-5 timos, to render them innocuous,The effluents from the pulp factories clog the gills of the fish FR/S32 Cala (Rev.l

In recant yoaro tho compatibility of catla indloated, Catla is predominantly a zoo- andother Indian major carps with Tilapia plankton feeder and H0rnolitrix a phytoplankton mossambica, oarpioHophthalmicht s feeder0 As stated already(403), under molitrix andOtenohar odon idellushas been comparable conditions, silver carp was found studied., to grow faster than oatla0

Catla fry, along with those of other major The Indian major oerpe do not compete carps, have been found to ba incompatible with for food with the grass carp, .idella, tilapia, sinos the latter foods extensively on since the latter feeds mainly on aquatic carp fry and ita young directly competes with macrovegetation. them for food0 Such a competition results in poor ciurvival and ecowth of carpfry0 It is hoped that the silver carp, the grass carp and the common carp, when Catie and other major carps, when stookod cultured toother with the Indian major with the Bangkok otrain of cari,io var0 carps will help increase fish production communis, have bean found to form a hi1y coni and provo welc.oe additions to pond. patible community, resultingin high culture in India0 produotiv-1ty0 Sroenivasan(1963)studied primary Alikunhi. and S unii-an (1964) carried out production in three upland lakes 01' Madreo experiment to elucidate oomptibility of ostia by the lIght and dark bottle method and found and silver oaruH0mo1iti-ji and found that the the occurrence of cyanophycose associated pod in which silver oerp and ostia were stocked with high productivity0 The anise author together yielded less than the one with silvx' (l964) adopting the same method in the atudy carp alone and a little moro than that with of a tropical pordinMadrasfound that ostia alone0 Although tho production of thera was a conversion o.l65%of the primary silver carp alone was over doubla that of catla production to fiah ostia being a major thpresence of the two together oeamod. to plankton feeder among them0 affected the owth of both anecies adversely0 Though both specisa are plankton foadera differences in feeding habita aro structurally i S32 Ca-t].s Rev0].

5 EXPLOITATION fox' hooking ostia (Thomas, 1927), the ground bai-t is flung far out arid. ono of the three 51 'biiej books io baited with a big iunp of pastee

Yishiug saar 5.1.2 Fishit4, beste

The aomsnon trpo ofeara via. th.'ag, gill, The type and. number of boats used for the d±b, purse, castnda000pnets along with operation of different mete that catch ostia traps and. hook and line are ai]. employed, to take are shown in Table mn. In the mid. eatla (Table mii). me gear vhi.ch goes by the alluvial sous of the Ganga river system, neme of 'Kaz,al1 or 1Iat1a ja19 used in rivera fishing isdone ircmemail, light boats, known (.non0, 1962) anddeltaio regions (Anon.,1949), as 'dongi° which a'o usually about 6 ilong, is a typo of drift net and. does not oatoh eatla 1.5 n vide and.45cm deep. A big boat, known specifically as may be supposed., but tu reported. as 'katr', about 10 si long,3n wid. at isho to catch carps in genera]. in rivers and. bekti stern ux4 90 cia deep, is generally uod. 1,o ostia and other fiui2es in ds].taic, area.Gulbad.a-' operate the bigar drag note, mahajal, d.arwctz'i, mcv (i96l 1962), who carried out experimental karin oto, fishing operationsin several waterbodies in India, viz., Met tur darn inÀ dras, Krishaarajaua' Fishing in river Narbads is done from boat r in Mysore, .thon, Panobot, Tilatys and. Eo-' 6 -to 9 a long operated. by 3 or 4 neu, Te, nar reuei"voiru under Damod.ar Valley Corporation like mou-t of the otbr riverins craft, aro flat in Bihar and. Weat Bengal, recommended. the intro-' bo-ttoiaod, In the river Godavari, open, plank» duotion ofcertain g-111nets tested and built, undooked. boats (called. 'nava') of about dvaiped. by him, These are "Gulbanet" types I 7.3n in length and. 1,2 ¡e in width, are used., and. II and. "Sebgul"netswhich are described.in In West Bengal and Aswn different typos of Table XXIII. Observing the capture of ostia by 'dinghies' and. plank-'built 'ohandi naukaare indigenous gears, eapeoia],].y 'rangoon' and. 'catis'used for fishing. In Ascesi, the shallow, plank»' type of nets, Gulbadamov (1961) and. Ao/tThr (1962) built riverine fishing boats, largely used for remarked. that iarr speoimeno et' commercial operation of clap arid dip nets vary t'rosi 3 te fishes such as Catis ostl, Cirrhiva and 9 n in length and 0.9 to 1,,8 re in width. These Mystus sor seem to occur singly and. at a poiutd and. elongated boate are variously depth between 1.5 to U n dependingon the time ofdosisied. looally, as 'dinghi', 'Jale dinghi', day and area. Au the 'rsngoo& and. type 'Jails din,' or 'panel nauka', note are only about3.6to 4.2 n deepandare operated with floats onshortstrops of 0.5 to 5.2 I.ehigaresa 1,2 n ienth, they fish a depth range from about 0.5 -to 5.5 n, while a good. deal of the commercial 5,2.1 General geographic fishes are found d.seper. distribution Seos Table IV under 2.1 Catis has a habit of leaping, while being fished. with a dragnet,Taking advantage of 5,2,2Geographical ranges (latitudes, this, theescaping fish are taken byhand. by distances from coast, oto.) fishermen following the not (Aimiad.,1954), Latitd 8°1J to 32 Catis, being also a game fish and good. Longitudes 68°E to lOO°E fighter(Mo!)onald, 1948),is sought by anglers. Thomas (1921), McDonald. (1948)and Go]Àciuxid.t 5.2.3 Depth ranges (1953) bave described. the methods of angling catis, üoDonald(1948) stated. that foul hooking In the rivers the nets aro operated. both of catis is s common feature. Goidsohmid--t(1953) in deep and. shallow waters, dopending upon the claimed to have hookedoatia successfullyin t' . of net used, Drag nets are paid out in Powai lake, Bombay, with modified hooks and baits,the form of a semi'oircle from the bank where A common method of hooking catis in Bengal is the depth tu only a few on. They aro also used in called 'arab'and. 'jhima'fishing. In the the deeper part of the river up to about 7 - former, a joint of bamboo is split into bro'- U i. Bottcia-'a't gill nets, kamel oto. are like splinters, stuffed, with sound bait and. opera ted. in even greater depths. In pondn end. made into a small football-'ljke mass (cailod. tanks, sugiero generally prefer to cast their sarah'), witha centralcore of a length ofthin tackle in 1.-2 rs deep watr. bamboo which is driven into the bottom of the tank. Catis is in the habit of sucking through 5.3 Fishing seasons the 'arak'. A feti 'ostia' hooks kept cloue to the 'sreh° and touching h' bott.* take ostia 5.3.1 Generai pattern of fishing suocssaAaliy. In shallow tanks, the jb5 asasen method. is more successful, ospacisily £rom a- raised platform. oa11d a 'maohan', In this Catis is oaugh-t practiosily all the year method of fishing, which io said to boffective round, 1owo-er, fishing is practically suspended Ty e of gear Vernacular A:rea of Dimensions Number Number and * agnetamegush Nahajal Name operation depth (n)o'. Material quiredof men re- requiredtype of boats Authority Remarks Darwari or KarlaPoorsi Do-dandiChondhi

Chhanta

Ganga River system Indus River system Uthivalai

Gangasystem Riverdo--- 5-9 RiverGangaChambal River ay s terndo--- Narbada anddo---- 41 Tapii rivera: Fishing gear for Cat].a TABLE XXIII Motu,r Dais; 7-14 3.8 5,8-6.5 Hemp 12-16 (i ICatrai Dongi) and 2 Saxena(1965) 5-li 2.4-3.8 Cotton 12-16 (1 Katrai Dongi) and 2 Fe.ruqui and Blia vani asgar 9-15 6-u. 16 Hemp 20-22 (i Katra iarid Dongi) 2 Mehra(1959)Dubey and and Panohet dams 9,39.6 4.353,57 72 Cotton 3-4 2 (Dongi) i DmbeySahai(1943Saxena(].965) andrion0 (199 2 (Dongi) 1 Mehra(1959) Mettur Dais Saxena(1965)

Saxena(i965) Saxons (1965 Faruqul and Hoi-neuSahai(1943) (1923) Anon. (1949)

SaxenaGulbadainov(1 (1965) 961 and 1962) JUlcarps the majorand oatfishas do---- Faruqui arid do-- Sahai(1943) havethis described under 1 net Tiar systemGanga River 39 2 18 Hemp 2 (Dongi) 1 Saxons (1965 ) Gochail 3 26 Hemp fixed not wH Rangoon no-t; 1 Gulbanet I 2 3 4 5 Gulbaziet II lap net se or Bara itt net Karal or KatlaSebgul jal

Cast not Bhawanar ja].

KheplaGhagaria jal MetturKrishnaraja-Bagar, Dam, Maithan 75 6 Hilland Reser-Panchet voir do-

Baohariothar jalor Deltaic area -do Gangaof MaJaanad.i, and Brahmaputra

do- Gangasystem River 14 nylonCotton or - Hornell(1923); -do- -do-- Anon, (l949)and BrahmaputraMahanadi,GangaEstuaries and of do-- - HornellAnon. (1962) (1923); Anon. (1949)and Usedganj in estuary Baker- 2 (Dongi) 1 SaxenaAnon. (1962) (1965) i - Saxons (1965) Primarily Hil sa net, but this not with the mesh size mentioned catchez catis and other carps. In the lower reaches of Ganga River this net is and.known(Horneil, .Anon.l949) as Shangl 1923

Generally fingerlings of catis and other _6 5-8 Synthetio 7 andGulbadamov(196l 1962) 10 N)cIao carps are oI caught a 5075 62 13-15.5 5-6.58-13 Hempdo---do Large-sizedcatla, rohu, Feripatra do-- 7 3 13-18 Hemp ostfiehes, ooekup etc.,are caught 2,5 Cotton do- - Faruqui and Sahai (1943) Anon. (1949) - Variable Cotton Rornell (1923) Hemp 4-6 1 Anon. (1949) Scoop or 1 dip or hand net Hook and i i-ne

Jali 2 Ganga River Hela ja]. system do-- ThesalKharrajsl ja]. do-do--- Fish traps ICuriarJorKoohbi GangaIndussystem River 155 (about Borshi Deltaicsystem area 800300.- hooks) 150 Closing screen

- - 1-1.6 Cotton 1 - Saxerxa(1965) O Cotton - Hornell (1923) 2.5-10 Leap pocket - .Anon.Anon. (1949)(1949) systemGanga River variable 9-9. 5 andcotton boo - - - 'BamboospiBamboo intere Ori esa Anon.(1949) These three nets are 11 Chaatam Horneli (1923) synonymous - SaxenaAnon. (1949) (1965) Small-sized,caught carps are - - Anon. (1949) do-- 1 (Dongi) 1- Kornell(1923)Saxena (1965) - - Anon.Anon, (1949) (1949) - - do-- smallCatches fishes spawnera and-do -- - -- do---do- May oocasionally take oatia

Same as ICuria.r

Carps which have spalme and are returning to the main stream

Pond. fishes like carps, catfishes, murrels, PoloChakja]. or Tappu do do feather-backs etc. murrels,UsedMalabar. in paddycarps, Fair-sized fields mullets, of Chip Indus River prawns etc. are caught system Mudgi (Ma.njra River) derabad. - -- - Job (1953)and Pantulu MadrasOrissa and

Malabar Fish-spear Ek-KatyaKonch

Hocha 2 ICumaonAnsainBengal, and Bihar, 3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 Job(1953) and. Pan tu.lu 10 Usuallyusgs arefry and.caught fingei 11 Mavulu AndhraMadras Pradesla - - - al.Jagannadhan(1947), (1959) Menon et areandFingerlings otheroaught carps of catlaetc. netFixed PatiKhaurChanchi or systemGangaaya tern River(tidal --- - - booSlender rods ban- - - - Anon.Saxena (1949) (1965) mulletsCarps, andcatfishes, murrels I areas and andbheels)(Pidal bheels) areas - wovenscreens into Anon. (1949) Large-sizedcatfishesare caught arecarps speared. and leotionSpawn col- nets - do------Anon. (1949) (See: do-- 5.6.1) of various * theThe authoritygear and notagainst chronologically gear is stated, in the order of importance of publication describing types 6 Ffi S 2 Cat],aRev 1 in the main rivers during the south-west monsoon Taznuna. (May-.Ootober) because of excessively strong current and g ecttly increased depths.The Table shows the monthly landings of fishing venue in the monsoon io shifted to email,catla at Sadiapur (A].l.bad), one of the tributarisacreeks, nullaha, drains oto.9 whereimportant assembly centres on river Yamuna, adult carps miatc for spawning and the juveniles for shelter.3uvenileof O ' cup 5.5 Fisheries management and regulation,' of aise range 71-.160 mm are taken in large numbers, often alive, for culturo operations by The Indi:. Fisheris Act came into being fino meshed drig-nete, in shallow inundated in 1897 as it was considarod expedient to areas from September to D3oember.Fishing in provide for certain matters relating to fish- the main rivers is z eatly accentuated. during orles as a whole. Section 6 of this Act empowers the winter (November to February) mmd spring local governments to frame rules applicable to (Maroh..Tune), especially in the latter,Tanks their waters as and when found. necessary. and ponds provide a regular source of ostia These rules may prohibit or regulate ail or any throughout the year, irroopootive of seasons. of the following mati res 5.3.2 Duration of fishing season athe erection and use of fixed engines bthe construction of weira Seet 5.3.1 othe dimension and kind of the not to be used and the mode of using them, 5,3.3Dates of beginning, peak and and end of season Cd) all fishing in any specified water for a period not exceeding two years. See: 5.3.1 Thereafter, Iron time to time, most of the 5.3.4Variationinti or duration states of India framed rulos and regulations of fishing season to suit their needs. A si:.-ificant oyolio feature of the water. In 1956, the Punjab State Government prohi- of Indian subcontinent is th.'eat bited catohing of rohu, mrigal, mahaeor and. fluctuation in their depth.In summer th, levelostia smaller t,:. 25.4 o long.In Delhi, the runs extremely low and most of the stresms aro Captur, and sale of these species below 20.4 reduced to a mero trickle. The southwest in length has been prohibited since 1948. The monsoon brin.' heavy rainfall and flooding. State of Uttar Pradesh has prohibitedsinco The rivers often overflowing their banks and 1954, the capture and sale of fry and. fingor» inundating vast areas.This phon.onon linge of major carps, 5.l'o25.4 cm in length9 determines fishing activity considerably.At from 15th July to 30th September, and of low sta: s, fishing nota can be easily operatedbreeding fish fr.15th June to 30th July in in rivers and reservoirs and., conseQuently, in the prohibited areas, except under a licence summerthere is uaually more intensi'T flihing.issued by the proper authority.The areas where fingerlings and breeding fish occur have In India and Pakistan there is a general been defined and published.In dhya Pradosh dearth of oold storages, especially in the rurala size limit of 22.9 cm was imposed in 1953, for areas, and fresh fish is preferred by the consu-the capture of rohu, mahaeer, mri,:l and catis, mere. These factors, conbined with extremely In Bihar fishing is prohibited. in specified high demand for freshwater fish in the eastern areas of river Sono. states of India, especially Bengal, also influence the time and duration of fishing 5.6 Fish farmintrans lantinand operations.Fishing activity in different parts other intervention of India and Pakistan is suspended. on certain religions festivals and ceremonious occasions. Sees 2,1 5.4 Fishing operations and results 5,6.1Procurement of stocks 5.4,3Catohea Despite the develo.'øent of induced breeding technique by pituitary hormone administration In the years 1958-.60, 23 urban fish in India since 1956, the mainstay of the major assembly centros were covered in a market carp seed industryin India and Pakistan sampling proamme. In 1961 it was felt continues to be the colleotions from natural desirable to confine sampling work to the moro sources. Eggs, fry and fingerlings constitute important urban markets which aro fed thron:.. outthe stocking material much needed throu..out ih. year, and the number of towns covered was the country for culture of fastgrowing major reduced to oi:v.t.Table XXIV shows the annual carps. landings of catis at five urban assembly centros situated on river Ganga and two on river 5 2 la (Rev.l)

Table XXIV

Annual landings of oatla at selected centres on the Ganga river system (in tons)

jYozr Gan Yanuna 1Esflpur VarananiBaum Pnna Bhagalpu Agrc A11nlabad

1958 704 7,8 32 30 11,1 8,5 1003 1959 76 305 4.8 5,6 3.6 23 9 15.4

1960 11,6 1,8 2.3 4,1 5.9 2Q 5 15.1 1961 4,2 0,6 0.5 406 3.2 2.6 18.4

1962 4.0 1,1 1.3 7,1 404 207 14,5 1963 3,0 0,9 2.3 300 702 2 7 17,4

1964 1,2 1,4 1.0 2.9 2 2 25,5

Tab]. rn

onthly landin of oatla at Sadiapu.r (Al1..tbad) Centre (in tons)

Year Jan, Fob, Iaroh April Ilay JunoJulyAug, Sopg0 Cot, Nov, Doo,

19581,030,960,4100170,400,500,971,252008 1,350,57 0063

19590,920.880.560.700,923.640,99 0,90 1q35 1,041.771,68 1960 0,630.770.730.191,022,483.150.731,601,671.200.91 1961 1.902,271.880,491.481,841,150.642.462.330,86 1,07

1962 0,581,181,500,831,21 0,961,31 0,75 1,152.631,121,22

1963 0,801,831.330,73 1,01 3q150,680,822,301,581.92 1.21 1964 1,631,74 3062,361,303,971,35 1.313,192.791,131,62 :8 FR/532 Catla (Rev,l)

River meanderings in plains result in a serpentine course with the cutting off of oxbow lakes. The bend and, curves of various shapes in In Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, the river course often show a preoipitous fast Orissa, Gujarat and. Andlira Pradesh, a eroding bank on one side, and. a flat, gently consid.erable amount of fry are sloping bank exaotly opposite, Both these collectea by gear si-sillar to banks are unsuitable for spawn collection. The the 'bench jal' 01' West Bengal but, of best collection sites generally lie on the side variable dimensions, adapted to collect of the gently sloping bank, but at a spot where riverine spawn either in somewhat deeper the current just diverges, casting off spawn to waters or in shallow flats. the sides, as 1f by centrifugal force. At such sites a large number of spawn collection nets Not only are the net dimensions can usually be fixed. unstandardized, the mesh is also highly variable. The material of the net often Current velocity and turbidity appear to consists of plain cloth, mosquito netting or affect mesh selectivity of the spawn other fino meshed materials of cotton yarn. collection nets. While pH, dissolved 02 and The tail piece almost Invariably consists of plankton are unimportant factors in riverine plain mill or handloom cloth. Experiments spawn collection, some of then constitute conducted by the Allahabad Substation of the important pre-conditions for major carps to Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute breed in their natural breeding grounds (Anon,, (India), with nets of the dimensions used by 1965). Midnapore fishermen stated above, but of3 meshes,viz.,1/8", 1/16"and a combination of Riverine fish seed collection is done by l/8"-l/16", (front half of 1116" andrear half special funnel-shaped nets (Figure 10) consis- 1/8"mesh) revealed that1/8"meshed net was ting of two parts, namely, the net proper and a the most efficient. Its catching efficiency detachable tail piece called 'gazncha', fixed to was at times as high as14times as compared the cod end. The 'gancha' is stitched to the to nets under local use. There were, however, main net in some varieties thereof. The net indications that1/8"meshed nets were more proper is of variable dimensions and, at times, effective in slow current and high turbidity two lateral wings are attached to it for and1/16"meshed nets in faster current and coverage of a wider area. The rear of the net low turbidity (Anon.,1965). tapers to a narrow end, where a cane or a bamboo ring is placed to give it a stable round shape. An attempt at standardization 01' spawn The 'gaznoha' is sometimes a rectangular open collection nets was made by the Allahabad piece of cloth, butmore often, has the shape Substation of the Central Inland Fisheries of a monk's hood. It is tied round the ring Research Institute, Barrackpore (India) and at the cod end of the main net. Such nets are 1/8"meshed net of the dimension used by operated with the mouth facing the current. Midnapore fishermen was taken as a standard. Fry are caught by the stationary net and collect for comparison with other spawn collection in the tailpiece. The net is fixed in the nets. New measures of spawn abundance and river bed inl-3n deep water with the help of indices of spawn quantity arid qualitywere two poles each at the mouth and, the cod end developed to render spawn catches taken bya and one or two poles for keeping the tailpiece standard net at centres located on different In position. Batteries of nets are at times rivers, mutually comparable, and to makean fixed in the river bed. assessment of the spawn yielding potentiality of the centres, Catch per net-hour was the The dimensions of spawn collection nets unit of effort derived and the whole used in different parts of India and. Pakistan season's catch of spawn, taken by one are not standardized. The fishermen of the standard net, represented the index ofspawn eastern districts of West Bengal and East quantity available at a centre, The index Pakistan use benohi jal (Rahrnan, 1946)) a net of spawn quality was an expression cf made of cloth of 12k- counts yarn of the seasonal percentage of major and minorcarps following dimensions: length5-7n, circum- and other fishes (Anon.,1965). ference8-11n, 'gazncha' length1.22n and width 91 cm. Fingerlings are collected from riverine back waters, paddy fields, In ?Lidnapore district of West Bengal the irrigation channels, tanks, etc., connected dimensions of the prevalent nets aro: length with the main river, generally with drag and of net proper 320 cm, width at mouth312' cm, cast nets. In Cauvery delta, fingerlings height at mouth61cm, ring diameter23 cm, are captured by regulating the flow of length of 'gaxncha'168cm, height of 'gamoha' water through irrigation sluices into 62cm and width at rear end44 osi. puddles, from where they are collected with FR/S 32 Catla (±v,j.) 5:10 FR1332 Catla (Rev.l) fino meshed nets and transported for stocking0 one inside the other in the sama pattern as Dip nets and. basket traps called tmavulut are described. above.The fertilized eggs collected used especially in the rivers Godavari, Krishna in bu.ndho aro usually hatched. in improvised and. Cauvery (Jagannadhan, 1947v and. Menou et al., pits filled with bundh water.However, elabor- 1959)0 atehatching arrangements are made in advance when major carps are to be induced to breed. The fry and fingerling collection season Das and Khan (1962) and Chaudhuri (1964) have in North-Eastern India and East Pakistan lasts described in detail the field techniques they from May-September, in North India and. West adopted., which are similar. To begin with, Pakistan from June-October, and in South India eggs are released. by the female fish in the from July-November. breeding 'hapa' where they are fertilized. and. from which they are transferred to the double- In river Halda (Cliittagong, East Pakistan),walled 'hapa' of the above-mentioned type, eggs are collected. 12-14 hours after fertiliza- described. by Ahead (1948).The cuter 'hapa', tion, close to the tidal zone, and hatched. underused by Chaudhuri (1964), was made of ordinary protected conditions. The collection gear cloth and. measured 182 cm z 91 cm x 91 and. the consists of a rectangular piece of mosq.ui.to inner of round meshed. mosquito netting, netting cloth, 11-12 m long and. 2.7 m wid.e, measuring 152 cm z 76 cm x 46. These 'hapas' strengthened marginally with ropes and. tied at are laid out in perfectly horizontal position, each end to a bamboo polo about 2.4 m long. one within the other, the inner submerged. in Two men operate the net either from a boat, or 23 - 31 cm deep water, The batchiinga aro by wading in water, or by tying the net to kept in the outer 'hapa' for three days before poles fixed. in the river(Ahmad, 1948). stocking. The eggs thus collected. in various stages The fry collected from rivers usually com- of development are put into a portion of a prise a mixture of a wide variety of species boat, partitioned off with clay, for hatching. which have to be segregated. before stocking. A better method is to hatch the eggs in nets They are first filtered through a sieve which suspended. by bamboo frame-work, through which consists of a rectangular wooden fraise with a flows a gentle current of river water; in wire mesh bottom or through bamboo grills or a bamboo baskets, lined inside with fine cloth, coarse meshed netting. This contrivance moored in the river and in hatching pits (each separates the somewhat larger young forms of the c.448 cm x 244 cm x 46 cm in size) excavated. predatory fishes, advanced. fry, debris, trash on the bank with arrangement for the supply of etc, At present there is no satisfactory river water through pipes or hollow palm trunks,method of segregating early fry of different Each pit contains about 120 to 300 kg of eggs species, Pre1iminarr attempts were made by numbering about 900,000 to 2,200,000,Usually Alikunhi et al, (1951) to evolve a technique of 25 to 50% hatching is obtained by this method. sorting the fry of the major carps of India, (Ahmad, 1948 and 1948a). Abmad (1948) suggestedfollowing the Chinese method (Lin, 1940), A improvements in hatching techniques and proposed.known number of fry (5.0-7.0 mm) were kept in a the use of a double walled rectangular tank-likelimited volume of water in earthen vessels and structure, comprising one inner tank, made of tall glass jars. Then the dissolved. 02 value netting, called the innerhapa' and. the outer caine down to 1,0 ppm or less and. the free CO2 of fine cloth, called the outer 'hapa', The rose to 8.8 ppm, 60 to 96% of the catla fry corners of the innerhapaare tied to the could. be skimmed. offthe surface where they. had. corresponding ones of the outer, and the whole concentrated, device suspended in water with bamboo poles. The eggs are spread. on the base of the inner The distinguishing features of catla eggs, 'hapa' and the hatchlings pass into the outer. fry and fingerlings are described. under 3.2.1., The larvae thus obtained., are cared. for till they are transformed into fry and. have become 5.6,2Conditioning 4-5 days old.. It may be mentioned. here that the same trpe of hatching device is now used. The fry are conditioned in order to rid. to hatch eggs secured. from induced. breeding them of excreta and. to inure them to subsist in operations, Kaushik (1962) has described. a a restricted area to which they arinevitably hatching method which employs a series of tubs subjected during transport.The most common placed. on sloping ground with a current of method of conditioning is to store fry in a water flowing through them. Inside cloth 'hapa' (Figure ii) in a still part of the. each tub are fitted. two small 'hapas', river. Saha and Chowdhury (1956) stated that the depth of water where a oonditioning /s32 Catla (Rev.l) :11

Figure 11. 'Hapa' in which fry are temporarily tord :12 FR/$32Catla (Rev.l) enclosure is to be installed should be30,48 sma1lr and 759000 in the lar.r ones, to35.56cm, The period of conditioning About58g of finely pulverised red coil io dependo upon the size and hoslth of tho fry sprinkled over the water surface and during and. fingerlings. Jannad.hon(1947) atod. transport the 'hundiere9 aro subjected to that catis fry need.48to72honro of periodic shaking (seo Tables XXVI and.iI). conditioning.Salis and Cboti&hury(1956) stated the sano9 but with roferonco to As earthen °hundie& are liable to be major carps in ¿.nera1. AiiLrunhi (1957) easily broken during transport, improved opn mentioned that about 6 hours ooond.itioning metal containers are often used and, at t were required before fry ax's packed for preferred,The latter are round vessels with transportation0 Morion al.(1959)mentioned a wide mouth, which can be closed. with perfore- that ostia Zingerliu have to be conditionod. ted presaed..in lids, the larger typed being for 48 hours before transport.Srivastava and £'53 osa in diectex'at the baso9c.20can at the Karamohandani (inreas) observed that when mouth ando.38 c hi According to ostia fry (8-23 ¡me) are oonditioned for 24 Jagannadw(1947)950.60 catis fingerlings hours prior to transport in a limited volume can bo transported in a tin container of45.4 1 of water (18 to2.0ml of water pox' fry) a capacity. Lienon et ,o (1959)remarked tit minimum of 0.88p4uof 02 was Swfflciont for 120='l50catis (o20='30 e.i 1enh) per tii can their survival. be transported to a distance of 720 Ime (tho duration of the j. 'ey is not mentioned by the While conditioning9 involving starvation authora) . To prevent denting and effect and evacuation of fascal matter is considorod insulation9ool1en covers are used on the metal to be a desirable practice9 it was reported by containers (Jaganna91947)9or the vassoi ici A].ikurihi(1957)that the fry stand tho strain oratod and kept wet during the journey (Mon,9 of long distance transport better if they are 1962),, Jagarinadiien(1947) remarked.that some fed on animalcules like ciad000rs dunn air repaco should be left above the reunfaco of conditioning and whi1 under transport. water,A better container9 with a small semi» rotary pump9 has been dovied by the Stato Various typos of oonditioninr oontainore Fisheries Department of Grisas,Plia delivery aro used9 namely boxes nado of wire meshes9 450tubo of the pump carries two rows of holes at bamboo or cane wicker work barrais or bosta to each other se as to px'odueo two with perforated. bott.s temporary enclosures oppositely directed. sprays over the entire reu' nado of netting or bamboo msttingjpits and foco of water,By tho uso of this pump9 fish cloth 9hapa° oto.Clean9 natural iator st an fry cee. bo transported in aemiimsulatod road. optimum temperature of26.5°C issuitable to vane up to s ditnco of£0483 km with are low a condition the ostia fry (3sgaxuiad.hsn91947). mortality as5, Sealed ¡setal containers with During conditioning and transportation9 frynd oxygen have successfully been emp1oned. for fingerlings should not be handled with baro handstx'anaortstion involving longer durations. lost the slime and scales covering the body be t4 (1939sand.1946a)described a typo of removed and. thereby render thorn vulnerable to oxygenated. container fox' transporting fish reed.. fungel and bacterial infection (3aganad& This was macla of galvanized iron rend. measured 1947). Fry collected from the nurseries aro 45.72z 35,36 cm,with two air»tight openin,i at kept in nets fixed in ponds9 on which water is the top9 ono to let oxygen in and the other to oplashod from all dix'eotiona9 arid the frighteriodlot out the displaced water. The fish thus got fry pass excreta end vomit,After the fish havean atmosphere of oxygen while under transport. been properly conditioned they aro ready to be According to Khan (1946a)9fox' a journey of 12 transported (Hora and Pillay91962). hour& duration in winter9 each container can acconmdnte about 200 fry2.54'5,O8 cmlong9 ox' 5.6.3 Transport 100 fingerlings of7,62=10,16 crea, or 3O-50 fingerlings12,70-20.32 long, Mcokerjee Fry and fingerlings are inerlly trans- (1940)devised a cheap method. for oxygenation, ported. ira open earthen vssols called. 9hundiss9Mitx'(1942a) described the advantages of metal carriers and. sealed bags or containers sending fish fingerlings iii a suitably dosi.d. undor oxygen9 as e. hoad load. for short distancescontainer With oxygen uhioh could be despatohod. or by rail9 road.9 water and sir over longer through rail are an ordinary parcel,Gariapati distances,Salis and Chowdhury(1956)have and Chaoko(1951)made a comparative studr of described the traditional method of transportingthe transport of fish seed in ordinary tiri fry and fingerlings in 9hwidiosas prsctisd inoarrieo with or without oxygen,Ramada and Bengal,Though the 0hwidioa9 are of variable ICevalrsmswi(1956)conducted experiments on the size9 they are genarally of two types9 one smallair transport of carp fry packed. in p1aatibags of 20 cm diameter and. 23 i capacity carriod. are and. observed that approximately double the a head load, and9 the other9 largar9of 23 cm quantity of frtransportable in a 9hundi° by diameter and321 capaoity9 used for transport rail9 canbshipped by air in a plastic bag by rail,The 'hundiese are filled with water (duration 12 hours).Alikunhi(1957)mentioned. from the same source as the fry and the latter rJae uso of 18,2 1 kerosene tiras fitted with released therein at the rato of50000 i tho aix"='tight sorew='cappsd lids for filling arad with R S2 Catin Rev,1 :13

Table .2L.Vi

Number of fry to be transported.xi earthen hundies of 27,3 1 capacity (Alikurihi, 1957)

Length of fry No0per Mi mum duration Percentage of (7u) hundi of transport mortality (hours)

l27-l9.05 1,500 24 2-5 1,200 36 2-5

l9.O5-254 1,000 20 2-5 800 30 2-5

25.450.8 500800 24 10.0

50.8-76.2 200 8 10.0 5*14 /s32 Catla (Rev,].)

Table XXVII Number of fry to be transported in closed containers of 22.7 J. of water (Alikun.hi, 1957)

Initial dissolved Size of fry to be No. of fry to be put Approximate safe ozygen content tiaxisported in each container period in minutes (ppm) (mm) dring which transport can be effected

4 6-7 50,000 19 4 6-7 30,000 31 4 6..7 20,000 47

4 15-20 1,000 40 4 15-20 500 80

4 30 300 120 4 30 150 240

5 6-7 50,000 25 5 6-7 30,000 42 5 6-7 20,000 62

5 15-20 1,000 60 5 15-20 500 120

5 30 300 165 5 30 150 330

6 6-7 50,000 31 6 6-7 30,000 51 6 6-7 20,000 77

6 15-20 1,000 75 6 15-20 500 150

6 30 300 207 6 30 150 414 FR7532 Catla (Rev.1) 5 : 5 Table XXVIII difference but addition of soil in a finely Number of fry to be transported in 18.2 1 pulverized state increases the period of sur- kerosene tins under oxygen vival, as is evidenced from the fact that (After Alikuithi, 1957) addition of soil to distilled water extends the life of fry from 10 minutes to 19 hours. Experiments conducted by Saiza et al, (1956b) Duration of MortaJ.it Length ofNumber on the uso of different absorbent substances (percent fry per transport by showed that pulverized earth, activated char- (mm) tin air (hours) coal and '.Amberlit' were found to absorb CO2 12,7-19.05 800-1,000 12 5-12 and NH3 from the medium, with a consequent 39.0-50.8 400 24 30 increase in the period of survival of fry. 25.4-31.8 325 16 3 Srinivasan and Chacko (1953) and Srinivasan, Chacko and Valsan (1955) observed that the tubes for drawing in oxygen from a cylinder. addition of Na2HPO4 does not reduce carp The number of fry that can be safely transported, fingerling mortality in open containers but when the tin is filled two-thirds with water does so in closod ones, possibly because of and one-third with oxygen, is given in Table its ability to absorb 002 in the latter, which Will. Saha and Sen (1958) desoribed three is not possible in open carriers. Sana et al. types of containers, viz, glass carboys, (1956b) found that addition of Na2HPO4 to the specially designed containers of aluminium and water containing f ry was harmful after 40 hours, galvanized iron sheet and latex-rubber and a finding different from that of Vaas (1951). plastic bags for tranport of spawn and. fry Spawn was found to stand a concentration of under oxygen pressure. They found the speoial- 2.5 ppm of dissolved free ammonia and 15 p ly designed aluminium containers were the most of dissolved ammonia in the form of inorganio efficient buts considering the relative costs of salts (Saha stai., l956b), Saha eta].. (1955), different types of containers tried, recommended however, reported that sodium ainytal, a syn- the latex-rubber bags for commercial use. thetic hypnotic, at o. 21 to 28 mg per litre Another type of container, popular in the Indo- of water considerably lowered the metabolio Pacific region, has a capacity of about 0.18 1, rate of the fry and that 30 percent moro fry with three apertures at the top, two of which could be transported in a given volume of water, are fitted with metal tubes, one for 02 supply, thereby red.*oing the ultimato cost of transport. another for discharge and the third (provided Table XXIX with a strainer without rough edges) to elimi- Minimum water volume required by fry f nate excess water (Anon,, 1962). Hora and different size-groups Pillay (1962) stated that 18 1 cans were used (Sahao, l956a) at the Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, India, for the transport Length of Av.wt,of Minimum water volume of fry of the Indian major carps with about 6 1 fry (cm) fry (g) required by fry (cc) Such cans hold 900-1000 fry, of free oxygen. 4,93 - 6,60 1.91 25 1-2 cm long (about 285 g in weight) and can he 3.12 - 4,74 0,92 15 safely transported by air for over 20 hours. 2,62 3,60 8 Alkathene bags of 74 x 46 cm, and of capacity 0,35 2.03 - 3,43 0.25 7 3) 1, are widely used. currently for transport of 1,91 0.076 2 major carp fry under oxygen.The bag is one- 1,77 - third filled with river water and packed with While fry can now be safely transported, oxygen and 30,000 fry (.5-7.5 mm) for transport transport of fingerlings (50-100 mm) is Btill over a period exceeding 24 hours, and 60,000 fry a problem. Effective methods of transporting of the same size for journeys up to 24 hours, these have been developed in Punjab and Madhya Pradesh in galvanized iron d-ruais of o. 180 1 The role of 02, CO2 and pH on the survival capacity. In Macthya Pradesh, a sufficiently of fry and fingerlings during transport has al- wide opening, 48 cm x 30 cm, is cut along the ready been discussed under 3.2.1. Basu (195lb) main body of the drum for providing aeration studied the effect of additions of red soil to and sufficient apace for the movement of the the transport medium of Indian carp larvae, fingerlings. Four small iron brackets are referred to earlier in this section, and. reported fixed opposite to this opening on the outer that the added soil particles, by virtue of their side of the drum to prevent it from rolling positive electric charge, help in attraoting the during transportation. A mortality of about 5% negatively charged dead fry (infected with ban been observed during long distance tran2- bacteria) to the bottom of the container, port of fingerlings iñ those drums (Anon., 1955). getting them buried, in the soil. The extent of The transportation of breeders for dry bundh or pollution by organic matter was kept localised induced breeding involves a great risk asbeing by the deposit of red soil on the bottom of the active, they are often severely injured.Open container. Saha and Chowdhury (1956) observed canvas containers (1 n x i n i in), supported that additions of red soil to the transporting on a frame of galvanized iron pipes, introduced medium, constant shaking of the carrier and chañging its water do not extend the survival recently in Punjab and Madbya Prado ahhave been period beyond 30 hours, They also observed found to be very useful. Mammen (19625 has, how- that the use of red or ordinary soil makes no ever, recommended a splaahlestank with attached aeration equipment for this purpose. :16 FR $32 Catla (Rv,i) Holding of stock 5.6.4 section. Tho nureory io then ZUlod either tiith The rato of stocking of spawn in nursery rain-water or vIth doer water from a nearby ponde of the Cuttack Substation of the Central source.. In certain nureorios near Ca1outa Inland Pisheries Research Institute, rand from domestic sewage in moderato dosoo is used for o.247,100-1,235,500 per ha. Alikunhi (1957) men- their enrichment, Bhaslcaron (1952) advoaatcd tioned that under exceptional conditions it could limitation of tho oewago dosage so that the be rained to as high as 21,527,352 per ha evenin 02concentration in the pond.deosnot fall water as shallow as30.48 cm, In oemont cisterns, below3 ppm, without artificial feeding, the rato of stocking can be 8,401,400 per ha but ouch heavy stocking Mention has been miadoabove of poisoning neoessitates thinning wIthy 10 days, On attain- for removal of unwantcd floh, A large number ing a length of19-25mminthe nurseries tho fry of pisoicidos, of plant origin, are used for are usually transferred to rearin ponds. this purpose, Soins of the morocommon ones aro: safed sirio (Albiziaprocoroa)nagdona it was earlier held that25.4nei long fry tithw (Artemisiavalario) dar-hald should be stookod at86,485-148,260per ha in (Borbone arintata) tuba Dorns app,) banclu 15.24eiz15.24in z 3.04 eirarin ponds, but (Diosoorea epp..) chaulniugra (:ydnoc*.us Alikunlii (1957) noted that euch deep ponds cire notkur_!); ciacrotJu1ans raia ; Millettia suitable for the purpose, Ho advocated a stockingapp.; bacarmani P lianthus urinaria) rate of 24,710 fry por ha in only121.92 - 152.4 Rhododendron spp,kuchlaStrychnos nuz- orn deep ponds, without artificial feeding.With vornica) earphonka (Tepbrosiapurpur'&3and. artificial feeding, however, the etooking rate canban taznbaku or gidor tanbaku (Vcnrbaecws be raised to 197,680 fry per ha. Carp larvae, thapaus).. Dorns poder with5percent being easily identifiable at19-25 long stages, rotenone, is perhaps the commonest pond.poison mixed farming is recommended from rearinc pond used, This should be odminlatared at least a st e onws for better results (see 4.6).. Ozi mouth before the anticipated dato of fry attaining a length of76,2 - 127.0 ulmin roaring rolote. For application, the required quen- ponds, the fingerlings aro commonly transferred to tity ofdarnspowder is mixed with water and stocking ponds, The rate of etooking, along with apred over the surface of thenursoxypond, the species composition advocated by different keeping it weil stirred durinc bho process, authors, is furnished in Table XXX. Depending upon the doso uscd, which mey vary from4-20 ppm,thepoisonouseffect of derrite Horaand Pillay (1962)stated, that in a owdor wears out 2-12 deys, Hora and Pillay stockingpond,each oap finter1ing should be pro-(1962)remarked that 1aro perennial waters ars vided with atout 001 rn' of water in the first apt to beslightly coidIcwhich should be year,0.23 & int1e second year and 0,45 ei3Iv. rectifiedby liningat the rato of300-500 kg the third year. This is achieved by thinning the per ha either together with derrite powder population at the end of each year.. An allowance application or separately, Due to non-avai],ct- of 10 percent should be madeinstocking ponds forbili'ty of darns powder, endrino cit O..l ppm natural mortality and also for lossesbyreductionin now being commonly usì to eradicate in the volume of water in the ponds as a rosult ofunwanted fish (Anon., 1964), evaporation during summer. Initially,pondmanuring should be carried 5.6.5Pond manement (fertilization; out7-lodays after poisoning. The manures aquatic plant control, etc.) commonly used aro fresh or somidriod cow-dung, stable refuse, oil-cake, municipal compost, Efficient pond, fish culture entails speoi]. decaying vegetation end inorganic fertilizers, preparation of nurseries to receive the tender Little information existo on the relative uti- hatohlings and fry. This comprises adoption of a lity and dones of difforen manure; and, further series of measures commencing with the draining experimentation is needed.. Inorganic fertili- out of nurseries to remove p.atory fishes, zers aro known to increase the production of insects and trash fish, drying, lining and plough-phytoplankton which the oanp fry are mostly un- Ing thepondbottom.. Liming is unnecessary in able to digest end assimilate,Food of carp fry ponde situated on oalcareous soils. In deeper has been mentioned under3.2.1. Various combi- perennial water bodies which cannot be drained out,nations of cow-dung, mustard oil cake and. as many unwanted fish as possible are removed by aquatic weeds auch as Eichbonnla, idnilla, repeated netting and the rest poisoned.As a mea-Naias, etc,, ai o,555to832kg/ba have boon sure for Increasing pond-fertility, Hora and Pilky suggest by Saha(1953). Alikunhi et al, (1962)mentioned that a short-season crop of legu-(1955)manured the ponds of the Cuttack Sub- minous plante should be grown on the pond bottom, station of the Central Inland Fisheries Re- which thereafter, should be reploughed and level- search Instituto (India), with cow-dung at the led. Should the soil be acidic, ita pH ought to berate of c.11,208,26to22,416.52kg per ha, raised to 8 or 9 by reining. The next stepin Basing their observations on experimental ponde, nursery preparation consists of manuring, aimed atcement cisterns and pots, they observed that sustained production of zooplankton to serve as heavy manuring with cow-dung colours the water food to achieve a rapid growth of the fry. dark brown, d,whuie during the first 8-io days Details of manuring are described further in this of manuring, the phytoplaxzkton content (net FR S32 Catlo (Revol) :1 plankton) of theetcr la remarkably poortroia The quantitative abundance of zooplankton the 9th to 10th dey onward.a9 the rnter teeme uithin a nursery can be estimated by adopting zooplenktonparticularly ro tiforaoladocorana appropriate limnological methods,A rough aM copepode, the crop of eniinaloulea lacting method for estimation of plankton has been from 7-10 deyn0Alftunhïetal,(1955) further developed by Alikurihi (1956) for use by fish reported that the avarae production of plankton farmers,About 54.552 1 of water, taken from ii pondamanured at the rato of 1120826 kg perdifferont representative areas of the pond, ha taa more then in thone manured at the rate ofaro filtered, through a muslin tow-net with a l68l2,38 kg per ha0It iaa aleo obeerved that glass tube tied to the lower narrow end, the when manured with covi-dungat the rate of d,iwnotoz' of the glass tubo being 2,54 cm, A 16812.38 kg por hathe averee production of pinch of powdered couoeon salt is added to the f inh flesh per day per pond amounted to about water in the tubs, when detached, to kill the 459 g a yield more then from ponde manured with plankton,Within 15-20 minutos of adding the either 11,20826 or 2241652 kg per ha.The salt, most of the organisms settle at the manure ehould, be applied l5'20 dys before the bottom of tho tube,If tho column of plankton anticipated dae of fry release. sediment is 6.35 to 8.5 en high from the bottom of the tube, is found to consist It hac recently been observed that the ro- mostly of water-fleas and other animalcules, lease of soluble salts other then nitrogen aM the water in the pond may be considered phoophorue io not as high in the caso of cow-dungsufficiently rich in plankton to be stocked ca in poultry manure (Roy end David in press). at the rate of 494,200 to 741,300 fry per ha. When poultry manure was applied along with 00W- The anima], er plant nature of the plankton dung manure in cement oleterna, catla was found sediment is roughly indicated by a pale to grow at 1.1 mm per dey even at the oxooedthglybrownish or greenish colour respectively. A high rate of otocking of e.16,575000 to minimum of 1.5-2,0 ml zooplankton in 45 1 of 28,050000 larvae/hag the rate of aurvivel being water was observed by Alikunhi et al, (1955) 50 percent (BanerjceSingit end Reyin presa). to be essential for satisfactory stocking of tho pond.Ultra Mohapatx'a (1956) have Alikunhl (1956) otated thatif the initial also stressed the desirabillof tho doeo of manure dosa not result in the desired initial availabi1i1of iooplankton at the level of plankton production, eupplomentary manu-rate of 0.1 to 0.33 cc per try and opined ring should be dons which may riot 000ed 2951006 that e higher concentration does not give kper ha but may have to be repeated every 45 appreciably bettor results,The number of days hill production level of plankton io satin- fry to be stocked in nursery ponds, depending factory0A bloom of phytoplarikton, should it on the density of plankton, has been shown in developinthe pondu can be controlled by spray- Pablo T. ing liquid cou'dung or some other organic matter or dyes, or by covering the surface of the pond. For stocking a nursery with spawn, the with the duck weed9 Lemna (Alikuxihi . 1952),water in the fry container should be gradually both causing the bloom to dio within 4-5 days by but thoroughly mixed with pond water so that preventzg light penetration0Alikunhi (1956) the temperature difference, if any, is homo- statedhachemicals (eagacidee) should not be genized,The fry container should thon be usedo control algal blooms9 as they are likely slowly dipped and tilted in water so that fry to be harmful to animalcules, the main food of are free to swim out of the container into growing carp fry.In manured nursery ponds9 the nursery,It is botter to release the fry weedsparticularly the submerged onesp grow very in different areca of the nursery,Alikunhi rapidly utilizing the readily available rich (1957) observed that stocking a nursery is nutriente end thus adverae].y affect plankton best done lato in the evening,This gives production.The weeds also offer shelter to pre-the fry time to acclimatize themselves during datory inacce.Alikunhi (1957) atetad that the ensuing night, relatin],y free from any mechanical removal cf usada at roc lar intervals predators. with human labour or with weed, cutting machines lo perhapo the moot practical method of removing Within 2-3 days after stocking the food them in ahalleu nursery ponds. available in the nursery often becomes very low,Alikunhi (1956) observed that for the Insects predate heavily on carp fry and first two deys after feeding commenced., the special care la therefore taken to control them fry do not take artificial food but depend before re1easinfry in nurseriso,The control almost completely on natural food,After measure consists of epreylug an emulsion of 56 kgthis periodo artificial food along with the mustard or coconut oil and 18 kg washing soap pernatural food enhances the growth end surv'ival ha, on the water ourface 12-24 hours before re- of fry considerably,The commonly uinie- leasing the fry (Pakraei, 1953).The emulsion terod, artificial foods are rice bran and oil can bo applied, with a sprayer or sprinkled by hand.cakes of ground-nut, coconut and mustard. A still dey should be chosen for spraying lost thePowder oil-cakes and rice bran, which are oil film gets blown to one sido of the pond. to be given to fry as artificial food, should be Perennial or seasonal rearing ponds, 121.92-182.88 cm deep, 0.62-1.24 ha in 45.72area cmand or paddy more fields with a depth of

Rearing ponds slightly larger than nursery ponds

Perennial or seasonal rearing ponds retaining water for a long period, but not deeper than 182.88 cm, long and narrow in shape for easy, inexpensive fishing operations and paddy fields 45.72-60.96 cm deep Table XXX R.aring ponds

Rearing ponds 25.4-50.8mm 49,420 -74,130 without feeding;197,680 148,260-with regular 25.4-38,1mm feeding,98,840-123,550 148,260-197,680feeding without with artificial feeding StockingPype ofponds ponds 1.25 and/or - 2.0 their ha in areas area Rate of stocking in different kinds of ponds Stage and! 19.0-25.4mm 24,710 without feeding or size Approximate197,680 number with artificial Duration of 25.4-50.8mm 4,000-5,000 per ha offeeding water surface Shallow,de.p, 1,524seasonal cm znurseries, 1,524 cm or91.44-152.40 1,828.8 cm ornz 2 rearing in days 4 Authority 5 914.4 orn in area and paddy fields with a depth Fingerlings50-10035 mm mm Inrigal:5,000-8,000250,000-500,000 3:6z1) (catla:rohu: of over 30.48 orn. fry8.5 up mm to 741,300-1 235,500, depending on density of plankton available as food 15-30 Anon. (1956a) Seasonal,Seasonal1,219.2 nurseriescmshallow z 91.44-121.92 nurseries 1,524-1,828.8 orn 1,524 cmcm zz 914.41,524 -cm do 1,235,500 - 1,976,800 15 Alikunhi (1956) in size and 91.44 - 121.92 cm depth fry few hours -3 222,3901,235,500 without with feeding,artifi- 15 Alikunhi (1957) 0.62Seasonal ha in nurseries,size 0.9 - 1.5 ni deep, days' old cial feeding 30 Goodsell (1959) 2.4 i in in size or perennial ponds f 'y 7,8129500 12-15 Hora and Pillay (1962) 1.8 - 3.6 ni deep and 0.5 ha in area 30-60 Anon. (1956a)

60 Alikunhi (1956) 6060-90 GoodsellAlikunhi (1959)(1957)

Hora and Pillay (1962)

Lin (1951) deep0.202Perennial stooking ha ox' moro in area, preferably ponds 182.68 cm ox' mox'c sivelong nctti.ngend narrow opevationa in and large water ehapo or easy9 inexpen- bodies do, narrowdeep,Perennial 0.134 in ehapeotookin ha or for larger caey 0,809 - 1.214 ha) ponde netting operations

Stocking ponds

Stocking ponds 254305 mm 29965-3,70619853-2,471 with artificial without Leeding, preferabLyover longin arca182.88 end (px'oZox'x'ed cm do, inozpeneivo 76.2- venilee9 127.0 mm 3,706feeding without artificial Stocking poLzda feeding (catla8 rohu mrigal 3,3,4) 2,471 catla, 39296 rohu, 4 5 endof each 4,492 apoolea mric]. ea allow- 5'-10 365 or more Anon, (1956e) - Alikunhi (1956) eico(if fox'individrnl natural apeale mortality a Alikunhi i -2 natural1,023aloneapoelee1,364 areeatia, mrigelmortality eea ookcd) 1,023 allowance . x'ahi.(oatlag forand 3 10 of each - (1957) 8-13102-153Fingerlin cm mm 1,875ciel3,0009,884-12,355LL,942-7,413endrohm Loading 625catie, mrigal 3,750 without withartifi- rohu feeding mx'igalc 33:4) 180-.240 Anon.Good.sellA]. (1959) (1956a) 1 (1957)

Hora (1962)and Pillay 20 FR S32 Catla (Revol)

Table

Rates of feeding &w?in15days in nursery ponds (A1ikuzhi1957)

First5d.cys after cjtooking Daiiy, double the weight of fry at the time of stocking

6th to 10th day after stocking Dai1y, triplo the o1ght of fry at the time of stocking

11th to the 15thdirafter ctooking Daiiy9four times the wight of fry at the time of stocking

Table Yfl

Volume of artificial food o be given to fry for 15cl in nursory ponds (U.kt1ai1956/1957)

Vo1uao of fy uantitv of dai Leed in bati ( bQti) ]iIutard oilGround nut Coconut Rice bran cake oil cake oil cake

2nd to 5th¿iE!y i

6th to 10th clay 1

11th to 15th day 1

* Bati a. small cup-like measure usually of 130l50 co capacity FR S32 Catla Rev,l :21

sifted through a fine meshed elevo to remo the The stocking ponde should cuco beprepared, in husk and to onsu.re uniformily in the size of advance for reception of fingerlings,The particles,Daily doses of artificial food in f'Jxst step is to drain them, if possible, and the first 5 days of stocking should be equal toremove the accumulated bottomdeposits, If (Hora arid PIllay, 1962) or 1k-2 times (Ansan, draining io not possible, the bottomdeposits 1956a arid JUikunhi, 1957) the weight of fry at can be colleoted by means of long scoops, the time of stocking;double (Hora arid Pi1ly, operated from the bankora boat, or by 1962) or triple (Alikunhi, 1957) the weight of repeated netting,Lime le thon added to ponds fry as at the time of stocking for the nett 5 which have acidic wa,er or a low cilkaline days; and triple (Hora end Pillay, 1962) or 4-4 reserve, or in whIch there has been a fish times (.non., 1956a cnxì Alikunb.i, 1957) the disease,Slaked, lime or quicklime should, as weight of fry at the time of stocking, during thefar as possible, be applied to the pondbottom following five days (see Table XXXI)OA fry of after draining and ocdlmeut removal, or it mey 6-6,5 mm length weighs about 0,0014 g onen be released athe pond inlet, or spread on average(see Table XXXII).The average pro- thewatersurface,Hora end Pilisy (1962) duotlon of oar].y fingerlings in the first 15 suggeccd that for complete disinfection of of rearing io ehon in Table S$ III,The ponds a doso of about 10,000 k per ha of limo hibee rato of survival was observed in the io necessary,but, if the liming is done ro pond to which rico bran wasadded daily at larly every year L'or fertilization purposes, twice tho initia], weight of the fry0 100-200 kg per ha should sufficofor soils which are not very acidic or poor in carbo- After about 15 days of nursing, when the natos.A limo dressing of 1,000 to 1,500 kg fry have grown to 25,4 - 38.1 mm in length, theyper ha is required for ponds with acid soil are transferred to rearing ponds.The fry shouldand water,The authare also stated that the not be fed for two days in the nursery immediate-alkaline reserve of pond water can be brought lypreceding netting for their transfer into to the desirable level with about 2 kgper ha rearing ponds0A nursery cari be used to raise of limebut much larger quantities of limo several crops of fry in a season (&xion., l956a). are required to neutralise acidic pond sub- Alikunhl, (1957) was able to produce 94,000 fry strata,It ici necessary to bring the pH of and early f ingerl inge in a 0.25 ha pond, in two the soil, to about 6,5 toprevent aeudden fall crops within a period of fIve weeks. in the pH of the pond water, Rearing ponde should, as far as possible, Hora d Pilisy (1962) have recommended a be prepared in the sane manner as nursery ponds,dose of over 1,000 kg of cattle or horse The essential steps in the preparation of manure, about 560 to 1,200 kg of poultry manure rearing ponds are, as in nursery ponds, the and 5,000 kg of green compost per ha for elimination of all predatory and, trash fishes manuring atooking ponds,Those ponds, like andmanuring prior to stocking with fry.With nurseries, may also be manured with compost, proper care the young fish attain fingerling green grass, cow-dung end, oil oske,These size of 76.2 - 127,0 mm within 2 months in the authors observed that a minturo of organic and rearing ponds.They are then ready for the inorganic fertilizer, consisting of 3 parto stocking ponds. of enlisai manure and. 1 part of superphosphate,

Table XXXIII Production of early fingerlings in the first 15 days (A],ikunhi, 1957)

Artificial food No, of ponds used, Percentage of Average Avero produoion providal forearin survival range numberper lia

Rico bran 4 47,0-99,0 77,2 953,633 Ground nut oil cake 5 13,2-71,8 36,6 477,076 ustard oil cake 4 4,5-51.0 28,2 348,460 Coconut oil cake 2 47,8-61.0 54,4 672,409 5:22 'a/s32Catin (Rey,1)

applied at the rato of about 500 kg per ha per Rooted submerged weeds are cleared by a num annum9 is aleo quite feetive ber of simple, manually operated devices like bottom rakes, log vreadera, metal aplicas with Stocking ponde often t choked with aquatic or without barbed wire attachment, forks, drag weeds which deprive the pond soil of its nutri- chaina or a bamboo pole fixed with a cross tive slants, restriet the movement of fish, piece at the lower end followedbyrepeated interfere with netng'operations and harbour netting with strong wire or ropa nota,Other pradatora, inseot etc, Philipose (1964) 11ae methods einploycä. includeshadingby floating briefly deocribed the methods cdopted for eradi' plants like Pistia or Scilvinia for a period of cation of weeds in pothe 8lO weeks or by creating algal bloom or algal mats by repeated fertilisation with LPOtC. Floating weeds like Eiohhornia and Pietie. Soie of the fishes known to feed on woods are are beat removed tr manual labour0 Chemicala idellci (Chinese ase carp), like2,4-D ave quite effective and economical piitiue avanious, Tila la mossambica, T. a1net Eichhornla, though not froqueotly egainr3 b molenopleura endvpinue carpio common carp)o Pietia,, Salici, Sen and Muhuvy (1956) worked out Of those, grass carp is known to feed vorn- economics of the process cf dootruetion of cioumi.y on Bydrilla and, to e. lesser degree, Eichhornlci by using °CIDICO' containing 80-82 on Lagarosiphon, Najas, Lemma Azolla, end. percent sodium salt of diohlovophanor aoetic be used for effective biololcal control acid at c 4.2 ke/ha, without affecting the major of some of these aquatio weeds (Alikunhi and. carp stock, Actual spraying was carried out with Sukumaran, 1964),Philiposo (1964)stated that a power sprayer, covering on an average about ' sodium arsenito at5'-6 ppm is veryaffective .hectare per day with the help of one mechanic and against submerged we s but cautioned against three labourers. In Assem, spraying with2,4-D its frequent use duc to its highly poisonous cit 8.4kg/ha (in 19125 1 ciqueoue colution) with properties, Banorjen and ultra(1954) the aid of Knap-sack sprayers, was found to be appli CuSO4 of 10 ppm concentration in the most effective method for masa clearance of nursery ponde heavily choked with Ottelia Eichliornin in a bheel, Rannohandran(l963a), alismoidee, Linnanthemum 9ristatum and Nains 2,4-D, when mizad with a common domestic detorent, foveolata, after the pH of the pond water was acts effectively on weeds like Platin, first lowered to6by the use of 10 ppm and Nelumbo in which leaves ae either hairy or H2SO4, Visible si;&s of withering of the war, Simazino WP50, applied at5,6ll.2 kg per weeds appeared in 3-4 days, and all the ha, has been found to kill Pietia, Eichhornin vegetation died in about25days, CuSO4 alone and Colocasin completely within2-3weeks even has very little effect on the submerged weeds, during rains. Laboratory ozperimen be conducted Fish, however, are fatally affected by the at the Cuttack Substation of the Central Inland above-stated dose of CuSO4, Supnrphosphate Fisheries Research Institute, India, showed that or urea, at150ppm or above, kills most of Sirnazine 25percent pasto, sprayed in aqueous the submerged weeds, usually producing an solutions at22kg/ha killed 80 percent of Pletia algal bloom and, probably serving as a and 70 percent of Eichhornia in 15 days, with fertilizer as well, Remachandran (1963b) the remaining plants also showing deterioration. observ that anhydroua ammonia gas has been Taficide-80 has been successfully used at doso found effective for controlling weeds like of2,2 kWhafor the control of Elobliornia, ydril1a, Nains, Wolff la, }ymphasn end Neluxnbium, when injected into the subsurface Marginal weeds 1ikeypha, grasses, sedges, layer of water by means of an applicator at rushes, jpomea, Jusaiaea, gittaria and Colo- 112-334kg/ha or 6.4-18 ppm ofuonia N, casia are boat controlled9 under Indian condi- The unwanted fish are also killed by this tions, by ploughing-in, grazing by live-stock, method. SimazineWP-50,applied at3-5ppm buxning during dry season, or repeated cutting has been found to suppress ydril1n under and deepening of marginal shelves, laboratory conditions,

Rooted emergent weeds like Limnsnl,hemuma Algal blooms end mats can be controlled Trapa, gv-riophyllum etc, are auccesaful].y removed by maintaining a thick cover of Lemma for by repeatod weekly cutting of leaves before 2-3weeks (Alikunhi et al,,1952 ;Sitnazino fruiting, for about6-8weelcs0 Alternatively, WP-50,applied at 1 ppm, has boon found to spraying once or twice with2,4-D(at5.6-11,2k/control algal growth without killing fish, ha) kills some of these plants0 In field experi- Field trials have yet to be carried out, mente, Cu304 when applied as crystalline lumps at 140 ltg/ha to ponds infested with the weed After the pond is stocked, the condition Limnarithemuin cristatum, uprooted nearly95percentof the fish should be periodically checked by of the plants without any adverse effects on the netting at rogular intervals to ensure that plankton and fish populations of the treated water they are thriving. Control measures to check areas, disease are discussed under5.67. Shade is L32Catla ! * provided in shallow ponds by planting trees on areas of the rivero Godavari, Krishna and the ombanbnent, taking oars to perioUoally Cauvery and the "IColo" oulivation fields in remove the leaves which fall into the water0 South Malabar (Chacico and Ganapati l952) Treatment of acidic v.ratera by lime at rates up to 10 ppm, and of foul water by4Mn04in 5.6.7Disjo and parasite doses not exceeding 1.5 ppm, has been control recommended by Hora and Pillay(1962). Basu (l950a and 1958) stated that Bengal fish Ses Table XXXIV farmers float cut banana stems on the ponds to adjust its pR. Although banana stem juice is 5.6.8 Harvest acidic in reaction (pH it contains a considerably alkaline reserve which is No definite information is available on beneficial to the pond. The bottom of the the best size at which catla, raised in pond is frequently raked to remove noxious culture operations, should be harvested0 In gases orten found accumulated there.Minute most oases, the entire crop of fish in the doses of alum help to settle the suspended or pond is harvested regardless of size, although, colloidal matter and thus to control high in some well organized fisheries, fishes turbidity of the pond water, Sugar-cane below a particular size are not captured for jaggery (gur) is sometimes employed for food, Catla attains ita maximum rate of clearing pond water, but it should be used with growth in weight probably in the second or care as it is lethal to fish even at 1 percent third year of ita life, Seasonal ponde have concentration, The inlet and outlet of the to be completely fished out in summer when stocking pond should be protected by wire the yearlings are transferred to permanent screens, waters, if available, However, depending on the local demand for fish, the yearlings 5.6.6Paddycum-fish culture can also be profitably maricetod.

Alikunhi(1961)has briefly described Catin as a speoies is not ordinarily fish culture in paddy fields in India. In cultured alone but jointly along with other certain districts of Andhra Pradesh, millions carps. Fish produotion in pond culturo of early fry of Catla catin, Cirrbina mriala operations in India and Pakistan varice and Labeo fimbriatus enter the irrigated paddy widely. An unattended wild crop doce not f ields during June-July. They grow to early ordinarily exceed en annual production level fingerling size of4-6cm by September-October of o. 112kg/ha. In cultivated v7atora, with- when they are caught in traps set at the inlets out any artificial feeding, a produotion of and outlets of terraced fields and across the 300 to900kg/ha is achieved annually (Lin, connected ditches and drains. An experiment 1951), With artificial feeding the annual was carried out in the24Parganas districts production canbe increased to o.2802kg/ha of West Bengal in 1945. Fingerlings of major (A].ikunhi, 1956), In a pond oulture experi' carps,19.05 - 63.5mm long, were stocked in ment with catin and the silver oarp, about 238.765 ha of paddy fields at1,478per Ho hthalmicht a molitrix, lasting four ha. The growth of fingerlings in3-4months months, Alikunhi and Sukumaran(1964) was recorded as12.7 - 30,48cm without computed an annual production of1328kg/ha. artificial feeding and the production was When catin was cultured alone, they estimated o.112.08kg per ha. Further experimente on a production of1193kg/ha annually. a larger scale have been undertaken by the Madras Fisheries Department. Hora(1951) observed the annual average yield of fish cultured in rice fields without artificial feeding to be104,2kg per ha, Paddy-cum..fieh culture is commonly practised in the deltaic 5:24 FR S32 Catla (Rev.l)

Tabi r,Iv

Diseases and their control measures

Disease Control measures Authors

Gill rot 5-10 minutes' bathin3-5% salt solution or in 5 p..nKMnO4solution. Alikunhi (1957)

Saprolegnia Dip in 3% common salt solution or in Hora and. Pillay infection 1:2,000 solution ofCu604,or in (1962) 1:1,000 solution of L04 for 5-lo minutes, or until fish show distress.

Dip for 1 minute in 1:3,000 CuSO4 solution once daily for 3-4 days. In laboratory conditions dip treatment for Gopalakriahn 3 seconds in 1:10,000 solution of ala- (1964) chite green was found effective.

Dye disease One hourly treatment with Ch1oronrcetin for 2-3 consecutive days, or treatment Gcpalakrishnan with 1ppm KMnO4, (1962) Fin rot Bath for 1-2 minutes in 1:2000 solution of Cu504. Treatment to be stopped, when Hora and Pill fish show distress. (1962) IchtbyophthiriasiaDip for hourly durations in 1:5,000 formalin solution for 7-10 days, or Gopalakrishnan common salt solution for more than (1964) 7 days.

Costiasis 10-minuto baths in 3% cotrnon salt Hora and Pil1 solution or in 1:2,500 formalin (1962) end solution. Gopalekr'ishnaai (1964) Argulosis Application of lime in the pond at 0.1-0.2 g per 1 after all fish are removed, the pond. bottom exposed to Hora ii Pillay sun for atleast 24 hours before (1962) application of 1ime,

Pond. treatment with gamznexano at a Saha and Sen (1955) concentration of 0.2 p*i repeated twice and Gopalakriahnan or thrice at weekly intervals. (1964)

Ligulosis No chemical method yet devised.. Partly controlled b±ologioally by the das buc- tlon of permanent host.

Gyrodactylosla 5 minutos' dipin5%commonsalt or 5-lo minutos'dipin1:5,000 formalin Gopalakriahnan o1ution. (1964) Dropsy TreatmentrithCh1oroycetin at a concentration of60 mg in 4.545 1 of van Duijn (1956) water. No food, to be given during treatment. FR/S2 Catla (Rev.l) 6s1

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Saha, LO, et nl,, Stud.io on the factors influencing spawning of Indian major carp in bundh 1957 fisheries, Indian J,Fish. 4(2):284-94

Physico-chemical qualities of Calcutta sewage from the view point of pisoiculture 1958 and the danger of feeding raw sewage to confined fisheries, ian J.Fish., 5(1): 144-9

Sarkar, H.I.., On a new Acanthocephala, Pal1isenti colisal from the fish Colisa fasciatus 1954 (Bloch and Soh.,) with a noto on Acanthorue acanthogyrus Thapar from the fish Labeo robita (Ham.). Rec,Indian Mus., 52(2):349

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SYNOPSES OF FISHERIES BIOLOGICAL DATA

This is one of a series of documents issued by FAO, CSIRO and USFWS concerning species and stocks of aquatic organisms of present or potential economic interest. The primary purpose of this series is to make existing information readily available to fishery scientists according to a standard pattern, and by so doing also to draw attention to gaps in knowledge. lt is hoped that synopses in this series will be useful to other scientists initiating investigations of the species concerned or of related ones, as a means of exchange of knowledge among those already working on the species, and as the basis for comparative study of fisheries resources. They will be brought up to date from time to time as further information becomes available either as revisions of the entire document or their specific chapters.

The relevant series of documents are:

FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. FR/S replacing, as from 1.1.63 FAO Fisheries Biology Synopsis No. FB/S CSIRO Fisheries Synopsis No. DFO/S and USFWS FAO Fisheries Sinopsis No. BCF/S

Synopses in these series are compiled accordng to a standard outline described inFIb/Si Rev. 1(1965). FAO, CSIRO and USFWS are working to secure the cooperation of other organizations and of individual scientists in drafting synopses on species about which they have knowledge, and wecome offers of help in this task. Additions and corrections to synopses already issued will also be most welcome. Comments including suggestions for the expansion of the outline and requests for information should be addressed tothe coordinators and editors of theissuing organizations.

FAO: Fishery Resources and Exploitation Division Marine Biology and Environment Branch Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Via delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy

USFWS: CSI RO: L.W. Scattergood, Chief, Branch of Reports Maureen A. Wright, Scientific Editor U.S. Department of the Interior CSIRO Division of Fisheries and Ocenography Fish and Wildife Service Box 21 Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Cronulla, N.S.W. Washington, D.C. 20240, U.S.A. 2230 Australia

Consolidated lists of species or groups covered by synopses issued to date or in preparation will be issued from time to time. Requests for copies of synopses should be addressed to the issuing organization.

The following synopses in this series have been issued since January 1968:

FRm/S33 Synopsis ofbiological data on the Norway pout Trisopterus (Rev. 1) esmarkii (Nilsson) 1855 January 1968 FRi/S36 Synopsis of biological data on the bream Abramis brama (L.) February 1968 FRm/S34 Synopsis of biological data on the blue whiting Micromesistius (Rev. 1) poutassou (Risso) 1810 July 1968 FRm/S38 Synopsis of biological data on Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. Provisional version August 1968 FRm/S39 Synopsis of biological data on Monostroma latissimum Wittrock in Japanese cultivation. Provisional version August 1968 FR/S32 Synopsis of biological data on catla Catla catla (Hamilton, 1822) November 1968 (Rev. 1) MR/81970/12.68/E/1/750