Iau Narrative Discourse CONSTRUCTING A NARRATIVE DISCOURSE IN IAU . with updated appendices-
By Janet Bateman Draft-Final copy for comment only not to be quoted Summer Institute of Linguistics Original paper in cooperation with Universitas Cenderawasih Jayapura, Irian Jaya INDONESIA Original from Ivan Lowe Workshop (1984?85?) with subsequent revisions from 1998-2006 Submitted to Mike Moxness Jan 2006 Updated appendices 2020
1 Contents Iau Narrative Discourse CONSTRUCTING A NARRATIVE DISCOURSE IN IAU . with updated appendices- ...... 1 1.0 Introduction to Iau ...... 3 1.1 Language Classification ...... 3 1.2 Language Characteristics ...... 3 2.0 The Data Base...... 4 3.0 Titles and Openings ...... 6 3.1Titles ...... 6 3.2 Opening Topic Statements ...... 6 3.3 Settings ...... 7 4.0 The Eventline...... 21 4.1 Examples of some typical Iau eventlines ...... 22 4.2 Predicating information about the topic...... 38 4.3 Marking chronological sequence ...... 38 4.4 Marking new information predicated about the topic...... 42 4.5 Moving the eventline along to it’s resolution and or final outcome ...... 43 4.6 Some Examples Of Discourse Peak ...... 67 4.7 Some Examples Of Eventline Outcomes And Conclusions ...... 70 4.8 Foregrounding and Backgrounding ...... 73 4.9.Multiple Eventlines ...... 78 5.0 Eventline Summaries, Comments And Evaluative Comments ...... 84 5.1 Eventline Summaries ...... 84 5.2 Comments And Evaluative Comment On The Eventline ...... 88 6.0 Closings ...... 92 7.0 Organizing The Eventline ...... 94 7.1 Gramatical Building Blocks ...... 94 7.2 Maintaining Cohesion Between the Segments And Episodes...... 104 7.3 The Roles Of Clauses And Conjunctions ...... 108 8.0 Participants ...... 116 8.1 Participant Marking In Iau ...... 116 8.2 Participant Tracking ...... 118 8.3 Participant Ranking And Introduction ...... 124 9.0 Speech Events, Quotes And Dialogues In Iau ...... 136 9.1 Marking And Embedding Of Quotes On Eventlines ...... 136 9.2 The Role Of Quotes In Iau Narrative...... 138 9.3 The Grammatical Form Of The Quote And It’s Relationship To Function ...... 142 9.4 Dialogues ...... 143 9.5 Speech Events ...... 150 Bibliography ...... 152 Appendix 1 Iau Phonology and Orthography ...... 153 Segmentals ...... 153 Tones ...... 154 Tone Sequences ...... 154 Appendix 2: Iau Verb Phrase And Meanings of the Iau Tone Morphemes, Segmental Particles and Their Abbreviations ...... 155 The Segmental Verb Phrase Particles and Their Abbreviations ...... 156 Tone Morphemes ...... 157 Appendix 3: List of Abbreviations ...... 158
2 1.0 Introduction to Iau Iau is a Papuan language spoken by over 1500 speakers who live along the Van Daalan River, a southern brancn of the Tariku /Rouffaer River in the Western Lakes Plain area of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. (See Ethnologue or Google Maps, Papua, Indonesia1 The Lakes Plains Languages2 were originally grouped with the Tor languages to the northeast as part of the Trans New Guinea Languages (Wurm 1982, Voorhoeve 1975), but more recently with the Geelvink/Cenderawasih Bay Languages such as Bauzi, Tunggare, and Burate (Clouse, 1997), And as an independent family (Ross 2005, Usher ) (See also Wikipedia). The Iau dialect trio of Iau, Turu, and Foi along with Edopi are classified by Usher (2018) as West Tariku3 languages as opposed to the Wapoga River, Central and Duvle-East languages. The Glottologue makes the Tariku (River) languages into a broader grouping, which includes East Tariku, Central Tariku, Duvle and West Tariku. In this classification Iau and the other 2 dialects are classed as Central Tariku. Iau is also classified as a Central Tariku lanugage in Clouse’s classification of Tariku (1997) which consists of six families—Tause, West Tariku, Central Tariku. East Tariku, Duvle and West Lakes Plains There are two closely related dialects of Iau, Turu and Foi. (Early SIL Lakes Plains survey reports, McAllister 1979, Clouse, 1993) The Turu dialect area is upstream, to the west of the Iau dialect area. The Foi dialect area located midway on the nothern Tariku/Rouffaer River is the “old country”. The great grandparents4 of both the current Turu and current Iau generations left the Foi area and pushed out the Duvle and moved into their current locations in the distant memorable past. The Turu originally located on the western end of the Foi area, also settled on the Van Dalaan upstream from the Iau. The most closely related language to these three dialects is Edopi, located upstream on the Rouffaer River and to the slightly to the northwest of the Turu area . There is no direct river connection between the Edopi and the Turu, only over land and much of it swamp. The Turu have had the most contact with the Edopi area, as was also true in their originating location on western upstream end of the Foi area. even before their move. The Iau settled to the south of the Foi area and to the east of the Turu. Both took over territory from the Duvle who speak a another Lakes Plains language. It is classified as a isolate by some or with the languages spoken at Dou and Kaiy with whom they intermarry. Edopi is spoken at villages to the west of (upstream from) the Foi dialect villages on the Rouffaer River. Edopi is approximately 70 % cognate with Iau (See Clouse1993) Turu seems to be the closest of the three Iau dialects to Edopi. Iau is closer to the Foi dialect.
1.1 Language Classification Iau was classified by Voorhoeve (1975) as a Papuan language in the New Guinea Phylum and Tor-Lakes Plains Stock. It was later classfied by Duane Clouse (1997) as a member of the Geelvink Bay Phylum, the Lakes Plains Superstock and the Western Tariku Family. See also Wurm and Malcom Ross (2005). In Clouse’s classification of the Turu family there are three dialects, Iau, Turu and Foi. The other member of this family is Edopi. The Western Tariku languages are Fayu and Kiri-Kiri. He classifies Tause which is also spoken in the Western Lakes Plains as a Family level Isolate.
1.2 Language Characteristics . Iau is a tonal language. Tone is both lexical and morphemic. . In the Iau phoneme inventory, there are 6 consonants, 8 vowels and 8 phonemic tones. There are no phonemic nasals. But there are nasal allophones of some of the voiced stops. Iau, like other Lakes Plain languages has a high front vowel that is fricativized and implosive voiced stops. (Bateman, 1990) Iau is a verb final language. It has a left dislocated positions for topics at both clause and sentence level. It has an extensive system for marking non verbal items as predicated new information in the clause. These are used to introduce or confirm, or give identifying information concerning participants, locations, time and other setting type information. Like other Papuan languages, a characterisic feature especially in narrative discourse structure is the use of repeated linking clauses (Bateman, 2020)
3 2.0 The Data Base This study of Iau narrative discourse is based on a large number of written and oral narrative texts by Benjamin and Sakari Omo, Ananias and Timotius Weya, as well as a few short texts by an Iau evangelist named Paulus. The texts are on a variety of subjects, both contemporary and mythological. The written narratives are for the most part told in the first person about various personal experiences. The oral texts are for the most part long personal travel narratives or third person myths and legends known as “Grandfather Tales” Not all of these texts have been interlinearized. The following is a list of the Iau narrative texts available for use in this paper: Those marked with an * are available in interlinear format. Written Narratives: Short Stories By Sakaria Words About Tying Up a Frog’s Feet And Hitting It* Words About A Lizard* Words About A Possums* Words About A Plane Landing* Words About Getting Attacked By A Wild Pig And Bandaged* Words About A Canoe Tipping Over* Words About Laughing At Someone* Words About Having Diarrhea From Eating Fish* Words About Going To Get A Pig* Words About Being Lost (third person) * Words About Tying a Grasshopper’s Feet And Hitting Him* Words About A Snake #1* Words About Being Attacked By A Wild Pig* Words About A Snake #2* By Benjamin: Words About Stealing Food When I Was Small* Words About Being Angry* Benjamin’s Words* Words About My Cutting Down a Tree When I Was Small* Words About Asking For a Wife. * Words About Stealing Food* Words About Eating a Dead Person's Bone When I Was Small* Words About Killing a Wild Pig* Words About Playing* Words About What I Did When I Was Small* These Words Are About Setting a Pig Trap* Words About Being Happy #1* Words About Being Happy #2* By Ananias Words About Having No Canoe* Crocodile Words. * Words About Taking a Dog Hunting* Words About Playing. * Words About a Grasshopper* Words About Lifting up the Chair (Third person narrative) * Words About Going Upstream to Saita* Words About Going UpStream to Saita Again* Words About Wives* Words About Pig Traps. * Words About Cutting Down a Tree with Someone in It* By Timotius Words About Taking a Dog Hunting Written Narratives: A Long Travel Narrative By Timotius Words About Going To See the Do People (a long travel narrative) Oral Narratives: Travel By Ananias:
4 no formal title (Taking A Census)(*partial) By Sakaria: no formal title (Going To Get A Pig) Oral Narratives: short stories about an evangelist’s experiences in the Faitau area By Paulus: no formal title (Refusing To Sell Pork To Us ) no formal title (Taking Wives) no formal title (A Fight) no formal title (Skipping Church) no formal title (Eating Together) no formal title (Hunting For Crocodiles) no formal title (Finding A Path Through The Jungle) no formal title (A Teenager Wanting To Be A Man) no formal title (Almost Falling Out Of A Tree) no formal title (Looking For A Lake) Oral Narratives: True stories about their grandparents and great grandparents By Benjamin: no formal title (How The Iau Came To Settle In the Bakusi /Faui Area) (third person) My Grandfather’s Words (third person) Oral Narratives: Stories About the house of the dead (1st person pl /third person) By Benjamin: no formal title (Crossing the River to the House of the Dead) Words about a child who dies. Words about a child dies but comes to life again. Words about a man who kills lots of pigs and then dies Words about a Bachelor who dies. Words about the house of the dead Words about a cassowary Oral Narratives: Grandfathers Tales /Myths (3rd person narratives) By Benjamin And Timotius And Sakaria Words about Two Men Taking a Dog Hunting Words about Two Men Taking a Dog Hunting Alternate Version by Sakaria Grandfather's Words About Dogs Grandfather's tales about crododiles Grandfather's tales about Be3 eels Looking for a Dog Grandfather's tales about a river Grandfather's tales about the water drying up Grandfather's tales about fog /clouds Grandparent's Tales about the Kuskus Grandparent's story about Breadfruit. Grandparent's Tale About Pandanus. Grandparent's Tales about Sugar Cane Grandparent's Tale about the Soe Palm. Grandparent's Story about the Banyan Tree Grandparent's Tale about Trees Grandparent's Tale about Fire. Grandparent's Tale about Bows and Arrows Grandparent's Tale about Bauita Ae Trees. Grandparent's Tale about a Jealous Husband Grandparent's Tales about The Do Fish Grandparent's Tale about the Fay bamboo. Grandparent's Story about the river overflowing. Grandparent's Tale about Hornbills Grandparent's Tale about Sleeping in Corpse's Place. Grandparent's Tale about Boi Birds Grandparent's Tale about Two Women Coming Upstream Grandparents Tale about people coming from the Soe Tree Grandparent's Tale about Hornbills Grandparent's Tale about Tree Root Jumping Frog Grandparents Tale about the Duvle People Grandparent's Tale about Mountains
5 3.0 Titles and Openings Many Iau narratives open with a formal title and or a formal topic statement. All narratives open with some kind of setting information, such as time, location, participant identification, and a generic or thematic opening event.
3.1Titles Formal titles are more common in Iau written texts and in the Iau oral myths. This is because the oral myths are stories that are known and retold, and therefore would be referred to by title. Oral travel logs or experience tales tend not to have formal titles. See the list of texts in the data base section 2.0 Titles of written and myth texts are usually in the form: Si6 Ba9 Wife Words Words About A Wife E8ta8fau7 Sai8ta8 Bui2 I7 -E8 Ba9 Again Saita Upstream Go--Nominalizer Words Words about going upstream to Saita again
3.2 Opening Topic Statements Following the title are the opening lines of the text. In a few texts, in addition to a title, the discourse opens with an expansion of the title into formal topic statement. The following are examples Ba7bv9 da7 e9 bi8 ba9 Dy4dau4 be7 bi8fa9. This dog grandfather tale word like this it said This is a grandparent's tale about dogs. It is spoken /told like this. Dy8 u6dy4e8 e9 bi8 y7 su6 -e9 bi8 ba7bv9 dy4dau4 bi8fa9. And before_like_this grandfather tale water dry up -Nomlz tale this like this said And in the past the grandfather’s tale, the tale about the water drying up, is spoken /told like this.
Nominalized Clauses One of the devices for marking narrative topics is the fronted nominalized clause. BDy8 u6dy4e8 e9 bi8 y7 su6 -e9 bi8 ba7bv9 dy4dau4 bi8fa9. And before_like_this grandfather tale water dry up -Nomlz tale this like this said And in the past the grandfather’s tale, the tale about the water drying up, is spoken /told like this Ba7bv9 Di9 Du8 O7 E8 Ba9 These Words Are About Stealing Food
Formulaic Semantic Orienters The title expansion in the opening lines can also be in the form of a semantic orienter in the form of an intention statement as illustrated below Dy8 ba7bv9 be3 e9 bi8 ba9. Sa4 bi8fa -7 se5. And this eel grandfather tale word CntrstAction say -Tel.Inc intend And this one is the grandparent's story about be3 eels. I am going to tell it also. Da6da8e8 sv9di9 e9 bi8 ba9 by7by9 du7be7 bi8fa -7 se5. Now kuskus grandfather tale word it is true that say -Tot.Inc intend And now its the grandparent's tale about the kuskus that I am going to tell. The following is another example of a more expanded topic statement, with three formulaic introduction orienters that are frequent in expository and hortatory text, but not in narrative text.. Ba7bv9 Di9 Du8 O7 E8 Ba9 These Words Are About Stealing Food By Benjamin
6 A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di8 -y9 I before small was -Tot.Inc PstDefEvent -Nominalizer Once before when I was small, y8 V8e8di7 by6 be -7-8 di9 -y9 we Wedi downstream is/are -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr when we were downstream at Wedi a9 boi9 o8sy9 Bvy8ta7sui8 be7 da8 I older_sibling my *** NMkrOblq carry /take di9 du8 sa -7 be9 -e9 food secretly eat -Tot.Inc - PstRptEvent -Nominlz when I was taken by my older brother Buita8sui to go steal food, bv6 bi8fa -7 se -5. I speak -Tot.Inc intention -Tel.Pun I am going to tell (about that). Bi8bay -4 de -8 dy -3. hear -Tel.Inc stative -RlzdCurrentRelevant do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp Listen. By7 ai -9 y -5. that's_the_one_that not -Establish_as_fact Statmnt -Assert.HrResis.Persuade It's like this.
Intention Statements An intention statement can be used at the beginning of a narrative discourse to introduce a thematic activity in the narrative. This is usually some kind of action framework that acts as a setting for the events in the narrative. In the long travel narrative below about going to various villages to take a census, the thematic activity ‘writing people’s names’ is introduced in an intention statement in the first clause of the discourse. All the other events of the narrative, the adventures of travel take place within this action frameword of going from village to village writing down everyone’s name. Y8 a7se9 ty7 o7su4 taui -7 se5 we already person name write -Tot.Inc intend_to We were going to write down people's names. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 Fau3i7 ba4 be7 fvy5 sui -5. therefore already *** right_there LocAdvMkr into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun and so we got into our canoes here at Faui. In the text corpus there are 6 written stories in addition to the oral narrative above that make use of this strategy1.
3.3 Settings Following the optional title and topic statement, all Iau narrative discourse texts open with some kind of setting information. Settings are characterized by information such as: time, location participant introduction and identification opening events thematic action framework within which the events of the narrative take place
The following is an example taken from the written text by Benjamin about ‘Killing A Wild Pig’.
1 By Ananias: Words About Having No Canoe; Words About Going Upstream to Saita; Words About Pig Traps ;By Benjamin: Words About Asking For A Wife;These Words Are About Setting A Pig Trap; By Sakaria: Words About Laughing At Someone
7 Main Participant /Time: A9 da8du7 si6 o -7 da8dv9 I at_first wife take -Tot.Inc and-then I had just taken a wife and then, 2nd Participant /Location / Opening Event y8 bo4 Ba8ti8vs8 ty7 Ba3kv3si6 bui2 i -7 be8 we_two_(incl.) *** person *** upstream go -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj we two, Matius (and I),while going downstream from Bakusi, Specific Location y8 bo4 a7se9 be8sy9 Ei7-8fo7 Bv4si9 be7 ba5sui we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; belonging_to *** *** Loc/DirAdvMkr turn_into -4 da8dv9 -Tel.Inc and-then we two entered the mouth of the Eifo river and then,… First main event of the eventline a9 a7se9 A8da7 bv8 bi -3. I SeqMkr; God to call -Tot.Dur I prayed. In the example above a timeframe is given “when I had just taken a wife”; a generic location and action framework is given “while we were going downstream from Bakusi”; and finally a specific location is identified where the events of the narrative about killing a wild pig will take place “we entered the mouth of the Eifo river.” The main participant, the author, is identified by a fronted first person pronoun in the first clause. His companion is identified in the fronted position of the second clause by a typical Iau participant introduction phrase “we two, Matius (implicit in ‘we’: and I) ….” The setting information in the example above is given in medial and subordinate clauses which end in a main clause which is the first event of the main eventline. The following are two more examples of shorter introductory settings. Words About My Cutting Down a Tree When I Was Small by Benjamin Main Participants /Opening Event A9 a7se9 a6ty9 bv8ke7 be5 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; mother also/and fish_trap for go -Tot.Inc and-then I went with my mother to check a fish trap and then,
Lifting up the chairs by Ananias Main Participants /Location Ty7 bo4 Des8 Daud a7se9 fvy5 sui -9 be7-8 they_two Des8 Daud SeqMkr; into_the_vehicle enter_into -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr Two people, Des and Daud getting into the plane, Opening Event Bu3di3 a5 i -9. Bu3di3 land go -Tot.Pun went to Mulia. In the first example above, “Words about my cutting down a tree when I was small”, the opening event going to get a fish trap is a general action framework within which the specific events of the narrative take place. While the mother is getting the fish trap, her son finds something more interesting to do. In the narrative “Lifting up the chairs” the opening event “Going to Mulia (in a plane)” is the general action framework within which the events of this humorous story take place. The following is an example of another specialized way of introducing setting information in Iau by using fronted, topicalized nominalized clauses to topicalize the time, location and actionframework of the narrative.
8 Stealing food By Benjamin Participant /Time A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di8 -y9 I before small was -Tot.Inc PstDefEvent -Nominalizer Once before when I was small, Location y8 V8e8di7 by6 be -7-8 di9 -y9 we Wedi downstream is/are -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr when we were downstream at Wedi 2nd Participant a9 boi9 o8sy9 Bvy8ta7sui8 be7 da8 I older_sibling my *** NMkrOblq carry /take Thematic Activity di9 du8 sa -7 be9 -e9 food secretly eat -Tot.Inc - PstRptEvent -Nominlz when I was taken by my older brother Buita8sui to go steal food, bv6 bi8fa -7 se -5. I speak -Tot.Inc intention -Tel.Pun I am going to tell (about that). Settings where participants, time, location and opening events or situations are introduced are often marked by durative continuative and progressive aspects, overlapping events, or out of sequence events as illustrated by the following section from the oral narrative ‘The Cassowary’s Revenge’ by Benjamin. Y8 u6-dy4-e9 a7se9 sui9-8.... we before-do it-Nomlz SqMkr die.Tot.Pun.Res.Dur We, in the past it customarily happened like this, we (Sequential eventline event) died Dai3 a7se9 u6 ui8 oe3. Dy4 ty7 dai3 by4 di9 y9
cassowary SqMkr before house be in.Tot.Dur Then person cassowary Instr kill.Tot.Pnc Nomlz The cassowary was alreadybefore that (prior to eventline events) in the house (of the dead). And so, the person who killed the cassowary, a7se9 be3di9 i9 a9. SqMkr later go.Tot.Pnc TempUnBdd later (Sequential event line event, happening after the non-eventline event) went (to the house of the dead) This text shows how a7se9 marks temporally related events in narrative discourse. A7se9 with no other temporal adverb marks sequential events on the eventline. The adverbs u6 ‘before’ and be3di9 ‘after’ are used in combination with a7se9 to indicate events that occur before the main narrative eventline and to mark return to the main eventline. The sequential ordering of these events relative to the eventline can be indicated by adding a time adverb such as u6 ‘before’ or be3di9 ‘after’ following the a7se9 particle.
3.3.1 Time
In Fronted Nominalized Time Clauses General temporal settings for written stories -especially those where the time is part of the discourse topic (eg What I did when I was small) are often placed in fronted nominalized time phrases as illustrated below. Time /Main Participant A9 ko4du8 be -7 di -8 -y9
9 I ko9du8 is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr When I was small, /Once when I was small, Opening event a9 fe6ka -7 da8dv9 I sleep -Tot.Inc and-then I was sleeping and the, 2nd main participant /opening event ty7 o7su4 Fo6bi4 a7se9 a9 foe6 bay2 be4 fe6ka -7 da8dv9 person name Fo6bi4 SeqMkr; I bottom downwards AdvMkr sleep -Tot.Inc and-then a person named Fobi was sleeping down near my backside and then,…. Here is another example of a more generalized time setting “In the past” taken from the story by Ananias about crocodile hunting. Time /Participant Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We, in the past, Location/Action Framework Fai9tav4 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 *** to go -Tot.Inc and-then were going to Faitau and then,….. Some stories begin with a generalized topicalized time and then give more definite time information in subsequent clauses as in the following example from the story “Words About Stealing Food When I Was Small” by Benjamin. Participant/Topicalized General Time A9 u6 di -8 -e9 I before did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nominlz I in the past, Location/More Specific Topicalized Time Fi8be7fvy8 by6 be -4 di -8 -y9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream is/are -Tel.Inc did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr when I was at Fibehui, Specific Time a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark and-then it was evening and then,
Through Events As Temporal Reference Points Other events known to the author and the audience can be used as temporal reference points, as in the following example from the story “Words About Killing A Wild Pig” by Benjamin. Time A9 da8du7 si6 o -7 da8dv9 I at_first wife take -Tot.Inc and-then I had just taken a wife and then, Location/Action Framework y8 bo4 Ba8ti8vs8 ty7 Ba3kv3si6 bui2 i -7 be8 we_two_(incl.) *** person *** upstream go -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj we two, Matius (and I), going downstream from Bakusi, Another example of another event or the lack of an event as a temporal setting is found in the opening of the story “Words About Asking For A Wife” by Benjamin. The story opens with the following temporal information:
10 A9 da8du7 si6 bvy -7 ae7 da8dv9 I at_first wife ask_for -Tot.Inc have_not_yet and-then Before I had asked for a wife (Lit In the beginning I had not asked for a wife yet and then,
Temporal Information Non-Obligatory Temporal information is not obligatory. There are a number of stories that begin with no temporal information. The following is from an oral travel narrative about taking a census by Ananias. Y8 a7se9 ty7 o7su4 taui -7 se5 we already person name write -Tot.Inc intend_to We were going to write down people's names dy4da8dv9 a7se9 Fau3i7 ba4 be7 fvy5 sui -5. therefore already *** right_here/there Loc/DirAdvMkr into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun and so we got into our canoes here at Faui. The following is another example of no temporal information. This is taken from a titleless story about an enemy raid by Benjamin identified on the data base list as “Benjamin’s Words” Ba9 ba7bv9 word this_one These words, a6ty9 I6dvs8 be8sy9 ty7 Bi7e9 be7 u6 di -9 da7be8 mother I6dvs8 belonging_to person Bi7e9 NMkrOb first kill -Tot.Pun because(given_info) Because Idus mother had first been killed by some Bie people, ty7 bvy -7 be8 person grieving_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj \ mourning that, people ty7 Fu3ta9 o8sy9 ty7 a7se9 bv8 di -9 be7-8 person Fu3ta9 from person already because_of kill -Tot.Pun SqPreReqSClMkr killing some people from Huta be7si9 bi -3 leave_behind arrive -Tot.Dur left and came (back) here, In some stories the temporal information is provided in the title and not repeated. Ba9 Ba7bv9 A9 Ko9du8 Be7dv8 U8 Bui4 e8 Ba9 Words About My Cutting Down a Tree When I Was Small By Benjamin A9 a7se9 a6ty9 bv8ke7 be5 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; mother also/and fish_trap for go -Tot.Inc and-then I went with my mother to check a fish trap and then,…..
3.3.2 Location
Generic Locations Locations in Iau narratives can be general such as in the following example of a story that takes place walking around a clearing /village, the location of which is not specified as shown in the two examples below Words About a Grasshopper By Ananias A9 a7se9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 bv8ke7 be3ta9 du -3. I SeqMkr; Ti8bo8ti7vs8 _be_with/accompany be3ta9 walk -Tot.Dur I was walking/going around the village /clearing with Timotius. Words About Wives By Anananias A9 a7se9 Fai9tav8 bay2 du -8 da8dv9
11 I SeqMkr; Fai9tav8 down go around -Rlz.Dur and-then I was down at Faitau and then,
Locations Specified Through Locative Verbs And Directional Adverbs A location can introduced by using locative verbs like ‘go’ ‘come’ ‘cross over to’ etc. Words About Having No Canoe By Ananias Y8 bo4 Yo8si9a3 te7 u6dy4e9 we_two_(incl.) *** NMkr?? in_the_past The two of us, Yosia (and I) did this in the past, General goal location a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i -7 se -5 SeqMkr; land *** upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact (we) were going upstream to the place (called) Behae, dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 a7se9 o -9. therefore goggles SeqMkr; take -Tot.Pun And so, we got our underwater goggles. O -7 da8dv9 take -Tot.Inc and-then We got them and then, Starting Point Location a7se9 bay3 be6 bui2 be7 sui -8 be7-8 SeqMkr; peninsula_of_land path upstream LocAdvMkr enter_into -Rlz.Dur SqMnsSClMkr going to the upstream path we crossed the river and, General Location For Narrative fa6 a9 dav2 baui -8-4 shore the_other_one on_far_side(of_river) arrive -Res.Dur-Tel.Inc we arrived on the far bank of the river. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 o -2 i -7 da8dv9 and_then we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; sandbar -on go -Tot.Inc and-then And then, we went along on the sandbar and then, The following is another example of a locative verb establishing location. Words About Killing a Wild Pig by Benjamin A9 da8du7 si6 o -7 da8dv9 I at_first wife take -Tot.Inc and-then I had just taken a wife and then, y8 bo4 Ba8ti8vs8 ty7 Ba3kv3si6 bui2 i -7 be8 we_two_(incl.) *** person *** upstream go -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj we two, Matius (and I), going downstream from Bakusi, y8 bo4 a7se9 be8sy9 Ei7-8fo7 Bv4si9 be7 ba5sui we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; belonging_to *** *** Loc/DirAdvMkr turn_into -4 da8dv9 -Tel.Inc and-then we two entered the mouth of the Eifo river and then,
Location Specifed Through Goal Locations In travel tales and personal narratives, often the location is specified as part of travel to the goal location Words About Lifting up the Chair by Ananias Ty7 bo4 Des8 Daud a7se9 fvy5 sui -9 be7-8 they_two Des8 Daud SeqMkr; into_the_vehicle enter_into -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr Two people, Des and Daud getting into the plane,
12 Bu3di3 a5 i -9. Bu3di3 land go -Tot.Pun went to Mulia. Crocodile Words.By Ananias Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We, in the past, Fai9tav4 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 *** to go -Tot.Inc and-then were going to Faitau and then, a7se9 dav2 bv8 du -3. SeqMkr; crododile for go around -Tot.Dur we were hunting crocodiles. In the first narrative, the story takes place inside a plane that is on the way to Mulia. In the second narrative, the crocodile hunt takes place while on a journey to Faitau.
Introduced In An Intention Clause Intention clauses can be used to introduce topical locations and goal locations in travellogs and other narratives where the goal or location is topical. This is illustrated below. Words About Having No Canoe By Ananias Y8 bo4 Yo8si9a3 te7 u6dy4e9 we_two_(incl.) *** NMkr?? in_the_past The two of us, Yosia (and I) did this in the past,
a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i -7 se -5 SeqMkr; land *** upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact (we) were going upstream to the place (called) Behae,
Introduced As Topicalized Nominalized Clause The location of a narrative can also be specified as part of a topicalized statement in the beginning of the narrative as illustrated below ‘when we were downstream at Wedi’. These Words Are About Stealing Food By Benjamin A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di8 -y9 I before small was -Tot.Inc PstDefEvent -Nominalizer Once before when I was small, y8 V8e8di7 by6 be -7-8 di9 -y9 we Wedi downstream is/are -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr when we were downstream at Wedi……
Location Information Non-Obligatory Identifying the location of a narrative is not obligatory in Iau narrative discourse. The following is an example representing a number of narratives where the location has no bearing on the story and is not mentioned. Words About Playing. By Ananaia Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We in the past, A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 Av8si7 bv8ke7 A8fo8di7vs8 also/with Av8si7 also/with Apodius, Ausi,
13 Ti8bo8ti7us8 bv8ke7 a9 bv8ke7 Ti8bo8ti7us8 also/with I_also Timotius and I, av8 bo9bi -2 da8dv9 play_together -Tel.Dur and-then Apodius, Ausi, Timotius and I were playing together and then, a7se9 u8 bi7si9 ta -3. SeqMkr; day one sleep -Tot.Dur we slept for the night.
3.3.3 The Participants
Introduced In Far Left Fronted Position The participants are introduced in the first clauses of the narrative in the far left fronted position of the clause or sentence as illustrated below. Lifting up the chairs by Ananias Ty7 bo4 Des8 Daud a7se9 fvy5 sui -9 be7-8 they_two Des8 Daud SeqMkr; into_the_vehicle enter_into -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr Two people, Des and Daud getting into the plane, Bu3di3 a5 i -9. Bu3di3 land go -Tot.Pun went to Mulia. The previous example shows participants introduced in the far left fronted position of a topic comment sentence. The following is a rare example of the participants introduced in the left fronted position of a cleft construction. Cleft constructions used to introduce topical participants and props in narratives are less common but they do occur. Usually the LDP of a topic comment construction is used. The following is an example taken from one of the Iau myths. LDP 1 Topical Time A7se9 u6dy4e8 SeqMkr long ago It was long ago, LDP 2 Topical participants -2 dy8 a7se9 sae7 av7bv9 bv8ke7 And SeqMkr bro-in-law his with and a man went with his wife’s brother, LDP 3 Topical Prop a7se9 tv9 o7su9 bi3fv3 by7by9 du7be7 bv8 i9. SeqMkr sago name bifu it was that for go and it was bihu sago they went to get. The same narrative also illustrates the topical participants renewed at the inciting moment, when the man’s hand gets caught and his brother in law leaves him to die of starvation. The participant and the prop acting on the undergoer man are both renewed in a fronted left position in the clause. Bv8 i7 da8dv9 for go and them They went and then, a7se9 sae7 av7bv9 bv8ke7 bi3fv3 di3. Seqmkr bro-in-law his with bifu hit /split The man and his wife's brother began to split open the sago (trunk).
14 A7se9 di8 da8dv9 SeqMKr split and then They split it and then, INCITING MOMENT LDP 1 Sae7 av7bv9 a7se9 bro-in-law his SeqMkr LDP 2 bi3fv3 a7se9 bihu SeqMkr di8 du7be7 split but His wife's brother split the bihu sago but, a7se9 i8ki3. SeqMkr pinched/wedged he got his hand wedged between the incompletely split pieces of sago
Introduced Generically Then Amplified The example above also illustrates another topic and participant introduction strategy in Iau discourse. The first mention is often a generic pronoun or pronoun plus a number followed by the specific identities of the participants as illustrated below.In the example above, the generic ‘ty7’ ‘people’ is also used as the third person pronoun, they. The participants are initially referred to as “they two” and then specifically identified by name. In the examples below, the participants are also first introduced by the generic “we” and then specified by name. Words About Playing. By Ananaia Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We in the past, A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 Av8si7 bv8ke7 A8fo8di7vs8 also/with Av8si7 also/with Apodius, Ausi, Ti8bo8ti7us8 bv8ke7 a9 bv8ke7 Ti8bo8ti7us8 also/with I_also Timotius and I, av8 bo9bi -2 da8dv9 play_together -Tel.Dur and-then Apodius, Ausi, Timotius and I were playing together and then,… Words About Having No Canoe By Ananias Y8 bo4 Yo8si9a3 te7 u6dy4e9 we_two_(incl.) *** NMkr?? in_the_past The two of us, Yosia (and I) did this in the past, a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i -7 se5 SeqMkr; land *** upstream go -Tot.Inc AssertIntention (we) were going upstream to the place (called) Behae, In the first example above the speaker is included in the list referred to by the 1st person pronoun “I”. But the second is example is a much more common way of specifying who is being referred to as “we”. The participants are first referred to as “we” which is implicitly ‘I and someone else’. The ‘someone else’ is then identified by name and the “I”/spkr left implicit. There are multiple examples of this style of
15 participant introduction2. In this example the time events and participants are introduced in backgrounded medial and subordinate clauses . The setting information in the example above in given in medial and subordinate clauses which end in a main clause which is the first event of the main eventline. The following example is similar except that the speaker is first mentioned as “I” in a time clause at the very beginning of the narrative “When I had first taken a wife”, and then the participants for this particular story “We, Matius, are mentioned. By Benjamin about ‘Killing A Wild Pig’. Main Participant /Time: A9 da8du7 si6 o -7 da8dv9 I at_first wife take -Tot.Inc and-then I had just taken a wife and then, 2nd Participant /Location / Opening Event y8 bo4 Ba8ti8vs8 ty7 Ba3kv3si6 bui2 i -7 be8 we_two_(incl.) *** person *** upstream go -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj we two, Matius (and I),while going downstream from Bakusi, Specific Location y8 bo4 a7se9 be8sy9 Ei7-8fo7 Bv4si9 be7 ba5sui we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; belonging_to *** *** Loc/DirAdvMkr turn_into -4 da8dv9 -Tel.Inc and-then we two entered the mouth of the Eifo river and then,… First main event of the eventline a9 a7se9 A8da7 bv8 bi -3. I SeqMkr; God to call -Tot.Dur I prayed. .See section 7.0 below for a full discussion of participant ranking, reference and tracking in Iau narrative discourse.
3.3.4 Opening Events We have seen in the previous sections about time and location in Iau narrative, that opening events in a narrative can be used to establish the time and location of the narrative. For example, the event “it was getting dark” indicates at what time of day the narrative begins. The event “We entered into the mouth of the Eifo river” establishes a specific location where the events of the narrative begin. There are other kinds of opening events in Iau narratives that are not indicating time or location, nor are they actually part of the main narrative eventline. These events are background events that lead into the events of the narrative eventline. These can be either sequentially related events or temporally overlapping events. These will be referred to as opening events. In their role of acting as a backdrop for the main events of the narrative, opening events can also be thematic generic events that provide an action frame work for the events of the narrative. For example the opening event “We had taken the dogs hunting when…” provides a general action framework for a hunting story, or a story that began with a hunt and turned into something else. In the database five types of opening events have been identified. An activity or condition that set up the situation or leads up to the narrative eventline A thematic event statement An intention statement A backgrounded intiating event The introduction (see /hear /there was …) of a significant prop
2 Finding a path through the jungle By Paulus; Words About Asking For a Wife. by Benjamin; Words about playing by Benjamin; Words about what I did when I was small by Benjamin; Words about a possum by Sakaria; Words about going after a pig by Sakaria; Words about having no canoe by Ananias; Words about playing by Ananias; Words about lifting up the chair by Ananias
16 These will be discussed individually below.
3.3.4.1 An Activity /Condition Which Is In Effect When The Events Of The Narrative Begin Activities which indirectely lead up to the events of the narrative eventline or conditions which are in effect when the narrative eventline begins, often have nothing to do with the actual eventline. They simply indicate the state of affairs before the narrative eventline begins. In the opening of the story Words About Being Angry by Benjamin, the main characters are sleeping when the intiating event that made Benjamin angry occurred. ‘I was sleeping..the person named Fobi was sleeping…’ are opening conditions. As they are sleeping, Fobi initiates the events of the eventline by passing gas and upsetting the author. A9 ko4du8 be -7 di -8 -y9 I ko9du8 is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr I, when I was small, a9 fe6ka -7 da8dv9 I sleep -Tot.Inc and-then I was sleeping and the, ty7 o7su4 Fo6bi4 a7se9 a9 foe6 bay2 be4 fe6ka -7 da8dv9 person name Fo6bi4 SeqMkr; I bottom downwards AdvMkr sleep -Tot.Inc and-then a person named Fobi was sleeping down near my backside and then, In the text Words About Playing By Ananias, the opening event simply states that they were playing. The next events are time indicators - they slept and the next morning came. Following this, the narrative events actually begin. The play is significant because the eventline is about the resumption of their play the next day. Two of the boys sneaking up on the other two and shoot them with their toy arrows precipitating a fight. Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We in the past, A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 Av8si7 bv8ke7 A8fo8di7vs8 also/with Av8si7 also/with Ti8bo8ti7us8 bv8ke7 a9 bv8ke7 Ti8bo8ti7us8 also/with I_also av8 bo9bi -2 da8dv9 play_together -Tel.Dur and-then Apodius, Ausi, Timotius and I were playing and then, In the text Words About A Possum, by Sakaria, the main characters are hunting birds when the main events of the narrative begin. They see a possum and decide to kill it instead of birds. Y8 baui7-8 A8de8a8 Ye7bi9 we three *** *** We three, Adea, Yimmy (and I), y8 a7se9 du3si7 bv8 tai -7 se9 du -3. we SeqMkr; bird for search -Tot.Inc CircSClCj go around -Tot.Dur we were hunting birds. Y8 du3si7 bv8 tai -7 se9 du -8 be8du7 we bird for search -Tot.Inc CircSClCj go around -Rlz.Dur when We were hunting birds when, sv9di9 bi7si9 u8 av5 ta9 bi9 be -4 du8 possum one tree_stump in/at up-on/over is/are -Tel.Inc when there was a possum up on a tree stump who, u8 tai5ta9 bay2 boi6-3. tree down_inside downwards go_down_into ran down inside the tree stump.
17 The following is a longer oral text by Benjamin about how the Iau came to settle in their present area which illustrates an opening with multiple opening events. Each of the characters in the opening episode is engaged in a seperate opening activity leading up to the actual events of the narrative. The main character is in the house sick and asleep. A young boy is in the house sleeping and most of the people have gone off hunting. Dy8 ty7 a7se9 u6dy4a9e9 a7se9 fa3fv7 Y7 Faf5 bay2 be -5 And people SeqMkr in the past SeqMkr all Y Hap down were -Tel.Pun In the old days everyone lived down at Ihap. A7se9 Y7 Faf5 bay2 be -4 da8dv9, SeqMkr Y Hap down were -Tel.Pun They were down at Ihap and ty7 bi7si9 a7se9 ui7 su -5. person one SeqMkr house-in sick -Tel.Pun there was a man in the house sick. I8 fu -7 da8dv9, skin/body hurt -Tot.Inc and then He was in pain and ty7 ka6di8 be7 -y9 a7se9 du9 bv8 tv -9. people many NMkr -Nomlz SeqMkr wild pig for go away -Tot.Pun Many people and gone hunting wild pigs. ty7 ka6di8 be7 -y9 a7se9 du9 bv8 i -7. da8dv9, people many NMkr -Nomlz SeqMkr wild pig for go -Tot.Inc and then Many people had gone hunting and au7 a7se9 ui7 fe6ka -4 de9. he SeqMkr house-in sleep -Tel.Inc Stative he was in the house sleeping. Fe6ka -4 de7 da8dv9, sleep -Tel.Inc Stative and then He was in the house sleeping and ty7 fvy6 bi7si9 a7se9 au7 bv8ke7 ui8 oe -3. person bachelor one SeqMkr he also house be in -Tot.Dur there was a unmarried boy with him in the house. There is one story in the database where the whole initial first episode acts as a kind of opening event, leading to the thematic eventline of a man getting lost in the jungle. In the opening episode of Words About Being Lost by Sakaria. Two men, taking some young boys with them, go hunting and get attacked by wild pigs. The young boys come back to the village for help. A crippled man tries to follow the villagers going to help and gets lost in the jungle. The examples above are only a sampling of a number of narratives with opening events of this type..3
3.3.4.2 Opening Thematic Event Sometimes the opening event names a thematic activity that serves as a general action framework within which the events of the narrative take place. For example, in the following story ‘Crocodile Words’ by
3 Words About Tipping Over A Canoe; Words About a Lizard by Sakaria; Words About Going After a Pig; Words About Tying a Grasshopper's Feet and Hitting Him; Words About Being Attacked by A Wild Pig; Words About a Snake 2 by Sakaria and Words About My Cutting Down a Tree When I Was Small; Words about Playing; Words About What I Did When I Was Small ; by Benjamin The short story entitled Words About Stealing Food When I Was Small by Benjamin, after the participant, time and location information, opens with a thematic condition “I was crying, begging my mother for sago” which he later tries to steal in the middle of the night after his mother refuses him.
18 Ananias, we were hunting crocodiles is a generic statement statement of the thematic activity of the eventline. That is, the story is about a particular encounter with two crocodiles. Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We, in the past, Fai9tav4 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 *** to go -Tot.Inc and-then were going to Faitau and then, a7se9 dav2 bv8 du -3. SeqMkr; crododile for go around -Tot.Dur we were hunting crocodiles. The following opening event from the text ‘Words About Getting Attacked by a Pig and GettingBandaged Up’ by Sakaria states the generic topic of the narrative, Epi getting attacked by a wild pig. This particular narrative focuses not on the actual attack but on being wounded and the resulting care required. For another similar example see the text Words About Having Diarrhea From Eating Fish by Sakaria. E7fi9 a7se9 dui9 sa -7 da8dv9 *** SeqMkr; by-a-pig injured -Tot.Inc and-then Epi got attacked by a pig and then,… A9 u6 di -8 -e9 I before did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nominlz I in the past, Fi8be7fvy8 by6 be -4 di -8 -y9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream is/are -Tel.Inc did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr when I was at Fibehui, a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark and-then it was evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago(starch/palm) ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9be8 y -7 du7be7 mother facing cry -Tot.Inc but was crying in front of my mother but,
3.3.4.3 Opening Intention Statement Another strategy used in Iau narrative discourse is to present the opening event as an intention statement as illustrated in the opening of the story Words About Having No Canoe by Ananias. Y8 bo4 Yo8si9a3 te7 u6dy4e9 we_two_(incl.) *** NMkr?? in_the_past The two of us, Yosia (and I) did this in the past, a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i -7 se -5 SeqMkr; land *** upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact (we) were going upstream to the place (called) Behae, dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 a7se9 o -9. therefore goggles SeqMkr; take -Tot.Pun And so, we got our underwater goggles. In the example above as with other types of opening events, the intention statement provides an action framework within which the turtle and crocodile hunting events of the narrative eventline take place. For other examples see Words About Going Upstream to Saita and Words About Pig Traps. by Ananias; Words About Laughing at Someone by Sakaria and Words About Setting A Pig Trap by Benjamin.
19 3.3.4.4 An Initiating Event As Opening Event In the two texts below, a backgrounded initiating event serves as a lead in to the narrative eventline. No Title By Benjamin Ba9 ba7bv9 word this_one These words, a6ty9 I6dvs8 be8sy9 ty7 Bi7e9 be7 u6 di -9 da7be8 mother I6dvs8 belonging_to person Bi7e9 NMkrOb first kill -Tot.Pun because(given_info) Because Idus mother had first been killed by some Bie people, Words About Eating a Dead Person's Bone When I Was Small by Benjamin A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di -9 -y9 I before small is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr When I was small, a9 a6ty9 be8 da -8 Sai4 Bv4si8 be7 da -8 ba I mother NMkrAg carry -Rlz.Dur *** *** Loc/DirAdvMkr carry -Rlz.Dur come -7 be8du7 -Tot.Inc IntrptMVClCj my mother took me and brought me to the mouth of the Sai river when, y8 bi8 ba -7 da7be8 we rain come -Tot.Inc because(given_info) because it started to rain, Sy9 v3 Ba8fi9ta9 by6 be7 ba -6-3. should coming_there *** downstream Loc/DirAdvMkr come -ChStateRes.Pun-Tot.Dur we went downstream to Bafita. In each of the examples above a reason clause serves as the opening event leading up the main narrative eventline. In the first text, a murder leads to the story of how they got revenge and then stopped their cycle of killing. In the second story, the coming of the rain, necesitated their overnighting in the house where the narrative took place.
3.3.4.5 Introduction Of A Significant Prop Still other Iau narratives combine the opening event with the introduction of a significant prop into the narrative as illustrated below where the sighting of the grasshopper results in the events of the narrative. The author gets bit by the grasshopper and then tricks his brother into getting bit also. Words About A Grasshopper by Ananias A9 a7se9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 bv8ke7 be3ta9 du -3. I SeqMkr; Ti8bo8ti7vs8 _be_with/accompany be3ta9 walk -Tot.Dur I was walking around with Timotius. Be3ta9 du -7 da8dv9 Be3ta9 walk -Tot.Inc and-then I was walking around and then, ka3av9 a7se9 bi7si9 doe -9. grasshopper SeqMkr; one see -Tot.Pun I saw a grasshopper. In the following example, the sighting of the tree inspires the plan to cut it down which one of them, their friend, Victor unsuccessfully tries to prevent. Words About Cutting Down a Tree with Someone in It by Ananias A9 u6dy4e9 I in_the_past I in the past,
20 Fi8be7fvy8 by6be7 du -8 da8dv9 Fi8be7fvy8 by6be7 go around -Rlz.Dur and-then was at Fibehui and then,\ y8 ko4du8 a7se9 be3ta9 du -8 da8dv9 we small SeqMkr; be3ta9 go around -Rlz.Dur and-then we small one s were walking around and then, so7 ko4du9 bi7si9 doe -9. tree ko4du9 one see -Tot.Pun we saw a little so tree. In the following narrative Words About Stealing Food by Benjamin, the sighting of the garden leads to the plan to steal some food. A9 a7se9 au7 fai2 du -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; he follow go around -Tot.Inc and-then I was following him and then,
di9 u8ae8 a7se9 doe -7 da8dv9 food garden SeqMkr; see -Tot.Inc and-then we saw a garden and then, a9 a7se9 foi -5 I SeqMkr; tell -Tel.Pun he said to me,
4.0 The Eventline At the core of any narrative discourse is the eventline and the participants and props involved in these events. The eventline is a series of sequentially and causatively related events which culminate in the final outcome of the narrative. The eventline is about the participants and topics introduced in the narrative opening. The purpose of the eventline is not only to predicate something about the narrative participants and discourse topics, but also to fulfill the author’s purpose in telling the story. The narrative eventline illustrates the points the author wishes to communicate to the readers/listeners. The eventline consists of every new event being predicated about the topic and participants. Therefore the eventline consists of the clauses of the narrative that predicate new information about the topics and participants, are sequentially or causatively related to one another, and culminate in the final outcome of the narrative. Repetitive statements of events, negative statements, and evaluative comments by the participants or the author are not part of the narrative eventline. The eventline is series of cohesive events linked by common denominators. One of the main common denominators in a narrative, is the sequential and causative progression of events leading to an endpoint. Tension is created in the narrative when the desired endpoint is frustrated or hindered. Tension is resolved by intermediate solutions and event sequences which serve as the means for bringing about the final endpoint. Each event contributes to the tension contour by either moving the eventline away from resolution and thereby increasing the tension or moving toward resolution and thereby decreasing the tension. The narrative peak is the point of greatest tension in the narrative? Following the peak, resolution takes place, all the loose ends are tied up and the eventline is brought to it’s conclusion. The eventline of a given narrative is segmented and organized into a sequence of smaller eventlines, often referred to as episodes, which are arranged in a hierarchy. In this hierarchy there are main evenlines which move the story forward to it’s final outcome or server to increase the tension on the eventline leading to the peak. There are also secondary eventlines which provide secondary background information. Each episode can also have it’s own opening and setting information and introduction of secondary participants and props. Not all events on the eventline are successful in moving the story towards the final outcome. Some events are part of a progression towards the final outcome or resolution. Other events move the story away from an outcome or resolution. These events are various problems, hinderances and changes that affect the eventline. As they are resolved and overcome, the eventline moves towards it’s final outcome or resolution.
21 4.1 Examples of some typical Iau eventlines In Iau the most characteristic features of the eventline are: the use of a sequence particle a7se9 to introduce main participants and to mark new sequential predicated information about the topic and topical participants. the use of repeated information linking clauses for eventline cohesion, marking segment boundaries, and secondarily in some discourse styles marking non-foregrounded chronological sequence. the use of independent clauses to predicate main eventline and participant information and thematic statements, with backgrounded information in medial and subordinate clauses the use of patterns of clause and sentence types to mark discourse units and sentence boundaries. A continuation of the pattern indicates same discourse unit. While a break in the pattern indicates a discourse boundary. These and other more specific characteristics are illustrated in the narratives and narrative segments in Figures 1-4. The short narrative in Figure 1 illustrates a one common style for oral eventlines particularly travel narratives in Iau. In this style: Repeated information linking clauses are used for cohesion and secondarily used to mark non- foregrounded chronological sequence. The clause pattern is independent clause followed by repeat of that same information in a medial verb linking clause. A break in this pattern signals the end of one discourse unit and the beginning of the next. As in all Iau eventlines, the a7se9 particle marks new predicated information about the topic or marks left dislocated elements being topicalized. Note the use of two independent clauses connected by independent clause conjunction dy4da8dv9 for episode outcomes as well as the discourse outcome. Figure 2 is a short written narrative entitled Words About Playing also by Ananias, showing differences in style based on type of narrative. The sentences in written narrative tend to be more complex. This author also favors chains of independent clauses connected by independent clause conjunction dy4da8dv9 for episode outcomes as well as the discourse outcome. As in the previous narrative sentences are connected by repeated informational medial verb linking clauses, A7se9 marks new predicated information, both events and participants. Figure 3 is a short written narrative by a different author with a different style than the author of Figures 1 and 2. In written discourse linking repeated information medial verb clauses are used to link discourse units rather than individual eventline events. Discourse segments are realized in sentences composed of clause chains. The eventline proper is placed in chains of medial and /or subordinate clauses ending in a final independent clause outcome.(See sentence 4 below) The final outcomes, resolutions thematic statements and author comments are placed in chains of independent clauses /independent clause sentences. (See sentences 5-7, 8-9 below)
22 Peak, final outcomes, resolutions and author comments to the reader are highlighted by marking them with status and mood particles (See sentences 5-7, 8-9 below) This style of Iau discourse is very compact with a high new information load. Note the the long chains of clauses comprising a single sentence. And the first medial verb clause of sentence 1 of Figure 3, This medial verb clause introduces time and participant and opening event information all in the same clause and functions as a semantic unit, the narrative problem. New backgrounded information is be added in medial verb clauses as illustrated by the clauses marked in red. (Note this is a characteristic of all narrative discourse styles. See the last sentence of discourse unit 1 in Figure 1) See the clause ‘I went home and then, ’ in sentence 3 of Figure 3. Figure 4 is another short written narrative by Benjamin who has a different style charcterized by: The setting is placed in a sequence of two nominalized clauses ending in a medial verb temporal setting clause. Eventlines are placed in strings of medial verb and subordinate clauses ending in an independent clause. The independent clauses give an outlineof the most important events of the eventline. Repeated Information Linking clauses are used to mark the next higher level pragmatic unit, outcomes, and summary of eventline Direct quotes with double quote margins are used to mark the next higher level pragmatic discourse units, the outcomes, and a summary of eventline from the persepective of each of the participants. In the examples that follow in Figures 1-4, the a7se9 particle is highlighted in bold and repeated information linking clauses are in italics and indented. Chains of independent clauses are marked in red. Status and mood markers are marked in blue. And sequences of nominalized clauses are marked in orange. Since quotes are conversational discourse the clause structure and markers are excluded from the discourse analysis. Quote content is marked in green below.
23 Figure 1 Taking A Census by Ananias Discourse Unit 1: plan, food for journey (get sugar cane) go on way Y8 a7se9 ty7 o7su4 taui -7 se5 we already person name write -Tot.Inc intend_to We were going to write down people's names dy4da8dv9 a7se9 Fau3i7 ba4 -be7 fvy5 sui -5. therefore already *** right_here/there LocMkr into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun and so we got into our canoes here at Faui. Fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc and-thenMVClCj We got into out canoes and then, a7se9 Si7bav4ta8 be7 fv7 bai -6 already *** Loc/DirAdvMkr canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun We docked /put our canoes to shore at Sibauta. Fv7 bai -6 da8dv9 canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun and-thenMVClCj We docked and then, a7se9 su9 be7 fav -9. already sugar_cane NMkr-Given break_off_piece -Tot.Pun we broke off some (stalks of) sugar cane Discourse segment closing: break in chaining pattern, background event /new information medial verb clause, no a7se9 on final independent clause (expected event) Dy4 su9 be7 fav -7 da8dv9 And_then, sugar_cane NMkr-Given break_off_piece -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj And then after we had broken off some sugar cane, a7se9 fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 already into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc and-thenMVClCj we got into the canoe and be7 i -9. travel_on -Tot.Pun we went on.
24 Discourse Unit 2: The trip to Bakusi (intermediate destination) Discourse segment opening: Dy4 Cj -linking to previous, signal new to come; advance new nountopic : canoe; maintain ‘we’ but zeroed. Dy4 a7se9 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, already go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj And then, we were already going and then, /when we were travelling along, fv7 a7se9 be8sy9 bui2 -be7 ke8fa8da7 be8 bay -5. canoe/plane already ObligRs upstream AdvDirMkr chief NMkrAg give the canoe when we were upstream, we gave the headman (the job of poling) it. Dy4 bay -4 da8dv9 And_then, give -Tel.Inc and-thenMVClCj So then, we gave him (the job) and so, a7se9 au7 be8 da8 i -9. already he NMkrAg propel go -Tot.Pun he poled /propelled us along. Dy4 da8 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, propel go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj So then he propelled us along and then, a7se9 Ba3kv3si6 be7 fu -3. already *** Loc/DirAdvMkr tie_up -Tot.Dur we tied up the canoe at Bakusi. A7se9 fu -8 da8dv9 already tie_up -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj We tied it up and then, ta -3. sleep -Tot.Dur we spent the night. Discourse Unit 3: The Trip To Turumo Setting: Time (after two nights, next day) Background event: go to church Destination ID: go upstream to Turumo Dy4 ta -8 da8dv9 then sleep -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj When we had spent the night,
25 da8su6 A9da7 ba9 sa -3. in_the_morning God word eat -Tot.Dur the next day we attended church. A7se9 A9da7 ba9 sa -8 da8dv9 already God word eat -Rlz.Dur and-then MVClCj We attended church and then, a7se9 da8su6 Tu8du8bo9 bui2 i -9. already in_the_morning *** upstream go -Tot.Pun the next morning we went upstream to Turumo. Episode eventline: catching a possum --local peak Dy4 a7se9 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, already go -Tot.Inc and-then MVClCj And we travelled along and then, , a7se9 sv9di9 bi7si9 doe -9 already possum one see -Tot.Pun we saw a possum. Sv9di9 bi7si9 doe -7 da8dv9 possum one see -Tot.Inc and-then MVClCj We saw a possum and then, a7se9 di -8 a3. already kill -Rlz.Dur PstHab/2ndPeakMkr we killed it. A7se9 di -8 da8dv9 already kill -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj We killed it and then, fvy5 ay -3. into_the_canoe put -Tot.Dur we put it in the canoe. Discourse unit eventline: Outcome -arrival in Turumo Dy4 fvy5 ay -8 da8dv9 And_then, into_the_canoe put -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj Then when we had put it in the canoe,
26 a7se9 da8 i -9. already carry go -Tot.Pun we took it along. Dy4 da8 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, carry go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj And then, we took it along and then, a7se9 Tu8du8bo9 be7 baui -3. already *** Loc/DirAdvMkr arrive -Tot.Dur we came to Turumo. Dy4 y8 a7se9 ta -3. And_then, we already sleep -Tot.Dur And so, we spent the night. Discourse Unit 4 Eventline: given food as welcome (local peak) + Thematic Outcome stage 1: take census (in Turumo) Dy4 y8 a7se9 ta -8 da8dv9 And_then, we already sleep -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj And then, we spent the night and then, ty7 a7se9 di9 a9fa -6. person already food gather_together -Res.Pun the people collected /got together food (for us). Di9 a7se9 a9fa -6 da8dv9 food already gather_together -Res.Pun and-thenMVClCj Food They got some together for us and then, di9 a7se9 o -9 a3 food already get -Tot.Pun PstHab2ndPeakMkr the food we took it. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 ty7 o7su4 be7 taui -9. therefore already person name PredThInfo write -Tot.Pun and then we took a census /wrote down people's names.
27 Figure 2 Av8 Bo9 Bi2 Ba9 Words About Playing. by Ananias Discourse Unit 1: S1-3 Setting: Participants, Time. Opening Events x2 -one for each of two participant groups Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We in the past, A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 Av8si7 bv8ke7 Ti8bo8ti7us8 bv8ke7 a9 bv8ke7 av8 bo9bi -2 da8dv9 A8fo8di7vs8 also/with Av8si7 also/with Ti8bo8ti7us8 also/with I_also play_together -Tel.Dur and-thenMVClCj Apodius and Ausi and Timotius and I, were playing together and then, a7se9 u8 bi7si9 ta -3. SeqMkr; day one sleep -Tot.Dur we slept for the night. Ta -8 da8dv9 sleep -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj We slept and then, a7se9 da8 su -6. SeqMkr; sky dry_up -Res.Pun it was the next day. Da8 su -6 da8dv9 sky dry_up -Res.Pun and-thenMVClCj It was the next day and then, a7se9 Av8si7 be7-8de3 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 be7-8de3 a4 bv8ke7 tv9 bv8 i -9 SeqMkr; Av8si7 also Ti8bo8ti7vs8 also father with sago for go -Tot.Pun both Ausi and Timotius went with father to get sago. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 A8fo8di7vs8 y8 bo4 a7se9 ui 7 i -4. therefore we_two_(incl.) A8fo8di7vs8 we_two SeqMkr; house -the go -Tel.Inc so then, we two, Apodius (and I), we two stayed in the house /stayed home. Discourse Unit 2: S4-S7 (Break in pattern , linking repeated information clauses; Establish new discourse boundary pattern-end unit with two independent clauses joined by conjunction dy4da8dv9. (See subsequent units)) Participant Group 2 Eventline
28 Ui -7 i -4 da8dv9 house -given_loc go -Tel.Inc and-thenMVClCj We stayed at home and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 foi -5. we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun we two said to each other, "Y8 a7se9 kaf7 taui -7 be7-8 we SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm taui -Tot.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr "We, Making some bows, ty7 bo4 y8 di -8 ba -5." they_two we hit -Rlz.Dur let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade lets go shoot those other two." Ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -5 word like_that speak -Tel.Pun We spoke words like that dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 kaf7 o -9. therefore we_two_(incl ; SeqMkr bow get -Tot.Pun And therefore we two got our bows Discourse Unit 3: S8-S11 Break in pattern 3 independent clauses; 2 as quote margins, last two joined by independent clause conjunction dy4da8dv9 A7se9 kaf7 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We got our bows and then, a7se9 i -9. SeqMkr; go -Tot.Pun we went. I -7 da8dv9 go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We went and then, ty7 tv9 bai -6 -e9 doe -9. person sago(starch/palm) bai -Res.Pun -Nominlz see -Tot.Pun the ones who were pounding the sago, we saw them. Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We saw them and then,
29 y8 a7se9 e9fai -6. we SeqMkr; e9fai -Res.Pun we hid. E9fai -6 da8dv9MVClCj E9fai -Res.Pun and-then We hid and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 a2 by -3 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; land -on dance -Tot.Dur we two danced on the ground (with excitement) dy4da8dv9 ty7 bo4 y8 a7se9 av8 fu5 di - 8 di3. therefore they_two we SeqMkr; each one shoot -Rlz.Dur DefRlzd Event so then, those twok we each one shot one of them Discourse Unit 4: S12 -17 pattern break, break in repeated clause links, end in 2 independent clauses, joined by independent clause conjunction, dy4da8dv9. Di -8 da8dv9 shoot -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj We shot them and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 u6 ba8day -3 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; before flee -Tot.Dur we two first fled. dy4da8dv9 Av8si7 a7se9 av8du -3. therefore Av8si7 SeqMkr; angry -Tot.Dur so then Ausi became angry. Av8du -8 da8dv9 angry -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj He became angry and then, au7 i8 bavy -7 da8dv9 he body sting -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj his body was in pain and so, au7 a7se9 kaf7 o -9 a9. he SeqMkr; bow get -Tot.Pun Narand...(IndfList) he got his bow. Kaf7 o -7 da8dv9 bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj He took his bow and then,
30 A8fo8di7vs 8 a7se9 bi -4 A8fo8di7vs8 SeqMkr; draw_bow -Tel.Inc Apodius he began to take aim at him. dy4da8dv9 A8fo8di7vs8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9, therefore A8fo8di7vs8 SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun so then, Apodius spoke words /said, " A9 sa4dy8 di -8 dy -3." I then shoot -Rlz.Dur do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp "Go ahead and shoot me." Au7 ba9 dy4dau4 Av8si7 foi -5 he word like_that Av8si7 tell -Tel.Pun He told Ausi words like that. di4du7be7 Av8si7 a7se9 v4 fe6di7 be -9 but Av8si7 SeqMkr; heart soft is -Tot.Pun but Ausi his heart softened. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 av8 bo4fe7 ba -3. therefore SeqMkr; make_peace_with -Tot.Dur so then they made peace. Formulaic Closing Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words. By7by9 du7be7 bi8fa -9. it's_that_that... say -Tot.Pun That's what I had to say.
31 Figure 3 Words about Tying Up a Frog's Feet and Hitting it by by Sakaria Sentence 1: Setting and opening problem A9 da8fa9 u6di8 -y9 I recently once_in_the_past -Nomnlzr I, recently in the past/not long ago, Problem a9 da8fai5 fy3 bv8 so8ty8dy7 da8 du -8 du7be7, I night frog for flashlight carry go around -Rlz.Dur butMVClCj I had taken my flashlight at night (to look) for frogs but, a9 fi4au7 fy3 doe -7 ae -5. I very/always frog see -Tot.Inc not -Tel.Pun I didn't see any. Sentence 2: Outcome: A9 fi4au7 fy3 doe -7 ae -7 da8dv9 I very/always frog see -Tot.Inc not -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj I didn't see any so, be7si -9. leave -Tot.Pun I left and, Sentence 3: Final Resolution:Setting (in the morning, at his house) Ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 house to go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj I went home and then, da8 a7se9 su -6. sky SeqMkr; erase -Res.Pun the sky was getting light/dark erased Sentence 4: Final Resolution :Eventline leading up to initiating event (catch a frog) Da8 a7se9 su -6 da8dv9 sky SeqMkr; erase -Res.Pun and-thenMVClCj The sky was getting light/ dark erased
32 a9 a7se9 be3ta7 du -8 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; in_the_village walk -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj as I was walking around in the village, fy3 a7se9 bi7si9 oe7 kav3ka9 bi9be7 y -7 da8dv9 frog SeqMkr; one banana tops_(of_trees) up-on/over cry_out -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj a frog up in the top of a banana tree croaked and, a9 a7se9 o -9. I SeqMkr; get -Tot.Pun I caught it. Sentence Cluster 5-7: Final Resolution: get revenge on frogs Bv6 a7se9 di -8 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; hit -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj When I hit it, fau -4 di -8 bv9. defecate -Tel.Inc Bounded.Realis -Rlz.Dur and_(unordered_list) it defecated Si -8 di -8 bv9. urinate -Rlz.Dur Bounded.Realis -Rlz.Dur and_(unordered_list) It urinated. Dy4be7 sui -5. and_then die -Tel.Pun Then it died. Sentence Cluster 8-9 Author comment anticipating readers reaction Bv7 to6 a9 v4 da8 ai -9 y3 this not I choices, Given-Rslt not -EstbFact Rspns-Comment| You know that (that it died like that) was not my fault. Bv6 dy4 y -7 di7 by5. I like_ that answer -Tot.Inc would/might Emph I would answer you emphatically like that. Formulaic narrative closing Fy3 ba9 be -7 ae -6. frog word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words about frogs.
33 Figure 3 Ba9 Ba7bv9 A9 Ko9du8 Be7 du3 Di9 Du8 Dae4 Ba9 Words About Stealing Food When I Was Small By Benjamin A9 u6 di -8 -e9 I before did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nominlz I in the past, Fi8be7fvy8 by6 be -4 di -8 -y9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream is/are -Tel.Inc did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr when I was at Fibehui, Eventline Segment 1: Problem And Attempted Resolution a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark and-then it was evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj while I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9be8 y -7 du7be7 mother facing up cry -Tot.Inc but was crying looking up at my mother butMVClCj a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I mother NMkrAg sago(starch/palm) give -Tel.Inc without my mother, not giving me any sago, fe6ka -7 da8dv9 fe6ka -Tot.Inc and-then slept and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fe6si -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; night fe6si -Tot.Inc and-then I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 sago(starch/palm) mother belonging_to I Regarding mother’s sago, I
34 a7se9 du8 bv8 ui -7-3. SeqMkr; secretly for stand_up -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur secretly got up to get it. Eventline Segment 2: Frustrated Solution, Outcome Tv9 bv6 a7se9 fav -7 be8du7 sago(starch/palm) I SeqMkr; fav -Tot.Inc when I broke off some sago when, a9 a6ty9 be8 da7 ba -8 be8 I mother NMkrAg dog cause_become -Rlz.Dur OvrlapSClCj my mother, thinking a dog had come, di -8 be8du7 hit -Rlz.Dur when hit (me Topic prev Cl) and, a9 e -6 be8du7 I exclaim -Res.Pun when I cried out when, a6ty9 a7se9 di -6 be7-8 mother SeqMkr; startled -Res.Pun SqMnsSClMkr mother got startled, a7se9 a9 foi -5, SeqMkr; I ask -Tel.Pun said to me, " Di9 te7bv8 du -8 be -3?" you_s. what_reason go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd "What were you doing? /What were you after?" Eventline Segment 3: Eventline Segments 1-2 Summary A6ty9 a7se9 dy4dau4 a9 foi -4 da8dv9 mother SeqMkr; like_that I tell -Tel.Inc and-then Mother asked me like that and then, au7 bv6 a7se9 foi -5, he I SeqMkr; tell/-Tel.Pun I said to her,
35 " A9 di9 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I you_s. sago(starch/palm) give -Tel.Inc without "(Since) you, not giving me sago, fe6ka -4 de3 sleep -Tel.Inc since...was went to sleep, tv9 bv6 du8 fav -7 be8du7 sago(starch/palm) I secretly break_off_piece -Tot.Inc when I broke off a piece secretly when, a9 di9 di -8 to -4." I you_s. hit -Rlz.Dur CntraryToHearer -NAssert.ExpRsp you hit me." Eventline Segment 1: Final Outcome /Comment A6ty9 bv6 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 da8dv9 mother I SeqMkr; like_that tell -Tel.Inc and-then I told mother like that and then, a9 a6ty9 by8 a7se9 foi -5, I mother NMkr Ag SeqMkr; ask -Tel.Pun mother asked me, " Di9 te7bv8 a9 foi -4 ae2 you_s. why me tell -Tel.Inc without "Why not asking me, du -8 a -3?" go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.Unbound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd were you doing that?" A9 a6ty9 be8 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 be7-8 I mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; like_that ask -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Mother saying like that, fe6ka -9. sleep -Tot.Pun slept. Formulaic Closing
36 Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -Assert_fact(now) That's all the words.
37 The various features of Iau narrative will be discussed individually below.
4.2 Predicating information about the topic The clause is the normal discourse unit for predicating information about the discourse topics. There are three kinds of clauses in Iau narrative discourse that are used to predicate new information about participants and props: medial verb clauses, subordinate clauses and independent clauses. An examination of Iau narrative discourse shows that all three of these clause types are used to predicate new information about the participants. The following is an example from the text Stealing Food When I Was Small by Benjamin. This segment of text shows all three kinds of clauses predicating new information about the topical participant “I” the author. Subordinate Clauses a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj I asking for sago, Medial Verb Clauses a6ty9 fo9be8 y -7 du7be7 mother face looking up cry -Tot.Inc but MVClCj was crying in front of my mother but, a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I mother NMkrAg sago give -Tel.Inc without SubClCj my mother, not giving me any sago, fe6ka -7 da8dv9 fe6ka -Tot.Inc and-then MVClCj slept and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fe6si -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; night wake -Tot.Inc and-then MVClCj I woke up in the night and then, Independent Clause tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 a7se9 du8 bv8 ui -7-3 sago mother Possess I SeqMkr; secretly for stand_up -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur I secretly got up to get mother's sago.
4.3 Marking chronological sequence Eventline events are events in chronological sequence to each other. One way of identifying the eventline in narrative discourse is to identify which events are marked for chronological sequence.
4.2.1 By Conjunctions One of the ways of marking chronological sequence in Iau is by the use of the sequence marking conjunctions, be7 (subordinate clause conjunction). da8dv9 (medial verb clause conjunction); dy4da8dv9 (independent clause conjunction) and dy4be7 (sentence cluster and paragraph level conjunction). The following example illustrates the be7 and da8dv9 conjunctions marking chronological sequence relationships. du9 a7se9 a9 foe4 ba -7 da8dv9 wild_pig SeqMkr; me next_to come -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj the wild pig came near me and then, bv6 a7se9 ai3ka3 bu -2 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; base_of_neck shoot-Tel.Dur and-thenMVClCj I shot him in the base of the neck and then, a7se9 u6 sui -5 be7 SeqMkr; first die -Tel.Pun afterSubClCj after he had already died, by3 a7se9 dae7 avy -3. corpse SeqMkr; by_a_dog bark_at -Tot.Dur the dogs were barking at the dead pig. The following example illustrates the sentence level conjunction dy4da8dv9 as well as da8dv9 marking sequential relationships. au7 a7se9 dei8 bei4 kaui -4 be7-8 he SeqMkr; board go_over jump -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr he jumping over the fence. su9 a7se9 baui7-8 be7 fau -7 be7-8 sugar_cane SeqMkr; three Loc/DirAdvMkr break -Tot.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr and breaking off three sugar cane, da -8 ba -9 carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Pun he brought them (back). dy4da8dv9 au7 a7se9 fe6 toe -4 And then he SeqMkr; eye throw -Tel.Inc And then he looked around
38 dy4da8dv9 ty7 ae -6 da7be8 and then person is_none -Res.Pun because(given_info) And then, because there was no one around, e8ta8fau7 bv8 kaui -4 be7-8 again for jump -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr again jumping over (the fence) ko8ku8ba8 be7-8de3 ay9ta9vy6 be7-8de3 *** and(also) papaya and(also) a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; take Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj he got peanuts and papaya and then, da -8 ba -7 da8dv9 carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj he brought them (back) and then, a9 foi -5, me tell -Tel.Pun he told me, The example above also illustrates the subordinate clause conjunction be7-8 marking another type of sequential- causative relationship a prerequisite or an essential step to achieving a goal. The be7-8 marker is in italics above. Jumping over the fence is a prerequisite event to being able to steal the food from the garden, as is breaking it off it’s stalk. The paragraph and sentence cluster level conjunctions dy4be7 and dy4be7-8 also mark sequential relationships between events and eventlines as illustrated below. A7se9 dy4dau7 av8 foi -4 be7-8 SeqMkr; dy4dau7 each_other tell -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Saying like that to each other, tui2 bv8 tv9. someone_killed/murdered for has_left/gone they went to kill. Dy4be7-8 tui2 ty7 a7se9 be4dy4 be9sy9 and_then victim people SqMkr as_a_result inevitably di -4 be7-8 kill -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Then, killing in revenge, si6 da8be3 so6 ko4du8 fa3fu7 vy -3 be7-8 woman including/even child small all take-Tot.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr taking all the women and the children, da -8 bi -3. carry -Rlz.Dur arrive -Tot.Dur they brought them here. Dy4be7-8 be4dy4 Fa3ui6 ba9be7 fv7 a5 taui -7 di3 and_then as_a_result Fa3ui6 here airstrip make -Tot.Inc PstRealis Then after that, they made the airstrip here at Faui. As in the be7-8 subordinate clause conjunction the conjunction dy4be7-8 marks the preceeding information as a prerequisite to what follows. In the narrative above, the people had decided that they would make one last enemy raid and then stop revenge killing forever and instead come together to live in a village and become Christian. The following example illustrates the conjunctions dy4be7 which can be glossed ‘and then’. fy3 a7se9 bi7si9 oe7 kav3ka9 bi9be7 y -7 da8dv9 frogSeqMkr; one banana tops_of up cry_out -Tot.Inc and-then a frog up in the top of a banana tree croaked and, a9 a7se9 o -9. I SeqMkr; get -Tot.Pun I caught it. Bv6 a7se9 di -8 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; hit -Rlz.Dur and-then When I hit it, fau -4 di -8 bv9. defecate -Tel.Inc Bounded.Realis -Rlz.Dur and_(unordered_list) it defecated Si -8 di -8 bv9. urinate -Rlz.Dur Bounded.Realis -Rlz.Dur and_(unordered_list) It urinated. Dy4be7 sui -5. and_then die -Tel.Pun And then it died.
39 4.2.2 By A7se9 One of the most characterictic features of Iau narrative is the use of a chronological sequence marking particle, a7se94, in narrative discourse to mark sequential chains of eventline events. In it’s primary meaning in non-narrative discourse, the particle a7se9 means that the event so marked has already happened before some other time or event. It can also mean ‘after that’ as illustrated below. Fv7 a7se9 bi8 du7be7 plane already was_arriving but The plane was already coming from (Mulia) dy8 a7se9 ui7-8 be7 ba -3 and already flying SubClCj come -Tot.Dur while it was already in the air coming, dy4da8dv9 a7se9 fe6 toe -4 da8dv9 and then after that eyes throw -Tel.Inc and thenMVClCj And then, the pilot looked around and, da8bi7 be5. Be6 te8be7 ba -7 ae7 da8dv9 clouds there were path where come - Tel.Inc not and then MVClCj saw that there were clouds and couldn't find a path through them so he couldn't come, so e8ta8fau7 tv -9 y3. again go away -Tot.Pun Stmnt Response he went back again. The specialized use of a7se9 in narrative discourse to mark sequential chains of eventline events is illustrated in the following example taken from part of the text entitled ‘About Crocodiles’ by Ananias. The a7se9 particle is highlighted in bold. Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We, in the past, Fai9tav4 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 *** to go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj were going to Faitau and then, a7se9 dav2 bv8 du -3. SeqMkr; crododile for go around -Tot.Dur we were hunting crocodiles. A9 a7se9 A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 du -3 I SeqMkr; *** also/with go around -Tot.Dur I was going with Apodius. Bv8 du -8 da8dv9 for go around -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj We were hunting and then, dav2 a7se9 bo4 be7 doe -9 crododile SeqMkr; two NMkrOb see -Tot.Pun we saw two crocodiles. dy4da8dv9 a6ty9 av7bv9 ba7bv9 therefore mother its this_one
Kaui8be4sa8 be8 ui -2 *** NMkrAg *** -Tel.Dur so then, the mother was speared by Kauibesa. dy4da8dv9 so6 av7bv9 therefore offspring its and the baby a7se9 A8fo8di7vs8 be7 ui -2. SeqMkr; *** NMkrOb *** -Tel.Dur was speared by Apodius. Ui -2 da8dv9 *** -Tel.Dur and-thenMVClCj He speared it and then, a7se9 fvy5 tai -2. SeqMkr; into_the_canoe pull -Tel.Dur he pulled it into the canoe. Fvy5 tai -2 da8dv9 into_the_canoe pull -Tel.Dur and-thenMVClCj He pulled it into the canoe and then, A8fo8di7vs8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9. *** SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun Apodius said,
4 This is the same a7se9 particle that serves as a boundary for the left dislocated topic position in the sentence and is used to introduce main participants into the narrative. See section 3.1.3.3.1.
40 "Bai6sui -8 dy -8." get_into -Rlz.Dur do_it/that -Assert.ExpRspASAP *** "Get into (the water)." dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 bai6sui -3. therefore I SeqMkr; get_into -Tot.Dur so then, I got in. Bai6sui -8 da8dv9 get_into -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj I go in and then, dav2 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 bai6sui -3 crododile SeqMkr; again get_into -Tot.Dur the crocodile fell into the water again . dy4da8dv9 A8fo8di7vs8 therefore *** Therefore Apodius a7se9 e8ta8fau7 ba9 bi8fa -9, SeqMkr; again word speak -Tot.Pun said again, "E8ta8fau7 fvy5 sui -4 again into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc dy -3." Imp-Assert.ExpRsp "Get into the canoe again." dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 fvy5 sui -5 therefore I SeqMkr; again into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun so then, I got into the canoe again. dy4da8dv9 therefore Therefore a9 a7se9 fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; into_ canoe enter_ -Tel.Inc and-thenMVClCj I got into the canoe and then dav2 a7se9 di -3. crododile SeqMkr; Bounded.Realis -Tot.Dur the crocodile was killed. Di -8 da8dv9 Bounded.Realis -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj It was killed and then, a7se9 fvy5 ay -9. SeqMkr; into_the_canoe put -Tot.Pun it was put into the canoe. Fvy5 ay -7 da8dv9 into_the_canoe put-Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj It was put into the canoe and then, a6ty9 av7bv9 a7se9 di -3. mother its SeqMkr; kill -Tot.Dur its mother was killed. Di -8 da8dv9 kill -Rlz.Dur and-thenMVClCj It was killed and then, y8 a7se9 Fai9tav ui8 bv8 i -9. we SeqMkr; *** house to go -Tot.Pun We went into the house of people of Faitau. Ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 house to go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We went into the house and then a7se9 Fai9tav8 doe -9. SeqMkr; *** see -Tot.Pun we saw (the people) of Faitau. Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We saw them and then, y8 a7se9 tv9 sa -3. we SeqMkr; sago(starch/palm) eat -Tot.Dur we ate sago.
41 4.4 Marking new information predicated about the topic. The eventline is used to predicate new information about the participants, props and topics of the narrative. Identifying markers of new predicated information is another way of identifying the narrative eventline. The a7se9 particle in Iau is also used to mark new predicated information. We have seen in the previous section how a7se9 marks chronological sequence. That is true but with an additional stipulaton. a7se9 only is used to mark events that predicate new information. Therefore it is normally not used to used to mark repetitive events as illustrated in the example in section 3.2.1.2 above. In this example clauses with events not marked by a7se9 are in italics. Note that most of the events in italics are medial verb repeated information clauses that have a linking function, and thus are not marked by a7se9. The following is one example of the many clauses in section 3.2.1.2 Ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 house to go -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We went into the house and then a7se9 Fai9tav8 doe -9. SeqMkr; *** see -Tot.Pun we saw (the people) of Faitau. Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We saw them and then, y8 a7se9 tv9 sa -3. we SeqMkr; sago(starch/palm) eat -Tot.Dur we ate sago. A list of the clauses marked by a7se9 in any given narrative gives a list of the new information being predicated in that narrative as illustrated by the clauses with a7se9 from the preceding example in section 3.2.1.2. Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We, in the past, ………………. a7se9 dav2 bv8 du -3. SeqMkr; crododile for go around -Tot.Dur we were hunting crocodiles. A9 a7se9 A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 du -3 I SeqMkr; *** also/with go around -Tot.Dur I was going with Apodius. dav2 a7se9 bo4 be7 doe -9 crododile SeqMkr; two NMkrOb see -Tot.Pun we saw two crocodiles……………………. dy4da8dv9 so6 av7bv9 therefore offspring its and the baby a7se9 A8fo8di7vs8 be7 ui -2. SeqMkr; *** NMkrOb *** -Tel.Dur was speared by Apodius. a7se9 fvy5 tai -2. SeqMkr; into_the_canoe pull -Tel.Dur he pulled it into the canoe. A8fo8di7vs8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9. *** SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun Apodius said, dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 bai6sui -3. therefore I SeqMkr; get_into -Tot.Dur so then, I got in. dav2 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 bai6sui -3 crododile SeqMkr; again get_into -Tot.Dur the crocodile fell into the water again . dy4da8dv9 A8fo8di7vs8 therefore *** Therefore Apodius a7se9 e8ta8fau7 ba9 bi8fa -9, SeqMkr; again word speak -Tot.Pun said again, "E8ta8fau7 fvy5 sui -4 again into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc dy -3." Imp-Assert.ExpRsp "Get into the canoe again." dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 fvy5 sui -5 therefore I SeqMkr; again into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun so then, I got into the canoe again.
42 dy4da8dv9 therefore Therefore a9 a7se9 fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; into_ canoe enter_ -Tel.Inc and-thenMVClCj I got into the canoe and then dav2 a7se9 di -3. crododile SeqMkr; Bounded.Realis -Tot.Dur the crocodile was killed. a7se9 fvy5 ay -9. SeqMkr; into_the_canoe put -Tot.Pun it was put into the canoe. a6ty9 av7bv9 a7se9 di -3. mother its SeqMkr; kill -Tot.Dur its mother was killed. y8 a7se9 Fai9tav ui8 bv8 i -9. we SeqMkr; *** house to go -Tot.Pun We went into the house of people of Faitau. a7se9 Fai9tav8 doe -9. SeqMkr; *** see -Tot.Pun we saw (the people) of Faitau. y8 a7se9 tv9 sa -3. we SeqMkr; sago(starch/palm) eat -Tot.Dur we ate sago. In it’s function of marking new predicated information, the a7se9 particle not only marks new events being predicated about the topic, it also is used in setting sections to introduce topical participants. See Section 3.1.3.3.1 on introducing participants. The following example shows a7se9 can be used in clauses in which the events are repeated already given information but the participants are the new information in the clause as illustrated above. Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We, in the past, ………………. a7se9 dav2 bv8 du -3. SeqMkr; crododile for go around -Tot.Dur we were hunting crocodiles. A9 a7se9 A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 du -3 I SeqMkr; *** also/with go around -Tot.Dur I was going with Apodius. dav2 a7se9 bo4 be7 doe -9 crododile SeqMkr; two NMkrOb see -Tot.Pun we saw two crocodiles……………………. In the clauses marked in italics, the verb /event is the same. The second clause however is introducing new information also, the identity of two of the participants included in the introductory pronoun “we”. We includes the speaker /author and Apodius.
4.5 Moving the eventline along to it’s resolution and or final outcome There are a number of devices used in Iau narrative discourse to mark movement on the eventline towards resolution or final outcome.
4.5.1 By The A7se9 Particle We have seen in the sections above that the a7se9 particle is used as a marker of chronological events that are new information. However a7se9 is not used to mark all chronologically ordered events that are new information, but only those that are effective in moving the eventline along to the final outcome or resolution. The clause in italics in section 3.2.1.2 above “so then, the mother was speared (telic durative aspect) by Kauibesa.”illustrates this feature of the a7se9 particle. The spearing of the mother is marked with no a7se9 and a telic durative aspect, rather than a punctual aspect. The durative aspect followed by no resolution in effect suspends the eventline about the mother crocodile and the focus switches to a more interesting topic, the baby and efforts to kill it. After a struggle, the baby is finally killed. Then eventline then switches back to the mother, who then is killed. The clause reporting that the mother is killed is marked with a7se9 since the crocodile meat and what they did with it is focal in the next episode of the story. If an event is incomplete, interrupted, or if the eventline is suspended to be resumed later, the a7se9 particle is not used. There are many narratives that are told for the purpose of illustrating a point the author wants to convey. The following narrative about about a man who went hunting on Sunday instead of going to church also illustrates how a7se9 marks only the events on the eventline that lead up to the statement of the main point of the narrative. Dy4be7-8 Ku2 a7se9 da8fai5 du9 bv8 i -9. and_then Ku SeqMkr; night wild_pig for go -Tot.Pun Then, while it was still night Ku went pig hunting.
43 Y8 A8da7 ba9 sa -7 se -5 we Bible eat -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact We were going to worship God (eat God's word) dy4da8dv9 y8 A8ku8bi8 be7 ba -7 du7be7 therefore we *** Loc/DirAdvMkr come -Tot.Inc but so, we had come on Saturday because a7se9 da8su6 A8da7 ba9 sa -7 se -5 SeqMkr; in_the_morning Bible eat -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact the next day we were going to worship God, dy4da8dv9 fvy -6 da8dv9 therefore bathe -Res.Pun and-then and so we took our baths Ku2 a7se9 du9 bv8 i -9. *** SeqMkr; wild_pig for go -Tot.Pun Ku had gone pig hunting. Du9 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 wild_pig for go -Tot.Inc and-then When he went pig hunting du9 bi7si9 di -3 wild_pig one hit -Tot.Dur he shot a pig dy4da8dv9 i8 sa -2 and_then bone hit_nontarget -Tel.Dur and then he missed the target and hit a bone dy4da8dv9 su -4 ae -5. therefore die -Tel.Inc not -Tel.Pun And so it did not die. Dy4 a9 so6 bi7si9 a7se9 ba -3 then another offspring on SeqMkr; shoot -Tot.Dur Then, he shot an arrow at another one, a baby pig dy4da8dv9 ba -8 ae -5. therefore shoot -Rlz.Dur not -Assert_NPres_Fact and so, he didn't hit it. Ba -8 ae -4 shoot -Rlz.Dur not -will_be(estblsh) He didn’t hit it dy4da8dv9 fay5 ba7bv9 fo8 u8 sa -2. therefore arrow this nonintentional tree hit_nontarget -Tel.Dur and so, the arrow just hit a tree instead. " Fay5 ba7bv9 fo8 dy -4 ae -5. arrow this nonintentional do_it/that -Tel.Inc not -Assert_NPres_Fact "This arrow did not do that for no purpose. dy4da8dv9 du9 ba7bv9 a5 tai -6” therefore wild_pig this ground land_on -Res.Pun it must be because, the pig crouched down to ground (he thought) dy4da8dv9 au7 be7 ui8 bv8 ba -9. therefore he NMkrOb house to come -Tot.Pun So, he came back home. Ui8 bv8 ba -7 da8dv9 house to come -Tot.Inc and-then He came back home and then, " Ay8 di9 A8da7 ba9 sa -7 ae -2 okay you_s. Bible eat -Tot.Inc not -Tel.Dur Right! You, without eating God’s word ”” i -7 da8dv9 go -Tot.Inc and-then went (hunting) fay5 ba7bv9 A8da7 be7 dai7si -9 de -7 arrow this God NMkrOb hold -Tot.Pun stative -Establish_irrealis God held that arrow. to -8 CntraryToHearer -Assert.ExpRspASAP Don’t you know /see? dy4da8dv9 du9 di -8 ae -5." therefore wild_pig hit -Rlz.Dur not -Tel.Pun *** And therefore you didn’t kill any pigs.” dy4da8dv9 foi -5. therefore tell -Tel.Pun They told him that.
44 In the narrative above, the main point of the narrative is given in the final quote where the others speak to Ku2 about his delinquency. “Right! You, without eating God’s word went (hunting) and so, God held that arrow. Don’t you know /see? And therefore you didn’t kill any pigs.” The narrative clauses that lead to this conclusion and are marked with a7se9 are: Then, while it was still night Ku went pig hunting. the next day we were going to worship God, (initiates a secondary eventline of what the secondary participants, those who went to church did) (but) Ku had gone pig hunting. He (only) shot (unsuccessfully) at another one, a baby All the remaining eventline clauses, the secondary eventline about the secondary participants, and the outcomes of the hunt that were unsuccessful are all left unmarked by a7se9 because they do not contribute to the main point of the narrative as stated in the final quote.
4.5.2 By Conjunctions Depending on their semantic components, conjunctions either move the eventline towards or away from the final outcome.
4.5.2.1 Chronological Sequence Conjunctions Eventline events are in chronological sequence to each other. One way of identifying the eventline in narrative discourse is to identify which events are marked for chronological sequence. Chronological sequence conjunctions, move the eventline event by event towards it’s final outcome. The Iau conjunctions be7, be7-8, da8dv9, dy4da8dv9, dy4be7, dy4be7-8 and dy4 mark chronological sequence on various clause types. See section 4.2 Marking chronological sequence, specifically section 4.2.1 for examples.
4.5.2.2 Adversative /Contra-expectation /Contrastive Conjunctions Adversative /contraexpectation /contrastive conjunctions like ‘du7be7 /di4du7be7’ ‘but’ are used to mark the progression of the eventline away from the expected outcome and towards a surprise outcome as illustrated by the following example. A8fo8di7vs 8 a7se9 bi -4 A8fo8di7vs8 SeqMkr; draw_bow -Tel.Inc he aimed at Apodius. dy4da8dv9 A8fo8di7vs8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9, therefore A8fo8di7vs8 SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun so then, Apodius said, " A9 sa4dy8 di -8 dy -3." I then shoot -Rlz.Dur do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp "Go ahead and shoot me." Au7 ba9 dy4dau4 Av8si7 foi -5 he word like_that Av8si7 tell -Tel.Pun He told Ausi words like that. di4du7be7 Av8si7 a7se9 v4 fe6di7 be -9 but Av8si7 SeqMkr; heart soft is -Tot.Pun but (contraexpected) Ausi's heart softened. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 av8 bo4fe7 ba -3. therefore SeqMkr; make_peace_with -Tot.Dur so then they made peace. In the story above, one expects that Ausi will shoot him, but Ausi disarmed by his statement “Go ahead and shoot me.” has a change of heart and the story ends with the surprise resolution of peace between the two parties.
4.5.2.3 Negating Subordinate Clause Conjunction The negating subordinating conjunction ae2 “without, not”has the same effect as illustrated below. It is used when the outcome or the means to the outcome are contrary to the expectation of the participants or the readers of the narrative. The following narrative about Stealing Food When I Was Small by Benjamin, illustrates the use of the ae2 conjunction to move the story along to the intended outcome and main point of the story. Note also the use of the conjunction ‘du7be7’ in italics below. a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark and-then it was evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago(starch/palm) ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9be8 y -7 du7be7 mother facing cry -Tot.Inc but was crying in front of my mother but, a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I mother NMkrAg sago(starch/palm) give -Tel.Inc without my mother, without giving me any sago,
45 fe6ka -7 da8dv9 fe6ka -Tot.Inc and-then slept and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fe6si -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; night fe6si -Tot.Inc and-then I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 sago(starch/palm) mother belonging_to I a7se9 du8 bv8 ui -7-3. SeqMkr; secretly for stand_up -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur I secretly got up to get mother's sago. It was the fact that his mother refused to give him sago that led to his stealing it in the middle of the night, the main point of the story as indicated by the title. The following is a quote from the end of the story summarizing the eventline from the main participants point of view. The ae2 particle marks the turning point in the story that leads to the main eventline of the narrative, his attempt to steal the sago his mother would not give him. au7 bv6 a7se9 foi5, I said to her (my mother), "A9 di9 tv9 bay4 ae2 "(Since) you, without giving me sago, fe6ka8 de3, went to sleep, tv9 bv6 du8 fav7 be8du7, I broke off a piece secretly when, a9 di9 di8 to4." you hit me." A6ty9 bv6 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi4 da8dv9 I told mother like that and then,
4.5.2.4 Event Overlapping Interruptive Conjunctions Another set of conjunctions that change the course of the eventline and lead to a surprise or unexpected outcome are the event overlapping and interrupting conjunctions be8du7 /Dy4be8du7 / du3 ‘doing …. when (interrupted)’. Note the use of this conjunction also in the text above in italics. The following text segment illustrates how the eventline that started out as a hunt for frogs turned into a frightening encounter with a snake. a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fy3 bv8 tai -7 be8du7 I SqMkr night frog for seach -Tot.Inc when I was hunting frogs at night when, be7fe7 au7 a7se9 u6 fy3 bi7si9 vy -3 de -9. snake he SqMkr before frog one got -Tot.Dur Sta -Tot.Pun there was a snake who had before caught a frog. The medial verb conjunction du7e9 also marks events are ended by a final outcome or a change in the situation. A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di -9 -y9 I before small is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr When I was small, a9 du3si9 bv8 du -8 be8du7 I *** for hunt -Rlz.Dur when (interruptive) I was hunting birds when, du3si9 bv6 bi7si9 bae -3 du8 *** I one shoot&hit/kill -Tot.Dur so I shot a bird so a9 fi4au7 v4 bv8 dui -8 be8 I very/always heart because_of shake -Rlz.Dur OvrlapSClCj I was continually happy fvy2 by -6 se9 du -8 du7e8 do_in_canoe dance -Res.Pun CircSClCj go around -Rlz.Dur when (ended by) dancing /jumping up and down in the canoe until, bai3 i -3 to -9. sun go -Tot.Dur CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp The sun went down.
Dy4 a7se9 se8kv8da7 o -7 du7e9 And_then, SeqMkr; school receive -Tot.Inc when (end in outcome) And,we had school until quitting time y8 a7se9 A9da7 bv8 bi -8 be7 we SeqMkr; God to call -Rlz.Dur SCCjand/after and after praying* (*last event of school), bau -6 da8dv9 go_down -Res.Pun and-then we left (Lit went down) school,
46 Fi7vs4 a7se9 a9 foi -5. *** SeqMkr; me tell -Tel.Pun Fius told me, Sa8ka8di8a88 -y3 a9 da6di9y9 *** -Voc-address I just_now, "Sakaria, I just now, (during school recess) a9 to8 bv8 tv -9 du8 I pig for go_away'leave -Tot.Pun when went to check on my pig, when,
bo8ka8 bv6 bi7si9 doe -4 y -3 " da8be7 lizard_type I one see -Tel.Inc Statmnt -Assert.ExpRsp *** and_therefore I saw a big lizard." (when he) said (that), y8 a7se9 kaf7 vy -3 be7 we SeqMkr; bow get/take -Tot.Dur SCCjand/after we, taking our bows, bv8 tv -9. for go_away'leave -Tot.Pun went to get it. In one sense these adversative,negative and interruptive conjunctions move the eventline away from the final outcome of the eventline as it is when it starts out. Yet these conjunctions actually move the eventline toward the surprise outcome which is the author’s actual intended final outcome. (Non-eventline conjunctions: se9, de9, be9se9 /Dy4be9se9; da7be8, da8be7; di4de3 de8se7)
4.5.3 By Negatives And Contrastive Particles Negatives are also sometimes used to indicate failure to move towards a desired outcome as illustrated by the following example from the narrative “Going To See The Do People by Timotius. A group of evangelists is visiting a new village. They have brought goods of various kinds to barter for food and for enlisting the services of the people in helping them build a house and plant a garden. Most of their efforts are successful, but the axe they had brought did not interest any of the people. They are persistant and try many ways of interesting the people in the axe but to no avail. The following are only two episodes showing their persistance and the use of the negative particle to signal failure to move towards the desired outcome. Ty7 Do2 y8 a7se9 foi -4 a3, person *** we SeqMkr tell -Tel.Inc TempRiseTension We said to the Do people, " Ty7da7y3, da9 y8 faf3 bay -4-7 se9, people! you_(pl) we axe give -Tel.Inc.Irrealis since "People, since we will give you an axe. To8 bi7si9 be -4 da8dv9 domesticated_pig one is/are -Tel.Inc and-then if you have a domesticated pig, y8 ti -2 ka7 dy3." we *** -Tel.Dur ImpIntns Imp *** give it to us." Y8 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 be8du7 we SeqMkr like_that tell -Tel.Inc IntrptMVClCj We told them like that but, "Y8 to8 ai6 to5." *** domesticated_pig are_no_more EmphRef *** "We have no pig." Ty7 Do2 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -9. person *** word like_that speak -Tot.Pun The Do people said words like that. Dy4dau4 bi8fa -9 de9. like_that say -Tot.Pun since Since they said like that, y8 a7se9 foi -4, we SeqMkr tell -Tel.Inc we told them, " Dy4 da9 du9 be8 da7 da8 du -8 ka7 dy3. then you_(pl) wild_pig because/by dog carry hunt -Rlz.Dur ImpIntns Imp "Then, take your dogs hunting to get a wild pig. Da9 da7 da8 du -8 be8 you_(pl) dog carry hunt -Rlz.Dur OvrlapSClCj Taking your dogs hunting, du9 di -7 da8dv9 wild_pig kill -Tot.Inc and-then kill a wild pig and then,
47 du9 by7by9 du7be7 y8 ti -2 ka7 dy3. wild_pig it's_that_that... we give -Tel.Dur ImpIntns Imp it’s a wild pig that you can give us. Da9 y8 faf3 bay 4-7 se9." you_(pl) we axe give 4-7 EstbInten *** We will give you an axe." Y8 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 du7be7 we SeqMkr like_that tell -Tel.Inc but We told them like that but, fi4au7 da7 da8 du -8 ae5. to_fullest dog carry hunt -Rlz.Dur not_at_all no one took a dog out hunting. Dy4 y8 v4 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -9, So_then we heart SeqMkr like_that say -Tot.Pun And, we said to ourselves, " Faf3 y8 a7se9 i7bai3ta7 ty7 Do2 boe -8 ba5. axe we SeqMkr publicly person *** show_s._to_s. -Rlz.Dur let's,1PlImp "Let's show them the axe openly (ie so they can see it.) Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-then They will see it and then, bv8 fe7su -7 da8dv9 because_of feel_sorry/deprived -Tot.Inc and-then they will want it/like it and then, to8 sa4dy4 o -7 a9 be domesticated_pig go_ahead get -Tot.Inc am/will/would_be....+IndefEv/Prtc is/are -4 y3. -will_be(estblsh) RStmnt they will surely go get a pig. Faf3 y8 a7se9 boe -8 ba5." axe we SeqMkr show_s._to_s. -Rlz.Dur let's,1PlImp *** Let's show them the axe." dy4da8dv9 faf3 y8 a7se9 boe -8 a3. therefore axe we SeqMkr show_s._to_s. -Rlz.Dur TempRiseTension so then, we showed them the axe. Fi4au7 faf3 v4 tai -2 ae5. to_fullest axe desires pull -Tel.Dur not_at_all But they didn't desire the axe at all. Sa4 fo8 doe -8 be7-8 SimltCntrst just see -Rlz.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr Just looking at it, bi -7 bv9 not_take -Tot.Inc and_(unordered_list) they put it away. dy4dau4 ty7 a9 doe -9 a9. like_that person another see -Tot.Pun Nar:would...(IndfList) Like that then someone else looked at it. Fi4au7 dy4dau4 se9 du -3. to_fullest like_that CircSClCj go around -Tot.Dur They kept doing like that. Fi4au7 bi7si9 faf3 v4 tai -2 ae5. to_fullest one axe desires pull -Tel.Dur not_at_all There wasn't on that wanted the axe. Sa4 doe -8 be7-8 SimltCntrst see -Rlz.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr Looking at it, they just be7si9. leave_behind left it.
4.5.4 By Contrastive Particles Contrastive particles can also be used in Iau narrative to indicate a halt in the progression towards the desired outcome. The following examples illustrate the Iau particles sa4dy8 ‘in spite of /anyway’ These particles can also be used to indicate, continuation toward the goal /endpoint in spite of hinderance dai3 a7se9 di -8 du7be7 cassowary SeqMkr; shoot -Rlz.Dur but he shot at the cassowary but,
48 be9fai -5. miss -Tel.Pun he missed. Be9fai -2 da8dv9 miss -Tel.Dur and-then He missed and then, y8 sa4dy8 fai2 i -9. we anyway follow go -Tot.Pun we followed (it) in spite of that. Fai2 i -7 da8dv9 follow go -Tot.Inc and-then We followed it and then, a7se9 Be8a8bi8 be7 u6 di -3. SeqMkr; *** NMkrOb first shoot -Tot.Dur Benjamin first shot it. In the text above the cassowary makes numerous attempts to evade the hunters and get away, but the hunters are persistant as illustrated in the following episode. bv6 a7se9 di -8 du7be7 I SeqMkr; shoot -Rlz.Dur but I shot at it but, kaf7 fe7 be -7 da8dv9 bow not_good is/are -Tot.Inc and-then my bow was bad and so, di -8 ae -5. hit -Rlz.Dur not -Assert_NPres_Fact I didn't hit it. Fay5 a7se9 fo8 u8 sa -5. arrow SeqMkr; nonintentional tree hit_nontarget -Tel.Pun The arrow just hit a tree. Dy8 dai3 au7 ba7bv9 bai6sui -7 se5 and cassowary he this get_into -Tot.Inc intend_to And then, the cassowary was going to go into (the river) dy4da8dv9 y7 ta9 i -7 du7be7 therefore river in/at go -Tot.Inc but so it went to the river but, y8 sa4dy8 fai2 i -9. we anyway follow go -Tot.Pun we in spite of that followed it. The following is an example of the particle sa4dy8 marking the determination of the main participant to continue on with what he is doing in spite of pressure to react, thus changing the eventline and it’s outcome from weeding to reacting to a grasshopper bite a9 y5 o8sy9 a7se9 ka6v9 sa -3. I ear my SeqMkr; grasshopper bite -Tot.Dur a grasshopper bit my ear. Ka6v9 sa -7 da8dv9 grasshopper bite -Tot.Inc and-then A grasshopper bit it and then, a9 v4 o8sy9 a7se9 bi8fa -9. I thoughts my SeqMkr; say -Tot.Pun I said to myself, " Ay8 sy9 be7dy4 a4. okay let_it_be_like_that cont_indef "It's okay, just forget it. Di9 dy4sy7 v4 fe7 ba -3 day3." you_s. shouldn't heart feel_bad -Tot.Dur shouldn't *** Don't feel bad about it/against the grasshopper." A9 v4 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 I heart SeqMkr; like_that say -Tot.Inc and-then I said like that to myself and then, a9 sa4dy8 a5 taui -9. I therefore in spite of that land work -Tot.Pun I just kept weeding in spite of that. The following is an example of the contrastive action particle sa4 used an action contrastive to that of another participant. In this case contrastive to his older brother’s oppostion to what he wanted to do. A9 a7se9 dy4dau4 boi9 o8sy9 foi -4 du7be7 I SeqMkr; like_that older_sibling my ell -Tel.Inc but I asked my elder brother like that but,
49 boi9 o8sy9 a7se9 av -8 a3 older_sibling my SeqMkr; refuse_to_do -Rlz.Dur was/has_been...-ing my elder brother refused. dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 fe7su -9. therefore I SeqMkr; feel_sorry/deprived -Tot.Pun so then, I felt bad. Tav3 u8 ba7 ty7 u6 tav3 be4 da -3 -e9 pig_trap tree old/ancient person before pig_trap used_for put_down_on -Tot.Dur -Nominlz An old pig trap that someone had put there before, bv6 a7se9 sa4 i3 fvy -4 be7-8 I SeqMkr; SimltCntrst vine cut -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr I cutting the vine on it, tv9 a7se9 di -4 be7-8 sago(starch/palm) SeqMkr; hit -Tel.Inc SqMnsSClMkr and striking into the sago tree, fa7 bv6 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 (sago)_grub/larva I SeqMkr; get -Tot.Inc and-then I got some grubs and then, boi9 bv6 a7se9 foi -4 a3 older_sibling I SeqMkr; tell -Tel.Inc was/has_been...-ing I asked my older brother,
4.5.5 By Specific Lexical Choices Specific lexical choices can also be used to indicate progression towards the final outcome, a hinderance to achieving the final outcome, or failure to achieve it. The following segment from a hunting narrative, shows the use of the a specific Iau verb that means to ‘fail to hit the target, hitting something else instead’. Du9 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 wild pig for hunt -Tot.Inc and then He went wild pig hunting and then, du9 bi7si9 di -3 wild pig one shot/hit -Tot.Dur He shot and hit one, dy4da8dv9 i8 sa -2 and then bone missed and hit (the arrow) missing his target only hit a bone, dy4da8dv9 su -4 ae5. and so died -Tot.Inc not at all and so it didn’t die /he didn’t kill it. Dy4 a9 so6 bi7si9 a7se9 ba -3 And then another child one SeqMkr shoot -Tot.Dur And then he shot at another, a baby. dy4da8dv9 ba 8 ae5. And so shoot -Res.Cur not at all Then, he shot at another one, a baby pig and so he didn't hit that one at all. Ba -8 ae4 hit -Res.Dur not yet He still didn't hit one. dy4da8dv9 fay5 ba7bv9 fo8 u8 sa -2. and so the arrow this just tree missed and hit/pierced -Tel.Inc And the arrow missed and pierced/hit a tree instead. "Fay5 ba7bv9 fo8 dy4 ae5." arrow this just/no purpose do that -Tot.Inc not at all That arrow did not just do that with no purpose /direction (all by itself) at all. dy4da8dv9 du9 ba7bv9 a5 tai -6 therefore wild pig that ground crouched down on -Res.Dur Therefore (it must be that) the wild pig crouched down (and caused the arrow to miss)” dy4da8dv9 au7 be7 ui8 bv8 ba -9. And so he NontopActor house to come -Tot.Pun And so he came home The choice of a quote margin for a speech act can indicate whether the event moves the action toward final outcome or not. The verb“foi5” means to “tell, command”. Foi5 and marks speech events like plans commands and information that moves the eventline to it’s final outcome or resolution. This is in contrast to three other quote margin verbs bi8fa9 ‘say, speak’ and av8 day3 ‘to discuss’ and y9 ‘to answer /respond’. The following is a segment of text using all four speech act verbs showing their different relationships to the main event of the narrative. Y8 a7se9 u6 fe6kae -9. we SeqMkr before sleep -Tot.Pun We were asleep.
50 Fe6kae -7 da8dv9 sleep -Tot.Inc and-then We were asleep and then, Ye7bi9 a7se9 fvy -6 se5 *** SeqMkr bathe -Res.Pun intend_to Yimmy was going to bathe, dy4da8dv9 a7se9 i9. therefore SeqMkr go so then, he went. A7se9 i -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr go -Tot.Inc and-then He went and then, Be8abi8 be7 bv8ke7 av8 day -8. *** IntroNnTopPrtc with each_other talk_about -Rlz.Dur He talked with Benjamin (resultative) U8du8ba7dvs8 a7se9 u6 to8 bv8 i -7 se5 *** SeqMkr before domesticated_pig for go -Tot.Inc intend_to Urumadus (had said) he would go to get the pig dy4da8dv9 Be8abi8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 therefore *** SeqMkr word speak -Tot.Pun so then, Benjamin spoke, Ye7bi9 foi -5 *** tell -Tel.Pun He told Yimmy, "Ye8bi9y3 ai6 o8sy9 *** cr._cousin my "Yimmy, my cousin (said), `y8 to8 bv8 i -7 dy3.' we pig for go -Tot.Inc Imp *** we should go get the pig, dy4du7be7 a9 ty7 ae6 to9." but I person is_none CRef *** but I have noone (to go). dy4da8dv9 Ye7bi9 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 fvy -6 ae2 therefore *** SeqMkr again cut -Res.Pun without so then Yimmy not bathing, again, ui8 bv8 i -9. house to go -Tot.Pun went to the house.
Be8abi8 bv8ke7 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 *** with house to go -Tot.Inc and-then Benjamin went to the house with him and then, y8 foi -5. we tell -Tel.Pun they told us, Y8 baui7-8 be7 E7fi3 Ti7vs8 bv8ke7 y8 a7se9 fe6ka -4 de8 we three PredNInfoPartialGivn *** *** also/and we SeqMkr sleep -Tel.Inc had(stative) we three, Efi, Tius (and I) we were/had been sleeping dy4da8dv9 a7se9 ty7 bo4 be7 a7se9 y8 foi -5 and_then SeqMkr they_two given_info SeqMkr we tell -Tel.Pun so then, those two told us, "Ty7da7y3 y8 ai6 o8sy9 "People, my cousin (said) to us \com cousin: his cousin in this case is also his brother in law, son of the dead person. `to8 bv8 i -7 dy3 ' pig for go -Tot.Inc Imp *** `Get the pig.' dy4du7be7 ty7 ae6 to9." but person is_none CRef *** but, we have no one." dy4da8dv9 E7fi3 y -9 so_then *** respond -Tot.Pun so then, Epi responded, " A9 i -7 se5." I go -Tot.Inc intend_to *** "I will go."
51 dy4da8dv9 a9 bv8ke7 a7se9 y -9 so_then I_also SeqMkr respond -Tot.Pun so then, I also responded dy4da8dv9 a7se9 Ti7vs8 bv8ke7 y -9. so_then SeqMkr *** *also/and respond -Tot.Pun so then Tius also responded. A7se9 fa3fu7 so8ty8dy7 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr all flashlight get -Tot.Inc and-then We all got our flashlights and then, y8 by7 i -9. we doing it go -Tot.Pun we went. Note in the example above the verb av8 day3/8 ‘talk with /have a conversational exchange’ is used to introduce Benjamin, only a local participant in the narrative by means of an opening event, his converstaion with Yimmy at the river. The verb “talk with” also introduces the conversational topic and the eventline topic, that Udumadus was going to go to get a pig. The verb ba9 bi8fa9 ‘speak words /say’ is used to upgrade Benjamin from a minor participant, someone that Yebi talked with at the river, to the topical Agent of the following speech event.The quote margin verb foi5 ‘told’ is a highly effective speech event which sets in motion the events of the narrative going to get the pig. Even though Benjamin does not participate in the rest of the narrative, his speech act is effective in that Yimmy immediately responds. The verb y9 answer /respond gives the result of the verb foi5 ‘told’. The others agree to Benajmin’s proposal and prepare to go get the pig. The quote verb foi5 initiates the narrative eventline in the example above.
4.5.6 By increasing the transitivity of the verb stem -e -i Some verb stems in Iau increase in transitivity and effectiveness with the addition of the morpheme -e. This can also be used in narrative discourse to mark verbs that move the eventline towards it’s final outcome or conclusion. The following are two texts contrasting the Iau verb ba3/bae3 ‘shoot, kill’. The first text uses the unmarked verb ba3 and the other text uses the marked form bae3. Text 1 bav3 a7se9 doe -9. water_lizard SeqMkr; see -Tot.Pun we saw a lizard. Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-then We saw it and then, bav3 a7se9 ba -3. water_lizard SeqMkr; shoot -Tot.Dur we shot the lizard. Ba -8 da8dv9 shoot -Rlz.Dur and-then We shot it and then, fvy5 ay -9 into_the_canoe put -Tot.Pun we put it into the canoe. Text 2 bav3 a7se9 bi7si9 doe -5. water_lizard SeqMkr; one see -Tel.Pun we saw a bav lizard. Bav3 bi7si9 doe -4 de8 water_lizard one see -Tel.Inc since...was Since we saw the lizard, y8 a7se9 bv8 fv7 bai -6 be7 we SeqMkr; because_of canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun SCCjand/after paddling the canoe over (to where it was), bae -3. shot -Tot.Dur we shot it. Dy4be7 a7se9 fv7 fi -3. and_then SeqMkr; canoe/plane paddle_downstream -Tot.Dur Then, we paddled the canoe downstream. Y8 fv7 fi -4 be7 we canoe/plane paddle_downstream -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after Paddling the canoe downstream. i -7 be8du7 go -Tot.Inc when we went when, bav3 a7se9 e8tafau7 bi7si9 doe -4 de8 water_lizard SeqMkr; *** one see -Tel.Inc since...was since we again saw a bav lizard,
52 y8 bv8 fv7 bai -6 be8du7 we because_of canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun when we had paddled the canoe over (to the lizard) when, y8 fv7 tavy -5. we canoe/plane tip_over -Tel.Pun we tipped the canoe over. Dy4be7 y8 fa3fu7 bai6sui -8 y -4. and_then we all fall_in -Rlz.Dur Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp Then, we all fell in. Both of the texts above are travel narratives where the participants hunt as they travel along. In both texts they shoot lizards. In the first text the spotting and shooting of the lizard are all routine events. The verb ba3 shoot is used in it’s unmarked form. In the second text, there are two lizards spotted. The first one they successfully shoot and kill from the canoe. But in the process of trying to get the canoe over to the second one to kill it they tip over the canoe. So of course they never get to the point of shooting it. The successful shooting of the first lizard is told in the marked form “bae3” and is contrastive to the failure of the 2nd episode which results in the surprise thematic outcome of the narrative, they tip the canoe over.
4.5.7 By Verb Aspect Verb aspect is one of the devices that often marks foregrounding and backgrounding in narrative discourse in various languages. In general punctual verbs are said to mark foregrounded events and durative verbs mark backgrounded events. In Iau verb aspect is used to mark progression of the action towards the outcome or away from the outcome. Iau has 8 different aspectual view points. Aspect on Iau verbs can be described in terms of punctual , durative or incompletive viewpoints. It can also be described in terms of totality of action, resultative or telic viewpoints as illustrated in the chart below. Punctual Durative Incompletive Totality Of Action 9 3 7 Resultative 6 8 -- Telic 5 2 4 In Iau, verb aspect is used in independent (foregrounded) clauses to mark whether the event moves the narrative towards or away from final outcome or resolution. Any aspect can occur on an independent clause verb. Only the verb aspects 4,7, 2, 6 and 8 are used on verbs in medial verb clauses (which have background and linking functions in discourse). The only punctual aspect that occurs on a medial verb clause is tone 6 which is both resultative and punctual. This is because the incompletive, durative and resultative view points of these tone morphemes contribute to the eventline cohesion and the sense of progression on the eventline from one event to the next in the eventline chain.
4.5.7.1 Punctual Aspect And The Narrative Eventline Events in chronological sequence in narrative tend to be encoded in punctual aspect because punctual aspect views the action as a point in time. Chronological sequence views the narrative as string of points in sequential order to one another. The Iau aspect tone morphemes that are punctual 9 (totality of action, punctual), 6 (resultative, punctual), and 5 (telic, punctual) occur on events that successfully move the action towards the outcome or resolution of the narrative. This is illustrated by the following short narrative by Sakaria. The tone 9, 6 and 5 verbs are highlighted. A9 da8fa9 u6di8 -y9 I recently once_in_the_past -Nomnlzr I, recently in the past/not long ago, a9 da8fai5 fy3 bv8 so8ty8dy7 da8 du -8 du7be7 I night frog for flashlight carry go around -Rlz.Dur but I had taken my flashlight at night (to look) for frogs but, a9 fi4au7 fy3 doe -7 ae -5. I very/always frog see -Tot.Inc not -Tel.Pun I didn't see any. A9 fi4au7 fy3 doe -7 ae -7 da8dv9 I very/always frog see -Tot.Inc not -Tot.Inc and-then I didn't see any so, be7si -9 leave -Tot.Pun I left. Ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 house to go -Tot.Inc and-then when I went home, da8 a7se9 su -6. sky SeqMkr; erase -Res.Pun The darkness disappeared /was gone (/It got light.)
53 Da8 a7se9 su -6 da8dv9 sky SeqMkr; erase -Res.Pun and-then It got-light and, a9 a7se9 be3ta7 du -8 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; in_the_village walk -Rlz.Dur and-then as I was walking around in the village, fy3 a7se9 bi7si9 oe7 kav3ka9 bi9be7 y -7 da8dv9 frog SeqMkr; one banana tops_(of_trees) up-on/over cry_out -Tot.Inc and-then a frog up in the top of a banana tree croaked and, a9 a7se9 o -9. I SeqMkr; get -Tot.Pun I caught it. Bv6 a7se9 di -8 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; hit -Rlz.Dur and-then When I hit it, fau -4 di -8 bv9. defecate -Tel.Inc Bounded.Realis -Rlz.Dur and_(unordered_list) it defecated . Si -8 di -8 bv9. urinate -Rlz.Dur Bounded.Realis -Rlz.Dur and_(unordered_list) It urinated. Dy4be7 sui -5. and_then die -Tel.Pun Then it died. Bv7 to6 a9 v4 da8 ai this_one not(CntrExp) me choices say_what_was_just_said/realized, not -9 y -3 -Establish_as_fact ExplanStatmnt -Assert.ExpRsp It was not my fault (that it died like that). Bv6 dy4 y -7 di -7 I do_it/that_because answer -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -Establish_irrealis by5. might/will/should-emphatic (if questioned ) I would say like that. Fy3 ba9 be -7 ae -6. frog word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words about frogs. The text above begins with an unsuccessful frog hunt one night. But when it gets light (6 resultative) he catches (tone 9 totality of action) a frog right there in the village. He gets revenge on the population of frogs for his frustration of having had an unsuccessful hunt by beating the frog he caught until it finally dies (tone 5 -telic) A list of all the tone 9 5 and 6 verbs gives an outline of the succesful outcomes of the narrative and the event that was the turning point “when it got light”. (not finding any frogs) I left and, (9) The darkness disappeared /was gone (/It got light.) (6) I caught it (the frog). (9) Then it died. (5) Note in the sequence above none of the unsuccessful events comprising the problem are in a punctual tone. Only the events concerning the actual catching and killing of a frog, (what he sent out to do) are mentioned. Also the events involved in getting revenge on the frog because of his frustration in not catching any all night are not marked with a punctual tone either. The totality of action punctual aspect and the telic punctual aspect do not occur on medial verb clauses which have backgrounding functions in Iau discourse.
Telic Punctual Viewpoint The telic punctual viewpoint (5) marks successful events that move the eventline towards final outcome or resolution. In the eventline above about hunting frogs, when the frog dies, his revenge is complete and his frustration compensated for. In the following narrative, the speech act which initates the killing of the lizard is marked with a tone 5. It is the one event that moves the narrative toward the final outcome, eating the lizard, Dy4 a7se9 se8kv8da7 o -7 du7e8 And_then, SeqMkr; school receive -Tot.Inc when And, when we had finished school, y8 a7se9 A9da7 bv8 bi -8 be7 we SeqMkr; God to call -Rlz.Dur SCCjand/after \com signals end of school for day and after praying,
54 bau -6 da8dv9 go_down -Res.Pun and-then we left (Lit went down) school, Fi7vs4 a7se9 a9 foi -5. *** SeqMkr; me tell -Tel.Pun Fius (the Dani boy) told me, " Sa8ka8di8a8 -y3 a9 da6di9y9 *** -Voc-address I just_now, "Sakaria, I just now, a9 to8 bv8 tv -9 du8 I pig for go_away'leave -Tot.Pun when when I went to (see) my pig, bo8ka8 bv6 bi7si9 doe -4 y -3 " da8be7 lizard_type I one see -Tel.Inc Statmnt -Assert.ExpRsp *** and_therefore I saw a big lizard." saying (that), y8 a7se9 kaf7 vy -3 be7 we SeqMkr; bow get/take -Tot.Dur SCCjand/after we, taking our bows, bv8 tv -9. for go_away'leave -Tot.Pun went to get it. Dy4be7 a7se9 di -4 be7 and_then SeqMkr; kill -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after Then, killing it, da -9. ate -Tot.Pun we ate it.
Totality Of Action Punctual Viewpoint The totality of action punctual aspect (9) views the action as a whole and tends to be used on unmarked events that move the narrative along without much tension, and on the final outcome itself as illustrated by the two tone nine verbs marked in italics in the preceding example. The following is another example taken from a text about a crippled man who got lost in the jungle. dy4da8dv9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 a7se9 fa3fu7 i -9. therefore household already all go -Tot.Pun so then the people in the houses all went. Fa3fu7 i -7 da8dv9 all go -Tot.Inc and-then They all went and then, ty7 bi7si9 e8 ai -6 -y9 person one lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr One man the one who is paralyzed (Lit has no feet, ie crawls) a7se9 be3di9 ty7 fai2 i -9. SeqMkr; later person follow go -Tot.Pun later followed them. Fai2 i -7 da8dv9 follow go -Tot.Inc and-then He followed them and then, au7 a7se9 be6 bv8 tai -9. he SeqMkr; path for search -Tot.Pun he lost the path. Be6 bv8 tai -7 da8dv9 path for search -Tot.Inc and-then He lost the path and then, be6 ae2 i -9. path without go -Tot.Pun He went on without a path. Be6 ae2 i -7 da8dv9 path without go -Tot.Inc and-then He went on without a path and then, e9fo6 ta -3. jungle sleep -Tot.Dur He slept in the jungle. E9fo6 ta -8 da8dv9 jungle sleep -Rlz.Dur and-then He slept in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 ba7bv9 person by-a-pig *** this the ones who were attacked by the pig
55 ty7 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 person already take -Tot.Inc and-then were taken by people and then, da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. carry house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun brought home. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 ba7bv9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr this fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -3. very/always jungle live_in -Tot.Dur And the paralyzed man stayed in the jungle. Fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -8 da8dv9 very/always jungle live_in -Rlz.Dur and-then He stayed in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 person by-a-pig ate -Tot.Pun -Nomnlzr the ones attacked by the pig ka9su6 a7se9 su -6. wound SeqMkr; dry_up -Res.Pun the wounds were healed. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr And the paralyzed man but, ty7 a7se9 bv8 tai -7 du7be7 person SeqMkr; for search -Tot.Inc but people looked for fi4au7 doe -7 ae5. very/always see -Tot.Inc not_at_all they couldn't find him. Doe -7 ae -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis and-then They couldn't find him and then, fi4au7 be7si -7 du7be7 very/always leave -Tot.Inc but they left him (didn't look anymore) but,\ bai3 ka6di8 be7 du7be7 moon many is/are -Tot.Inc that many months passed but, ty7 bi7si9 Ba3kv3si6 o8sy9 by7by9 du7be7 person one *** from it's_that_that... it was a man from Bakusi who by4 doe -9 ay -4. by_him see -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -will_be(estblsh) saw /found him. Ay8. okay Right. Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -Res.Pun That's all the words.
Resultative Punctual Viewpoint The resultative punctual aspect verbs (6) focus the resultative effect of the action on the participants or props. This can be illustrated by the use of the tone 6 morpheme on the verb ‘come /locate’ and it’s various Iau cognates. Da8bu8 bv6 a7se9 da8 ba -6. squahs I SeqMkr carry locate -Res.Pun I have brought the squash to you. (resultative -it is right there) Y7 soi4 av5ba7 be9 se9, fv7 fi4au7 bi9bi4 se9 bau6 da8dv9, water kness huge is/are since boat really go_up AttndCircum go down MVClCjSeq y7 be7 bae -6. water PredInfo locate+stative endpoint -Res.Pun Since the waves were huge, the boat was plunging up and down and so, it was taking on water /Water was coming into the boat. Di4du7be7 ty7 fi9 Mesir by3 du7be7, sv4 y7 -di7 da8 IndClCj-but people group Mesir dead bodies that only water -by carry fa6 by4ta7 bae -6. shore locate-+stative endpoint +stative endpoint -Res.Pun But it was only the dead bodies of the Egyptians that carried by the water, were washed up on the shore.
56 A9 ui8 bv8 bai -6 se5. I house to locate+total achievement -Res.Pun intend I am going to go into/enter into the house. The resultative tone morphemes in narrative discourse mark effective causative events on both independent and medial clause verbs which enable the next event or episode on the eventline. This is illustrated by the narrative segment below, where the participants went into the house order to get a paddle for the canoe they had been offered. "Fv7 bi7si9 be4 du7be7 canoe one is-Tel.Inc but "There is one canoe but, tv9i8 ae6 be9? paddle none-Res.Pnc Ques. maybe there are no paddles. I6 da9 doe7 dy3." now you pl look-tot.inc Imper. just look and see." dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 bv8 bai6. and so we SqMkr for enter in so so we went in (to the house) to get it. Dy4 tv9i8 bi7si9 bv8ke7 o9 Then paddle one also take Tot.Pnc And so we got one paddle. The following example shows a resultative punctual aspect verb marking an event which represents a change in location that enables the next set of events. Events like tying up the canoe, or pulling a canoe up on shore are marked with tone 6 resultative punctual. In travel narratives, these events are events which represent the end of travel, a new location, on land, and lead into the next episode on the eventline. In the following example where they are transporting a pig for a funeral meal, tying up the canoe at the end of the journey, enables them to progress to the next stage, carrying the pig into the village to be cut up and eaten. The use of tone 6 on a medial clause verb is marked in italics. a7se9 Fa3ui7 be7 baui -3. SeqMkr Faui LocPredNInfo Mkr arrive -Tot.Dur we came to Faui. Baui -7 da8dv9 arrive -Tot.Inc and-thenMVClCj We arrived and then, a7se9 fv7 fu6. we tied up the canoe. Fv7 fu -6 da8dv9 canoe - tie up -Res.Pun and-thenMVClCj We tied up the canoe and then, a7se9 "To8 by3 be7 ty7-8 be8 o -9 a4?" SeqMkr pig body PredNInfNonAg who? PredNInfAg take -Tot.Pun MultIncomplt (we said) "Who will take (carry) the dead pig?" The following section from a different travel narrative about spotting a crocodile, illustrates a tone 6 (resultative punctual) verb marking an eventline result that temporarily prevented them from trying to get the crocodile. In the following lines of the narrative as they go downstream and look back they see the crocodile again. When they arrive at the last house, their destination, they remember the crocodile and some plan to go back and get it at another time which is not a part of the narrator’s present story. Dav2 bi7si9 doe7 da8dv9 crocodile one see-Tot.Inc MVCj-Tot.Inc We saw a crocodile and then, Ye7bi9 a7se9 to6 i5 a7se9 y7 da8dv9 Jimmy SqMkr nose noise SqMkr sound-Tot.Inc MVCj-then Yimmy snored loudly and then, dav2 a7se9 di6. crocodile SqMkr startle-Res.Pnc the crocodile was startled. Di6 da8dv9 startle-Res.Pnc MVCj-then The crocodile was startled and then, y8 a7se9 by6 baui -8. we SqMkr downstream arrive-Res.Dur (then when) we had arrived downstream. so8ty8dy7 y8 e8ta8hau7 toe -4 da8dv9 flashlight we again throw -Tel.Inc and then MVClCj we shined the flashlight again and then, dav2 e8ta8fau7 doe -9. crocodile again see -Tot.Pun we saw the crocodile again.
57 Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and thenMVClCj We saw it and then, a7se9 ui8 bv8 i9. SeqMkr house to go -Tot.Pun we went to the house. The final example shows the verb a5 tai6 used with two different tones on it in the same episode. The resultative punctual aspect a5 tai6 is used in the first occurrence where the landing of the plane results in three people successfully arriving at the village to stay. The plane then goes on to the next leg of it’s journey but has to come back because there was no way through the clouds. The plane after landing briefly goes back home. The second occurrence is marked as totality of action durative, an aspect that focuses on the process of landing. Fv7 bi7si9 a7se9 u8 du8a7 be7 a5 tai -6. plane one SeqMkr; day two AdvMkr ground land_on -Res.Pun On the second day, a plane landed. A7se9 a5 tai -6 da8dv9 SeqMkr; ground land_on -Res.Pun and-thenMVClCj It landed and then, ty7 avy7 baui7-8 be7 a9da -3 be7 person red three Loc/DirAdvMkr put_on_grd -Tot.Dur SCCjand/after letting off three red (Caucasian) people, di8si -9. leave_behind -Tot.Pun it left. Da8dau8 Bi7da3 tv -7 du7be7 *** *** go_away'leave -Tot.Inc butMVClCj It went away to Danau Bira but, fv7 be6 bv8 tai -7 da7be8 plane path for search -Tot.Inc because(given_info) MVClCj apparently because the plane couldn't find a path, e8ta9fau7 v3 again coming_to he came back Fa3ui7 ba9 be7 a9tai -3 be7 *** here LocAdvMkr land_on_grd -Tot.Dur and/afterMVClCj and landing here at Faui, e8ta8fau7 Bu8di3 a5 tv -9 y -4. again *** land go away -Tot.Pun ExplanStatmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp again went off to Mulia.
4.5.7.2 Incompletive Aspect And The Narrative Eventline The Iau aspect tone morphemes that are incompletive, tones 7 (totality of action, incompletive) and tone 4. (telic incompletive) function in non narrative discourse and in backgrounded narrative clauses like irrealis, inceptive action, future action verb tenses as illustrated below. “A9 du9 bv8 i -7 se5.” I pig for go -Tot.Inc intend A9 a7se9 dy4 y -7 be8 ty7 foi -4 da8dv9, I SeqMkr likethat say -Tot.Inc SubClCj people tell -Tel.Inc MVClCj and then A9 a7se9 i -9. I SeqMkr go -Tot.Pun ”I am going to go hunting wild pigs.” After I saying like that told them, I went.
A9 u8 bi9bi - 4 -7 se5. I tree climb up -Tel.Inc /pending realization -Tot.Inc/irrealis intend I am going to climb up to the top of this tree. Tone 4 and 7 are used in narrative at points of change in the narrative where an event is unsuccessful, or interrupted in some way or where plans are being made that will shape the course of the eventline. The incompletive tone morphemes are used in narrative to mark pivotal points, reversals and points of suspense.
Telic Incompletive Viewpoint Tone 4 because of it’s telic aspect yet still incomplete viewpoint marks events such as plans and statements of intention. It view events as pending, that is planned but as yet unrealized or being implemented but still not completed as illustrated below. A9 u8 bi9bi - 4 -7 se5. I tree climb up -Tel.Inc /pending realization -Tot.Inc/irrealis intend I am going to climb up to the top of this tree. In the example above, climbing is a telic event, that is it has an inherent endpoint, the top. The climbing of the tree is planned and pending (tone 4) but as yet unrealized (tone 7 see next section)
58 In narrative discourse an incompletive tone 4 on the verb bi ‘to climb’ is used when the person is climbing but not yet at the top. In contrast a perfective tone 5 view the event at complete, the climber at the endpoint. The following text is from the travel narrative where the participants are trying to find a way through the jungle to their destination. The tone 4 incompletive telic tone on the verb ‘to climb’ marks an action which was not effective. They did not achieve their objective of getting a view of their destination. When they got to the top they couldn’t see it. The final verb in this example, also marked by tone 4, ‘they were tired’ also marks a point of reversal. They are tired and discouraged and they almost decide to go to Bakusi which is nearby instead of their true destination. "Ay8 y8 be7 be8 i -7 se9." Okay we NpredInfoNtopAg there go -Tot.Inc intend "Okay we will go there/that way." Dy4be7 be6 by7 fui -8. And so path LocMkr cut -Res.Dur Then we cut a path. Fe8te9dus4 dy8 Fai5 bo4 ba7bv9 a7se9 sae6-4 o7 da8dv9 be6 fui -8. Petrus and Fai two this SeqMkr machete take -Tot.Inc and then path cut -Res.Dur Petrus and Fai, those two took machetes and then, they cut a path. Y8 bo4 a7se9 si7 o -7 da8dv9 we two SeqMkr net bag take -Tot.Inc and then MVClCj We two took the net bags and then, be8sy9 e8ta8fau7 u8 bi -4. of necesity again tree climb -Tel.Ince we again climbed. Dy8 Fe8te9dus7 sa4 u8 a9 bi -4. And Petrus Cntrst tree another climb -Tel.Inc And Petrus was climbing up one tree. Dy8 a9 sa4 u8 a9 bi -4. And I Cntrst tree another climb -Tel.Inc Then I was climbing up another tree. Kaui8be4sa8 u8 a9 bi -4. Kauibesa tree another climb -Tel.Inc Kawibesa was climbing up another tree. Fai bi7si9 a5 oe -3. Fai one ground was on -Tot.Dur Only Fai was on the ground. A5 oe -8 da8dv9 y8 bi -4 ground was on -Res.Dur and thenMVClCj we climb -Tel.Inc He was on the ground and then, we were climbing dy4da8dv9 fe6 toe -4 di4du7be7 do7 ae5. And so eyes throw -Tel.Inc but see not-emph so then we were looking around but we didn't see it. Do -7 ae7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc not-Irrealis and then MVClCj We didn't see it and then, y8 u -7 da8dv9 we come down -Tot.Inc and then MVClCj we started coming down and then, i8 su -4. skin dying -Tot.Inc we were tired.
Totality Of Action Incompletive The incompletive totality of action tone 7 is used also to mark irrealis or future or future probable events. Irrealis events are events that have never been realized but the possibility of their occurrence is being discussed or conceived of. A9 i -7 ba3? i -7 ae7 ba3? A9 doe -7 ae5. I go -Tot.Inc perhaps? go -Tot.Inc not-irrealis perhaps? I know -Tot.Inc not-Emph Am I going to go? Or am I not going to go? I don’t know /have no idea. A9 a7se9 i -7 du7be7 bi8 ba -7 da8dv9 e9ta9fau7 ui8 bv8 ba -9. I SeqMkr go -Tot.Inc MVClCj but rain come -Tot.Inc MVClCj and so again house to come -Tot.Pun I went /left but, it started to rain and so, I came back to the house In narrative discourse tone 7 morphemes can also be inceptive. That is, they mark events which have been begun but are interrupted by some other event and never completed as illustrated in the 2nd sentence above marked by italics. Tone 7 verbs are rare in narrative. The following example shows the inceptive tone 7 morpheme on the verb to climb indicating that the event was begun but never completed. He began to climb but almost fell when the vine he was using to pull himself up tore loose. Dy4be7 y8 be7 fv7 da8 i7 be8 And then we Nmkr canoe propel go.Tot.Inc SCCj-Cs So then, as we were paddling the canoe ”
59 "Ba7bv9 fu9 dav8 be4 be7de8 y7. this must be lake is.Tel.Inc is-Irrl.Stat Mood This must be where there is a lake. Ba9 bv6 a7se9 bv8 bi4-7 se4" da8 be4 Here I SqMkr for climb Tel.Inc-Tot.Inc Intend RpSpeech SClCj I'm going to climb this one (ie this tree)" saying (that), ...a9 a7se9 bi7. A9 bi4 be8du7 u8 te8 bv6 tai7-8 ...I SqMkr climb.Tot.Inc I climb.Tel.Inc when tree vine I pullTot.Inc-Res.Dur ...I began to climb. I was climbing when, pulling on the tree vine, be7 a9 bi4 be8du7 u8 te8 a7se9 si6. A9 a7se9 bai8si7 SClCj I climb.Tel.Inc when tree vine SqMkr slip.Res.Pnc I SqMkr fall.Tot.Inc I was climbing when, the tree vine slipped (pulled loose from the tree). I started to fall du7be7 u8 be7 o9 a9. but tree Nmkr grab Peak Mkr but. I grabbed onto the tree. The incompletive aspects, tones 7 and 4, are also used on medial verb clauses marking sequences of events that culminate in an intermediate or final outcome. The incompletive viewpoint of these tone morphemes, contributes to the sequential and causative cohesion of the narrative by signalling that the chain of events is still in progress, as yet uncompleted. as illustrated below. This is illustrated by the tone 7 verbs below. A9 a7se9 i -9 I SeqMkr go -Tot.Pun I left A9 a7se9 i -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr go -Tot.Inc MVClCj and then I went /left but, it started to rain and so, ty7 doe -7 da8dv9 people see -Tot.Inc MVClCj and so e9ta9fau7 ui8 bv8 ba -9. again house to come -Tot.Pun I left. I went /left and then, I saw the people and then, I came back to the house.
4.5.7.3 Totality Of Action Viewpoints And The Narrative Eventline The Iau totality of action viewpoints 9, 3 both view the whole of the action defined by the verb stem, but tone nine is punctual focusing on the occurrence of the event as if it were a point in time, while tone 3 is durative and focuses on the doing of the event as an process. This is illustrated by the verb ba9 /ba3‘to come’ below. Fv7 a7se9 ui -7-8 be7 ba -3 di4du7be7 .. plane SeqMkr fly-ChngStaRsltDur SclCj come -Tot.Dur IndClCj-but The plane had taken off and was (in the process of) coming here, but ... Fv7 a7se9 ba -9. plane SeqMkr come -Tot.Pun The plane has come.
Totality Of Action Durative Versus Punctual Viewpoints In Narrative Discourse In narrative discourse, these two tones 9 totality of action punctual and 3 totality of action durative function much like perfective and imperfective aspect in other languages and are used to distinguish between primary and secondary eventlines, primary and secondary participants and primary and secondary opening circumstances. The perfective and imperfective totality of action tones 9 and 3, in addition to the telic perfective tone 5, are the most frequent tone morphemes on independent verbs in narrative. Tone 3 imperfective totality of action verbs are used in narrative settings to introduce secondary participants as well as opening circumstances that directly result in the realization of the main eventline as illustrated by the following narrative episode opening. The narrative below is about an unsuccesful attempt to buy some meat from the man by offering a knife in exchange. Y8 Fai9ta9v8 bay2 a5 taui7 da8dv9 ty7 dv8a8 bi7si9 du9 di3. we Faitaw down at land work-Tot.Inc SCj then person ally one pig kill-Tot.Dur We were down at Faitau weeding and, one of our allies /friends kill a wild pig. The following is a short narrative episode taken from part of a trip with a number of imperfective totality of action verbs illustrating the use of tone 3 tone morphemes to mark backgrounded events. Dy4be7-8 be3di9e8 a7se9 y8 be7 Fe8te8dus7 Ka8ui6be9sa8 ba7bv9 i7 da8dv9 And later SqMkr we NMkr Petrus Kawibeysa these went-Tot.Inc SCj then a9 bv8ke7 A8da7 ba9 sa3. I with God word eat - Tot.Dur The later we, (I and) Fetedua and Kauibesa went with me and, they went to church with me. A8da7 ba9 sa7 da8dv9 be7 by6 i9 a9. God word eat and then downstream go PkMkr After we ate God’s word, we then went downstream. Bo8ka8 bi7si9 be7 ba3 dy4da8dv9 a7se9 fvy5 ay9. lizard one NMkr shot-Tot.Dur ICj-and SqMkr canoe-into put-Tot.Pnc We shot a lizard and then put it into the canoe.
60 Fvy5 ay7 da8dv9 y8 a7se9 ty7 Tu8du8bo8 Fa3i9ta9 o8sy9 ba7bv9 Ae9fe8di7 by7 canoe-into put-Tot.Inc SCj then we SqMkr person Turumo Fahita from this Aehedi ID Mkr We put it into the canoe and, we, this Turumo person from Fahita, y8 a7se9 bo9fa8 ko3 sa3. we Sq Mkr together breadfruit eat-tot.dur we were eating breadfruit together with him. Ko3 sa7 da8dv9 ui8 bv8 tai8 dy4 breadfruit eat-tot.Inc MVCj then house for come into do that-Tel.Inc We ate breadfruit and, we were invited to come into the house and would have done it di4du7be7 ui8 ta9 ba7bv9 fav2 fe7-8 Icj but house inside this break up-Tel.Dur lest but fearing lest the house collapse, "A9 to6 ui8 bv8 tai8 ae3. I not house to come in-Res.Dur Neg I am not coming into the house. A9 be3ta9 bau4 de7 se9 I yard sit-Tel-Inc Sta intend I will just sit here in the yard. dy4da8dv9 ko3 be7 sa3. ICj and so breadfruit the eat-Tot.Dur and so we ate the breadfruit. Dy4 tv9 bay3. Then sago bake-tot.Dur Then we baked sago. Dy4 be3di9e8 ui7 tv9 sa3 The later house-in sago eat-Tot.Dur Then later we ate sago in the house. dy4da8dv9 be7 i9 a9. ICj and so NMk go-Tot.Inc Status Mkr After eating sago in the house, we later left. The following are the tone 3 morphemes abstracted from the narrative segment above. They (Petrus and Kawibesa ) ate God’s word with me (3) we (we and Aehedi) were eating breadfruit together (3) and so we ate the breadfruit (3) And then we baked sago. (3) we ate the sago (3) The tone 3 morphemes mark backgrounded events ‘killing and eating the lizard, eating-breadfruit and sago. These are activites of interext to the Iau. Hunting and eating are of importance to them. The perfective totality of action tone 9 verbs in this narrative, as shown below, marks references to the thematic event, travelling, as well as the outcomes of backgrounded eventlines that result in travelling being resumed. See the clause in which the lizard is put into the canoe. we put a lizard they had shot into the canoe (9) we went downstream. (9) (later) we went on. (9) The following examples show the contrast between tone 3 and tone 9 aspect on the verb ‘to come’ (the most frequently used aspect for the verb ‘to come’).The first text illustrating the use of tone 9 is entitled “Going to Get A Pig” (for a funeral meal), The verb ‘to come’ marked to tone 9 is used to mark the point where they meet up with the pig they are going to get. The tone 9 verb ‘to come’ is also used in the journey bringing the pig back to the village. They run into the problem that the river is very shallow. As a result, first they have to get out of the canoe and push the pig along in the canoe. Then after reaching a point where a sandbar blocks the way, they have to kill the pig and carry it on foot. Kv9bi9 bv4si9 a4du4 bui2 bai2 da8dv9 Kubi mouth side upstream pass into -Tel.Dur MVCj then We were coming into the mouth of the Kubi along the upstream side and-then, to8 a7se9 bi4 se9 ba9. pig SqMkr grunt-Tel.Inc -VPCj as come-Tel.Pnc the pig came grunting as it came. (They catch the pig, tie it, put it in the canoe and start back to the village.) a7se9 Bui8 bv4si9 be7 baui3. SqMrk Bui mouth NMkr reach -Tot.Dur we came to the mouth of the Bui river. Baui8 da8dv9 o7 si5 be9. reach -Res.Dur MVCj then sand dry is-Tot.Pnc We arrived and then, the water was very shallow. O7 si5 be7 da8dv9 a7se9 fv7 dae2 se9 ba9. sand dry is-Tot.Inc MVCj then SqMrk canoe immerse VPCj-as come-Tot.Pnc The water was shallow and then, we (got out and ) floated (cause to be in water) the canoe along. (They go along pushing the canoe finally coming to the huge sandbar they cannot bypass)
61 dy4da8dv9 to8 a7se9 E7fi3 be7 bi7si9. ICj-andso pig SqMkr Epi NMr carry-on-back Tot.Pnc so then Epi put the pig on his back. Bi7si7 da8dv9 da8 ba9. carry-on-back Tot.Pnc MVCj then carry-Res.Dur come-Tot.Pnc He put it on his back and then, came carrying it. The following text illustrates the occasional use of a tone 3 on the the verb ‘to come’ in narrative text with marking a backgrounded eventline. In this text the travellers have stopped for the night and they go out crown pigeon hunting. They do not find any crown pigeons but they do get at kaufu bird and a large lizard. In the text, arriving at the house is resumptive of a former location, but not foregrounded as indicated by the tone 3 morpheme. The new foregrounded information is what they did with the bird as shown by the tone 9 verbs below. They gave the bird to the residents there and they ate the lizard themselves. Dy4 a7sy9 e8ta8fau7 ui8 bv8 ba3. And then SqMkr again house to come-Tot.Dur And we came to the houses again. Dy4 ui8 bv8 ba7 da8dv9 And then house to come-Tot.Inc MVCj then And we came to the houses and then we took the kaufu bird to the people in another house. a7sy9 kau8fu8 ba7bv9 ty7 ui8 a9 ta7 da8 i9. SqMkr kaufu this people house another in carry-Res.Dur go Tot.Pnc webrought the kaufu bird to the people in another house. Dy4 bo8ka8 ba7bv9 y8 ui8 a9 ta7 sa3. And then lizard this we house another in eat-Tot.Dur And the lizard we ate in another house.
4.5.7.4 Durative Viewpoints And The Narrative Eventline Durative aspect tone morphemes 3 and 8 mark backgrounded processes and events that have continuing ongoing effects in the narrative.
Totality Of Action Durative Viewpoint In addition to the totality of action durative tone 3 morpheme marking backgrounded events in the narrative as illustrated in the previous section, tone 3 imperfective totality of action verbs are used in narrative settings to mark opening events that directly result in the realization of the main eventline and unsuccessful outcomes as illustrated by the following very short narrative episode opening. The narrative consists of an opening event and a quote and an unsatisfactory response /closing event. Both the opening and closing events are marked with the tone 3 imperfective tone morpheme. Y8 Fai9ta9v8 bay2 a5 taui7 da8dv9 ty7 dv8a8 bi7si9 du9 di3. we Faitaw down at land work-Tot.Inc SCj then person ally one pig kill-Tot.Dur We were down at Faitau weeding and, one of our allies /friends kill a wild pig. Du9 di8 da8dv9 pig kill-Tot.Dur SClCj and then When he killed the wild pig "Ty7da7y3 du9 ta9 y8 ti -5 dy3. People pig meat us give -Tel.Inc Imper (we said to him and his people) "People, give us some pig meat. Y8 sa6i8 fa9si3 o -7 a9 da9ki6 y4." we clothes exchange for -Tot.Inc good okay? We will give you clothes in exchange. di4du7be7 bv8 av -3. IndVClCj but refuse -Tot.Dur But they refused.
Resultative Durative Viewpoint Tone 8 resultative durative verbs, view the result of the action as ongoing, longterm, continuative as illustrated by the verb di3 to kill versus di8 have killed /be dead as illustrated below. Du9 a7se9 bi7si9 di3. Di -8 da8dv9, y8 a7se9 sa -3. pig SeqMkr one kill -Tot.Dur kill -Res.Dur MVClCj we SeqMkr eat -Tot.Dur We killed a wild pig. After we had killed it, we ate it. Tone 8 imperfective resultative verbs such as the example above are very frequent in backgrounded medial verb and subordinate clauses in narrative discourse. However in narrative discourse on independent clauses, tone 8 resultative durative verbs are rare. In the travel narrative below the participants are trying to figure out which way to go to reach their destination. Travel and travel plans are foregrounded in travel narratives, and eating and sleeping are secondary background events. The man who stayed behind on the ground promises to bake sago and have it ready for them when they come down from the trees they are climbing. The tone 8 imperfective resultative morpheme marks a backgrounded event, the baking of the sago, what he is doing while the others climb the trees.
62 Tv9 bv6 bay8 da8dv9 be3di8 u7 dy3." When I have baked sago, later/ after that you come down." dy4dau9 y8 foi5. That's what he told us. Foi4 da8dv9 tv9 be7 bay8. He told us and then, he baked sago. Dy4 y8 be7 bau6. And we went down. Y8 tv9 sa8 de7 bo4 be8du7 ...... We, to eat sago were sitting down when, The following example is another split eventline. They are in the jungle trying to find the way to their destination. Some climb high trees to look for landmarks over the tree tops. Others below cut a path as they are instructed by those up in the trees. The tone 8 verbs mark the cutting of the path in the direction designated. But soon they need to reorient themselves and two men go up in the trees again. The tone 8 verbs mark the result of the previous direction gained from the climbing of the trees, but it is effective only so far until they need further guidance. "Ay8 y8 be7 be8 i7 se9." "Okay we will go there/that way." Dy4be7 be6 by7 fui8. Then we cut a path. Fe8te9dus4 dy8 Fai5 bo4 ba7bv9 a7se9 sae6-4 o7 da8dv9 be6 fui8. Petrus and Fai, those two took machetes and then, they cut a path. Y8 bo4 a7se9 si7 o7 da8dv9 be8sy9 e8ta8fau7 u8 bi4. We two took the net bags and then, we again climbed. Dy8 Fe8te9dus7 sa4 u8 a9 bi4. Dy8 a9 sa4 u8 a9 bi4. Then Petrus climbed one tree. Then I climbed up another tree. Kaui8be4sa8 u8 a9 bi4. Fai bi7si9 a5 oe3. Kawibesa climbed another. Only Fai was on the ground. A5 oe8 da8dv9 y8 bi4 He was on the ground and then, we were climbing dy4da8dv9 fe6 toe4 di4du7be7 do7 ae5. so then we were looking around but we didn't see it. In the text below, from another travel narrative, the narrator’s paddling partner gets sick and they cannot keep up with the others. The others reject his proposed solution and implement theirs which is marked by a tone 8 imperfective resultative verb, the canoe is lashed to another canoe so it can be carried along by the others. dy4da8dv9 "Ty7da7y3 Di9u6sa7ae7 ba7bv9 su4 de8 so then, "People, because Diusahae is sick, A9 ba9 be7 fvy2 ta6 se5. Da9 sv4 i7 dy3." I am going to spend the night here in the canoe. You go on alone." di4du7be7 "Ba6-3 y8 sv4 i7 da8dv9 y8 y8 se9 i7 to9. but, "No, if we go on alone, we would go crying. Dy4 di9 y8 fi8si7 da8 i7 se9. Fv7 y8 av4 kay5ka7 se9. So, we will take you straight along (with us). We are going to tie the canoes together. Ba7 dy3." dy4da8dv9 fv7 be7 a7se9 da8fai4 av8 kay5ka8. Come here." So then we tied the canoes together in the dark. For more complete information on the role of verb tone in narrative discourse see the unpublished notes “The Role Of Verb Tone In Iau Narrative Discourse”
4.5.8 By The Status Particle A The status particle a is used in Iau narrative discourse to mark highly foregrounded points in the narrative where the eventline moves towards it’s thematic endpoint through a tension increasing event such as an inciting moment, a thematic problem, or a tension resolving event like a resolution or an outcome. As such it is often used at the peak of the eventline.
4.5.8.1 The A Particle Marking Inciting Moments Inciting moments are change initiating events that set off a whole chain of events. The following is an example from and Iau myth, Words about Two Men Taking a Dog Hunting . In this narrative the particle a9 occurs in a number of very similar episodes with the same thematic outcome -the older brother being mean to the younger brother. Each time they kill an animal the same thing happens, the younger brother asks for it but the older brother says it is his and takes is for himself, giving the younger brother nothing. until the younger brother tricks him, takes the dog and runs away. He ends up finding a new place for himself, two wives and raises a family.
63 In the following example from the opening episode, the particle a9 marks the inciting incident for the repetitive thematic event cycle, the killing of a kuskus. Dy8 a7se9 da8du7 u6 da7 da8 i9. And there were (two men) who took a dog out hunting. a7se9 boi9 av4 bv8ke7 y3 av4 bv8ke7 da7 da8 i9. It was a older brother and a younger brother who took the dog hunting. Da7 da8 i7 da8dv9, They were hunting and, bv6ti9 a7se9 bi7si9 o9 a9 They got a kuskus. Bv6ti9 a7se9 bi7si9 o7 da8dv9, They got a kuskus and so, y3 av4 a7se9 boi9 av7bv9 foi5, the younger brother said to his older brother, Boi9 v6y5 bv6 o7 bay5." take give Older brother! I (want to) take it, give it (to me). a7se9 dy4dau4 bv8 bi3, |He called that out to him, dy4da8dv9 a7se9 "A9 to6 dy4 ae7(?). so (he said) "No, I won't. Ba7bv9 o8sy9 by5." This one is mine."
4.5.8.2The A Particle Marking Thematic Problems Some narrative plots center around a discourse thematic problem. In the grandparent’s tale ‘About the River Drying Up’, this is indeed the discourse thematic problem. This event in the narrative eventline is marked by a9 as illustrated below. The discourse thematic problem creates a major point of tension in the narrative. The rest of the narrative is about one unsuccessful attempt to resolve this problem and second overwhelmingly successful resolution /outcome Dy8 u6dy4e8 e9 bi8 y7 su6 e9 bi8 ba7bv9 dy4dau4 bi8fa9. In times past the grandparent's story about how the water dried up was told like this. Ty7 a7se9 y7 fe7si9 bui2 be5. People were upstream at the river source. Y7 fe7si9 bui2 be4 du7be7, They were up at the river source but, ty7 a7se9 fv7 fi5. they propelled their canoes downstream. Da8du7 bui2 ba7 e9 y7 ta7 ba9. At first as they came downstream, they came in the water. Y7 ta7 ba7 da8dv9, They came in the water and. i5ta4 da8dv9, when they got halfway, y7 a7se9 o7 fa8fvy3. the river was cut off by a sandbar. Y7 i8si4ba7 be4 du7be7, There had been lots of water in the river but, sa4dy4 o7 su6 a9 it dried up. O7 su6 da8dv9, The river was dried up and, "Y8 te8 be7 i9?" "Where shall we go (to find a way through)?", dy4da8dv9 fi4au7 be6 bv8 tai9. so they really couldn't find a way. Fv7 fi4au7 by7-8 be7-8 leaving the canoe where it was, da8 be6 bv8 tai9. they looked for a path. E8ta8fau7 fo9 ui6 du7be7, They looked upstream again, but y7 fi4au7 ae6. there was no water.
64 4.5.8.3 The A Particle Marking Peak The peak of an eventline is the point of greatest tension before the resolving of the problem or the achievement of the desired outcome. In The Grandparent’s Tale About The Do Fish, the a particles mark the points of tension at which the husband’s brother finds his brother’s wife and then the moment when they hear the Do fish coming back to eat her. Dy4be7 au7 a7se9 sa7 se5 And he was going to eat her.
Dy4dau4 se9 du7 da8dv9 He was doing like that and then
Dy8 kae9 a7se9 bv8 i7 da8dv9 he went to the tree top,
a7se9 bv8 day4 de7 da8dv9 he was not to be back for a long time and so,
te7 y3 av7bv9 a7se9 be3di9 bv8 tai7 se9 du7 da8dv9 her husband's younger brother later came looking for her.
a7se9 oe7 kai8 by5 ui8 oe8 da8dv9 she was in the house of banana trees and then,
doe4 a5. he saw her.
Doe7 da8dv9 He saw her and then,
Dy8 a7se9 tv9 bv8 dae2 bau6 da8dv9 And (the husband) going over to get the sago, came back down
a7se9 ba7 da8dv9 and when he was coming,
by5 fvy8 a9 (they heard) the tree roots being hit.
dy4da8dv9 "Di9 ty9 fai9taui7 ae5. soe (he said) "You are not ready to go.
Sa4dy4 fai9taui7 dy3." Get ready."
A7se9 dy4dau4 be7 foi5. He told her like that.
dy4da8dv9 ty7 bi7si9 a7se9 oe7 by5 e9fai6. so he hid at the base of the banana trees.
E9fai6 da8dv9 He hid and then,
a7se9 ba7 da8dv9 He came and then,
tv9 si7 a4 be8 ba7 da8dv9 (the Do fish ) came carrying the net bag of sago and then,
a7se9 u6 di8. he shot him first.
4.5.8.4 The A Particle Marking Partial Resolutions The narrative Going To Get A Pig by Sakaria illustrates the a particle marking events that partially resolve a discourse problem. In this part of a long narrative about going to get a pig for a funeral meal, the challenge is to get the now dead pig across the sandbar. It has to be carried and it is heavy. It takes three of them in stages to do it. Each stage is marked by a4 as partially resolving. A7se9 fv7 fu6 We tied up the canoe dy4da8dv9 to8 a7se9 E7fi3 be7 bi7si9. so then Epi put the pig on his back. Bi7si7 da8dv9 He put it on his back and then, da8 ba9. carried it. Da8 ba7 da8dv9 He carried it and then, A7se9 o7 fai9ta9 be7 baui3.
65 We came to the edge of the sandbar. Baui8 da8dv9 We arrived and then, a7se9 U8du8ba7dvs8 be7 o9 a4. Urumadus took (the pig). Dy4 a7se9 da8 ba7 da8dv9 And he carried it and then, o7 fai9ta9 be7 baui3. we came to the end of the sandbar. Dy4 a7se9 da8 ba7 da8dv9 And he carried it and then, Ie7bi9 be8 o8 a4. Yimmy took it. Ie7bi9 a7se9 o7 da8dv9. Yimmy took it and then, e8ta8fau7 o7 fai9ta9 be7 baui3. again we came to the edge of a sandbar dy4da8dv9 a7se9 E7fi3 be7 o9 a4. so then, Epi took it. Fi4au7 dy4fau7 se9 o7 fai9ta9 be7 baui3. Doing like that we came to the end of the sandbar.
4.5.8.5 The A Particle Marking Outcomes The following is from a narrative entitled “Words About Grasshoppers ” by Ananias. He put a grasshopper up to his ear, it bit him and it hurt. He wanted his brother to have the same experience so he tricked him. The a9 particle marks the point in the narrative at which his brother experiences what he did.
dy4da8dv9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 therefore Ti8bo8ti7vs8 SeqMkr; take -Tot.Inc and-then so then Timotius took it and then,
y5 av7bv9 bay -5. ear his place/put -Tel.Pun he put it to his ear.
Bay -4 da8dv9 place/put -Tel.Inc and-then He put it to his ear and then,
y5 av7bv9 sa -8 da8dv9 ear his bite -Rlz.Dur and-then it bit his ear and then,
y5 av7bv9 bavy -7 da8dv9 ear his sting -Tot.Inc and-then his ear hurt and then,
au7 a7se9 e -6 a9 he SeqMkr; e -Res.Pun RealisIndefMult he cried out.
The next segment of the same narrative marks the secondary outcome also with a, this time with a tone 3. For the second participant, Timotius, this is a resolving event. Both these events move the discourse along to it’s final outcome, the others laugh at them. The overall purpose of the author in telling this story was to tell a funny story.
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9. therefore I SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then I said,
" Bai6e9 a9 so7dy4 y7 be -8 to9." No I falsely speak Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -RlzdCurrentRelevant CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp "No, I was fooling/lying to you."
dy4da8dv9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 au7 av8du -8 da8dv9 therefore Ti8bo8ti7vs8 he angry -Rlz.Dur and-then so then Timotius was angry and then,
a9 di -9 a3. I hit -Tot.Pun PstHab he hit me.
Y5 av7bv9 bavy -7 da8dv9 ear his sting -Tot.Inc and-then His ear hurt and so,
a9 fi4au7 i8si4ba7 be4 di -3 I very/always big AdvMkr hit -Tot.Dur he really hit me a lot.
dy8da8dv9 ty7 a8fa7-8 a7se9 y8 doe -4 bi7sai -2. dy8da8dv9 person different SeqMkr; we see -Tel.Inc laugh -Tel.Dur so then the others laughed at us.
66
Ty7 to6 ko4du8 be4 bi7sai -2 ae -5. person not(CntrExp) small AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur not -Assert_NPres_Fact They didn't laugh a little bit.
Fi4au7 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2. very/always big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur They really laughed a lot. The final example shows another tone variant of the a particle, ‘a5’ marking an outcome. This example is from a grandparent’s tale about how they came to get fire. In the narrative, the discourse problem was no fire, so food was dried in the sun or eaten raw, until the black cockatoo began to think about the problem. His solution was to light a fire from his wife’s vagina, but the outcome is more than expected. To avoid being burned he quickly had to throw the fire out into the brush. It burned up everything . The burning up of everything is marked by a5 as a totally effective event /outcome.
V4 bv8 tai7 da8dv9 He thought about it to himself and then,
be8 u3 a7se9 o9. he got some tinder.
A7se9 o7 da8dv9 he took it and then,
a7se9 au7 fe9 be7 ta2. held it to his wife's vagina.
Be8 u3 a7se9 au7 fe9 ta2 da8dv9 He held it to his wife's vagina and then,
be8 a7se9 ay4 bi8 da8dv9 when the fire got flames,
be8 a7se9 fa3fv7 toe5. he threw the fire away from her.
Toe4 da8dv9 He threw it away from her and then,
a5 fa3fv7 bay7sa8 se9 i9 a5. it went along burning up all the land.
Be8 e9 bi8 be7 ae6. There is no more of the grandparent's tale about fire.
4.6 Some Examples Of Discourse Peak Discourse peak is the point on the eventline of greatest tension on the eventline. It preceeds thematic resolutions and outcomes. The peak of the Iau eventline is marked by things such as use of certain aspects and particles, changes in clause and sentence types, and participant reference. The pace of information is slowed down by repetition of various kinds. The peak is often highlighted by quotes and dialogue. The following are some examples of Iau narrative peaks. The following story is about two boys who sneak up on some others and shoot them with their toy arrows from hiding. and then flee. One of the ones who was shot picks up his bow and draws it to shoot back in retaliation. The peak is marked in this narrative by the a9 particle and the rare tone 4 telic incompletive verb on an independent clause. Di -8 da8dv9 shoot -Rlz.Dur and-then We shot them and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 u6 ba8day -3 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; before flee -Tot.Dur we two first fled. dy4da8dv9 Av8si7 a7se9 av8du -3. therefore Av8si7 SeqMkr; angry -Tot.Dur so then Ausi was angry. Av8du -8 da8dv9 angry -Rlz.Dur and-then He was angry and then, au7 i8 bavy -7 da8dv9 he body sting -Tot.Inc and-then he was in pain and so, au7 a7se9 kaf7 o -9 a9. he SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Pun Narand...(IndfList) he took his bow. Kaf7 o -7 da8dv9 bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Inc and-then
67 He took his bow and then, A8fo8di7vs 8 a7se9 bi -4 A8fo8di7vs8 SeqMkr; draw_bow -Tel.Inc Apodius. he began taking aim at him dy4da8dv9 A8fo8di7vs8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9, therefore A8fo8di7vs8 eqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun so then, Apodius spoke words, "A9 sa4dy8 di -8 dy -3." I then shoot -Rlz.Dur do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp "Go ahead and shoot me." Au7 ba9 dy4dau4 Av8si7 foi -5 he word like_that Av8si7 tell -Tel.Pun He told Ausi words like that. di4du7be7 Av8si7 a7se9 v4 fe6di7 be -9 but Av8si7 SeqMkr; heart soft is -Tot.Pun but Ausi his heart softened. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 av8 bo4fe7 ba -3. therefore SeqMkr; make_peace_with -Tot.Dur so then they made peace. The following is the peak from a long travel narrative about going to get a pig for a funeral meal. This is the episode where having found the pig, they try to catch it. The successful outcome of the journey hinges on this moment. In this segment all the main participants are on stage and involved and the action is slowed down considerably but much detail. The peak segment is marked by a3 particles and again a rare tone 4 verb on an independent clause. "Y8 e8 kae -7 ba5." we feet tie -Tot.Inc Let’s "Let's tie up its feet." dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 fa3fu7 ba5sui -5. and so we SeqMkr all went in -Tel.Pun so then, we all went in (after it). Ba5sui -4 da8dv9 went in -Tel.Inc and then We went in and then, a7se9 to8 a7se9 bv8 fai9taui -4. SeqMkr pig SeqMkr for prepare -Tot.Inc we were getting ready to capture the pig. Fai9taui -7 da8dv9 get ready -Tot.Inc and then We got ready and then, a7se9 ay7-8be8 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr begin to capture -Tot.Inc and then we were about to get it and then, U8du8ba7dvs8 By5 be7-8de3 a7se9 tai7 be7 o -9 a3. *** *** and also seqMkr thigh /leg NewPartialGvn grab -Tot.Pun PeakMutlProcess Urumadus and Bi grabbed it's leg. O -7 da8dv9 grab -Tot.Inc and then They grabbed it and then, E7fi3 be7 i4de8 be7 o -9 a3 *** Reactivate body PredNewPartialGvn grab -Tot.Pun PeakMutlProcess Epi grabbed it's body. dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 e9fo6 da8 i -7 da8dv9 And so we SeqMkr jungle carry go -Tol.Inc and then so then it was carrying us into the jungle and then, i6 be7 a9 be7 o -9 a4. head I PredNPartialGvn grab -Tot.Pun PeakContinuative I grabbed it's head while Dy4 Ye7bi9 be7 a7se9 to8 ba8si -5. So then *** PredNPartialGvn SeqMkr pig chase away -5 Yimmy chased away (the other) pig (that was with it). -Tel.Pun To8 a9 bi7si9 ba8si -5 Pig another one chase away -Tel.Pun He chased away the other pig. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 to8 a7se9 e8 kae -9. so then SeqMkr pig SeqMkr feet tie -Tot.Pun so then, we tied the pig's feet. In the following example, three brothers and their father go in pairs to check their pig traps. The author and his brother come home disappointed. There was nothing in their trap. The peak comes with the suspense of waiting for the other two to see if they caught anything. A successful outcome is foreshadowed by a quote, speculating that since they are taking so long that must mean they caught a pig. Peak is marked by a negative and a quote.
68 Y8 bo4 a7se9 ui8 bv8 i -7 du7be7 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; house to go -Tot.Inc but We two went home but,
ty7 bo4 fi4au7 ba8sy9 ba -7 ae -5 they_two very/always quickly,soon come -may/could_be not -Assert_NPres_Fact they other two took a long time coming,
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then we two said,
" Ty7 bo4 du9 be -4 se9 they_two wild_pig is/are -Tel.Inc since "Since those two have got a pig,
ba8sy9 ba -7 ai -9 y -3." quickly,soon come -Tot.Inc not -Establish_as_fact ExplanStatmnt -Assert.RspActivated they are taking a long time coming."
Y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 foi -4 be7-8 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr We two telling each other,
av -5 de -7 da8dv9 quiet -Tel.Pun stative -Tot.Inc and-then we were just quiet (ie waited) and then,
ty7 bo4 a7se9 du9 by3 da -8 ba -9 they_two SeqMkr; wild_pig dead_body carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Pun those two brought back a dead pig.
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 v4 bv8 dui -8 da8dv9 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; thoughts because_of shake -Rlz.Dur and-then so then we two were happy and then,
bo9ka -9. congratulate -Tot.Pun we congratulated them.
The following is an example of peak in a different kind of narrative and a different style. In this narrative the interruptive medial verb conjunctions du8 and bedu7 are being used to mark moments of change and tension, while the sequential conjunction da8dv9 is used for unmarked eventline events. The preliminary events of the narrative are backgrounded in be7-8 subordinate conjunction clauses. The a particle is marking thematic outcomes in this narrative. A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di -9 -y9 I before small is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr When I was small,
a9 a6ty9 be8 da -8 I mother NMkrAg carry -Rlz.Dur
Sai4 Bv4si8 be7 da -8 ba -7 be8du7 *** *** Loc Mkr carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Inc IntrptMVClCj my mother took me and brought me to the mouth of the Sai river when,
y8 bi8 ba -7 da7be8 we rain come -Tot.Inc because(given_info) because it started to rain,
Sy9 v3 Ba8fi9ta9 by6 be7 ba -6-3. should coming_there *** downstream Loc/DirAdvMkr come -ChStateRes.Pun-Tot.Dur we went downstream to Bafita.
Dy4be7-8 a9 a6ty9 be8 tau6 fo -4 be7-8 and_then I mother NMkrAg sling take_off -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Then, my mother, taking me out of the sling,
te3 da -3 be7-8 flooring put_down_on -Tot.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr and putting me on the floor (of the house called Bafita),
di9 fvy5 o8sy9 bv8 boi -6-8 du8 things in_the_canoe originate_from for go_down_to -*** when (Interruptive) she went down to get the things in the canoe when,
a9 be3di9e8 oi7-8 a5 si -7 be8du7 I later hand ground push_on -Tot.Inc when(Interruptive) I, after (she left) was crawling when,
by3 i8 bv6 sa -8 be8du7 corpse bone I eat -Rlz.Dur when
69 I ate (ie put in my mouth) a human bone and when(Interruptive)
a6ty9 be8 a7se9 a9 fi5 o -7 da8dv9 mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; me take_from, take -Tot.Inc and-then my mother took it from me and then,
a7se9 doe -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; see -Tot.Inc and-then looked at it and then,\
by3 i8 a7se9 doe -7 da8dv9 corpse body SeqMkr; see -Tot.Inc and-then she saw it was a human bone and then,
a6ty9 a7se9 e -6 da8dv9 mother SeqMkr; exclaim -Res.Pun and-then mother exclaimed and then,
a9 a7se9 o7di7 di -8 a3 I SeqMkr; by/with_hand hit -Rlz.Dur was/has_been...-ing she hit me with her hand
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 y -8 da8dv9 therefore I SeqMkr; cry -Rlz.Dur and-then so then, I cried and then,
fe6ka -9 a9 sleep -Tot.Pun be_...-ing+IndefEv/Prtc I slept.
dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 da8su6 ba -7 da8dv9 therefore we SeqMkr; in_the_morning come -Tot.Inc and-then so then, we came the next day and then,
O7 Fai9ta9 be7 baui -7-8 da8dv9 sand(/sandyplace) tip Loc/DirAdvMkr reach -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur and-then we got as far as the end of the sandbar and then,
a6ty9 a7se9 ty7 foi -5 mother SeqMkr; person tell -Tel.Pun mother said to the people (there),
" Y8 v3 Ba8fi9ta9 by6 be7 ta -8 be8du7 we coming_there *** downstream Loc/DirAdvMkr leep -Rlz.Dur when "We came and slept downstream at Bafita when,
so6 o8sy9 by3 i8 da -9 to -4." child my corpse bone eat_up -Tot.Pun CntraryToHearer -NAssert.ExpRsp *** my child ate a human bone."
A6ty9 a7se9 dy4dau4 ty7 foi -4 a3. mother SeqMkr; like_that person tell -Tel.Inc was/has_been...-ing Mother told people like that.
A9 by3 i8 da -9 -e9 I corpse bone ate -Tot.Pun -Nominlz I ate a human bone,
ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc is_none -fact_now That's all the words (about that).
4.7 Some Examples Of Eventline Outcomes And Conclusions Eventline outcomes are the endpoints of the eventline. There are not only discourse final outcomes, but outcomes of various episodes and secondary eventlines along the way. In Iau, outcomes of thematic eventlines tend to be marked with tone 9 (totality of action punctual aspect), while outcomes of secondary eventlines tend to be marked with tone 3 (totality of action durative aspect). The a status particle (indefinite temporally unbounded repetitive event marker ) is frequently used to mark thematic outcomes. Outcomes also are marked by independent clauses, repetition, evalutatory comments and summaries of the main eventline. In the narrative below (also used in section 4.6 above) the a particle is marking thematic eventline outcomes. A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di -9 -y9 I before small is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr When I was small,
a9 a6ty9 be8 da -8 I mother NMkrAg carry -Rlz.Dur
70 Sai4 Bv4si8 be7 da -8 ba -7 be8du7 *** *** Loc Mkr carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Inc IntrptMVClCj my mother took me and brought me to the mouth of the Sai river when, y8 bi8 ba -7 da7be8 we rain come -Tot.Inc because(given_info) because it started to rain,
Sy9 v3 Ba8fi9ta9 by6 be7 ba -6-3. should coming_there *** downstream Loc/DirAdvMkr come -ChStateRes.Pun-Tot.Dur we went downstream to Bafita.
Dy4be7-8 a9 a6ty9 be8 tau6 fo -4 be7-8 and_then I mother NMkrAg sling take_off -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Then, my mother, taking me out of the sling, te3 da -3 be7-8 flooring put_down_on -Tot.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr and putting me on the floor (of the house called Bafita), di9 fvy5 o8sy9 bv8 boi -6-8 du8 things in_the_canoe originate_from for go_down_to -*** when (Interruptive) she went down to get the things in the canoe when, a9 be3di9e8 oi7-8 a5 si -7 be8du7 I later hand ground push_on -Tot.Inc when(Interruptive) I, after (she left) was crawling when, by3 i8 bv6 sa -8 be8du7 corpse bone I eat -Rlz.Dur when I ate (ie put in my mouth) a human bone and when(Interruptive) a6ty9 be8 a7se9 a9 fi5 o -7 da8dv9 mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; me take_from, take -Tot.Inc and-then my mother took it from me and then, a7se9 doe -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; see -Tot.Inc and-then looked at it and then,\ by3 i8 a7se9 doe -7 da8dv9 corpse body SeqMkr; see -Tot.Inc and-then she saw it was a human bone and then, a6ty9 a7se9 e -6 da8dv9 mother SeqMkr; exclaim -Res.Pun and-then mother exclaimed and then, a9 a7se9 o7di7 di -8 a3 I SeqMkr; by/with_hand hit -Rlz.Dur was/has_been...-ing she hit me with her hand dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 y -8 da8dv9 therefore I SeqMkr; cry -Rlz.Dur and-then so then, I cried and then,
fe6ka -9 a9 sleep -Tot.Pun be_...-ing+IndefEv/Prtc I slept. dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 da8su6 ba -7 da8dv9 therefore we SeqMkr; in_the_morning come -Tot.Inc and-then so then, we came the next day and then,
O7 Fai9ta9 be7 baui -7-8 da8dv9 sand(/sandyplace) tip Loc/DirAdvMkr reach -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur and-then we got as far as the end of the sandbar and then, a6ty9 a7se9 ty7 foi -5 mother SeqMkr; person tell -Tel.Pun mother said to the people (there),
" Y8 v3 Ba8fi9ta9 by6 be7 ta -8 be8du7 we coming_there *** downstream Loc/DirAdvMkr leep -Rlz.Dur when "We came and slept downstream at Bafita when, so6 o8sy9 by3 i8 da -9 to -4." child my corpse bone eat_up -Tot.Pun CntraryToHearer -NAssert.ExpRsp *** my child ate a human bone."
A6ty9 a7se9 dy4dau4 ty7 foi -4 a3. mother SeqMkr; like_that person tell -Tel.Inc was/has_been...-ing
71 Mother told people like that.
A9 by3 i8 da -9 -e9 I corpse bone ate -Tot.Pun -Nominlz I ate a human bone,
ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc is_none -fact_now That's all the words (about that).
The following segment of narrative from the story about checking pig traps illustrates the Iau tendency to use of tone 9 on events that are outcomes, Y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 foi -4 be7-8 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr We two telling each other,
av -5 de -7 da8dv9 quiet -Tel.Pun stative -Tot.Inc and-then we were just quiet (ie waited) and then,
ty7 bo4 a7se9 du9 by3 da -8 ba -9 they_two SeqMkr; wild_pig dead_body carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Pun those two brought back a dead pig.
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 v4 bv8 dui -8 da8dv9 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; thoughts because_of shake -Rlz.Dur and-then so then we two were happy and then,
bo9ka -9. congratulate -Tot.Pun we congratulated them. The following example from a narrative about a pig hunt shows the use of tone three verbs to mark secondary highly expected closing outcomes. In this narrative the most exciting part is the beginning where after they shoot the pig they are not sure if it is dead or not because the dog is still acting as if it is alive. This last half of the narrative is about the struggle to carry the heavy pig home. In the end (outcome) they put the pig down, cut it up and eat. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 bi7sai -2 be7-8 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; laugh -Tel.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr so then, we two laughing,
a9 a7se9 A8da7 bv8 bi -8 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; God to call -Rlz.Dur and-then I prayed and then,
du9 y8 bo4 a7se9 e8 ka -7 da8dv9 wild_pig we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; lower_leg *** -Tot.Inc and-then we two tied the feet of the pig and then,
bv6 a7se9 u6 bi7si -9 be7-8 I SeqMkr; first carry_on_back -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr I putting it on my back,
da8 i -7 da8dv9 carry go -Tot.Inc and-then carried it and then,
a9 fi4au7 i8 fu -7 da8dv9 I very/always body hurt -Tot.Inc and-then I was really exhausted and then,
Ba8ti8vs8 be7 a9 fi5 o -7 da8dv9 *** NMkrOb me take_from, take -Tot.Inc and-then Matius took it from me and then,
a5 ay -9 a9 ground put -Tot.Pun Nar:initiateResponseS put it on the ground
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 sae -6 da8dv9 therefore SeqMkr; *** -Res.Pun and-then so then, we cut it up and then,
a7se9 sa -3. SeqMkr; eat -Tot.Dur we ate it.
Du9 ba9 be -7 ae -6. wild_pig word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words about the wild pigs.
72 4.8 Foregrounding and Backgrounding Events on the eventline are foregrounded or backgrounded (ranked in thematic importance) by factors such as clause type, verb stem tone, mood and status particles, by the absence versus presence of the a7se9 particle and by participant reference modes.
4.8.1 The Role of Clause Types Clause types (that is, independent versus medial verb versus subordinate clauses) are used to rank events on a hierarchy of three pragmatic levels. primary, secondary and tertiary respectively. The exact use of the clause types vary according to the narrator’s style, but the relative ranking is always the same.
Independent Clauses Independent clauses are most often used to present the events of the primary eventlines, the things the narrator wants to say about the participants: what their task was and how they achieved it, what their problem was and how they solved it, or what happened to them. Independent clauses are also used to present the final outcomes, resolutions, and thematic comments about the narrative. This is illustrated below. See Figures 1 and 2 in section 4.0 for examples. In more compact written styles, medial verb clauses are used to present the eventline, while the higher ranking independent clauses mark outcomes, final resolutions and thematic comments about the narrative. Subordinate clauses are used for backgrounded events. See Figure 4 in section 4.0 for an example A list of all the independent clause events in an Iau discourse should give a shopping list of every major event in addition to the primary setting information and the post narrative author comments on the story. & list from Figure 1 In the case of compact narratives, a list of all the independent clauses should give a skeleton outline of the main points of the narrative.& List from Figure 4
Medial Verb Clauses Medial verb clauses are lower ranking than independent clauses They are used to mark backgrounded information such as additional details about props, participants, time, and location, introduction of nonfocal participants, and additional details about the main eventline:, related events, higly expected events, same event from the perspective of another location, another participant, another eventline. The following example shows new setting information introduced in medial verb clauses. Time /Main Participant A9 u6dy4e9 I in_the_past I in the past, Location Fi8be7fvy8 by6be7 du -8 da8dv9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream go around -Rlz.Dur and-then was at Fibehui and then, Expanded participant /location information/opening event y8 ko4du8 a7se9 be3ta9 du -8 da8dv9 we small SeqMkr; clearing go around -Rlz.Dur and-then we small one s were walking around and then, Introduce main prop /point of conflict so7 ko4du9 bi7si9 doe -9. tree ko4du9 one see -Tot.Pun we saw a little so tree. The following example shows new secondary eventline events being added in medial verb clauses. dy4da8dv9 and_then So then, a7se9 fe6 ai8 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; goggles take -Tot.Inc and-then after we put on our goggles, kei9 bv8 tai -7 se9 i -9. turtle for search -Tot.Inc CircSClCj go -Tot.Pun we went looking for turtles. Kei9 bv8 tai -7 se9 i -7 da8dv9 turtle for search -Tot.Inc CircSClCj go -Tot.Inc and-then We went looking for turtles and then, a7se9 e7ba3 be4 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; four NMkrInst catch -Tot.Inc and-then we got six and then, a7se9 si -6. SeqMkr; put_in_bag -Res.Pun we put them in the net bag.
Subordinate Clauses
73 Adverbial subordinate clauses are used for backgrounded steps or prerequiste event leading to a goal. These are illustrated in the text below in sequences such as the following: A7se9 dy4dau7 av8 foi -4 be7-8 SeqMkr; dy4dau7 each_other tell -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Saying like that to each other, tui2 bv8 tv9. someone_killed/murdered for has_left/gone they went to kill. Dy4be7-8 tui2 ty7 a7se9 be4dy4 be9sy9 and_then victim people SqMkr as_a_result inevitably di -4 be7-8 kill -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Then, killing in revenge, si6 da8be3 so6 ko4du8 fa3fu7 vy -3 be7-8 woman including/even child small all take-Tot.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr taking all the women and the children, da -8 bi -3. carry -Rlz.Dur arrive -Tot.Dur they brought them here. Dy4be7-8 be4dy4 Fa3ui6 ba9be7 fv7 a5 taui -7 di3 and_then as_a_result Fa3ui6 here airstrip make -Tot.Inc PstRealis Then after that, they made the airstrip here at Faui.
4.8.2 The Role of Verb Stem Tone See 4.5.7 for a discussion of the role of Iau verb stem tone in foregrounding and backgrounding.
4.8.3 The Role Of Mood And Status Particles The occurrence of mood and status particles in Iau narrative discourse is rare, outside of direct quotes. The most commonly occurring particle within narrative is the reality status particle a which normally in non narrative discourse marks events which occur multiple times over an period of time which has neither a defined beginning point or a defined endpoint. The status particle ay also occasionally occurs, as well as the the mood markers bv to and y. See section 4.5.8 for examples of the use of the particle a in Iau narrative. As a marker of inciting moments, resolution and outcomes as well as discourse peak, a is an inherent foreground marker. The partical ay is inceptive continuative. The following is an example of how it is used to mark the point of resolution of the tension on the eventline where two boys were ready to shoot each other. y8 bo4 a7se9 v4 te9ba8 de9 we two SeqMkr heart reluctant Stat then because we changed our minds /didn't want to then,
kaf7 y8 bo4 a7se9 a5 da3 be7-8 bows we two Seq Mkr ground put on SubClCj putting our bows down on the ground,
y8 bo4 a7se9 y8 ay4. we two SeqMkr cry begin..-ing we two began to cry.
The particle bv9 also marks multiple occurrence foregrounded events in Iau narrative. These kinds of events are found in peak where the action is slowed down and in thematic outcomes as well. Bv9 marks generic events. The specific component events can then be enumerated in the following clauses as in the example below. Dy4 av -5 de -7 da8dv9, Then when he kept still,
a7se9 ty7 so6 av7bv9 sa4dy8 bi4 bv9. the child's relatives kept threatening him with their bows.
sa4 fi4au7 bi4. They just kept threatening.
Dy4 a4 a9 da3 be3 sa4dy8 bi4 dy3. Then, his father's brothers, if there were any, threatened him.
a7se9 soe8 av7bv9 be4 be3? And if his mothers brothers were there,
dy4da8dv9 sa4dy8 v3 bi5. then they came and drew their bows at him.
so6 av7bv9 bv8 v4 fe7 be7 da8dv9, They were grieved for their child and,
sa4dy8 bi4 a3, so they threatened him with their bows.
74
bi4 a3, and they threatened him.
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 ae6. then, they stopped.
In the example below bv9 marks the final event of many like it, the proverbial straw that broke the camel’s back in this story. Dy4be7 a9 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 v3 fo9 taui8 be7 Then another man came and looking up at the breadfruit,
bvy9. he wanted to have some.
"Da6da8 a9 boe4 y3. "Now its my turn.
Da6da8e8 bv6 sai7 bv8 i7 sa9 y3." Now I am going to get mine."
Dy4dau4 y7 da8dv9 He said like that and then,
a7se9 bv8 bi4 da8dv9, he climbed up to get (it) and then,
a7se9 da9 bv9, \com the breadfruit tree ate him. he got eaten up TOO
Dy4 ko3 by7by9 du7be7 ty7 be4 da9 du7e8 ty7 di8di7 ai5, And so it was because the breadfruit kept eating up the people that,
ty7 di8di7 ai5, the people aleady at the point of annihilated.
dy4da8dv9 be3di9e8 ty7 a9 bi7si9 a7se9 ko3 bv8 bi4 e8 so then later, another man who was about to climb up the breadfruit tree,
a7se9 ba9 bi8fa9 said (to it),
"Y8 by7dy8 di8di7 di4 du7e8 ai5 fu9 dy4 a9 y9." ""We have already been killed and killed until we arein danger of being annihilated if we keep on like this."
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 be4dy4 be7si9. \com So he didn't climb up the tree. so because of that he left it (didn't climb it).
Ko3 e9 bi8 ba9 be7 ae6. There are no more words the breadfruit grandparent's tale.
The mood particles to and y are found on evalutative and thematic statements made by the author with the reader /hearer in mind,. The particle y marks thematic comments and statements made by the author to the reader. To marks statements anticipating counterstatements questions and proposal by the reader to the author /speaker’s narrative. The following are some examples of the mood marking particles y and to. In the first example below the statement particle y marks the thematic outcome of the narrative. au7 bv6 o7di7 di8 da8dv9 I hit him with my hand and then,
au7 a7se9 fe6si3 be7-8 he, waking up,
au8du8 di8 y9. was angry. The mood particle ‘to’ normally marks statements which the speaker is asserting contrary to hearer expectation or opinion. In narrative discourse ‘to is used to mark emphatic /speaker highlighted outcomes.’ In the first example the speaker is stressing his victory over his antagonist. In the second example the speaker is stressing how very very happy he was. The topicof the narrative was ‘something that made him happy’. Ae8 o8sy9 ta8ta7-8 de9 because he rubbed my sore, au7 bv6 be8di9e8 I after that,
75 y7 ta9 kay4 e8 bay7 be8dv7 held him under the water with my foot when, au7 to6 ka9su6 y7 be9 ba6-3 to4. water got up his nose. Dy4be7-8 y8 bo4 fai9fa9ba4de7 y8 se9 ba7-3 to9. Then, we two both went home crying. The final example below show the mood particle to marking the final clause of the narrative which emphasizes the theme ‘Something that made me happy’. The events of the narrative made him so happy, he was happy for the rest of the day. du3si9 bv6 bi7si9 bae3 du8 I shot a bird and a9 fi4au7 v4 bv8 dui8 be8 I was so happy that fvy2 by6 se9 du8 du7e8 I danced /jumped up and down in the canoe until, bai3 i3 to9. The sun went down. The following is the final segment of a narrative about how it was that the Iau people, came to congregate at the village now called Faui. This section is heavily marked with final mood and status particles as the thematic result of their stopping their former way of life of fighting. Bi7si9 by7by9 du7be7 be7-8dy4 di4 be7-8 It was after killing that one that fav4fvy8 by7 ae6. we stopped.There is no more (killing). By9 da6 be7-8dy4 fav8fvy4 be7-8 And now as result of it's being stopped, y8 da6 A9da7 ba9 o7 a3. we now habitually receive God's word /go to church. Y8 da6 be4dy4 ba9 be7 ui8 davy7 bv9. We now build houses here. Fi4au7 dy4dau7 a9 y3. We keep doing like that. Y8 da6 be4dy4 ui8 da9ki3 davy7 bv9. We now as a result build good houses. Dy4dau7 a9 y3. We keep doing like that. Y8 da6 be6 da9ki3 taui7 bv9. We, now, make nice paths. So6 ka6di9 be4 bi7 bv9. We have many children. Fi4au7 dy4dau7 a9 y3. We keep doing like that. Y8 da6 be4dy4 fvy6 bv9. We now, as a result, are baptized. Y8au7 ku8du8 be7 baui7-8 bv9. Some of us have become teachers (in the church). Fi4au7 dy4dau7 a9 y3. We keep doing like that.. Y8au7 da6 be4dy4 y7 avy7-8 be7 taui7 bv9. Some of us now prepare communion. Fi4au7 dy4dau7 a9 y3. We keep doing like that. So6 ko9du8 se8kv8da7 o7 bv9. The small children go to school. Bi8o4de8 dei8 du8ki7 bv9. Others saw lumber. Y8au7 ku8du8 A9da7 ba9 da8 davy8 i7 bv9. Our own missionaries now take God's word to far places. Fi4au7 dy4dau7 se9 du8 ay4. We have been doing like that ever since.
4.8.4 By Particpant Reference And Pronouns There are two first person pronouns in Iau. The pronoun a ‘I’ is the unmarked form. The pronoun bv6 is the marked form. The bv6 form occurs in transitive clauses where the object is topic, not the subject.
76 In first person narratives, the marked first person pronoun bv6 occur at peak. This is also true of the third person pronoun au7. Full names of secondary participants are also used commonly at peak. These will be illustrated below. In the first narrative “Words About Having No Canoe” the participants go on foot upriver to meet their father, hunting as they go. Although they do get some turtles, they are disappointed when one’s underwater goggles break and then again when they catch a crocodile but it gets away. The bv6 pronoun marks the point at which the narrator looks for the broken goggles and the point at which he gets a rope on the crocodile. Having No Canoe The point at which the underwater goggles being used to hunt turtles, leaving only one able to hunt fe6 ai8 Yo8si7a3 be8sy9 a7se9 kv8 tay3| the glue came off of Yosia's goggles. dy4da8dv9 bv6 a7se9 bo9fo7 bv8 tai9...... so then, I looked for them for him.
The point at which the crocodile gets away, which discourages them so that they don’t hunt turtles either. dy4da8dv9 ai8boe8 fu3 bv6 a7se9 da8 dai3i9. so I took the spear and rope down under the water. Da8 dai3i7 da8dv9 I took it down under the water and then, bv6 a7se9 fu6 da8dv9 I got the rope on him and then, a7se9 ba8day3 he fled. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 dav2 bv8 v4 fe7be7 da8dv9 so then, we two felt bad about the crocodile and then, kei9 bv8 du8 ae5. we didn't hunt turtles anymore. The participants final comment on the narrative "Dav2 y8 bo4 bi7si9 o7 be8du7 tv9 y9." "We two caught a crocodile but then, he got away." The third person pronoun au7 is rare in narrative. Often third person participants are referred to by name or phrases such as ty7 bo4 ‘those two people’ or identifies the participant in terms of an event ‘the person who got bit’. The use of the third person pronoun au7 appears to be similar to the first person pronoun bv6. The following are some examples. The example below shows use of both the first person pronoun bv6 and the 3rd singular pronoun au7 The following story is the story about a boy who gets bit by a grasshopper, referred to in the previous section. The bv6 pronoun occurs at the point where he decides to trick his brother, the au7 3rd person pronouns occur at the point where his brother reacts to the grasshopper bite. They also coincide with the use of the status particle a in this story A Story About A Grasshopper The point at which he decides to trick his brother to get him to let the grasshopper bite him too. Bavy7 da8dv9 bv6 a7se9 bi8o8kay9. It hurt and then, I didn't say anything about it. Bi8o8kay7 da8dv9 a7se9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 foi5 I didn't say anything and then, I said to Timotius, "Ti8bo8ti7vs8 v6y5 ka3av9 ba7bv9 bv6 y5 bay4 da8dv9 "Timotius I put this grasshopper to my ear and then, da7 so6 fai9fa9ba7de9 tui7 sa8 to9. it was just like a little puppy drinking from its mother's breast. His brother’s reaction, which leads to hitting him y5 av7bv9 sa8 da8dv9 y5 av7bv9 bavy7 da8dv9 it bit his ear and then, his ear hurt and then, au7 a7se9 e6 a9 dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa9. he cried out. so then I said, "Bai6e9 a9 so7dy2 be8 to9." "No, I was fooling/lying to you." dy4da8dv9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 au7 av8du8 da8dv9 a9 di9 a3. so then Timotius, he was angry and then, he hit me. Full names also tend to occur at the same points in narrative as these pronouns. The full names refer to secondary participants involved in peak. Note the full name of the older brother is given twice in the narrative above, at points coinciding with the use of the two marked pronouns. In one case the name and pronoun are used together. The following example is taken from a story about a boy whose mother didn’t give him sago to eat one night even though he cried for it. The bv6 pronoun occurs twice at the point where he gets up in the night and steals some. She discovers him at first thinking in the dark that he is a dog. The second set of bv6 pronouns occurs at the point where he confesses what he has done. The 3rd person pronoun au7, referring to mother, occurs once at the point where the boy confesses to her.
77 a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fei6si7 da8dv9 I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 a7se9 du8 bv8 ui7-3. I secretly got up to get mother's sago. Tv9 bv6 a7se9 fav7 be8dv7 I broke off some sago when, au7 bv6 a7se9 foi5, I said to her, "A9 di9 tv9 bay4 ae2 "(Since) you, not giving me sago, fe6ka8 de3 went to sleep, tv9 bv6 du8 fav7 be8du7 I broke off a piece secretly when, a9 di9 di8 to4." you hit me." A6ty9 bv6 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi4 da8dv9 I told mother like that and then,
4.9.Multiple Eventlines The following are some ways of beginning new eventlines, switching eventlines and returning to old eventlines
4.9.1 Introduce New Participants New eventlines begin when new participants are introduced into the discourse, or former participants are brought back on stage. The following is an example where a new participant, the man’s sister is introduced in a new eventline. Her eventline eventually merges with his. e8ta8fau7 be8 i9 a4. Be8 i7 da8dv9 again there go.Tot.Pnc TempUBd there go.Tot.Inc and then so he went back there again. So he went back there and, a7se9 be8sy9 e9fai6 de9. SqMkr Oblig hide.Res.Pnc stative he had to hide. E9fai6 de7 da8dv9 a7se9 aui9 av7bv9 fi9 ka6di8 be7 sa3 hide.Res.Pun Sta and then SqMkr sister his fish many Nmk eat.Tot.Dur He hid and then, his sister, she was eating many fish. Fi9 ka6di8 be7 sa8 da8dv9 a7se9 te8 ae6 da8dv9 fish many Nmkr eat.Res.Dur and then SqMkr vine is not and then She was eating many fish and then, she had no more vine (to wrap the fish for cooking) and then,
4.9.2 Introduce New Time In section 2.1 we saw how temporal adverbs are used in combination with the a7se9 particle to indicate a different time and eventline and return to the main eventline. Another way of marking boundaries between eventlines is by using a stative particle de on the verb of a temporarily suspended eventline. This effectively stops the action momentarily by putting the old participant on hold or by introducing the new participant as a still life and then releasing him for action to play his role in the discourse.
4.9.3 Temporary Suspension For New Eventline—Statives And Incompletives The use of the stative particle de as a boundary marker between eventlines is illustrated in the following section from the narrative, ‘How the Iau Came To Settle In Their Land’ by Benjamin. The main character decides that he is going back to his home village which he had to leave because he killed someone. There he meets his sister, the secondary participant being introduced. The text is listed by sentences below. Occurences of a7se9 are also marked. Au7 v4 a7se9 dy4dau7 da8dv9, he heart SqMkr was like that.Tot.Pnc and then His heart was like that and so,
du9 ui8 oe8 y9 a7se9 be7si9. A7se9 be7si7 da8dv9, pig house be in.Res.Dur Nomlz SqMkr leave.Tot.Pnc SqMkr leave.Tot.Inc and then He a7se9 left behind the wild pork in his house. He left it in the house and, e8ta8fau7 be8 i9 a4. Be8 i7 da8dv9 again there go.Tot.Pnc TempUBd there go.Tot.Inc and then so he went back there again. So he went back there and, a7se9 be8sy9 e9fai6 de9. SqMkr Oblig hide.Res.Pnc stative he had to hide. E9fai6 de7 da8dv9 a7se9 aui9 av7bv9 fi9 ka6di8 be7 sa3
78 hide.Res.Pun Sta and then SqMkr sister his fish many Nmk eat.Tot.Dur He hid and then, his sister, she was eating many fish. Fi9 ka6di8 be7 sa8 da8dv9 a7se9 te8 ae6 da8dv9 fish many Nmkr eat.Res.Dur and then SqMkr vine is not and then She was eating many fish and then, she had no more vine (to wrap the fish for cooking) and then, aui9 av7bv9 a7se9 te8 be7 te8 a3. Te8 te8 da8dv9, sister his SqMkr vine Nmkr pull up TempUnBd vine pull off.Res.Dur and then his sister, she was pulling on the vine.. She pulled off some vine and so, te8 fai9 a4dv8 ba7bv9 a7se9 fvy6 av7bv9 be8 a7se9 e8-di7 o8kay4 de9. vine end side this SqMkr brother her CsMkr SqMkr foot-Instr press down Stative her brother was stepping on the end of the vine. E8-di7 o8kay4 de7 da8dv9 a7se9 tui4 be9. foot-Instr press down Stative and theN SqMkr strong is.Tot.Pnc He was stepping on the end of the vine and so, it was stuck. a7se9 tui4 be7 da8dv9 a7se9 fe6 toe5. SqMkr strong is.Tot.Pnc and then SqMkr eye throw.Tel.Pnc it was stuck and so, she looked around. Aui9 av7bv9 a7se9 fe6 toe4 da9dv9 sister his SqMkr eye throw.Tel.Pnc His sister, she looked around.and then, fvy6 av7bv9 a7se9 doe9. brother her SqMkr saw.Tot.Pnc Her brother, she saw him..
In the example above, the last event of the orginal eventline, the brother hides, is marked with de. The new eventline is about his sister and how it came about that she found him hiding. In another text, a tone 4 telic incompletive aspect is used on the verb to go to temporarily suspend the action for one set of participants while the others go on. This is illustrated below. Da8 su -6 da8dv9 sky dry_up -Res.Pun and-then It was the next day and then, a7se9 Av8si7 be7-8de3 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 be7-8de3 SeqMkr; Av8si7 and(also) Ti8bo8ti7vs8 and(also) a4 bv8ke7 tv9 bv8 i -9 father _be_with/accompany sago(starch/palm) for go -Tot.Pun Ausi, Timotius and father went to get sago dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 A8fo8di7vs8 y8 bo4 a7se9 ui -7 i -4. therefore we_two_(incl.) A8fo8di7vs8 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; house -given_loc go -Tel.Inc so then, we two, Apodius (and I), we two stayed in the house.
4.9.4 Fronted Reactivation Of Old And New Participants Another boundary marking device is also illustrated in the text about the escaped man who returns and meets his sister. In Iau at eventline junctures, both the old and new participants are fronted and explicitly mentioned followed by the a7se9 particle. This can be seen in the example above at the resumption of the old eventline, where the old participant, the woman is explicitly mentioned and fronted with a7se9. . Note at the beginning of the new eventline about the man, he is similarly fronted with a7se9. The following text also illustrates the fronting of participants with a7se9 at eventline junctures. MAIN EVENTLINE: about the runaway man Au7 v4 a7se9 dy4dau7 da8dv9, he heart SqMkr was like that.Tot.Pnc and then His heart was like that and so,
du9 ui8 oe8 y9 a7se9 be7si9. A7se9 be7si7 da8dv9, pig house be in.Res.Dur Nomlz SqMkr leave.Tot.Pnc SqMkr leave.Tot.Inc and then He a7se9 left behind the wild pork in his house. He left it in the house and, e8ta8fau7 be8 i9 a4. Be8 i7 da8dv9 again there go.Tot.Pnc TempUBd there go.Tot.Inc and then so he went back there again. So he went back there and, a7se9 be8sy9 e9fai6 de9. SqMkr Oblig hide.Res.Pnc stative he had to hide. NEW EVENTLINE BEGINS: about his sister E9fai6 de7 da8dv9 a7se9 aui9 av7bv9 fi9 ka6di8 be7 sa3 hide.Res.Pun Sta and then SqMkr sister his fish many Nmk eat.Tot.Dur While he was hiding, his sister was eating many fish. Fi9 ka6di8 be7 sa8 da8dv9 a7se9 te8 ae6 da8dv9 fish many Nmkr eat.Res.Dur and then SqMkr vine is not and then She was eating many fish and then, she had no more vine (to wrap the fish for cooking) and then, aui9 av7bv9 a7se9 te8 be7 te8 a3.
79 sister his SqMkr vine Nmkr pull up TempUnBd his sister, she was pulling on the vine.. RESUME OLD EVENTLINE: the runaway and what he was doing Te8 te8 da8dv9, vine pull off.Res.Dur and then She pulled on the vine and so, te8 fai9 a4dv8 ba7bv9 a7se9 fvy6 av7bv9 be8 a7se9 e8-di7 o8kay4 de9. vine end side this SqMkr brother her CsMkr SqMkr foot-Instr press down Stative her brother was stepping on the end of the vine. RESUME NEW EVENTLINE: about the sister trying to get vine E8-di7 o8kay4 de7 da8dv9 a7se9 tui4 be9. foot-Instr press down Stative and theN SqMkr strong is.Tot.Pnc He was stepping on the end of the vine and so, it was stuck. a7se9 tui4 be7 da8dv9 a7se9 fe6 toe5. SqMkr strong is.Tot.Pnc and then SqMkr eye throw.Tel.Pnc it was stuck and so, she looked around. Aui9 av7bv9 a7se9 fe6 toe4 da9dv9 sister his SqMkr eye throw.Tel.Pnc His sister, she looked around.and then, fvy6 av7bv9 a7se9 doe9. brother her SqMkr saw.Tot.Pnc Her brother, she saw him.. In the example above, in the middle of the new eventline about the sister, the brother’s eventline is resumed for a sentence to tell what he was doing as she was getting vine. This is the event that leads to his discovery, he was standing on the vine she was trying to pull off. At this juncture both participants are explicitly mentioned in fronted noun phrases followed by a7se9. Again at the end of the new eventline about the sister and how she saw him hiding, both brother and sister are explicitly mentioned in fronted noun phrases with the a7se9 particle. The following is another example in which the sidelined participants are joined back into the eventline again, by being referred to in a fronted nominalized clause repeating their contrastive eventline plans and an orienter verb of seeing. Da8 su -6 da8dv9 sky dry_up -Res.Pun and-then It was the next day and then, a7se9 Av8si7 be7-8de3 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 be7-8de3 SeqMkr; Av8si7 and(also) Ti8bo8ti7vs8 and(also) a4 bv8ke7 tv9 bv8 i -9 father _be_with/accompany sago(starch/palm) for go -Tot.Pun Ausi, Timotius and father went to get sago dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 A8fo8di7vs8 y8 bo4 a7se9 ui -7 i -4. therefore we_two_(incl.) A8fo8di7vs8 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; house -given_loc go -Tel.Inc so then, we two, Apodius (and I), we two stayed in the house. Ui -7 i -4 da8dv9 house -given_loc go -Tel.Inc and-then We stayed in the house and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 foi -5. we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun we two said to each other, " Y8 a7se9 kaf7 taui -7 be7-8 we SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm taui -Tot.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr "Making some bows, ty7 bo4 y8 di -8 ba -5." they_two we hit -Rlz.Dur let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade lets go shoot those other two." Ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -5 word like_that speak -Tel.Pun We said words like that dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 kaf7 o -9. therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Pun so then we two got bows A7se9 kaf7 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Inc and-then We got bows and then, a7se9 i -9. SeqMkr; go -Tot.Pun we went. I -7 da8dv9 go -Tot.Inc and-then We went and then,
80 ty7 tv9 bai -6 -e9 person sago(starch/palm) bai -Res.Pun -Nominlz the ones who were pounding the sago, doe -9. see -Tot.Pun we saw them.
4.9.5 New Eventline Introduced By New Participant, New Plan Another boundary marking device for new eventlines is to introduce the new participant with a statement of intention which they then procede to execute. This is illustrated in the following text. dy4da8dv9 si6 bi7si9 a7se9 e9 o8sy9 Avy7 be7 tau6 ui7-8 be7 and s9 woman one SqMkr grnfa my Aui Nmkr sling stand in.Tot.Inc.Res.Dur SubCj The other woman , putting my grandfather (a baby) into the sling, da8 ba8day3. carry.Res.Dur flee.Tot.Dur fled with him Da8 ba8day8 da8dv9, a7se9 fa6 i9 a4. carry.Res.Dur flee.Res.Dur and then SqMkr bank go.Tot.Pnc TempUBd She fled with him and then, she went along the river bank BEGIN NEW EVENTLINE, A MAN WHO WILL MEET HER AND RESCUE HER A7se9 fa6 i7 da8dv9, ty7 bi7si9 a7se9 tv9 bui2 i7 se4, SqMkr bank go.Tot.Ind and then person one SqMkr sago upstream go.Tot.Inc Intend she went along the river bank and then, a person was intending to go upstream for sago dy4da8dv9 be7 tv9 bv8 i9. and so Rslt sago for go.Tot.Pnc and so as a result, he was going for sago Tv9 bv8 i7 da8dv9, au7 a7se9 fv7 fu6. sago for go.Tot.Inc and then he SqMkr canoe tie up.Res.Pnc he was going for sago, and so he tied up his canoe Fv7 fu6 da8dv9, a5 sui4 da8dv9, canoe tie up.Res.Pnc and then land enter.Tel.Inc and then he tied up his canoe, and got out onto land and then, RESUME EVENTLINE ABOUT WOMAN AND HOW THE MAN SEES HER ty7 bi7si9 a7se9 si6 a7se9 ba8day8 se9 i9. person one SqMkr a woman SqMkr flee. Res.Dur Smltan. go.Tot.Pnc a person, the woman, was going along fleeing. Ba8day8 se9 i7 da8dv9, a7se9 doe9. flee. Res.Dur Smltan. go.Tot.Pnc andthen SqMkr see.Tot.Pnc She was going along fleeing and-then, he saw her. The man who will be the main participant’s rescuer is introduced via an independent eventline marked by a statement of intention, a proposal of action and a statement of execution of that plan. The two events lines rejoin when he reaches the same location that she is in, on the river bank.
4.9.6 Simultaneous Eventline Splits Marked By Contrastive Particle Sa4 The contrastive action particle sa4 is used in narrative eventline to mark contrastive eventlines by two sets of participants. When one eventline is more thematic than the other, sa4 marks the less thematic eventline. When both are of equal prominence sa4 marks both eventlines. There are numerous examples of this. Only a few will be given below. In the example below, the two eventline represent a parting of the ways by two different groups of participants who had been travelling together. Each contrastive eventline is marked by sa4. y8 e8ta8fau7 fai9fa9ba7de7 ba -9. we again fai9fa9ba7de7 come -Tot.Pun we again came along with them.
Ty7 Ba3kv3si6 sa4 bui2 i -9. person Ba3kv3si6 SimltCntrst upstream go -Tot.Pun The people from Bakusi then went on upstream (to Bakusi)
Y8 sa4 Fa3ui7 bi -3. we SimltCntrst Fa3ui7 arrive -Tot.Dur And we arrived at Faui. In the following example, four participants split off into groups of two. The first set of participants, the succesful ones are mentioned first with no sa4. The second set which included the author, are marked by sa4 as they set off to check their pig trap. Y8 a7se9 tav3 doe -7 se -5 we SeqMkr; pig_trap see -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact We were going to check our pig trap
dy4da8dv9 a4 a7se9 To7bas3 bv8ke7 ba5sui -5. therefore father SeqMkr; To7bas3 also/and go_inland -Tel.Pun
81 so then, father and Tomas both went into (the jungle).
Ba5sui -4 da8dv9 go_inland -Tel.Inc and-then They went in and then,
y8 bo4 Yo9si9a3 te7 sa4 be6 a9 i -9 we_two_(incl.) Yo9si9a3 NMkr?? SimltCntrst path another go -Tot.Pun We two Yosia (and I) we went on another path.
di4du7be7 tav3 au7sy9 du9 ae -6 but pig_trap ours wild_pig is_none -Res.Pun but our trap had no pig.
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 fi4au7 v4 fe7 ba -8 se9 therefore we_two_(incl.) very/always heart not_good cause_become -Rlz.Dur CircSClCj so then we two feeling bad,
ui8 bv8 i -9. house to go -Tot.Pun went home.
The following is another example illustrating how in contrastive eventlines, the background eventline is marked with sa4 and the main eventline is left unmarked. The story below is about what happened to the boy not his mother. A9 a7se9 a6ty9 bv8ke7 be5 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; mother also/and fish_trap for go -Tot.Inc and-then I went with my mother to check a fish trap and then,
a6ty9 sa4 be5 bi -7 da8dv9 mother SimltCntrst fish_trap acquire -Tot.Inc and-then mother got the fish trap and then,
a9 a7se9 ta8 ka3bu5 o -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; knife short take -Tot.Inc and-then I took a small knife and,
a9 a7se9 a6ty9 foi -5, I SeqMkr; mother tell -Tel.Pun I said to my mother,
" A6ty9 v6y3 a9 fvy3 bui -4-7 se -5. mother v6y3 I tree_type cut_down -Tel.Inc+Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact "Mother, I am going to cut down this fui tree.
Di9 be5 bi -7 dy3." you_s. fish_trap acquire -Tot.Inc Imp " You get the fish trap."
4.9.7 Rejoining Through Repetition Of Final Event The text above also illustrates an eventline rejoining device, repetition of the final event. The final event, her fleeing along the river bank is repeated 5 times in this text. ‘she fled with him. As she fled, she went along the river bank. As she went along the river bank,... it was the woman a7se9 she went fleeing along the river bank...’ The verbs of the suspended eventline ‘she fled’ is repeated three times, ending the eventline where her former husband is trying to kill her with the final event, ‘she fled’. Then the same event is repeated twice from another perspective, ‘she went along the river bank’. This specification of a new location, allows the introduction of the next major participant who will enter her life. When their paths cross at the river bank, the orginal verb ‘flee’ is reintroduced, recalling her need for a rescuer, and foreshadowing the role of this new man.
4.9.8 A7se9 U6 Marking Out Of Sequence Eventlines The temporal adverbs u6 ‘before’ and be3di9 ‘after’ can be combined with a7se9 to indicate that an event occurs either before or after the eventline events. The following is an example, showing the use of a7se9 plus temporal adverbs to give background information which takes place before the events of the eventline. Ty7 Dy8dy8 o8sy9 bi7si9 a7se9 u6 Ko8de8de7si9 be -4 du8 person *** from one already before *** is/are -Tel.Inc that/which There was a person from the Didi River area who had been in Kordesi before this, a7se9 u6 be7 ke8fa8da7 ba -9. SeqMkr; before NMkrOb chief,boss,supervisor become -Tot.Pun he had been made headman before. Di4de8 au7 fi4au7 ba9 fvy -8 se9 du -8 de9 therefore he always word cut -Rlz.Dur CircSClCj go around -Rlz.Dur since Therefore, when he was giving orders (as headman) y8 fi4au7 bv8 fe7su -4. we very/always for feel_sorry_for -Tel.Inc we were drawn to him //felt affection for him.
82 Dy4be7-8 y8 a7se9 av8 foi -4 a -3 and_then we already each_other tell -Tel.Inc Mltpl.Unbnd.Realis Establish_as_Rlzd Then, we said to each other. Ty7da7y3 ty7 bi7si9 ba9 bi8fa -7 se9 du -8 people! person one word speak -Tot.Inc CircSClCj go around -Rlz.Dur a -9 -y9 Multpl.Unbound.Realis -Tot.Pun Nominalizer People, that person who talks a lot, bv6 fi4au7 bv8 fe7su -4 to -9. I very/always for feel_sorry_for -Tel.Inc CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp I really like him /feel for him. Faf3 y8 bi7si9 bay -4 ba -5." axe we one give -Tel.Inc let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade Let's give him an axe." In the narrative above, the Iau are disturbed because no one in the village of Dydy seems to be willing to work to get the axe they brought. So they are looking for someone worthy to give it to. The a7se9 u6 clause introduces a new local participant, the man to whom they gave the axe, and marks the beginning of a short new backgrounded eventline about the new local participant that preceeds the timeline of the narrative. The temporal adverbs u6 ‘before’ and be3di9 ‘after /later’ are also used in combination with the a7se9 particle to mark events that are not considered to directly lead to the main point the speaker /author is making. This is shown in the following example where the fact that the pig died, is backgrounded in a subordinate clause and then marked with a7se9 u6 . The whole point of this humorous story is that the hunters were scared to approach the pigs because the dogs kept barking at them as if they were still alive. When they discovered that the pigs were dead, they had a good laugh at themselves. For this reason, the clause about the pig actually dying is backgrounded. It is off the eventline and the timeline in the sense that it was not actually known to the hunters at the time the dogs were barking. bv6 a7se9 ai3ka3 bu -2 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; base_of_neck *** -Tel.Dur and-then I shot him in the base of the neck and then, a7se9 u6 sui -5 be7 SeqMkr; first die -Tel.Pun and/after after the pig had already died, by3 a7se9 dae7 avy -3. corpse SeqMkr; by_a_dog bark_at -Tot.Dur the dogs barked at the dead body. In the following example, the a7se9 u6 combination is used to mark an essential background event which preceedes the eventline in which the speaker encounters the snake. a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fy3 bv8 tai -7 be8du7 I SqMkr night frog for seach -Tot.Inc when I was hunting frogs at night when, be7fe7 au7 a7se9 u6 fy3 bi7si9 vy -3 de -9. snake he SqMkr before frog one got -Tot.Dur Sta -Tot.Pun there was a snake who had before caught a frog. The a7se9 particle plus a temporal adverb can also be used to mark a event that frustrates the realization of a stated plan of action in the eventline, thus changing the eventline sequence. This is illustrated below. In this example. Fito tries to thwart the other boys plans to cut down a little tree, by climbing up in the tree. He does this before they have time to carry out their plan. The phrase a7se9 u6 ‘before that’, indicates that Fito’s act happened before the execution of the stated plan of action. y8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 we SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun we said, So7 ba7bv9 y8 bo4 i9 fvy -7 se -5 tree this we_two_(incl.) branch cut -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact Let's cut off the branches of this so tree." dy4da8dv9 Fi7to3 a7se9 u6 so7 kav3ka9 bi9bi -5 therefore Fi7to3 SeqMkr; before tree tops_(of_trees) climb_up_in/to -Tel.Pun so then, Fito (Victor) first climbed up in the top of the so tree. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 E7fi3 te7 av8 foi -5. therefore we_two_(incl.) E7fi3 NMkr?? each_other tell -Tel.Pun so then we two, Epi and I said to each other, Au7 y8 so7 bv8ke7 bui -4 ba -5. he we tree _be_with/accompany cut_down -Tel.Inc let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade Let's cut down the tree with him in it. Di9 ta8 bv8 i -7 dy -3." you_s. axe for go -Tot.Inc do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp You go get a machete." The event ‘Victor climbed up first /before into the top of the so tree’ is a highly marked event.
83 5.0 Eventline Summaries, Comments And Evaluative Comments
5.1 Eventline Summaries Eventline summaries consist of the main points of the narrative eventline . They can be used as concluding restatements of the eventline, as explanations, as grounds for final evaluative comments, or as justification. They can also be used to initiate final outcomes or elicit evaluative comments. Note in the examples below how frequently they are given as a quote in the mouth of one of the participants.
5.1.1 As Summary /Final Statements One way that eventline summaries are used in Iau narrative is as discourse thematic statements of the main points of the narrative eventline. This is illustrated from the text Having No Canoe by Ananias below. In this narrative the thematic summary is given by the participants in a quote of what they tell their father, when they see him . (Seeing him is-the final event of the eventline.) Although on their journey up river they caught a number of turtles, and almost lost a pair of underwater goggles, this was not as important to them as the fact that the crocodile they saw got away. Y8 bo4 a7se9 sui -8 i -7 da8dv9 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; enter -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Inc and-then We two went along in the water and then, a4 fv7 a7se9 bui2 be -7 da8dv9 father canoe/plane SeqMkr; upstream is -Tot.Inc and-then father's canoe came from upstream and then, doe -9 see -Tot.Pun we saw it. dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 a4 foi -5. therefore we SeqMkr; father tell -Tel.Pun so then we told our father, "Dav2 y8 bo4 bi7si9 o -7 be8du7 crododile we_two_(incl.) one catch -Tot.Inc when "We two were catching a crocodile when, tv -9 y -9." go_away'leave -Tot.Pun Statmnt -Assert.NRsp *** he got away." Dy4dau4 a4 foi -5. like_that father tell -Tel.Pun We told father like that. The following is another example of an eventline summary that is given by one of the participants as a quote at the end of the narrative. This quote is furthur marked as a discourse thematic statement by the particle a3 on the closing quote margin. dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 da8su6 ba -7 da8dv9 therefore we SeqMkr; in_the_morning come -Tot.Inc and-then so then, we came the next day and then,
O7 Fai9ta9 be7 baui -7-8 da8dv9 sand(/sandyplace) tip Loc/DirAdvMkr reach -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur and-then we got as far as the end of the sandbar and then,
a6ty9 a7se9 ty7 foi -5 mother SeqMkr; person tell -Tel.Pun mother said to the people (there),
" Y8 v3 Ba8fi9ta9 by6 be7 ta -8 be8du7 we coming_there *** downstream Loc/DirAdvMkr leep -Rlz.Dur when "We came and slept downstream at Bafita when,
so6 o8sy9 by3 i8 da -9 to -4." child my corpse bone eat_up -Tot.Pun CntraryToHearer -NAssert.ExpRsp *** my child ate a human bone."
A6ty9 a7se9 dy4dau4 ty7 foi -4 a3. mother SeqMkr; like_that person tell -Tel.Inc was/has_been...-ing Mother told people like that.
The following example shows an eventline summary used not as a final thematic statement, but instead as the basis for evaluative comment on the main points of the eventline by the participants. In this short story called “Holding up the chair” by Ananias, two men take their first plane ride. They get scared when they feel the plane dip down and so they try to hold up their seats to lighten the load. After they land they give this summary to those meeting the plane who then laugh at them and give an evaluative comment on what they did. a7se9 dv4ui -9 be7-8 SeqMkr; lift up -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr Holding them up, da -8 i -9
84 carry -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Pun they carried them along. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 a9tai -6 da8dv9 therefore SeqMkr; a9tai -Res.Pun and-then so then, they landed and then, a7se9 av8 foi -5. SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun they said to each other, "Ty7da7y 3 y8 da6 bi -8 -y9 people! we now arrive -Rlz.Dur -Nomnlzr "Hey, when we were just now coming, fv7 si9 bay2 bau -6 de9 back_of_vehicle downwards go_down -Res.Pun since when the plane's tail dropped down, bi8 bv6 dv4ui -9 be7-8 chair I dv4ui -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr lifting up the chair, da -8 bi -8 a9sy3." carry -Rlz.Dur arrive -Rlz.Dur *** *** I arrived holding/carrying it." Ba9 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 word SeqMkr; like_that say -Tot.Inc and-then Words they said them like that and then, ty7 a7se9 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2. person SeqMkr; big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur people really laughed hard. "Ba7bv9 sai7fo8 dy -4 to -9 " this_one for_no_purpose do_it/that -Tel.Inc CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp " "That for no purpose. (ie it did no good)." dy4da8dv9 ty7 fi4au7 au7 doe4 bi7sai -2. therefore person very/always he at laugh -Tel.Dur So then people really laughed at them.
5.1.2 As explanation Eventline summaries can also be used by the participants or author to explain to each other or to the reader what really happened. This can also lead to an evaluative comment as in the example below about a little boy getting up secretly at night to get a piece of sago. His mother thinking he is the dog hits him and he cries. His mother then asks for an explanation, thus the eventline summary. Her evaluative response in the form of a rhetorical question is basically that he should not have been sneaking around in the dark. a7se9 a9 foi -5, SeqMkr; I ask -Tel.Pun said to me, " Di9 te7bv8 du -8 be -3?" you_s. what_reason go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd "What were you doing? /What were you after?" A6ty9 a7se9 dy4dau4 a9 foi -4 da8dv9 mother SeqMkr; like_that I tell -Tel.Inc and-then Mother asked me like that and then, au7 bv6 a7se9 foi -5, he I SeqMkr; tell/-Tel.Pun I said to her, " A9 di9 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I you_s. sago(starch/palm) give -Tel.Inc without "(Since) you, not giving me sago, fe6ka -4 de3 sleep -Tel.Inc since...was went to sleep, tv9 bv6 du8 fav -7 be8du7 sago(starch/palm) I secretly break_off_piece -Tot.Inc when I broke off a piece secretly when, a9 di9 di -8 to -4." I you_s. hit -Rlz.Dur CntraryToHearer -NAssert.ExpRsp you hit me." A6ty9 bv6 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 da8dv9 mother I SeqMkr; like_that tell -Tel.Inc and-then I told mother like that and then,
85 a9 a6ty9 by8 a7se9 foi -5, I mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; ask -Tel.Pun mother asked me, " Di9 te7bv8 a9 foi -4 ae2 you_s. why me tell -Tel.Inc without "Why without asking me, du -8 a -3?" go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.Unbound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd were you doing that?" A9 a6ty9 be8 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 be7-8 I mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; like_that ask -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Mother saying like that, fe6ka -9. sleep -Tot.Pun slept.
5.1.3 As initiating action for final eventline and outcome Eventline summaries can also be used to bring an offstage eventline back on stage to be continued. In the following narrative, the participants are in school. At recess one goes to check on his pig and sees a big lizard. When school is out he tells his friend, the narrator and they decide to go hunt it. The eventline summary how he went to check the pig and saw the lizard is used to bring the eventline back on stage.
Dy4 a7se9 se8kv8da7 o -7 du7e8 And_then, SeqMkr; school receive -Tot.Inc when And, when we had finished school,
y8 a7se9 A9da7 bv8 bi -8 be7 we SeqMkr; God to call -Rlz.Dur SCCjand/after \com signals end of school for day and after praying,
bau -6 da8dv9 go_down -Res.Pun and-then we left (Lit went down) school,
Fi7vs4 a7se9 a9 foi -5. *** SeqMkr; me tell -Tel.Pun Fius (the Dani boy) told me,
" Sa8ka8di8a88 -y3 a9 da6di9y9 *** -Voc-address I just_now, "Sakaria, I just now,
a9 to8 bv8 tv -9 du8 I pig for go_away'leave -Tot.Pun when when I went to (see) my pig,
bo8ka8 bv6 bi7si9 doe -4 y -3 " da8be7 lizard_type I one see -Tel.Inc Statmnt -Assert.ExpRsp *** and_therefore I saw a big lizard." saying (that),
y8 a7se9 kaf7 vy -3 be7 we SeqMkr; bow get/take -Tot.Dur SCCjand/after we, taking our bows,
bv8 tv -9. for go_away'leave -Tot.Pun went to get it.
Initiating evaluative comment The following is an example of an eventline summary by the main participant given as a quote telling his friends. Their response is to laugh at him and also to give evaluative comments on people who don’t look before they squat. ty7 foi -5, person tell -Tel.Pun he told people,
" Ty7da7y3 a9 da6di8y9 fau -4 be8du7 people! I just_now, defecate -Tel.Inc when "People, I just now, was defecating when,
be7 a9 fv3 ka9 bv8 fo4taui -4 de -8 di8 y3. death_adder I anus to from_underneath -Tel.Inc stative -Rlz.Dur _was comment a snake was under my bottom.
Di4de8 a9 fa9 fe -4 be7
86 therefore I feces appear -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after So with the feces hanging out,
be8sy9 bi8 a7 fau -4 di8 y3 belonging_to place another defecate -Tel.Inc _was comment Assert.ExpRsp *** I had to go in another place."
A9 dy4 y -7 be8 I do_like_that say -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj I saying like that,
ty7 foi -4 be8du7 person tell -Tel.Inc when I told people when,
ty7 to6 ko4du8 be4 bi7sai -2 ae -5. person not(CntrExp) short(time) AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur not -Assert_NPres_Fact they didn't just laugh a little bit
Fi4au7 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2 ay4. really big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur IncpFutCntin They began to really laugh a lot.
" Y8 dy4fau8 fa9 fe -4 be7 **we do_like_that feces appear -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after "We (don't want to) do like that, feces still showing,
ba8day -8 fe7-8. flee -Rlz.Dur don't_want (as we) flee.
Y8 da9ki3 a5 doe -7 a9 -y9 we well ground see -Tot.Inc generally/customarily... -Nomnlzr
da9ki6 y -4. is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp It's good if we look over the ground well (first).
Da9 av8be8 fau -4 by3 da8be7 you_(pl) quickly defecate -Tel.Inc can because_of Because you all are in a hurry to go defecate
dy -4 ba -3. do_it/that -Tel.Inc probable -Establish_as_Rlzd you do like that.
Da9 bo -4 du8 you_(pl) sit_down -Tel.Inc when When you sit/squat down,
fv3 ka9 be7 sa -8 ai -9 se9 anus NMkr-Given bite -Rlz.Dur not -Establish_as_fact since you haven't had your bottoms bitten,
dy -4 ay3. do_it/that -Tel.Inc have_been_lately so you do like that.
O3ai3a4 Da9 bv6 bi8fa -9 di7 a9 sy3. " *** you_(pl) I speak -Tot.Pun HypDf you_should_know_that (Exclamation)! I'm going to tell about you."
Summary As Validation /Justification For The Eventline In the following narrative the eventline summary, again in the form of a quote is used in defense and as justification for the speakers actions. dy4da8dv9 au7 a7se9 av8du -3. therefore he SeqMkr; angry -Tot.Dur so then he was angry.
Av8du -8 da8dv9 angry -Rlz.Dur and-then He was angry and then,
y8 a7se9 au7 foi -5, we SeqMkr; he tell -Tel.Pun we said to him,
" Y8 bo4 u6 bv8 bi -2 se -5 we_two_(incl.) before to go_up -Tel.Dur intention -Assert_NPres_Fact "We two were going to climb up in the tree
87 di4du7be7 di9 a7se9 u6 bi -7 de3. but you_s. SeqMkr; before go_up -Tot.Inc since...was but because you climbed up first,
Di9 y8 so7 bv8ke7 bui -4 da7by9 . you_s. we tree _be_with/accompany cut_down -Tel.Inc surely_know_that " we have cut down the tree with you in it."
dy4da8dv9 au7 therefore he so then he
a7se9 av8du -8 se9 ui8 bv8 i -9. SeqMkr; angry -Rlz.Dur CircSClCj house to go -Tot.Pun went home SeqMkr; angry
5.2 Comments And Evaluative Comment On The Eventline In the examples above we have already seen a number of evaluative comments in response to the thematic eventline. Comments in the narrative segment above like “Why were you doing that without asking me? " or "That was for no purpose. (ie it did no good)." are evaluative comments, giving opinions and value judgements about the events of the eventline. Most evaluative comments so far have been presented by the author’s as direct quotes. But sometimes they are also direct comments of the author to the reader. Evaluative comments can be used to tell the moral of the story, or to express the thematic evaluative purpose of the story. There are other kinds of comments in narrative discourse, some are explanations and validations for some event or action taken.
As validation for the author. The following is a closing evaluative comment made by the author to the reader, justifying his gruesome killing of frog in the eventline of the story. In his view it ws the frogs own fault. Bv7 to6 a9 v4 da8 ai -9 y3 this not I choices, Given-Rslt not -EstbFact Rspns-Comment| You know that (that it died like that) was not my fault. Bv6 dy4 y -7 di7 by5. I like_ that answer -Tot.Inc would/might Emph I would answer you emphatically like that.
As The moral of the story Evaluative comments on the eventline are also common in stories that have a moral or teach a lesson. In the example below the participants summarize the important points of the eventline that support their opinion and then express the lesson to be learned from the eventline to each other. Di9u7ba3 dy4dau4 E7fi3 foi -4 du7be7 *** like_that *** tell -Tel.Inc but Diuma told Epi like that but,
E7fi3 da9ki3 bi8bay -4 ae2 *** well hear -Tel.Inc without Epi not listening,
be8sy9 bv8 fe -8 be8du7 belonging_to arrive_there -Rlz.Dur when arrived there anyway when,
E7fi3 dui9 da -9 y -4. *** by-a-pig injure -Tot.Pun Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp Epi was attacked by the pig.
Dy8 Di9u7ba3 au7 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 ay and *** he SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis
-4 -incomplete And then, Diuma said.
" Ty7da7y3 da9 dy4sy7 y -7 day3." people! you_(pl) shouldn't cry -Tot.Inc don't *** "People, don't cry (for him)."
Di9u7ba3 a7se9 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -9. *** SeqMkr; like_that word speak -Tot.Pun Diuma said like that.
Dy8 ty7 v4 a7se9 and person thoughts SeqMkr; And people said to themselves,
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" Ay8. okay "Right.
By7by9 correct That's true. to6 so7dy 4 y -7 ae -7 du7be7 not(CntrExp) *** Statmnt -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis that He's not lieing in that di9 da9ki3 bi8bay -4 ae -7 da -3 de3 you_s. well hear -Tel.Inc not -Establish_irrealis known_that -Establish_as_Rlzd since...was because you didn't listen well to him, di9 dy8 dui9 da -9 y -4." you_s. therefore by-a-pig injure -Tot.Pun ExplanStatmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp *** you were attacked by the pig."
Ty7 a7se9 fa3fu7 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -9 person SeqMkr; all like_that word speak -Tot.Pun ay -4. Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -incomplete All the people said like that.
Dy8 Des9 ba7bv9 ba4 y -9 ay and *** this right_here/there say -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis
-4 -incomplete And Des said there at that place,
" Ty7 i8si4 dy4dau -4 de -7 -y9 person grown do_like_that -Tel.Inc stative -Establish_irrealis -Nomnlzr "For grown/big people like he is du9 davy7 di -8 de -9 wild_pig far_away_place shoot -Rlz.Dur stative -Establish_as_fact to shoot pigs from far away da9ki6 y -4. is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp would be good.
Ty7 ko4du8 by7by9 du7be7 person small it's_only_...that For the smaller ones du9 foe4-7 di -8 a9 wild_pig be_temporarily_at_the_edge_of shoot -Rlz.Dur generally/customarily...
-e9 Nominlz to shoot them from up close da9ki6 y -4." is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp *** is alright."(ie younger boys are more agile to escape)
Des9 a7se9 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 *** SeqMkr; word like_that speak -Tot.Inc and-then Des said words like that and then,
" Ay8. okay "Right,
By7by9. correct It's true.
To6 so7dy4 y -7 ai -9 y3." not(CntrExp) lie -Tot.Inc not -Tot.Pun reply *** He's not lieing."
Ty7 a7se9 fa3fu7 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -9. person SeqMkr; all word like_that speak -Tot.Pun They all said words like that.
A7se9 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -7 da8dv9
89 SeqMkr; like_that word speak -Tot.Inc and-then They all said words like that and then,
E7fi3 a7se9 vy-3 be7 *** SeqMkr; *** SCCjand/after taking/picking up Epi,
da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. bring house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun they took him home.
As Evaluative Comment on Eventline The following example shows an eventline summary used not as a final thematic statement, but instead as the basis for evaluative comment on the main points of the eventline by the participants. In this short story called “Holding up the chair” by Ananias, two men take their first plane ride. They get scared when they feel the plane dip down and so they try to hold up their seats to lighten the load. After they land they give this summary to those meeting the plane who then laugh at them and give an evaluative comment on what they did. a7se9 dv4ui -9 be7-8 SeqMkr; lift up -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr Holding them up, da -8 i -9 carry -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Pun they carried them along. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 a9tai -6 da8dv9 therefore SeqMkr; a9tai -Res.Pun and-then so then, they landed and then, a7se9 av8 foi -5. SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun they said to each other, "Ty7da7y 3 y8 da6 bi -8 -y9 people! we now arrive -Rlz.Dur -Nomnlzr "Hey, when we were just now coming, fv7 si9 bay2 bau -6 de9 back_of_vehicle downwards go_down -Res.Pun since when the plane's tail dropped down, bi8 bv6 dv4ui -9 be7-8 chair I dv4ui -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr lifting up the chair, da -8 bi -8 a9sy3." carry -Rlz.Dur arrive -Rlz.Dur *** *** I arrived holding/carrying it." Ba9 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 word SeqMkr; like_that say -Tot.Inc and-then Words they said them like that and then, ty7 a7se9 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2. person SeqMkr; big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur people really laughed hard. "Ba7bv9 sai7fo8 dy -4 to -9 " this_one for_no_purpose do_it/that -Tel.Inc CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp " "That for no purpose. (ie it did no good)." dy4da8dv9 ty7 fi4au7 au7 doe4 bi7sai -2. therefore person very/always he at laugh -Tel.Dur So then people really laughed at them.
In the following example at first glance the closing comment,”So then only my trap caught anything, and it was my older brother’s trap that caught nothing.” appears to be merely reporting the final outcome of the eventline. However, it is clear from the events of the eventline, that they author is reporting an outcome about which he has considerable feeling that poetic justice was done. The older brother tried to hinder him in every way from whatever he wanted to do. He set the trap in spite of that. The adversative conjunction and the negative statement are clues that this is not only eventline material but also comment on the narrative eventline. dy4da8dv9 tav3 o8sy9 sv4 du7be7 tav3 tai -2. therefore pig_trap my only that pig_trap catch -Tel.Dur so then, only my trap caught anything.
Dy4 tav3 boi9 be8sy9 du7be7 And_then, pig_trap older_sibling belonging_to that And it was my older brother's trap
tav3 tai -2 ae -5. pig_trap catch -Tel.Dur not -Assert_NPres_Fact that caught nothing.
90 As Explanation of Outcome In the following example, the two participants are sleeping in a house and one touches the other in the dark, and he flees. The quote /comment below, explains what he was thinking that made him flee. He thought a ghost had touched him.
" Di9 e8 by7 sae6 dy -4 de- you_s. foot is_the_one_that spirit do_it/that -Tel.Inc stative
8 di -8 y -3." RlzdCurrentRelevant did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant ExplanStatmnt Assert.RspActivated "Ir was your foot that I really thought your foot was a ghost!"
dy4da8dv9 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2. therefore big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur so then we laughed hard.
In the following narrative, a hortatory comment addressed by the author to himself, is an evaluative comment on a good reaction to the narrative eventline events -“Don’t get upset. Just forget it.” Y8 a7se9 a5 taui -9. we SeqMkr; land work -Tot.Pun We were weeding.
A7se9 a5 taui -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; land work -Tot.Inc and-then We were weeding and then,
a9 y5 o8sy9 a7se9 ka6v9 sa -3. I ear my SeqMkr; grasshopper bite -Tot.Dur a grasshopper bit my ear.
Ka6v9 sa -7 da8dv9 grasshopper bite -Tot.Inc and-then A grasshopper bit it and then,
a9 v4 o8sy9 a7se9 bi8fa -9. I thoughts my SeqMkr; say -Tot.Pun I said to myself,
" Ay8 sy9 be7dy4 a4. okay let_it_be_like_that cont_indef "It's okay, just forget it.
Di9 dy4sy7 v4 fe7 ba -3 day3." you_s. shouldn't heart feel_bad -Tot.Dur shouldn't *** Don't feel bad about it/against the grasshopper."
A9 v4 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 I heart SeqMkr; like_that say -Tot.Inc and-then I said like that to myself and then,
a9 sa4dy8 a5 taui -9. I therefore land work -Tot.Pun I just kept weeding.
In the Iau stories about the house of the dead, the author comments explaining eventline events to the reader. The following is an example explaining why a dead body gets beads of moisture on it. ty7 a7se9 fa3fu7 to8 by7 di3. everyone kills domesticated pigs.
To8 di7 da8dv9, They kill the pigs and then,
to8 a7sy9 bi2y9 they steam cook the pigs.
A9 ba7bv9 a7sy9 sui9-8 y9, I who have died,
a9 by3 a7sy9 di7 fo9 e9. My dead body gets beads of sweat on it.
Di7 fi8 da8dv9, My body sweats and then,
ty7 su4 ae7 e9 a7sy9 a9 bi8fa9, the people who have not died, say about me,
"Ay8 ba7bv9 to8 sa8 de9 dy4 ay3." "Right, that is because he is eating the pigs."
Au7 dy4dau7 da8dv9, They say like that and then,
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i8si4ba7 be4 a9 bv8 y3. they cry a lot for me.
Y8 u6dy4a9e9 a7se9 dy4dau4 be7 bi8fa9 We used to in former days say like that.
In the following example the author explains to the reader why he did what he did in the story. Ai9y5. it's_like_this It's like this.
Di9 a8fa7-8 by7by9 du7be7 things another_kind it's_only_...that If it's some other thing/animal
bv6 doe -7 du7 I see -Tot.Inc while...then that I see,
a9 to6 di9 a9da -3 I not(CntrExp) things put_on_grd -Tot.Dur I (don't) drop my things on the ground and
be7si -7 ae -9 y -3. leave -Tot.Inc not -Establish_as_fact ExplanStatmnt -Assert.RspActivated leave them behind.
Be7fe7 bi7si9 ba7bv9 bv6 doe -7 a9 snake one this I see -Tot.Inc be_...-ing+IndefEv/Prtc
y -9 ExplanStatmnt -Establish_as_fact It's just when I see a snake
a9 fi4au7 fa9 fe -4 be7 I to_fullest feces appear -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after with the feces showing/coming out, I
i -7 fo9 ay4. go -Tot.Inc want IncpFutCntin will want to go/can't wait to leave.
O3ai6a4 A9 to6 ko4du8 be4 ba9 fvy -8 ai -7 *** I not(CntrExp) small AdvMkr word cut -Rlz.Dur not -Establish_irrealis
di7 a9 sy3. HypDf you_should_know_that Exclamation! I don't stay around to talk a little bit at all!
As Support for eventline (Reasons for events) The following is a comment that explains the reason for the final outcome in the grasshopper story. When the grasshopper bit his ear it hurt and that is why he was angry and beat up his brother, the perpetrator. dy4da8dv9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 au7 av8du -8 da8dv9 therefore Ti8bo8ti7vs8 he angry -Rlz.Dur and-then so then Timotius was angry and then,
a9 di -9 a3. I hit -Tot.Pun PstHab
he hit me.
Y5 av7bv9 bavy -7 da8dv9 ear his sting -Tot.Inc and-then His ear hurt and so,
a9 fi4au7 i8si4ba7 be4 di -3 I very/always big AdvMkr hit -Tot.Dur he really hit me a lot.
6.0 Closings Every narrative has a main point which fulfills or expresses the purpose for which the narrator has told the narrative. The eventline concludes with the last sequential event, the final outcome. The final segment of the narrative consists of eventline summaries, statements of the main theme, and evaluative comments by the participants or the author. Just as the setting of a narrative is the opening of the narrative and introduces the topics, topical participants etc., so the final eventline summaries, theme statements and evaluative comments are the closing of the narrative. In the section above on eventline summaries, comments and evaluative comments we have seen examples of the kind of information that most often occurs in discourse closings. Not all narratives have this kind of closing
92 information. Some end with the last event of the narrative. This is especially common in travel and hunting narratives where the end of the narrative is the final outcomes of arriving, or eating or distributing food. The following is an example. da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. carry house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun we took it home. Da8 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 carry house to go -Tot.Inc and-then We took it home and then, a7se9 boi9 o8sy9 Dae3 be7 bay -5. SeqMkr; older_sibling my name_of_person NMkrOb give -Tel.Pun we gave it to my older brother Dae. Bay -4 da8dv9 give -Tel.Inc and-then We gave it to him and, a7se9 biy -2. SeqMkr; cook_with_hot_rocks -Tel.Dur he cooked it. Biy -2 da8dv9 cook_with_hot_rocks -Tel.Dur and-then He cooked it and then, doe -9. distribute -Tot.Pun divided it among us. Kae9 ba7bv9 boi9 Dae3 be8 sa -3. spine this older_sibling name_of_person NMkrAg eat -Tot.Dur My older brother Dae ate the back. Of4 bi7si9 bv8ke7 sa -3. arm one also/and eat -Tot.Dur He also ate a front leg. Tai7 ba7bv9 Ye7bi9 bay -5. thigh this *** give -Tel.Pun He gave a thigh to Yimmy. Tai7 a9 ba7bv9 E7fi3 bay -5. thigh another this *** give -Tel.Pun The other thigh he gave to Epi. Dy4 i6 ba7bv9 bv6 sa -3. And_then, head this I eat -Tot.Dur \com author and Adea named in setting as most topical And then, I ate the head. Of4 a9 ba7bv9 A8de8a8 be8 sa -3. arm another this *** NMkrAg eat -Tot.Dur Adea ate the other front leg. Be -7 ae -6 da8dv9 is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now and-then That's all and then, bi9fi9ba6 de7 sa -3. separate -ly/AdvMkr eat -Tot.Dur we each individually ate (our portions). Ay8. okay Right, Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words. By7by9. correct It's true. Many Iau narratives end with a formulaic closing such as the one in the preceeding example. Ay8. okay Right, Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words. By7by9. correct It's true. There are a number of variants. The most common ones are illustrated below.
93 Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words. Si6 ba9 by7 ae -6. wife word is_the_one_that is_none -Res.Pun That's all the words.about wives The basic formula is “There are no more words” more idiomatically translated as “That’s all the words.” the expanded form gives the topic “That’s all the words about….”
7.0 Organizing The Eventline Eventlines are organized grammatically and semantically.
7.1 Gramatical Building Blocks Eventlines are subdivided into a series of shorter intermediate eventlines called episodes. Episodes are realized in Iau narrative discourse as sentences and paragraphs. In some styles of discourse, each new sentence is a new episode. This is very common in oral narratives –especially short stories. In other styles, an episode is a cluster of sentences. In oral narratives, the eventline backbone is more often than not characterized by events in independent clause sentencess linked bytail head linking clauses. In the narrative segment below there are two sentences of medial and subordinate clause chains which divide the eventline into two segments. The first sentence is about the author’s efforts to get sago. When crying for it fails he gets up after his mother is asleep to sneak it. The second sentence is about his mother’s response. She hears him getting the sago, thinks it is the dog and hits him. So she is quite startled when she hears her son cry out. The sentence ends with her asking him what he is doing. The remainder of the story is a dialogue between mother and son.
Sentence 1 A9 u6 di -8 -e9 I before did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nominlz I in the past, Fi8be7fvy8 by6 be -4 di -8 -y9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream is/are -Tel.Inc did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr when I was at Fibehui, a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark and-then it was evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj while I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9be8 y -7 du7be7 mother facing up cry -Tot.Inc but was crying looking up at my mother butMVClCj a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I mother NMkrAg sago(starch/palm) give -Tel.Inc without my mother, not giving me any sago, fe6ka -7 da8dv9 fe6ka -Tot.Inc and-then slept and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fe6si -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; night fe6si -Tot.Inc and-then I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 sago(starch/palm) mother belonging_to I a7se9 du8 bv8 ui -7-3. SeqMkr; secretly for stand_up -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur I secretly got up to get mother's sago. Sentence 2 Tv9 bv6 a7se9 fav -7 be8du7 sago(starch/palm) I SeqMkr; fav -Tot.Inc when I broke off some sago when, a9 a6ty9 be8 da7 ba -8 be8 I mother NMkrAg dog cause_become -Rlz.Dur OvrlapSClCj my mother, thinking a dog had come, di -8 be8du7 hit -Rlz.Dur when hit (me Topic prev Cl) and, a9 e -6 be8du7 I exclaim -Res.Pun when I cried out when,
94 a6ty9 a7se9 di -6 be7-8 mother SeqMkr; startled -Res.Pun SqMnsSClMkr mother got startled, a7se9 a9 foi -5, SeqMkr; I ask -Tel.Pun said to me, " Di9 te7bv8 du -8 be -3?" you_s. what_reason go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd "What were you doing? /What were you after?" The following is an example of different narrative discourse style in which an episode is formed by sentence clusters. Each episode consists of a number of sentences linked by either tail-head linking clauses or by an independent clause conjunction. Setting Y8 u6dy4e9 we in_the_past We in the past, A8fo8di7vs8 bv8ke7 Av8si7 bv8ke7 A8fo8di7vs8 also/with Av8si7 also/with
Ti8bo8ti7us8 bv8ke7 a9 bv8ke7 Ti8bo8ti7us8 also/with I_also
av8 bo9bi -2 da8dv9 play_together -Tel.Dur and-then Apodius, Ausi, Timotius and I were playing and then, a7se9 u8 bi7si9 ta -3. SeqMkr; day one sleep -Tot.Dur we slept for the night. Ta -8 da8dv9 sleep -Rlz.Dur and-then We slept and then, a7se9 da8 su -6. SeqMkr; sky dry_up -Res.Pun it was the next day. Da8 su -6 da8dv9 sky dry_up -Res.Pun and-then It was the next day and then, a7se9 Av8si7 be7-8de3 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 be7-8de3 SeqMkr; Av8si7 and(also) Ti8bo8ti7vs8 and(also)
a4 bv8ke7 tv9 bv8 i -9 father _be_with/accompany sago(starch/palm) for go -Tot.Pun Ausi, Timotius and father went to get sago dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 A8fo8di7vs8 y8 bo4 therefore we_two_(incl.) A8fo8di7vs8 we_two_(incl.) so then, we two, Apodius (and I), a7se9 ui -7 i -9 SeqMkr; house -given_loc go We stayed in the house Episode 1 Ui -7 i -4 da8dv9 house -given_loc go -Tel.Inc and-then We stayed in the house and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 foi -5. we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun we two said to each other, "Y8 a7se9 kaf7 taui -7 be7-8 we SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm taui -Tot.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr "Making some bows, ty7 bo4 y8 di -8 ba -5." they_two we hit -Rlz.Dur let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade lets go shoot those other two." Ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -5 word like_that speak -Tel.Pun We said words like that dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 therefore we_two_(incl.) so then we two A7se9 kaf7 o -9 SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Pun
95 We got (our) bows. Episode 2 A7se9 kaf7 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Inc and-then We got bows and then, a7se9 i -9. SeqMkr; go -Tot.Pun we went. I -7 da8dv9 go -Tot.Inc and-then We went and then, ty7 tv9 bai -6 -e9 person sago(starch/palm) bai -Res.Pun -Nominlz the ones who were pounding the sago, doe -9. see -Tot.Pun we saw them. Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-then We saw them and then, y8 a7se9 e9fai -6. we SeqMkr; e9fai -Res.Pun we hid. E9fai -6 da8dv9 E9fai -Res.Pun and-then We hid and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 a -2 by -3 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; land -on dance -Tot.Dur we two danced on the ground dy4da8dv9 ty7 bo4 y8 therefore they_two we so then, we two. a7se9 av8 fu5 di -8 di -3. SeqMkr; one_belonging_to_each shoot -Rlz.Dur Bounded.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd each shot one of the two. Di -8 da8dv9 shoot -Rlz.Dur and-then We shot them and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 u6 ba8day -3 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; before flee -Tot.Dur we two first fled. dy4da8dv9 Av8si7 a7se9 av8du -3. therefore Av8si7 SeqMkr; angry -Tot.Dur so then Ausi was angry. Final Outcome Av8du -8 da8dv9 angry -Rlz.Dur and-then He was angry and then, au7 i8 bavy -7 da8dv9 he body sting -Tot.Inc and-then he was in pain and so, au7 a7se9 kaf7 o -9 a9. he SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Pun Narand...(IndfList) he took his bow. Kaf7 o -7 da8dv9 bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Inc and-then He took his bow and then, A8fo8di7vs 8 a7se9 bi -4 A8fo8di7vs8 SeqMkr; draw_bow -Tel.Inc Apodius. he began taking aim at him dy4da8dv9 A8fo8di7vs8 therefore A8fo8di7vs8 so then, Apodius a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9, eqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun spoke words, "A9 sa4dy8 di -8 dy -3." I then shoot -Rlz.Dur do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp
96 "Go ahead and shoot me." Au7 ba9 dy4dau4 Av8si7 foi -5 he word like_that Av8si7 tell -Tel.Pun He told Ausi words like that. di4du7be7 Av8si7 a7se9 v4 fe6di7 be -9 but Av8si7 SeqMkr; heart soft is -Tot.Pun but Ausi his heart softened. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 av8 bo4fe7 ba -3. therefore SeqMkr; make_peace_with -Tot.Dur so then they made peace. Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words. By7by9 du7be7 bi8fa -9. it's_that_that... say -Tot.Pun That's what I had to say. Sentences and paragraphs are linked together by conjunctions and by dependent medial verb and sometimes subordinate and medial verb linking clauses as illustrated in the examples of the two different narrative styles above. The overall sentence and clause pattern of a discourse unit determines whether a conjunction or a linking clause is interpreted as linking paragraphs or linking sentences. In the second example above, the conjunction dy4da8dv9 occurs at the end of every discourse unit until the last unit. In\ that last unit dy4da8dv9 or the adversative conjunction di4du7be7 occur on every main clause unit5 One must look at the overall pattern before deciding how a particular grammatical feature is being used. Narrative discourse episodes are characterized by common semantic fields, common participants, common time and common locations. Changes are usually indicative of a new discourse unit /episode. Note that in the examples above at every discourse segment boundary there is some kind of change, a switch who is the main participant, a change in location or a change in time as well as changes in the activities of the participants. The basic building blocks used to actually construct a narrative discourse are independent and dependent clauses. Iau has four basic clause types, independent clauses, adverbial subordinate clauses, dependent medial verb type clauses, and nominalized clauses. Each of these plays a unique role in organizing the Iau discourse into a hierarchy of foregrounded versus backgrounded information. Clauses, in turn are organized into sentences. Sentences are segments of discourse which are strung together and organized into paragraphs.
7.1.1 Organization By Clause Types. We have seen in the section on foregrounding and backgrounding how independent clauses are used to present the events of the primary eventlines, the things the narrator wants to say about the participants: what their task was and how they achieved it, what their problem was and how they solved it, or what happened to them. A list of all the independent clause events in an Iau discourse should give a shopping list of every major event in addition to the primary setting information and the post narrative author comments on the story. There are two kinds of dependent clauses in Iau, adverbial subordinate clauses marked for the most part by one syllable conjunctions occuring clause final (be,se,de,du,de) and medial verb clauses which are not part of the main clause and are marked by clause final clitic particles (da8dv9, be8du7, du7be7, du7e9). The adverbial subordinate clauses are used for backgrounded steps leading to a goal stated in the main clause, prerequisite events to the main clause, or topical grounds. These are illustrated in the text below in sequences such as the following:
bay3 be6 bui2 be7 sui -8 be7-8 peninsula path upstream AdvMkr enter_into -Rlz.Dur SqMnsSClMkr going to the upstream path we crossed the river and, fa6 a9 dav2 baui -8-4 shore the_other_one on_far_side(of_river) arrive -Res.Dur-Tel.Inc we arrived on the far bank of the river.
"Y8 fv7 ae -6 se9 we canoe/plane *** -Res.Pun since,when "Since we have no canoe, y8 bo4 A9da7 bv8 bi -8 be7-8 we_two_(incl.) *** to call -Rlz.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr praying to God, sui -8 i -7 ba -5." enter_into -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Inc let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade *** let's get into the water and go on."
5 This is counting the quote with it’s opening and closing quote margins as one clause unit.
97 Dependent medial verb clauses have two functions in Iau narrative discourse. One function is to link sentences into cohesive paragraphs or paragraphs into a cohesive whole. These are the repeated information linking verb clauses mentioned in the previous section and will be illustrated again below. Another function of dependent medial verb clauses in Iau narrative discourse is to introduce certain types of new information such as new terminology, details about props or participants, introduction of nonfocal participants, and details about the main eventline:, related events, higly expected events, same event from the perspective of another location, another participant, another eventline. Dependent medial verb clauses achieve their linking function through forming a tail-head repetition pattern and by carrying information about the relationships of events on into the following independent clause events. This is illustrated by the following tail-head linking clauses. The linking clauses are in italics. The medial verb clauses in bold are used to give backgrounded new information on the eventline. dy4da8dv9 and_then So then, a7se9 fe6 ai8 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; goggles take -Tot.Inc and-then after we put on our goggles, kei9 bv8 tai -7 se9 i -9. turtle for search -Tot.Inc CircSClCj go -Tot.Pun we went looking for turtles. Kei9 bv8 tai -7 se9 i -7 da8dv9 turtle for search -Tot.Inc CircSClCj go -Tot.Inc and-then We went looking for turtles and then, a7se9 e7ba3 be4 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; four NMkrInst catch -Tot.Inc and-then we got six and then, a7se9 si -6. SeqMkr; put_in_bag -Res.Pun we put them in the net bag. Si -6 da8dv9 put_in_bag -Res.Pun and-then We put them in the net bag and then, da -8 i -9. carry -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Pun we carried them. Da -8 i -7 da8dv9 carry -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Inc and-then We carried them and then, fe6 ai8 Yo8si7a3 be8sy9 goggles *** belong to Yosia's goggles. a7se9 kv8 tay -3. SeqMkr; glue pull_off -Tot.Dur the glue came off them
dy4da8dv9 bv6 a7se9 bo9fo7 bv8 tai -9. therefore I SeqMkr; for(benefit_) for search -Tot.Pun so then, I looked for them for him. Bv8 tai -7 da8dv9 for search -Tot.Inc and-then I looked for them and then, a7se9 doe -9 SeqMkr; see -Tot.Pun I saw them.
dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 av7bv9 a7se9 fe7 be -7 da8dv9 therefore goggles his SeqMkr; not_good is -Tot.Inc and-then so then, his goggles, were no good and then a7se9 si -6 SeqMkr; put_in_bag -Res.Pun we put them in the net bag.
7.1.2 The Organization Of Clauses Into Sentences and Paragraphs Independent and dependent clauses are combined to form sentences, the basic unit of discourse. Each sentence has at least one independent clause and presents at least one unit of eventline information. The four Iau sentence types delineate paragraph boundaries and play a role in marking narrative peak.
98 Simple and compound sentences which consist of single or multiple independent clauses mark paragraph boundaries. They usually occur paragraph initially, but can also occur discourse final and paragraph final. In the discourse and paragraph final positions, simple sentences give additional detail or coda and closing type information. Complex sentences, that is sentences consisting of at least one dependent and one independent clause, occur paragraph internally and increase in complexity at peak points in the story. Medial verb clauses which repeat the information in the preceding independent clause form tail -head linking sentences and have a linking function across paragraph boundaries.
7.1.2.1 Compound And Complex Sentences Made Up Of Clause Chains Iau narrative discourse is characterized by clause chains and as we shall see in the following sections sentence chaining also. Any number of medial and subordinate clauses can also be combined in clause chains as illustrated below A9 ko4du8 be -7 di -8 -y9 I small is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr When I was small, du3si9 o7su9 ay8be7-8 bv6 bae -8 du7be7 *** leaf bird_type I shot -Rlz.Dur but when (on the occasion that) I shot an aibe bird, a6ty9 be8 vy -3 be7-8 mother PredInfoAg taking -Tot.Dur PreReqSClMkr and my mother taking it tui7 bay -4 de9 breast give -Tel.Inc RsSClCj because she put it to her breast, a9 fi4au7 v4 bv8 dui -8 du7e8 I very/always heart for shake -Rlz.Dur as/until I happy all day until bai3 i -3 to 9. sun go -Tot.Dur FactCntraryToHearer the sun went down. The following is another example A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di -9 -y9 I before small is/are -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr When I was small, a9 a6ty9 be8 da -8 I mother NMkrAg carry -Rlz.Dur Sai4 Bv4si8 be7 da -8 ba --7 be8du7 *** *** Loc/DirAdvMkr carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Inc MVClCj my mother took me and brought me to the mouth of the Sai river when (interruptive), y8 bi8 ba -7 da7be8 we rain come -Tot.Inc because(given_info) because it started to rain, Sy9 v3 Ba8fi9ta9 by6 be7 ba -6-3. should coming_there *** downstream Loc/DirAdvMkr come -ChStateRes.Pun-Tot.Dur we went downstream to Bafita.
Dy4be7-8 a9 a6ty9 be8 tau6 fo -4 be7-8 and_then I mother NMkrAg sling take_off -Tel.Inc PreReqSClMkr And then, my mother, taking me out of the sling, te3 da -3 be7-8 flooring put_down_on -Tot.Dur PreReqSClMkr and putting me on the floor (of the house at Bafita), di9 fvy5 o8sy9 bv8 boi -6-8 du8 things in_the_canoe from for go_down_to -ChStateRes when she had gone down out of the house to get the things in the canoe when, a9 be3di9e8 oi7-8 a5 si -7 be8du7 I later hand ground push_on -Tot.Inc when I, after (she left) was crawling when, by3 i8 bv6 sa -8 be8du7 corpse bone I eat -Rlz.Dur when I ate (ie put in my mouth) a human bone when, a6ty9 be8 a7se9 a9 fi5 o -7 da8dv9 mother PredInfoAg SeqMkr; me away_from, take -Tot.Inc and-then my mother took it from me and then, a7se9 doe - -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; see -Tot.Inc and-then looked at it and then,
99 by3 i8 a7se9 doe - -7 da8dv9 corpse body SeqMkr; see -Tot.Inc and-then she saw it was a human bone and then, a6ty9 a7se9 e -6 da8dv9 mother SeqMkr; exclaim -Res.Pun and-then mother exclaimed and then, a9 a7se9 o7di7 di -8 a3 I SeqMkr; by/with_hand hit -Rlz.PstMultiple she spanked me with her hand.
7.1.2.2 Sentence Chains, Clusters And Paragraphs Just as there are clause chains in Iau, there are also sentence chains. Sentence chains are regularized or patterned sequences of sentences. The following is a sequence of complex sentences consisting of a linking medial verb clause with an independent nucleus. This kind of sentence chain is frequent in narrative discourse. Starting sentence dy4da8dv9 a7sy9 Fau3i7 ba4 be7 fvy5 sui -5. therefore already *** right_here/there Loc/DirAdvMkr into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun and so we got into our canoes here at Faui. Link Sentence 1 Medial Verb Clause Fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc and-then We got into out canoes and then, Independent Clause a7sy9 Si7bav4ta8 be7 fv7 bai -6 already *** Loc/DirAdvMkr canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun We docked /put our canoes to shore at Sibauta. Link Sentence 2 Medial Verb Clause Fv7 bai -6 da8dv9 canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun and-then We docked and then, Independent Clause a7sy9 su9 be7 fav -9. already sugar_cane NMkr-Given break_off_piece -Tot.Pun we broke off some (stalks of) sugar cane The following is a sequence of simple sentences. These often occur at narrative peak, narrative thematic summaries or in narrative closings The closing of this travel and hunting narrative is marked by a chain of simple sentences with no linking clauses, as illustrated below Sa8 da8dv9 ate and then We ate and then, y8 e8ta8fau7 fai9fa9ba4de7 ba9. we again do same thing come we again came along together. Ty7 Ba3kv3si6 sa4 bui2 i9. people Bakusi Cntrst upstream go The people from Bakusi then went on upstream (to Bakusi) Y8 sa4 Fa3ui7 bi3. we Cntrst Faui arrive at And we arrived at Faui. Sai8ta9 bui2 du8 ba9 ae6. Saita upstream go around word are not That's all the words about going around upstream at Saita In some styles of narrative discourse, the discourse is organized around intention statements followed by sequences of sentences beginning with the sentence conjunction dy4da8dv9 ‘and so’ Dy4da8dv9 marks the execution of commands, plans, and intentions. It is used similarly in procedural discourse and dialogue sections of narratives where there are commands or plans within the quotes. The following is an example of dy4da8dv9 implementing a narrative topical action framework intention statement. a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i -7 se -5 SeqMkr; land *** upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact (we) were going upstream to the place (called) Behae, dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 a7se9 o -9. therefore goggles SeqMkr; take -Tot.Pun And so, we got our underwater goggles. O -7 da8dv9 take -Tot.Inc and-then We got them and then,
100 a7se9 bay3 be6 bui2 be7 sui -8 be7-8 SeqMkr; peninsula_of_land path upstream LocAdvMkr enter_into -Rlz.Dur SqMnsSClMkr going to the upstream path we crossed the river and, fa6 a9 dav2 baui -8-4 shore the_other_one on_far_side(of_river) arrive -Res.Dur-Tel.Inc we arrived on the far bank of the river. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 o -2 i -7 da8dv9 and_then we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; sandbar -on go -Tot.Inc and-then And then, we went along on the sandbar and then, dav2 e8 a7se9 doe -9. crododile footprint SeqMkr; see -Tot.Pun we saw crocodile tracks. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9, therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun so then, we two spoke words. " Te8 be7 be -4? **where is/are -Tel.Inc "Where is it? Bui2 i -7 be -8? upstream go -Tot.Inc perhaps -Assert.ExpRspASAP Did it go upstream? by6 tv -9 be -4? downstream *** -Tot.Pun or -NAssert.ExpRsp or perhaps it went downstream? Y8 bo4 a7se9 bai6sui -7 se -5." we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; get_into -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact We are going to get into the water." dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 a7se9 fai9taui -9. therefore goggles SeqMkr; get_ready -Tot.Pun so then, we got our underwter goggles ready In other styles of discourse, long complex sentences divide the narrative eventline into episodes as illustrated in the following example. Sentence 1 A9 u6 di -8 -e9 I before did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nominlz I in the past, Fi8be7fvy8 by6 be -4 di -8 -y9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream is/are -Tel.Inc did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr when I was at Fibehui, a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark MVClCj it was evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago(starch/palm) ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9be8 y - -7 du7be7 mother facing cry -Tot.Inc MVClCj but was crying in front of my mother but, a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay - -4 ae2 I mother NMkrAg sago give -Tel.Inc SClCj my mother, not giving me any sago, fe6ka -7 da8dv9 fe6ka -Tot.Inc MVClCj slept and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fe6si - -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; night fe6si -Tot.Inc MVClCj I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 sago(starch/palm) mother belonging_to I a7se9 du8 bv8 ui -7-3. SeqMkr; secretly for stand_up -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur I secretly got up to get mother's sago. Sentence 2 Tv9 bv6 a7se9 fav -7 be8du7 sago I SeqMkr; fav -Tot.Inc when MVClCj I broke off some sago when, a9 a6ty9 be8 da7 ba -8 be8 I mother NMkrAg dog cause_become -Rlz.Dur OvrlapSClCj my mother, thinking a dog had come,
101 di - -8 be8du7 hit -Rlz.Dur when MVClCj hit (me Topic prev Cl) and, a9 e -6 be8du7 I exclaim -Res.Pun when I cried out when, a6ty9 a7se9 di -6 be7-8 mother SeqMkr; startled -Res.Pun SqMnsSClMkr mother got startled, a7se9 a9 foi -5, SeqMkr; I ask -Tel.Pun said to me, In the text above the main eventline is given in these two complex sentences. The remainder of the narrative consists of closing conversational exchange between mother and son.
7.1.3 The Distribution and Function of Sentences in Iau Discourse Sentences are used in Iau discourse to organize the information and segment it into higher level grammatical discourse units. The first two examples below are taken from conversations. Example 1 below is a response to a request for permission to take a photo, contains one semantic unit, a condition-consequence unit, the speaker will agree to have his picture taken, if his wife can be in the picture. Example 1 Sentence 1 A7se9 bai7 de8 dy3. Wait a minute!
S 2 Conditional Sentence Si6 o8sy9 bv8ke7 ui7-8 da8dv9 When my wife is standing with me, then
a9 di9 ai8 fvy8 e9 da9ki6 y4. you can take my picture, okay?
Example 2 is an alternative sentence giving alternative explanations for the meaning of a word.
Example 2 Ai9y4 tv9y4 dy4 e3 Well it's like this. "Tu ih", (is explained) like this
ba7bv9 du9 ba8day8 ba3, It is when a wild-pig runs away
ty7 i7 ba3, fv7 a7se9 i7 ba3, when people go, when the canoe has already left,
dy4da8dv9 by7by9 du7be7 ba9 du8be9 fo8 dy4dau4 bi8fa7 da8dv9 so, if the word is just said like that, then, that's what
tv9y9 dy5. "tu ih" means/is like.
Example 3 is an example from narrative discourse. It consists of the first two sentences of a short story about sneaking food which divide this section of the story into two units. Each sentence consists of an episode or event cycle in the story. The first event cycle gives all the events leading up to the main plot, a little boy gets up in the middle of the night and tries to sneak food. The second sentence gives the next event cycle. His mother in the dark, thinks it is a dog and hits him discovering that it is her child instead. Example 3 Sentence 1 A9 u6 di -8 -e9 I before did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nominlz I in the past, Fi8be7fvy8 by6 be -4 di -8 -y9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream is/are -Tel.Inc did_occur -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr when I was at Fibehui, a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark and-then it was evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj while I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9be8 y -7 du7be7 mother facing up cry -Tot.Inc but was crying looking up at my mother butMVClCj
102 a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I mother NMkrAg sago(starch/palm) give -Tel.Inc without my mother, not giving me any sago, fe6ka -7 da8dv9 fe6ka -Tot.Inc and-then slept and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fe6si -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; night fe6si -Tot.Inc and-then I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 sago(starch/palm) mother belonging_to I a7se9 du8 bv8 ui -7-3. SeqMkr; secretly for stand_up -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur I secretly got up to get mother's sago. Sentence 2 Tv9 bv6 a7se9 fav -7 be8du7 sago(starch/palm) I SeqMkr; fav -Tot.Inc when I broke off some sago when, a9 a6ty9 be8 da7 ba -8 be8 I mother NMkrAg dog cause_become -Rlz.Dur OvrlapSClCj my mother, thinking a dog had come, di -8 be8du7 hit -Rlz.Dur when hit (me Topic prev Cl) and, a9 e -6 be8du7 I exclaim -Res.Pun when I cried out when, a6ty9 a7se9 di -6 be7-8 mother SeqMkr; startled -Res.Pun SqMnsSClMkr mother got startled, a7se9 a9 foi -5, SeqMkr; I ask -Tel.Pun said to me, " Di9 te7bv8 du -8 be -3?" you_s. what_reason go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd "What were you doing? /What were you after?" Complex sentences with strings of dependent clauses, such as those in example 3 above, are used in narratives to recount backgrounded eventlines leading up to the story peak. The text below is the rest of the story, illustrating how sentences at peak and in the story conclusion are shorter and less complex. They consist of a repeated linking clause and an independent clause. The peak of this story consists of a dialogue between the boy and his mother, in which the confusion is sorted out. The dialogue is marked by quote sentences, which consist of an independent clause containing a verb of speech, followed by the quote. The quote sentence units in this story are linked together by repeated dependent clauses. a6ty9 a7se9 di -6 be7-8 mother SeqMkr; startled -Res.Pun SqMnsSClMkr mother got startled, a7se9 a9 foi -5, SeqMkr; I ask -Tel.Pun said to me, " Di9 te7bv8 du -8 be -3?" you_s. what_reason go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd "What were you doing? /What were you after?" A6ty9 bv6 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 da8dv9 mother I SeqMkr; like_that tell -Tel.Inc and-then I told mother like that and then, a9 a6ty9 by8 a7se9 foi -5, I mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; ask -Tel.Pun mother asked me, " Di9 te7bv8 a9 foi -4 ae2 you_s. why me tell -Tel.Inc without "Why without asking me, du -8 a -3?" go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.Unbound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd were you doing that?" A9 a6ty9 be8 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 be7-8 I mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; like_that ask -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Mother saying like that, fe6ka -9. sleep -Tot.Pun slept.
103 Ba9 be7 ae6. That's all the words. The following example taken from a short story by a different author shows another Iau narrative style. In this style, the author links the narrative eventlines into semantic units by using repeated clauses. Y8 bo4 e8ta8fau7 Sai8ta9 bui2 i7 da8dv9 We two again were going upstream to Saita and then,
a9 a7se9 ba5 sui5. I went into (the jungle).
Ba5 sui4 da8dv9 I went in and then,
a9 a7se9 be6 o9. I stood guard over the path (ie where the pig trail)
Be6 o7 da8dv9 I stood guard and then,
du9 a7se9 ba9. the wild pig came.
Ba7 da8dv9 She came and then,
bv6 a7se9 di8 du7be7 I shot at her but,
be9fai5 I missed.
The closing of this travel and hunting narrative is marked by simple sentences with no linking clauses, as illustrated below Sa8 da8dv9 We ate and then,
y8 e8ta8fau7 fai9fa9ba7de7 ba9. we again came along with them.
Ty7 Ba3kv3si6 sa4 bui2 i9. The people from Bakusi then went on upstream (to Bakusi)
Y8 sa4 Fa3ui7 bi3. And we arrived at Faui.
Sai8ta9 bui2 du8 ba9 ae6. That's all the words about going around upstream at Saita
7.2 Maintaining Cohesion Between the Segments And Episodes.
7.2.1 Role Of Repeated Information Linking Clauses As we have said the use of head tail linkages is a characteristic feature of Iau narrative discourse. In head tail linkage, sentence chains are formed by medial verb linking clauses which repeat the information from the previous main clause and a main clause with new predicated information. +Independent Clause New Predicated Information Medial Verb Linking Clause Repeated Information +Independent Clause etc Medial Verb Linking Clause +Independent Clause Medial Verb Linking Clause etc
7.2.2 Use of linking clauses to link main clauses of a section /segment This sentence type is especially common in oral narratives but also is used in certain styles of longer written narratives. The following is an example. Note that each main clause is also marked by the sequence particle a7se9 and followed by a medial verb clause which is a repeat of the information in the preceeding clause. Y8 a7se9 ty7 o7su4 taui -7 se5 we already person name write -Tot.Inc intend_to We were going to write down people's names dy4da8dv9 a7se9 Fau3i7 ba4 be7 fvy5 sui -5. therefore already *** right_here/there Loc/DirAdvMkr into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun and so we got into our canoes here at Faui.
104 Fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc and-then We got into out canoes and then, a7se9 Si7bav4ta8 be7 fv7 bai -6 already *** Loc/DirAdvMkr canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun We docked /put our canoes to shore at Sibauta. Fv7 bai -6 da8dv9 canoe/plane beach -Res.Pun and-then We docked and then, a7se9 su9 be7 fav -9. already sugar_cane NMkr-Given break_off_piece -Tot.Pun we broke off some (stalks of) sugar cane Dy4 su9 be7 fav -7 da8dv9 And_then, sugar_cane NMkr-Given break_off_piece -Tot.Inc and-then And after we had broken off some sugar cane, a7se9 fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 (new information; break in chain) already into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc and-then we got into the canoe and be7 i -9. travel_on -Tot.Pun went on. Breaks in these chains of linked sentences are used to indicate paragraph and section boundaries and to segment the eventline into sections. In the example above the end of the discourse segment is signalled by a medial verb clause with new but backgrounded information, “We go into the canoe and then,…” The following segment of text, illustrates the repeated linking clause sentence chain broken by a sequence of two independent clauses
Dy4 a7se9 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, already go -Tot.Inc and-then And when we were going /as we were travelling along, fv7 a7se9 be8sy9 bui2 be7 ke8fa8da7 canoe/plane already belonging_to upstream Loc/DirAdvMkr chief,boss,supervisor
be8 bay -5. NMkrAg give after we were upstream aways, we gave the headman (the job of poling) the canoe. Dy4 bay -4 da8dv9 And_then, give -Tel.Inc and-then We gave him (the job) and so, a7se9 au7 be8 da8 i -9. already he NMkrAg propel go -Tot.Pun he poled /propelled us along. Dy4 da8 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, propel go -Tot.Inc and-then He propelled us along and then, a7se9 Ba3kv3si6 be7 fu -3. already *** Loc/DirAdvMkr tie_up -Tot.Dur we tied up the canoe at Bakusi. A7se9 fu -8 da8dv9 already tie_up -Rlz.Dur and-then We tied it up and then, ta -3. sleep -Tot.Dur we spent the night. Dy4 ta -8 da8dv9 then sleep -Rlz.Dur and-then When we had spent the night, da8su6 A9da7 ba9 sa -3. in_the_morning God word eat -Tot.Dur the next day we attended church. A7se9 A9da7 ba9 sa -8 da8dv9 already God word eat -Rlz.Dur and-then We attended church and then, a7se9 da8su6 Tu8du8bo9 bui2 i -9. already in_the_morning *** upstream go -Tot.Pun the next morning we went upstream to Turumo. Dy4 a7se9 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, already go -Tot.Inc and-then And as we went along,
105 a7se9 sv9di9 bi7si9 doe -9 already possum one see -Tot.Pun we saw a possum. sv9di9 bi7si9 doe -7 da8dv9 possum one see -Tot.Inc and-then We saw a possum and then, a7se9 di -8 a3. already kill -Rlz.Dur PstHab we killed it. a7se9 di -8 da8dv9 already kill -Rlz.Dur and-then We killed it and then, fvy5 ay -3. into_the_canoe put -Tot.Dur we put it in the canoe. Dy4 fvy5 ay -8 da8dv9 And_then, into_the_canoe put -Rlz.Dur and-then When we had put it in the canoe, a7se9 da8 i -9. already carry go -Tot.Pun we took it along. Dy4 da8 i -7 da8dv9 And_then, carry go -Tot.Inc and-then We took it along and then, a7se9 Tu8du8bo9 be7 baui -3. already *** Loc/DirAdvMkr arrive -Tot.Dur we came to Turumo. Dy4 y8 a7se9 ta -3. And_then, we already sleep -Tot.Dur And so we spent the night. These repeated information sentence chains are characteristic of the body of a oral narrative discourse. Characteristically, each independent clause is joined to the following clause by a linking medial verb clause that repeats the verb of the previous independent clause and occasionally adds new clarifying or topic change information.
7.2.3 Use of linking clauses to initiate a new section /segment In written short story narrative discourse, the clause structure is very different. Each episode or paragraph consists of only a few sentences –often only one. The sentences are chains of medial and subordinate clauses ending in a sentence final main clause. Sentences are sometimes linked with repeated information medial or subordinate clauses. In these stories the linking cohesive role of repeated information clauses is used to provide cohesion between episodes and paragraphs instead of from event to event. In the following example there are three linking clauses, linking three main episodes. The three repeated sentences form an outline of the story. “We saw a so tree....The so tree began to fall to the ground... Victor was angry” Time /Main Participant A9 u6dy4e9 I in_the_past I in the past, Location Fi8be7fvy8 by6be7 du -8 da8dv9 Fi8be7fvy8 downstream go around -Rlz.Dur and-then was at Fibehui and then, Expanded participant /location information/opening event y8 ko4du8 a7se9 be3ta9 du -8 da8dv9 we small SeqMkr; clearing go around -Rlz.Dur and-then we small one s were walking around and then, Introduce main prop /point of conflict so7 ko4du9 bi7si9 doe -9. tree ko4du9 one see -Tot.Pun we saw a little so tree. Body of narrative begins Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-then We saw it and then, y8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 we SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun we said, " So7 ba7bv9 y8 bo4 i9 fvy -7 se -5 tree this we_two_(incl.) branch cut -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact "Let's cut off the branches of this so tree."
106 dy4da8dv9 Fi7to3 a7se9 u6 so7 kav3ka9 bi9bi -5 therefore Fi7to3 SeqMkr; before tree tops_(of_trees) climb_up_in/to -Tel.Pun so then, Fitor climbed up in the top of the so tree. dy4da8dv9 therefore y8 bo4 E7fi3 te7 av8 foi -5. we_two_(incl.) E7fi3 opposing_him each_other tell -Tel.Pun Therefore we two, Efi (and I) said to each other in opposition to him, " Au7 y8 so7 bv8ke7 bui -4 ba -5. he we tree _be_with/accompany cut_down -Tel.Inc let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade "Let's cut down the tree with him in it. Di9 ta8 bv8 i -7 dy -3." you_s. machete for go -Tot.Inc do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp You go get a machete." dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 ta8 bv8 i -9 therefore I SeqMkr; machete for go -Tot.Pun so then I went to get a machete. dy4da8dv9 therefore a9 a7se9 ta8 o -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; machete get -Tot.Inc and-then Therefore , I took the machete and then, au7 a7se9 so7 bv8ke7 bui -4 da8dv9 he SeqMkr; tree _be_with/accompany cut_down -Tel.Inc and-then I cut down the so tree with him in it and then, so7 a7se9 tai -2. tree SeqMkr; fall_to_ground -Tel.Dur the so tree fell. Body of narrative :Section 2 Tai -2 da8dv9 fall_to_ground -Tel.Dur and-then It fell and then, y8 a7se9 au7 doe4 bi7sai -2, we SeqMkr; he at laugh -Tel.Dur we laughed at him. " Di9 au7 v4 by -5 " you your own self heart/choice it is- -Tel.Pun " "It's your own fault." y8 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -9 we word like_that say -Tot.Pun We said words like that. dy4da8dv9 au7 a7se9 av8du -3. therefore he SeqMkr; angry -Tot.Dur so then he was angry. Body of narrative :Section 3 Summary Av8du -8 da8dv9 angry -Rlz.Dur and-then He was angry and then, y8 a7se9 au7 foi -5, we SeqMkr; he tell -Tel.Pun we said to him, "Y8 bo4 u6 bv8 bi -2 se -5 we_two_(incl.) before to go_up -Tel.Dur intention -Assert_NPres_Fact "We two were going to climb up in the tree di4du7be7 di9 a7se9 u6 bi -7 de3 but you_s. SeqMkr; before go_up -Tot.Inc since...was but because you climbed up first, Di9 y8 so7 bv8ke7 bui -4 da7by9 . you_s. we tree _be_with/accompany cut_down -Tel.Inc surely_know_that " we have cut down the tree with you in it." dy4da8dv9 au7 a7se9 av8du -8 se9 therefore he SeqMkr; angry -Rlz.Dur CircSClCj ui8 bv8 i -9. house to go -Tot.Pun so then he went home angry. Closing
107 U8 bv8ke7 bui -4 -e9 ba9 be -7 ae -6. tree _be_with/accompany cut_down -Tel.Inc -Nominlz word is/are -Tot.Inc not -Assert_fact(now) hat's all the words about cutting down a tree with someone in it. The eventline sequence of sequentially and causative related events in the body of the narrative above is as follows: Body of narrative :Section 1 We saw it (the so tree) and then, we said, "Let's cut off the branches of this so tree." so then, before (we could do it) Fitor climbed up in the top of the so tree. Therefore we two, Efi (and I) said to each other in opposition to him,"Let's cut down the tree with him in it. You go get a machete." so then I went to get a machete. Therefore , I took the machete and then, I cut down the so tree with him in it and then, the so tree fell. Body of narrative :Section 2 It fell and then, we laughed at him. "It's your own fault." We said words like that. so then he was angry. Body of narrative : Summary /Restatement of main points He was angry and then, we said to him, "We two were going to climb up in the tree but because you climbed up first, we have cut down the tree with you in it." so then he went home angry.
7.3 The Roles Of Clauses And Conjunctions Clauses are used to rank information on the discourse hierarchy. Conjunctions are used to explicitly mark grammatical and semantic relationships between clauses. By linking clauses, sentences and paragraphs, and by marking the semantic relationships between clauses, they serve as cohesive devices in discourse. And by ranking clauses according to a hierarchy of subordinate to main clauses, they organize the discourse into background and foreground information.
7.3.1 Subordinate Clauses And Subordinate Clause Conjunctions Adverbial subordinate clause conjunctions mark the information as directly related to the main verb they modify. They always precede the main verb of the clause. Adverbial subordinate clauses can modify verbs in either medial verb clauses or in independent clauses. se9/se7 ‘since’ grounds be7 sequence /step goal be7-8 simultaneous continuative be8 causative event de9/de7 a stative causative du8/du3 simultaneous interupted /terminated In the first example below the two subordinate clauses give the grounds and the means by which the independent clause verb was brought about. This sentence occurs near the end of the story, summarizing the eventline in a chain of backgrounded subordinate clauses in order for the narrator to laugh at himself and comment that all that he did was useless. From the text “Holding Up The Chair” "Ty7da7y3 y8 da6 bi8-y9 person=GvnInfo=Hypo=Stmnt=Voc we now arrive.ResDur-Nominlz "Hey, when we were just now coming, (Temporal thematic framework) fv7 si9 bay5 bau6 de9 plane tail down sit =ResPunc SClCjRs because/since the plane's tail had dropped down, bi8 bv6 dv4ui9 be7-8 chair I lift~up=TotPunc SubClSimult lifting up the chair, da8 bi8 a9sy3." carry=ResDur arrive=ResDur notdice!=Imp I arrived holding/carrying it." In the second example, the two adverbial clauses give the topical circumstance giving rise to the independent clause event, and also a culturally expected pre-requisite event to the independent clause event. The two adverbial clauses are not related to each other, but each relates to the main verb. The final example, taken from the title of a narrative shows a du subordinate clause marking another topical circumstance. This topical circumstance classifies the narrative as being one of the stories told about the generic topic, ‘Things I did when I was small’ From the text “Words About Not Having A Canoe.” "Y8 fv7 ae6 se9 we canoe are~none=ResPunc Grds "Since we have no canoe, y8 bo4 A9da7 bv8 bi8 be7-8 we two God Goal =cause pray SubCl/SeqCs praying to God, (means to achieve goal) sui8 i7 ba5." enter=ResDur go =TotInc Cohortv=Sug let's get into the water and go on."
108 The following example of the subordinate clause conjunction ‘du3’ is taken from the title of a short narrative Ba9 Ba7bv9 A9 Ko9du8 Be7 du3 Di9 Du8 Da9 -e8 Ba9 word this I small am.tot.Inc SClCj-when food secret eat -Nmlz words Words I Being Small When I Stole And Ate Food.
7.3.2 Medial Verb Clause Conjunctions Medial verb clause conjunctions mark the information in the clause as moving the story line or plot towards a sentence final independent clause event. They are related to that final event either temporally or by some kind of cause effect relationship. For example, the medial verb conjunction da8dv9 illustrated below, is used to mark sequential and generic cause-effect relationships. In clauses below putting on underwater goggles is a preparatory step for going underwater to look for turtles. dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 A9da7 bv8 bi3 then I ChronSq God Goal =cause pray=TotDur so then, I prayed dy4da8dv9 a7se9 fe6 ai8 o7 da8dv9 then ChronSq eye glass take=TotInc then so then, we put on our goggles and then, kei9 bv8 tai7 se9 i9. turtle Goal =cause search=TotInc Grds go =TotPunc we went looking for turtles. The Iau medial verb clause conjunctions are listed below. Unstressed clitics da8dv9 ‘and then’ antecedent event, condition (consequence to follow), cause (effect to follow) be8du7 ‘when ...’ durative and indirectly brings about the the next event, but is also terminated by it du7be7 ‘but’ adversative
Stressed be9se9 ‘since’ event as grounds de8se7 state as grounds du7e9 simultaneous, bringing about following event
The following example from the text “Stealing Food When I Was Small” consists of two sentences made up of strings of medial verb clauses and adverbial subordinate clauses, each ending with an independent clause. The text illustrates the use of the medial verb conjunctions da8dv9, be8du7 and du7be7. to move the eventline toward the two main events “I secretly /quietly stood up to get mother’s sago” and “Mother asked me (What are you doing?)” Sentence 1 Fi8be7fvy8 by6 be4 di8y9 *** downstream is -Tel.Inc PBd -Nominlz when I was at Fibehui, a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SqMkr dark -come down on=ResPunc MVCj-then I was there at evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy7 be8 I ChronSq sago ask~for=TotInc SubClCauz because I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9 be8 y7 du7be7 mother look toward AdvMkr answer=TotInc but I was looking up at my mother crying but, a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay4 ae2 fe6ka7 da8dv9 I mother NMkr-Cs sago give.Tel.Inc Scj-without sleep.Tot.Inc MVCj-then I slept without my mother giving me any sago and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fei6si7 da8dv9 I SqMkr night wake~up =TotInc MVCl-then I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 a7se9 du8 bv8 ui7-3. sago mother Poss I SqMkr secretly Goal =cause stand~up=TotInc=TotDur I secretly got up to get mother's sago. Sentence 2 Tv9 bv6 a7se9 fav7 be8du7 sago I SqMkr break=TotInc MVCj-when I broke off some sago when, a9 a6ty9 be8 da7 ba8 be8 I mother NMkr-Cs dog shoot=ResDur SubCl-Cs my mother, thinking a dog had come, di8 be8du7 shoot=ResDur MVCj-when hit (me Topic prev Cl) and, a9 e6 be8du7 I cry~out=ResPunc MVCj-when I cried out when, a6ty9 a7se9 di6 be7-8 mother ChronSq startled=ResPunc SubClSimult
109 mother startled, a7se9 a9 foi5, ChronSq I ask =TelPunc said to me, The sentences above illustrate how medial verb clauses are used to present backgrounded event cycles, each ending in an outcome that makes up the foregrounded cycle of events “I got up to get the sago and my mother said to me (“What are you doing?”).
7.3.3 Independent Clause Conjunctions Independent clauses mark the main events of a discourse. This is illustrated by the two main clause events in the text segment above, “I got up to get the sago...... My mother said to me (“What are you doing?”). Sentence 1 tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 a7se9 du8 bv8 ui7-3. sago mother Poss I SqMkr secretly Goal =cause stand~up=TotInc=TotDur I secretly got up to get mother's sago.
Sentence 2 a6ty9 a7se9 di6 be7-8 mother ChronSq startled=ResPunc SubClSimult mother startled, a7se9 a9 foi5, ChronSq I ask =TelPunc said to me,
Independent clauses also are used to give evaluative comments on the narrative as illustrated below from a text about seeing a snake. Independent clauses are highlighted in the evaluation section of the story below. Ai9y5. it's_like_this It's like this. Di9 a8fa7-8 by7by9 du7be7 things another_kind it's_only_...that If it's some other thing/animal bv6 doe -7 du7 I see -Tot.Inc while...then that I see, a9 to6 di9 a9da -3 I not(CntrExp) things put_on_grd -Tot.Dur I (don't) drop my things on the ground and be7si -7 ae -9 y -3. leave -Tot.Inc not -Establish_as_fact ExplanStatmnt -Assert.RspActivated leave them behind. Be7fe7 bi7si9 ba7bv9 bv6 doe -7 a9 snake one this I see -Tot.Inc be_...-ing+IndefEv/Prtc y -9 ExplanStatmnt -Establish_as_fact It's just when I see a snake a9 fi4au7 fa9 fe -4 be7 I to_fullest feces appear -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after with the feces showing/coming out, I i -7 fo9 ay4. go -Tot.Inc want IncpFutCntin will want to go/can't wait to leave. O3ai6a4 A9 to6 ko4du8 be4 ba9 fvy -8 ai -7 *** I not(CntrExp) small AdvMkr word cut -Rlz.Dur not -Establish_irrealis di7 a9 sy3. HypDf you_should_know_that Exclamation! I don't stay around to talk a little bit at all! Be7fe7 ba9 be -7 ae -6. snake word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words about snakes. When more than one main clause is juxtaposed without a conjunction as shown in the example above, the second and subsequent clauses are repeating or expanding on the previous clause from a different perspecitive or giving a comment on it. Independent clauses can also be marked by a set of conjunctions indicating their logical relationship to the preceding independent clause, marking results, conclusions or summaries of preceding information. Independent clause conjunctions are used to mark implementation of a new eventline, or comments on the eventline. The list of independent clause conjunctions is given below.
110 dy4da8dv9 ‘and so’ (result, execution of proposal, effect of cause follows) dy4be9se9 ‘ therefore’ (conclusion, exhorationl, summary follows) dy4be8du7 ‘when ...’ (termination of preceding, a change begins) dy4du7be7 /di4du7be7 ‘but’
The following example shows the conjunction dy4da8dv9 marking the first step in the execution of a plan /intention. Y8 bo4 Yo8si9a3 te7 u6dy4e9 we two *** NMkr before=do~that=TelInc=Nmnlzr The two of us, Yosia (and I) what we did like this in the past /before, a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i7 se5 ChronSq land *** upstream go =TotInc Inten=NPFact (we) were going to go upstream to the place (called) Behae dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 a7se9 o9. then eye glass ChronSq take=TotPunc and so we got our underwater goggles. The second example shows the conjunction dy4be8du7 used to mark an interrupted plan.. They plan to leave but are invited to stay for a meal first. --from a travel log about going to Derapos by Timotius Dy4be7-8 ty7 bi7si9 y8 a7sy9 bae5 a9. Then person one we SqMkr cause be at. Tel.Pnc UnBd The we dropped off one person Bae5 be7-8 cause be at. Tel.Pnc SClCj Dropping them off y8 fv7 fi7 se5 we canoe paddlewith current.Tot.Inc intend we intend to paddle downstream dy4be8du7 ku8du8 se8kv8da7 fo7 a7sy9 y8 foi4 a3, when teacher school having SqMkr we ask.Tel.Inc UnBd when the school teacher first asked us "Da9 by7 i9 ay3." you pl do it go.Tel.Pnc Inceptive Are you about to go? A7sy9 dy4dau4 y8 foi4 a3. SqMkr like that we tell. Tel.Inc UnBd He asked us like that. Dy4 y8 a7sy9 av8 fa9si3 foi4 a3, And we SqMkr each other back tell.Tel.Inc UnBd And so we answered him "Di4 to3. Y8 i7 se4 to3." Yes. Mood we go.Tot.Inc Intend Mood Yes we are going to go. Y8 a7sy9 dy4dau4 foi4 be8du7 we SqMkr do like this tell.Tel.Inc when We answered him like that when, au7 a7sy9 y8 bo8ba3. he SqMkr us forbid.Tot.Dur He forbid us "Ba6-3 da9 dy4sy7 i7 day3. no you pl shouldn’t go.Tot.Inc Prohib No don’t go. Da9 bav9fv7 ai4 se9 i9 be9?" you hungry.Tot.Inc not Manner go.Tot.Pnc QuesMkr Are you going not being hungry? (Are you sure you aren’t hungry?)
7.3.4 Sentence and Paragraph Level Conjunctions Sentences in Iau can be marked by a special set of optional conjunctions which occur sentence initial and indicate the semantic relationship of the following sentence or sentence cluster to a previous sentence of sentence cluster. That is, these conjunctions relate groups of events or groups of comments to other events or comments.These conjunctions are used to mark a new discourse unit, such as a new episode, a new paragraph or sentence cluster. They are as follows: Dy4 And (a new/different question, another point about the topic ,the next main event sequence) Dy8 And also, and furthurmore another /additional comment on the same topic, an explanation /development of a previous statement Dy4be7 And then, Dy4be7-8 And while that was happening Di4de8 Stative grounds, conclusion to follow
111 Some examples are given below. The first example shows the dy4be7 conjunction introducing a new narrative episode and the dy4 conjunction introducing the next /second of two narrative segments illustrating the narrator’s point that it is futile to try to hunt on Sunday when you should be in church. (A new episode in a longer narrative made up of episodes about the life of an evangelist in the village of Faitau.) Dy4be7-8 Ku2 a7se9 da8fai5 du9 bv8 i -9. and_then Ku SeqMkr; night wild_pig for go -Tot.Pun Then, while it was still night Ku went pig hunting. Y8 A8da7 ba9 sa -7 se -5 we Bible eat -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact We were going to worship God (eat God's word) dy4da8dv9 y8 A8ku8bi8 be7 ba -7 du7be7 therefore we *** Loc/DirAdvMkr come -Tot.Inc but so, we had come on Saturday because a7se9 da8su6 A8da7 ba9 sa -7 se -5 SeqMkr; in_the_morning Bible eat -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact the next day we were going to worship God, dy4da8dv9 fvy -6 da8dv9 therefore bathe -Res.Pun and-then and so we took our baths Ku2 a7se9 du9 bv8 i -9. *** SeqMkr; wild_pig for go -Tot.Pun Ku had gone pig hunting. Du9 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 wild_pig for go -Tot.Inc and-then When he went pig hunting du9 bi7si9 di -3 wild_pig one hit -Tot.Dur he shot a pig dy4da8dv9 i8 sa -2 and_then bone hit_nontarget -Tel.Dur and then he missed the target and hit a bone dy4da8dv9 su -4 ae -5. therefore die -Tel.Inc not -Tel.Pun And so it did not die. Dy4 a9 so6 bi7si9 a7se9 ba -3 then another offspring on SeqMkr; shoot -Tot.Dur Then, he shot an arrow at another one, a baby pig dy4da8dv9 ba -8 ae -5. therefore shoot -Rlz.Dur not -Assert_NPres_Fact and so, he didn't hit it. Ba -8 ae -4 shoot -Rlz.Dur not -will_be(estblsh) He didn’t hit it dy4da8dv9 fay5 ba7bv9 fo8 u8 sa -2. therefore arrow this nonintentional tree hit_nontarget -Tel.Dur and so, the arrow just hit a tree instead. " Fay5 ba7bv9 fo8 dy -4 ae -5. arrow this nonintentional do_it/that -Tel.Inc not -Assert_NPres_Fact "This arrow did not do that for no purpose. dy4da8dv9 du9 ba7bv9 a5 tai -6” therefore wild_pig this ground land_on -Res.Pun it must be because, the pig crouched down to ground (he thought) dy4da8dv9 au7 be7 ui8 bv8 ba -9. therefore he NMkrOb house to come -Tot.Pun So, he came back home. Ui8 bv8 ba -7 da8dv9 house to come -Tot.Inc and-then He came back home and then, " Ay8 di9 A8da7 ba9 sa -7 ae -2 okay you_s. Bible eat -Tot.Inc not -Tel.Dur Right! You, without eating God’s word ”” i -7 da8dv9 go -Tot.Inc and-then went (hunting) fay5 ba7bv9 A8da7 be7 dai7si -9 de -7 arrow this God NMkrOb hold -Tot.Pun stative -Establish_irrealis God held that arrow.
112 to -8 CntraryToHearer -Assert.ExpRspASAP Don’t you know /see? dy4da8dv9 du9 di -8 ae -5." therefore wild_pig hit -Rlz.Dur not -Tel.Pun *** And therefore you didn’t kill any pigs.” dy4da8dv9 foi -5. therefore tell -Tel.Pun They told him that.
The second example from the text “Getting Attacked By A Pig” illustrates the use of the conjunction dy8 to mark comments developing a previous statement. The sentences marked by dy8 all comment on the eventline episode where Epi does not listen to Diuma and so gets attacked by the pig. The comments all reinforce the viewpoint that it his own fault what happened because he did not listen to Diuma’s good advice.. The thematic sentence commented on by the dy8 paragraphs is marked by a mood statement marker y3. (See section above on the use of status and mood markers in Iau narrative) A Segment from ‘Getting Attacked By A Pig’, by Sakaria E7fi3 a7se9 ui7 fe6ka -4 de -7 da8dv9 *** SeqMkr; in_the_house sleep -Tel.Inc stative -Tot.Inc and-then Epi was sleeping in the house and then, da7 ba9 bi8bay -4 be7 dog word hear -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after hearing the dog, bv8 tv -9. to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun he went to (where it was/it). ty7 bo4 Di9u7ba3 ty7 a7se9 av8to6 av8ta -4 be7 they_two *** person SeqMkr; meet_each_other -Tel.Inc SCCjand/after The two of them, Diuma (and he) they running into each other a7se9 av8 foi -5. SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun talked . Di8u7ba3 a7se9 E7fi3 foi -5. *** SeqMkr; *** tell -Tel.Pun Diuma said to Epi, " Di9 dy4sy7 fe7ba4 bv8 fe -8 day3. you_s. shouldn't *** arrive_there -Rlz.Dur don't "Don't you go in there carelessly. A9 da -9 du7be7 I injure -Tot.Pun but (The pig) attacked me but, a9 sa -8 ae -7 da -3 y I injured -Rlz.Dur not -Tot.Inc obvious_that Establish_as_Rlzd ExplanStatmnt -3." -Assert.ExpRsp *** he didn't get me." Di9u7ba3 dy4dau4 E7fi3 foi -4 du7be7 *** like_that *** tell -Tel.Inc but Diuma told Epi like that but,
E7fi3 da9ki3 bi8bay -4 ae2 *** well hear -Tel.Inc without Epi not listening,
be8sy9 bv8 fe -8 be8du7 belonging_to arrive_there -Rlz.Dur when arrived there anyway when,
E7fi3 dui9 da -9 y -4. *** by-a-pig injure -Tot.Pun Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp Epi was attacked by the pig.
Dy8 Di9u7ba3 au7 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 ay and *** he SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis
-4 -incomplete And then, Diuma said.
" Ty7da7y3 da9 dy4sy7 y -7 day3." people! you_(pl) shouldn't cry -Tot.Inc don't *** "People, don't cry (for him)."
Di9u7ba3 a7se9 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -9.
113 *** SeqMkr; like_that word speak -Tot.Pun Diuma said like that.
Dy8 ty7 v4 a7se9 and person thoughts SeqMkr; And people said to themselves,
" Ay8. okay "Right.
By7by9 correct That's true. to6 so7dy 4 y -7 ae -7 du7be7 not(CntrExp) *** Statmnt -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis that He's not lieing in that di9 da9ki3 bi8bay -4 ae -7 da -3 de3 you_s. well hear -Tel.Inc not -Establish_irrealis known_that -Establish_as_Rlzd since...was because you didn't listen well to him, di9 dy8 dui9 da -9 y -4." you_s. therefore by-a-pig injure -Tot.Pun ExplanStatmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp *** you were attacked by the pig."
Ty7 a7se9 fa3fu7 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -9 person SeqMkr; all like_that word speak -Tot.Pun ay -4. Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -incomplete All the people said like that.
Dy8 Des9 ba7bv9 ba4 y -9 ay and *** this right_here/there say -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis
-4 -incomplete And Des said there at that place,
" Ty7 i8si4 dy4dau -4 de -7 -y9 person grown do_like_that -Tel.Inc stative -Establish_irrealis -Nomnlzr "For grown/big people like he is du9 davy7 di -8 de -9 wild_pig far_away_place shoot -Rlz.Dur stative -Establish_as_fact to shoot pigs from far away da9ki6 y -4. is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp would be good.
Ty7 ko4du8 by7by9 du7be7 person small it's_only_...that For the smaller ones du9 foe4-7 di -8 a9 wild_pig be_temporarily_at_the_edge_of shoot -Rlz.Dur generally/customarily...
-e9 Nominlz to shoot them from up close da9ki6 y -4." is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp *** is alright."(ie younger boys are more agile to escape)
Des9 a7se9 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 *** SeqMkr; word like_that speak -Tot.Inc and-then Des said words like that and then,
" Ay8. okay "Right,
By7by9. correct It's true.
To6 so7dy4 y -7 ai -9 y3." not(CntrExp) lie -Tot.Inc not -Tot.Pun reply *** He's not lieing."
114
Ty7 a7se9 fa3fu7 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -9. person SeqMkr; all word like_that speak -Tot.Pun They all said words like that.
A7se9 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; like_that word speak -Tot.Inc and-then They all said words like that and then,
E7fi3 a7se9 vy-3 be7 *** SeqMkr; *** SCCjand/after taking/picking up Epi,
da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. bring house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun they took him home.
7.3.5 Nominalized Clauses And Cohesion Nominalized clauses both topicalize and are referential in narrative. In narrative discourse are used to give setting information, to mark the theme and topical action framework for the narrative and to identify participants in terms of thematic events or characteristics. Each of these functions acts as a cohesive device. Nominalized clauses establish a reference point for the rest of the discourse (settings, action frameworks, topicalized proposition) or they referring back to an earlier plan of action, an offstaged eventline or the thematic peak for comment. Nominalized clauses also are used to establish in settings a temporal or circumstantial framework within which the events of the following eventline occur. An example of a temporal framework is given in the first clause of the example for adverbial subordinate clauses below. A9 u6 ko4du8 be -7 di-8 -y9 I before small When I was small , y8 V8e8di7 by6 be -7-8 di -9 -y9 we *** downstream is/are -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur Bounded.Realis -Establish_as_fact -Nomnlzr when we were downstream at Wedi a9 boi9 o8sy9 Bvy8ta7sui8 be7 da8 di9 du -8 I older_sibling my *** NMkrOb carry -food go around -RlzdCurrentRelevant sa -7 be - 9 -e9 eat -Tot.Inc Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -Establish_as_fact -Nominlz when I was taken by my older brother Buita8sui to go steal food, bv6 bi8fa -7 se -5. I speak -Tot.Inc intention -Tel.Pun I am going to tell (about that). The nominalized clauses above provide the temporal, locational and topical action framework and participant identification for the rest of the story. Everything that follows relates back to this framework. The following is an example of use of nominalized clause to reactivate an offstaged eventline and join the eventlines of the two groups of participants once more. By using the thematic action “go for sago” as a reference point for the participants involved, the eventline and the participatns are reactivated and the temporary eventline and the former eventline are brought together into one. Da8 su -6 da8dv9 sky dry_up -Res.Pun and-then It was the next day and then, a7se9 Av8si7 be7-8de3 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 be7-8de3 SeqMkr; Av8si7 and(also) Ti8bo8ti7vs8 and(also) a4 bv8ke7 tv9 bv8 i -9 father _be_with/accompany sago(starch/palm) for go -Tot.Pun Ausi, Timotius and father went to get sago Eventline split –New eventline dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 A8fo8di7vs8 y8 bo4 a7se9 ui -7 i -4. therefore we_two_(incl.) A8fo8di7vs8 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; house -given_loc go -Tel.Inc so then, we two, Apodius (and I), we two stayed in the house. Ui -7 i -4 da8dv9 house -given_loc go -Tel.Inc and-then We stayed in the house and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 foi -5. we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun we two said to each other, " Y8 a7se9 kaf7 taui -7 be7-8 we SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm taui -Tot.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr "Making some bows, ty7 bo4 y8 di -8 ba -5." they_two we hit -Rlz.Dur let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade lets go shoot those other two."
115 Ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -5 word like_that speak -Tel.Pun We said words like that dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 kaf7 o -9. therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Pun so then we two got bows A7se9 kaf7 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; bow/betel_palm get -Tot.Inc and-then We got bows and then, a7se9 i -9. SeqMkr; go -Tot.Pun we went. I -7 da8dv9 go -Tot.Inc and-then We went and then, REJOING OFFSTAGED EVENTLINE ty7 tv9 bai -6 -e9 person sago(starch/palm) bai -Res.Pun -Nominlz the ones who were pounding the sago, doe -9. see -Tot.Pun we saw them. The following is an example of a nominalized narrative theme statement used in the discourse title to establish the discourse theme at the outset. Au8du8e9 Ba9 Words About Being Angry. The following is a nominalized narrative theme statement used in the discourse used in the discourse closing to summarize the discourse theme. Si6 bvy -7 -e9 woman ask_for -Tot.Inc -Nominlz Asking for a wife ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -Res.Pun that's all the words about that.
8.0 Participants
8.1 Participant Marking In Iau Participants in Iau narrative discourse are marked by three strategies, by placing them in the LDP ( left dislocated position.), by marking them with focus marker as being the clause predication, or by referencing them through name, general noun, pronoun, nominalized clause or by zeroing them.
In LDP Nouns are placed in the LDP to introduce them, to topicalize them or to reactivate them. The following example illustrates a participant introduced in the LDP. See highlighting below. The pronouns “I” and “we” with added ID about who “we” is. A9 da8du7 si6 bvy -7 ae -7 da8dv9 I at_first _wife ask_for -Tot.Inc not and-then Before I had asked for a wife (Lit I in the beginning had not asked for a wife and then, y8 bo4 boi9 o8sy9 Di9u7ba3 ty7 we_two_(incl.) older_sibling my Di9u7ba3 person a7se9 av8 foi -4-7 se -5 SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Inc+Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact My older brother Diuma were going to tell each other (who we wanted as wife) The following is an example of a participant topicalized in the LDP after being introduced in the clause. A9 a7se9 a6ty9 bv8ke7 be5 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; mother also/and fish_trap for go -Tot.Inc and-then I went with my mother to check a fish trap and then, a6ty9 sa4 be5 bi -7 da8dv9 mother SimltCntrst fish_trap acquire -Tot.Inc and-then mother got the fish trap and then, The following is an example of a participant being reactivated after being sidelined to another location and another action framework for a few clauses.
116 a9 be3di9e8 oi7-8 a5 si -7 be8du7 I later hand ground push_on -Tot.Inc when I, after (she left) was crawling when, by3 i8 bv6 sa -8 be8du7 corpse bone I eat -Rlz.Dur when I ate (ie put in my mouth) a human bone and when, a6ty9 be8 a7se9 a9 fi5 o -7 da8dv9 mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; me take_from, take -Tot.Inc and-then my mother took it from me and then,
Marked With Cleft Construction Nouns are marked with a cleft construction focus marker to emphatically predicate them –often for contrast or to mark summary statements as illustrated below. Doe -7 ae -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis and-then They couldn't find him and then, fi4au7 be7si -7 du7be7 very/always leave -Tot.Inc but they left him (didn't look anymore) but,\ bai3 ka6di8 be7 du7be7 moon many is/are -Tot.Inc that many months passed but, ty7 bi7si9 Ba3kv3si6 o8sy9 by7by9 du7be7 person one *** from it's_that_that... it was a man from Bakusi who by4 doe -9 ay -4. by_him see -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -will_be(estblsh) saw /found him.
Marked With Be Noun Marker To Predicate ID And Case Role The be focus markers are used to predicate the role of the noun relative to the discourse topical participants props and thematic events. In the following example the mother is reactivated and marked with an agent causative be8 marker at the point where she discovers the topical NP ,the dead person’s bone her baby is chewing on and takes it away. She is causative agent acting on the bone and her baby, taking the bone away. by3 i8 bv6 sa -8 be8du7 corpse bone I eat -Rlz.Dur when I ate (ie put in my mouth) a human bone and when, a6ty9 be8 a7se9 a9 fi5 o -7 da8dv9 mother NMkrAg SeqMkr; me take_from, take -Tot.Inc and-then my mother took it from me and then, In the following narrative segment the be7 marker is marking secondary participants who do not act directly on the thematic participants but are part of a backgrounded initial eventline describing the events leading into it. The people from Bie/Biri are agents who act on the secondary background eventline topic. This background role is predicated by the tone 7 be7 marker. Ba9 ba7bv9 word this_one These words, a6ty9 I6dvs8 be8sy9 ty7 Bi7e9 be7 u6 di -9 da7be8 mother I6dvs8 belonging_to person Bi7e9 NMkrOb first kill -Tot.Pun because(given_info) Because Idus mother had first been killed by some Bie people, ty7 bvy -7 be8 person grieving_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj mourning that, people ty7 Fu3ta9 o8sy9 ty7 a7se9 bv8 di -9 be7-8 person Fu3ta9 from person already because_of kill -Tot.Pun SqPreReqSClMkr killing some people from Huta be7si9 bi -3 leave_behind arrive -Tot.Dur left and came (back) here, The following example the topical NP is marked by be4 as the instrument used to act on /make the pig trap. Be4 predicates a means –instrument /material –product relationship. Tav3 u8 ba7 ty7 u6 tav3 be4 da -3 -e9 pig_trap tree old/ancient person before pig_trap used_for put_down_on -Tot.Dur -Nominlz An old pig trap that someone had put there before,
117 8.2 Participant Tracking Topicalized NP’s are zeroed in subsequent clauses after being topicalized. However under certain conditions they are be rementioned. Names, kin relationships, pronouns, generic references and nominalized clauses can be used to individuate, reactivate or disambiguate participants on quote margins, to predicate case role relative to topical participant.
Zeroed The norm is to zero the topic. This is in an example below where there are two topical participants doing the same thing through out the story. At the end of the story, some observer participants come into the story in order to give evaluative reactions to the story. In most of the clauses the participants are zeroed, not mentioned in any way.
Ty7 bo4 Des8 Daud they_two Des8 Daud Two people, Des and Daud a7se9 SeqMkr; fvy5 sui -9 be7-8 into_the_vehicle enter_into -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr getting into the plane, Bu3di3 a5 i -9. Bu3di3 land go -Tot.Pun went to Mulia. I -7 da8dv9 go -Tot.Inc and-then They went and then, fv7 a7se9 bay5 bau -6 canoe/plane SeqMkr; give, go_down -Res.Pun the plane dropped down. dy4da8dv9 bi8 au7 be7 bau -4 de7 therefore chair he located-in be_seated -Tel.Inc the_ones_where so then, the chairs in which they were sitting a7se9 dv4ui -9. SeqMkr carry they held them up. Au7 v4 dy4dau4 bi8fa - he thoughts like_that say -Tot.Pun They said like this to themselves, "A9 ba7bv9 i7 be -7 da8dv9 I this_one heavy is/are -Tot.Inc and-then "I am heavy and so, fv7 si9 bay2 bau -6 be -9 back_of_vehicle downwards go_down -Res.Pun Multpl.TerminBound.Realis - Establish_as_fact the plane's tail is dropping down." dy4da8dv9 bi8 au7 be7 bau -4 de7 therefore chair he located-in be_seated -Tel.Inc the_one_where so then, the chair in which they were sitting, a7se9 SeqMkr; dv4ui -9 be7-8 lift up -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr holding it up, da -8 i -9 carry -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Pun they carried it along. dy4da8dv9 a7se9 a9tai -6 da8dv9 therefore SeqMkr; a9tai -Res.Pun and-then so then, they landed and then, a7se9 av8 foi -5. SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun they said to each other, "Ty7da7y 3 y8 da6 bi -8 -y9 people! we now arrive -Rlz.Dur -Nomnlzr "Hey, when we were just now coming, fv7 si9 bay2 bau -6 de9 back_of_vehicle downwards go_down -Res.Pun since when the plane's tail dropped down, bi8 bv6 dv4ui -9 be7-8
118 chair I dv4ui -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr lifting up the chair, da -8 bi -8 a9sy3." carry -Rlz.Dur arrive -Rlz.Dur *** *** I arrived holding/carrying it." Ba9 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 word SeqMkr; like_that say -Tot.Inc and-then Words they said them like that and then, ty7 a7se9 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2. person SeqMkr; big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur they laughed hard. "Ba7bv9 sai7fo8 dy -4 to -9 " this_one for_no_purpose do_it/that -Tel.Inc CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp " "We did that for no purpose. (ie it did no good)." dy4da8dv9 ty7 fi4au7 au7 doe4 bi7sai -2. therefore person very/always he at laugh -Tel.Dur So then people really laughed at them. Bi8 dv4ui -7 -e9 chair dv4ui -Tot.Inc -Nominlz Holding up the chairs. ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -fact_now That's all the words about that. There is no need to disambiguate in the story since the main participants are doing the same thing. There are however a number of time below where the third person singular pronoun is used to refer to the participants as individuals. This will be discussed in the next section below.
Reactivate Participants are reactivated, that is explicitly rementioned, at peak events, after a stretch of text in which they are not participants or when there is more than one participant doing different things. The following segment from a myth about two brothers going hunting is an example. In the following segment the man the discourse topic is zeroed throughout the section until the local segment peak when all the participants are on stage and named by name, with the most topical participant, the man, referred to by pronoun. Also in the text below after a prop is not longer part of the action, it is rementioned by name to reactive it when it comes intor the action again. See especially the dog and the cassowary below. da7 a2 ay9. he put the dog down on the ground. A2 ay7 da8dv9 He put the dog down on the ground and. dai3 a7se9 bi7si9 avy3. the dog barked at a cassowary. Dai3 a7se9 avy8 da8dv9, The dog barked at a cassowary and so, dai3 a7se9 di3. he killed the cassowary. A7se9 di8 da8dv9, He killed the cassowary and so, a7se9 sae6 se5 he was going to cut it up , dy4da8dv9 and so bi8 a7se9 da9ki3 doe9. he saw a good place Offstage cassowary Dy4be7 And then dai3 a7se9 sae6. Then he cut up the cassowary. dai3 sae6 da8dv9, He cut up the cassowary and then, Introduce significant prop be8 bv8 a7se9 bui5. he cut down some logs for the fire.
119 Ta9di9 A tadi tree. Ta9di9 a7se9 bui4 da8dv9, He cut down a tadi tree and then, a7se9 fa8fvy3. he cut it up. I4de8 bv8ke7 kae9 bv8ke7 a7se9 o9. He took both the trunk and top part of the tree. A7se9 o7 da8dv9, He took it and, a7se9 be8 bv8 ba3. he used it for fire logs. LOCAL PEAK –bring all participants on stage Be8 bv8 ba8 da8dv9, He used it for fire logs and, dai3 a7se9 bay3. put the cassowary on the fire. Dai3 bay8 da8dv9 He put the cassowary on the fire and, da7 a7se9 u6 y7 bv8 i9. the dog had gone first to find water. Dy4be7 au7 sa4dy4 dai3 bay3. But he put the cassowary on the fire. Dy4be7 da7 a7se9 y7 sa8 da8dv9, Then, when the dog had drunk water, a7se9 ba9. she came (back). In the example above the sighting and killing of the cassowary is significant because this is the first game in the story that he can have all to himself, since formerly his older brother took everything. The dog going for water is significant because through it the man finds water, also while he is absent from his fire the fire logs turn into two sister who become his wives.
Reactivate By Pronoun In the story of holding up the chairs, above, the pronoun is used to mark the thematic relationship between the two men and the chairs they were sitting in as an ineffective relationship. Be7 marks secondary indirect and ineffective agentive relatinships as well as a number of peripheral relationships. The participants are rementioned using a pronoun as part of the role marking phrase. dy4da8dv9 bi8 au7 be7 bau -4 de7 therefore chair he located-in be_seated -Tel.Inc the_ones_where so then, the chairs in which they were sitting a7se9 dv4ui -9. SeqMkr carry In addition the pronoun is used to mark the participants in the quote margin. Au7 v4 dy4dau4 bi8fa - he thoughts like_that say -Tot.Pun They said like this to themselves, Finally the pronoun is used to mark the participants in the concluding outcome and evaluation. The people laugh at them. dy4da8dv9 ty7 fi4au7 au7 doe4 bi7sai -2. therefore person very/always he at laugh -Tel.Dur So then people really laughed at them. If however a pronoun is ambiguous then the name or a kin role or a nominalized clause identifying the participant by event or function is used. See next section below.
Reactivate By Name Or Kin Role Either names or kin terms or both are used to specifically identify the participants. The following is an example in which both are used together. y8 bo4 boi9 o8sy9 Di9u7ba3 ty7 we_two_(incl.) older_sibling my Di9u7ba3 person a7se9 av8 foi -4-7 se -5 SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Inc+Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact My older brother Diuma were going to tell each other (who we wanted as wife)
120 When a number of participants are involved and when they are acting on each other, names kin terms and pronouns are used to disambiguate as well as to reactivate and assert case roles relative to the topical participant. This is illustrated below from a short story about a little boy trying to steal food in the night but gets caught by his mother. a9 a7se9 da8fau6 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; get_dark and-then it was evening and then, a9 a7se9 tv9 bvy -7 be8 I SeqMkr; sago ask_for -Tot.Inc OvrlapSClCj while I asking for sago, a6ty9 fo9be8 y -7 du7be7 mother facing up cry -Tot.Inc but was crying looking up at my mother butMVClCj a9 a6ty9 be8 tv9 bay -4 ae2 I mother NMkrAg sago(starch/palm) give -Tel.Inc without my mother, not giving me any sago, fe6ka -7 da8dv9 fe6ka -Tot.Inc and-then slept and then, a9 a7se9 da8fai5 fe6si -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; night fe6si -Tot.Inc and-then I woke up in the night and then, tv9 a6ty9 be8sy9 bv6 sago(starch/palm) mother belonging_to I a7se9 du8 bv8 ui -7-3. SeqMkr; secretly for stand_up -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur I secretly got up to get mother's sago. Tv9 bv6 a7se9 fav -7 be8du7 sago(starch/palm) I SeqMkr; fav -Tot.Inc when I broke off some sago when, a9 a6ty9 be8 da7 ba -8 be8 I mother NMkrAg dog cause_become -Rlz.Dur OvrlapSClCj my mother, thinking a dog had come, di -8 be8du7 hit -Rlz.Dur when hit (me Topic prev Cl) and, a9 e -6 be8du7 I exclaim -Res.Pun when I cried out when, a6ty9 a7se9 di -6 be7-8 mother SeqMkr; startled -Res.Pun SqMnsSClMkr mother got startled, a7se9 a9 foi -5, SeqMkr; I ask -Tel.Pun said to me, " Di9 te7bv8 du -8 be -3?" you_s. what_reason go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd "What were you doing? /What were you after?" Fuller reference also tends to occur at peak as illustrated below from a story about a crocodile hunt. When they spot the crocodile they have been looking for , the participants after being zeroed are referred to explicitly again. dav2 i8si4ba7 bi7si9 doe -9 crododile big one see -Tot.Pun I saw a big crocodile. dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 Yo8si7a3 foi -5, therefore I SeqMkr; *** tell/-Tel.Pun so then, I said to Yosia, Names and titles are also used to individuate participant groups, when one of them comes into focus. In the following example two brothers take a dog out hunting. This is a myth that is generally known so the author does not even bother to mention the generic topic ‘two men’ at the beginning. They are zeroed from the start. The important thing about them is that one is the older brother (the bad guy) and one is the younger brother (the victim who turns the tables.) This information is introduced in the comment part of the second sentence, thus individuating the two men into two separate people. Their paths split off later in the story. They go along zeroed for a number of clauses, since they are both doing the same things together, until the start of the building of tension in the episode when younger brother makes a request and is refused. At that point they are individuated again and then zeroed again until the concluding action “He put it in his net bag” where the older brother is referred to by a pronoun. See the section above on pronouns. Dy8 a7se9 da8du7 u6 da7 da8 i9 And SeqMkr at first before dog take go And there were (two men) who took a dog out hunting.
121 a7se9 boi9 av4 bv8ke7 y3 av4 bv8ke7 da7 da8 i9. SeqMkr oldr bro the with yngr bro the with dog take go It was a older brother and a younger brother who took the dog hunting. Da7 da8 i7 da8dv9, dog take go and then They were hunting and, bv6ti9 a7se9 bi7si9 o9 a9 possum SeqMkr one get PkEventMkr They got a kuskus. Bv6ti9 a7se9 bi7si9 o7 da8dv9, possum SeqMkr one get and then They got a kuskus and so, y3 av4 a7se9 boi9 av7bv9 foi5, yngr brother SeqMkr older bro his tell the younger brother said to his older brother, Boi9 v6y5 bv6 o7 bay5." older bro ! I take give Older brother! I (want to) take it, give it (to me). a7se9 dy4dau4 bv8 bi3, SeqMkr like that to call He called that out to him, dy4da8dv9 a7se9 "A9 to6 dy4 ae7(?). and so SeqMkr I not do that no so (he said) "No, I won't. Ba7bv9 o8sy9 by5." this mine is This one is mine." A7se9 dy4dau4 be7 , SeqMkr do like that SubClCj (Saying) like that, au7 sv4 si6. he only put in bag he put it in his own bag. Dy4be7 e8ta8fau7 i9. And then again go So they went on again.
Generic References Or Nominalized Clause The specific identity of the participants is often considered immaterial in Iau stories. The participants are referred to as those two or by a thematic characteristic or event. This is true of all the characters in the following story. There are the two hunters referred to as “they two” and “the ones taking dogs out hunting” and “the ones bit by the wild pig” depending on what stage of the story they are referred to in. There is the boy “they took along with them ” There is the people in the house who are informed and go to help. There is “The man who has no feet /is crippled” and finally there is the man from Bakusi a neighboring village who finally finds him. The NP’s are zeroed if possible and re activated when the participant comes back into the action. Nominalized clauses are used to refer to people by their relationship to thematic actions, by their origins or by a physical characteristic. U6 dy4 -e8 before do_like_that -*** Before this/ in the past, ty7 bo4 be7 a7se9 da7 da -8 i -9. they_two NMkrOb SeqMkr; dog carry go-Tot.Pun two people took their dogs out hunting. Da7 da8 i -7 da8dv9 dog carry go -Tot.Inc and-then They took their dogs out hunting and then, du9 a7se9 bi7si9 dae7 avy -3. wild_pig SeqMkr; one by_a_dog bark_at -Tot.Dur the dogs barked at a wild pig. Dae7 avy -8 da8dv9 by_a_dog bark_at -Rlz.Dur and-then The dogs barked at a wild pig and then, REACTIVATE ty7 bo4 ba7bv9 a7se9 du9 di -7 da8dv9 they_two this SeqMkr; wild_pig shoot -Tot.Inc and-then those two shot the pig and then,
122 Reference At PEAK 1 ty7 bo4 da7 da8 i -7 a9 -e9 ba7bv9 they_two dog carry go -Tot.Inc be_...-ing+IndefEv/Prtc -Nominlz this the two who had taken their dogs hunting a7se9 dui9 sa -3. SeqMkr; by-a-pig bite were attacked by the pig . Ty7 bo4 a7se9 dui9 da -7 da8dv9 they_two SeqMkr; by-a-pig ate -Tot.Inc and-then The two were attacked by the pig and then, du9 a7se9 fi4au7 ba8day -3 . wild_pig SeqMkr; very/always flee -Tot.Dur *** the pig fled.
Du9 a7se9 ba8day -8 da8dv9 wild_pig SeqMkr; flee -Rlz.Dur and-then The pig fled and then, NEW PARTICIPANT ty7 ko4du8 ty7 a7se9 da -8 du -8 be -8 -y9 person small person SeqMkr; carry go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis - RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr a younger boy(s) that they had brought with them ba7bv9 a7se9 bi8 be8 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 this SeqMkr; news NMkrAg house to go -Tot.Inc and-then came back and brought news and then, NEW PARTICIPANT GROUP a7se9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 foi -5, SeqMkr; household tell -Tel.Pun he told the people in the houses. " Ty7da7y 3 ty7 bo4 da6 a9 be4 people! they_two now I NMkrInst "People, the two that just now da8 tv -9 -y9 dui9 da -9 y carry go_away'leave -Tot.Pun -Nomnlzr by-a-pig ate -Tot.Pun ExplanStatmnt -4." -NAssert.ExpRsp took me with them were attacked by a pig."\ dy4da8dv9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 a7se9 fa3fu7 i -9. therefore household already all go -Tot.Pun so then the people in the houses all went (to get them). Fa3fu7 i -7 da8dv9 all go -Tot.Inc and-then They all went and then, INTRODUCE THEMATIC PARTICIPANT ty7 bi7si9 e8 ai -6 -y9 person one lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr One man who is paralyzed (Lit has no feet, ie crawls) a7se9 be3di9 ty7 fai2 i -9. SeqMkr; later person follow go -Tot.Pun later followed them. Fai2 i -7 da8dv9 follow go -Tot.Inc and-then He followed them and then, au7 a7se9 be6 bv8 tai -9. he SeqMkr; path for search -Tot.Pun he lost the path. Be6 bv8 tai -7 da8dv9 path for search -Tot.Inc and-then He lost the path and then, be6 ae2 i -9. path without go -Tot.Pun He went on without a path. Be6 ae2 i -7 da8dv9 path without go -Tot.Inc and-then He went on without a path and then, e9fo6 ta -3. jungle sleep -Tot.Dur He slept in the jungle.
123 E9fo6 ta -8 da8dv9 jungle sleep -Rlz.Dur and-then He slept in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 ba7bv9 person by-a-pig *** this the ones who were attacked by the pig ty7 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 person already take -Tot.Inc and-then were taken by people and then, da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. carry house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun brought home. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 ba7bv9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr this fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -3. very/always jungle live_in -Tot.Dur And the paralyzed man stayed in the jungle. Fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -8 da8dv9 very/always jungle live_in -Rlz.Dur and-then He stayed in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 person by-a-pig ate -Tot.Pun -Nomnlzr the ones attacked by the pig ka9su6 a7se9 su -6. wound SeqMkr; dry_up -Res.Pun the wounds were healed. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr And the paralyzed man but, ty7 a7se9 bv8 tai -7 du7be7 person SeqMkr; for search -Tot.Inc but people looked for fi4au7 doe -7 ae5. very/always see -Tot.Inc not_at_all they couldn't find him. Doe -7 ae -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis and-then They couldn't find him and then, fi4au7 be7si -7 du7be7 very/always leave -Tot.Inc but they left him (didn't look anymore) but,\ bai3 ka6di8 be7 du7be7 moon many is/are -Tot.Inc that many months passed but, ty7 bi7si9 Ba3kv3si6 o8sy9 by7by9 du7be7 person one *** from it's_that_that... it was a man from Bakusi who by4 doe -9 ay -4. by_him see -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -will_be(estblsh) saw /found him. Ay8. okay Right. Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -Res.Pun That's all the words.
8.3 Participant Ranking And Introduction Participant ranking can be defined in terms of two parameters: global versus local and degree of topicality. The following text will be used to illustrate the various classes of participants. The various participants are highlighted. The thematic participant is both highlighted and marked in bold. Be6 Bv8 Tai7 Ba9 Words About Being Lost Sa8ke8di8a3 \genre Nar U6 dy4 -e8 before do_like_that -*** Before this/ in the past,
124 ty7 bo4 be7 a7se9 da7 da -8 i -9. they_two NMkrOb SeqMkr; dog carry go-Tot.Pun two people took their dogs out hunting. Da7 da8 i -7 da8dv9 dog carry go -Tot.Inc and-then They took their dogs out hunting and then, du9 a7se9 bi7si9 dae7 avy -3. wild_pig SeqMkr; one by_a_dog bark_at -Tot.Dur the dogs barked at a wild pig. Dae7 avy -8 da8dv9 by_a_dog bark_at -Rlz.Dur and-then The dogs barked at a wild pig and then, ty7 bo4 ba7bv9 a7se9 du9 di -7 da8dv9 they_two this SeqMkr; wild_pig shoot -Tot.Inc and-then those two shot the pig and then, ty7 bo4 da7 da8 i -7 a9 -e9 ba7bv9 they_two dog carry go -Tot.Inc be_...-ing+IndefEv/Prtc -Nominlz this the two who had taken their dogs hunting a7se9 dui9 sa -3. SeqMkr; by-a-pig bite were attacked by the pig . Ty7 bo4 a7se9 dui9 da -7 da8dv9 they_two SeqMkr; by-a-pig ate -Tot.Inc and-then The two were attacked by the pig and then, du9 a7se9 fi4au7 ba8day -3 . wild_pig SeqMkr; very/always flee -Tot.Dur *** the pig fled.
Du9 a7se9 ba8day -8 da8dv9 wild_pig SeqMkr; flee -Rlz.Dur and-then The pig fled and then, ty7 ko4du8 ty7 a7se9 da -8 du -8 be -8 -y9 person small person SeqMkr; carry go around -Rlz.Dur Multpl.TerminBound.Realis - RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr a younger boy(s) that they had brought with them ba7bv9 a7se9 bi8 be8 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 this SeqMkr; news NMkrAg house to go -Tot.Inc and-then came back and brought news and then, a7se9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 foi -5, SeqMkr; household tell -Tel.Pun he told the people in the houses. "Ty7da7y 3 ty7 bo4 da6 a9 be4 people! they_two now I NMkrInst "People, the two that just now da8 tv -9 -y9 dui9 da -9 y carry go_away'leave -Tot.Pun -Nomnlzr by-a-pig ate -Tot.Pun ExplanStatmnt -4." -NAssert.ExpRsp took me with them were attacked by a pig."\ dy4da8dv9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 a7se9 fa3fu7 i -9. therefore household already all go -Tot.Pun so then the people in the houses all went (to get them). Fa3fu7 i -7 da8dv9 all go -Tot.Inc and-then They all went and then, ty7 bi7si9 e8 ai -6 -y9 person one lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr One man who is paralyzed (Lit has no feet, ie crawls) a7se9 be3di9 ty7 fai2 i -9. SeqMkr; later person follow go -Tot.Pun later followed them. Fai2 i -7 da8dv9 follow go -Tot.Inc and-then He followed them and then, au7 a7se9 be6 bv8 tai -9. he SeqMkr; path for search -Tot.Pun he lost the path. Be6 bv8 tai -7 da8dv9 path for search -Tot.Inc and-then He lost the path and then,
125 be6 ae2 i -9. path without go -Tot.Pun He went on without a path. Be6 ae2 i -7 da8dv9 path without go -Tot.Inc and-then He went on without a path and then, e9fo6 ta -3. jungle sleep -Tot.Dur He slept in the jungle. E9fo6 ta -8 da8dv9 jungle sleep -Rlz.Dur and-then He slept in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 ba7bv9 person by-a-pig *** this the ones who were attacked by the pig ty7 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 person already take -Tot.Inc and-then were taken by people and then, da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. carry house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun brought home. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 ba7bv9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr this fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -3. very/always jungle live_in -Tot.Dur And the paralyzed man stayed in the jungle. Fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -8 da8dv9 very/always jungle live_in -Rlz.Dur and-then He stayed in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 person by-a-pig ate -Tot.Pun -Nomnlzr the ones attacked by the pig ka9su6 a7se9 su -6. wound SeqMkr; dry_up -Res.Pun the wounds were healed. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr And the paralyzed man but, ty7 a7se9 bv8 tai -7 du7be7 person SeqMkr; for search -Tot.Inc but people looked for fi4au7 doe -7 ae5. very/always see -Tot.Inc not_at_all they couldn't find him. Doe -7 ae -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis and-then They couldn't find him and then, fi4au7 be7si -7 du7be7 very/always leave -Tot.Inc but they left him (didn't look anymore) but,\ bai3 ka6di8 be7 du7be7 moon many is/are -Tot.Inc that many months passed but, ty7 bi7si9 Ba3kv3si6 o8sy9 by7by9 du7be7 person one *** from it's_that_that... it was a man from Bakusi who by4 doe -9 ay -4. by_him see -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -will_be(estblsh) saw /found him. Ay8. okay Right. Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -Res.Pun That's all the words. Since there is no global participant in this clause, global participants below will be illustrated from other texts.
126 Global Versus Local Participants The terms “global” versus “local” define the scope of the participants participation in the discourse. A global participant participates in all the main eventlines of the discourse. A local participant participates in only a segment of the discourse. Global participants are activated (/introduced) in the LDP (left dislocated position) of the clause at the beginning of the discourse. This is illustrated below. Both the participants are global participants. This is the opening sentence of the discourse. LDP Y8 bo4 Yo8si9a3 te7 u6dy4e9 we_two_(incl.) *** NMkr?? in_the_past The two of us, Yosia (and I) did this in the past, SPACER CLAUSE a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i -7 se -5 SeqMkr; land *** upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact (we) were going upstream to the place (called) Behae, Local participants are introduced in the discourse unit where they join the eventline. In the segment below from the text about the man getting lost, all the participants are actually local participants who only participate in the eventline for a short span. In the segment below the young boy is introduced only at the point where he acts for the benefit of the topical participants. Since he acts effectively with regard to them he is topicalized. The people in the house are introduced within the clause proper. They respond to the news and go look for him but never find him, so they are lower ranking participants. Du9 a7se9 ba8day -8 da8dv9 wild_pig SeqMkr; flee -Rlz.Dur and-then The pig fled and then, LDP ty7 ko4du8 ty7 a7se9 da -8 du -8 person small person SeqMkr; carry go around -Rlz.Dur be -8 -y9 ba7bv9 PstCont -RlzdCurrentRelevant -Nomnlzr this a younger boy(s) that they had brought with them SPACER CLAUSE a7se9 bi8 be8 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; news NMkrAg house to go -Tot.Inc and-then came back and brought news and then, SPACER CLAUSE a7se9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 foi -5, SeqMkr; household tell -Tel.Pun he told the people in the houses.
Topical Participants And The Topical Hierarchy Topical participants are participants that act in the main events of the discourse unit in which they are involved. Participants become more topical by participating in the main thematic events of the narrative or by interacting with topical participants. Participants are less topicaly if they only participate in peripheral events and with non topical participants and props. The most topical participants are be both activated and topicalized in the LDP. Less topical participants are be introduced within the clause and topicalized in an LDP later. The following is an example of topical participants both introduced and activated in the LDP. These participants are not global, in this discourse there are no global participants. But these are topical for the first section of the text and they also are spoken of at the end of the text. They introduced in the first LDP as the ranking topical participants in this section of the discourse. However they are marked with a be7 focus marker having a tone 7 which indicates they do not actually interact with or act on the themaic participant, a man who gets lost in the jungle, later in the story. U6 dy4 -e8 before do_like_that -*** Before this/ in the past, LDP SPACER CLAUSE ty7 bo4 be7 a7se9 da7 da -8 i -9. they_two NMkrOb SeqMkr; dog carry go-Tot.Pun two people took their dogs out hunting. The following is an example of the thematic participant in the same narrative introduced later in the discourse. He is part of the generic group “the people in the houses” who are told that two men have been attacked by a wild pig. He is introduced in an LDP as a partially known participant, but distinct participant fromthis group, now becoming topical. CLAUSE dy4da8dv9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 a7se9 fa3fu7 i -9. therefore household already all go -Tot.Pun so then the people in the houses all went (to get them).
127 Fa3fu7 i -7 da8dv9 all go -Tot.Inc and-then They all went and then, LDP ty7 bi7si9 e8 ai -6 -y9 person one lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr One man who is paralyzed (Lit has no feet, ie crawls) SPACER CLAUSE a7se9 be3di9 ty7 fai2 i -9. SeqMkr; later person follow go -Tot.Pun later followed them. Fai2 i -7 da8dv9 follow go -Tot.Inc and-then He followed them and then, au7 a7se9 be6 bv8 tai -9. he SeqMkr; path for search -Tot.Pun he lost the path. Lower ranking participants, ie non topical participants or only locally topicalized participants tend to be introduced in the clause internal position. The people in the houses, in contrast, in that same story are introduced within the clause. They are lower ranking participants in the story than the man who gets lost. They are later topicalized when they go to help the two men wounded by the pig. but only for a very short span of text. SPACER CLAUSE a7se9 bi8 be8 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; news NMkrAg house to go -Tot.Inc and-then came back and brought news and then, SPACER CLAUSE a7se9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 foi -5, SeqMkr; household tell -Tel.Pun he told the people in the houses. " Ty7da7y 3 ty7 bo4 da6 a9 be4 people! they_two now I NMkrInst "People, the two that just now da8 tv -9 -y9 dui9 da -9 y carry go_away'leave -Tot.Pun -Nomnlzr by-a-pig ate -Tot.Pun ExplanStatmnt -4." -NAssert.ExpRsp took me with them were attacked by a pig."\ dy4da8dv9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 a7se9 fa3fu7 i -9. therefore household already all go -Tot.Pun so then the people in the houses all went (to get them).
Thematic Participants In the text above about getting lost, the man who gets lost is the thematic participant. The thematic participant is the one who participates in the thematic eventline of the text. The thematic propositions in the narrative are about the thematic participant. The following is the portion of narrative about the thematic participant and the thematic proposition “Getting lost” dy4da8dv9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 a7se9 fa3fu7 i -9. therefore household already all go -Tot.Pun so then the people in the houses all went (to get them). Fa3fu7 i -7 da8dv9 all go -Tot.Inc and-then They all went and then, ty7 bi7si9 e8 ai -6 -y9 person one lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr One man who is paralyzed (Lit has no feet, ie crawls) a7se9 be3di9 ty7 fai2 i -9. SeqMkr; later person follow go -Tot.Pun later followed them. Fai2 i -7 da8dv9 follow go -Tot.Inc and-then He followed them and then, au7 a7se9 be6 bv8 tai -9. he SeqMkr; path for search -Tot.Pun he lost the path. Be6 bv8 tai -7 da8dv9 path for search -Tot.Inc and-then He lost the path and then,
128 be6 ae2 i -9. path without go -Tot.Pun He went on without a path. Be6 ae2 i -7 da8dv9 path without go -Tot.Inc and-then He went on without a path and then, e9fo6 ta -3. jungle sleep -Tot.Dur He slept in the jungle. E9fo6 ta -8 da8dv9 jungle sleep -Rlz.Dur and-then He slept in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 ba7bv9 person by-a-pig *** this the ones who were attacked by the pig ty7 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 person already take -Tot.Inc and-then were taken by people and then, da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. carry house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun brought home. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 ba7bv9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr this fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -3. very/always jungle live_in -Tot.Dur And the paralyzed man stayed in the jungle. Fi4au7 e9fo6 oe -8 da8dv9 very/always jungle live_in -Rlz.Dur and-then He stayed in the jungle and then, ty7 dui9 da -9 -y9 person by-a-pig ate -Tot.Pun -Nomnlzr the ones attacked by the pig ka9su6 a7se9 su -6. wound SeqMkr; dry_up -Res.Pun the wounds were healed. Dy8 ty7 e8 ai -6 -y9 and person lower_leg none -Res.Pun -Nomnlzr And the paralyzed man but, ty7 a7se9 bv8 tai -7 du7be7 person SeqMkr; for search -Tot.Inc but people looked for fi4au7 doe -7 ae5. very/always see -Tot.Inc not_at_all they couldn't find him. Doe -7 ae -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis and-then They couldn't find him and then, fi4au7 be7si -7 du7be7 very/always leave -Tot.Inc but they left him (didn't look anymore) but,\ bai3 ka6di8 be7 du7be7 moon many is/are -Tot.Inc that many months passed but, ty7 bi7si9 Ba3kv3si6 o8sy9 by7by9 du7be7 person one *** from it's_that_that... it was a man from Bakusi who by4 doe -9 ay -4. by_him see -Tot.Pun Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -will_be(estblsh) saw /found him. Ay8. okay Right. Ba9 be -7 ae -6. word is/are -Tot.Inc not -Res.Pun That's all the words.
129 Effective Versus Non-Effective Participants The participants in Iau narrative discourse can also be marked for effectiveness versus ineffectiveness. There are a group of particles used to mark effectiveness or ineffectiveness in Iau. The participants marked with te7 /ty7 are not effective. The following is an example. Words About Pig Traps. By Ananias Y8 a7se9 tav3 doe -7 se -5 we SeqMkr; pig_trap see -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact We were going to check our pig trap dy4da8dv9 a4 a7se9 To7bas3 bv8ke7 ba5sui -5. therefore father SeqMkr; To7bas3 also/and go_inland -Tel.Pun so then, father and Tomas both went into (the jungle). Ba5sui -4 da8dv9 go_inland -Tel.Inc and-then They went in and then, y8 bo4 Yo9si9a3 te7 sa4 be6 a9 i -9 we_two_(incl.) Yo9si9a3 NMkr?? SimltCntrst path another go -Tot.Pun We two Yosia (and I) we went on another path. In the narrative above, the speaker and Yosia find their trap empty, but when Tomas and father are away for a very long time, they speculate that it is because they found a pig in their trap which turns out to be the case. The unsuccesful participants are marked by the particle ‘te7’. The following is another example in a story by Ananias. Words About Having No Canoe By Ananias Y8 bo4 Yo8si9a3 te7 u6dy4e9 we_two_(incl.) *** NMkr?? in_the_past The two of us, Yosia (and I) did this in the past, a7se9 a5 Be7fae7 bui2 i -7 se -5 SeqMkr; land *** upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact (we) were going upstream to the place (called) Behae, dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 a7se9 o -9. therefore goggles SeqMkr; take -Tot.Pun And so, we got our underwater goggles. In this story the two brothers start out on the wrong foot by having no canoe, as indicated by the title. So they have to walk to their destination, by going along the river bank. They bring their underwater goggles to hunt along the way. When they see crocodile tracks they decide to get in the water and use their goggles. They get four turtles this way and then, Yosia’s goggles break and Ananias has to look for the pieces underwater. After that they go along, with only Ananias hunting. Not long after this Ananias sees a big crocodile. They try to spear it, but are unsuccessful and it gets away. They are so discouraged they don’t even look anymore for turtles. At the end of the story they see their father coming in his canoe and tell him how they missed spearing the crocodile. The story is in effect about their very bad day. Another participant marker that appears in some narratives is ‘dy7’. It appears to mark participants that are equally affected by the action, that is, action in which no one is a winner. Words About Playing By Ananias A9 u6dy4e8 I before-doing_it I, in the past, y8 bo4 Tav9bi4 dy7 fvy -6 be8du7 we_two_(incl.) *** *** bathe -Res.Pun when we two, Taubi (and I) were swimming when ae8 o8sy9 ta7 ta -7-8 de -9 sore my *do_in/at/on touch -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur stative -Establish_as_fact because he rubbed my sore, au7 bv6 be3di9e8 he I later I after that, y7 ta7 kay -4 e8 bay -7 be8du7 water do_in/at/on press_down_on -Tel.Inc foot place/put -Tot.Inc when held him under the water with my foot when, au7 to6 ka9su6 y7 be7 ba -6-3 to he nostril water NMkrOb come -ChStateRes.Pun-Tot.Dur CntraryToHearer -4. -NAssert.ExpRsp water got up his nose. Dy4be7-8 y8 bo4 fai9fa9ba4 de7 y -8 se9 ba -7-3 to9. and_then we_two_(incl.) in_same_way cry -Rlz.Dur CircSClCj come -Tel.Inc-Tot.Dur CntraryToHearer - Expectation Then, we two both went home crying. In the narrative above, the participants each injure the other. Taubi first rubs Benjamin’s sore, so Benjamin holds him underwater till he gets water up his nose. The result is they both go home crying.
130 In the next example, Benjamin and his friend Epi get into a fight while playing and are so mad they decide to shoot each other, but then find they cannot bring themselves to do it. They both end up going home crying. Words About What I Did When I Was Small By Benjamin A9 u6di8 y8 bo4 E7fi3 dy7 I once_in_the_past we_two_(incl.) *** doing_it I in the past it was we two, Epi (and I), av8 bo9bi -2 be8du7 play_together -Tel.Dur IntrptMVClCj we were playing and then, y8 bo4 a7se9 av8du -8 da8dv9 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; angry -Rlz.Dur and-then we two were angry and then y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 di -7 se5 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other shoot -Tot.Inc Assert intention we two were going to shoot each other dy4da8dv9 a7se9 av8 bv8 kaf7 o -7 du7be7 therefore SeqMkr; each_other for bow take -Tot.Inc but so then, we got our bows to get each other but, y8 bo4 a7se9 v4 te9ba -8 de -9 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; heart reluctant -Rlz.Dur stative -Establish_as_fact then because we changed our minds /didn't want to then, kaf7 y8 bo4 a7se9 a5 da -3 be7-8 bow we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; ground put_down_on -Tot.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr putting our bows down on the ground, y8 bo4 a7se9 y -8 ay-4 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; cry -began to we two began to cry. These are the only two examples of this particle in the database, but the meaning seems fairly clear from these two examples. See also the paper on Topics And Focus In Iau, the section on be markers for a discussion on how these are also used locally to mark effective versus ineffective participants. Verb tone aspect also plays a role in the marking of effective versus ineffective action.
Props Animals, houses, and the various things that are part of Iau stories are not treated much differently than participants. They are introduced at the point in the story where they enter the eventline. If they are the topic of the clause or a number of clauses they are introduced in the LDP. Non topical props are introduced as part of the clause comment. The following is a story about getting bit by a grasshopper. So the grasshopper is an important participant in the thematic eventline. A9 a7se9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 bv8ke7 be3ta9 du -3. I SeqMkr; Ti8bo8ti7vs8 _be_with/accompany be3ta9 walk -Tot.Dur I was walking around with Timotius. Be3ta9 du -7 da8dv9 Be3ta9 walk -Tot.Inc and-then I was walking around and then, ka3av9 a7se9 bi7si9 doe -9. grasshopper SeqMkr; one see -Tot.Pun a grasshopper. I saw one Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-then I saw it and then, a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; catch -Tot.Inc and-then I caught it and then, a9 a7se9 u6 y5 o8sy9 bay -5. I SeqMkr; before ear my place/put -Tel.Pun I first put it up to my ear. Bay -4 da8dv9 place/put -Tel.Inc and-then I put it to my ear and then, a9 y5 a7se9 sa -8 da8dv9 I ear SeqMkr; bite -Rlz.Dur and-then my ear it bit it and then, fi4au7 bavy -9. very/always sting -Tot.Pun my ear really hurt.
131 In the first person narrative the author is most topical and is introduced first along with his brother who is the victim of the both the author and the grasshopper. The grasshopper is introduced in an LDP with a perception orienter verb “I saw...” This is a common way to introduce topical animate props such as animals insects etc. In many stories the animals hunted are only part of a single episode in the story. The following is an example. The pig is introduced in the LDP with a verb of motion. Y8 bo4 e8ta8fau7 Sai8ta9 bui2 i -7 da8dv9 we_two_(incl.) again Sai8ta9 upstream go -Tot.Inc and-then We two again were going upstream to Saita and then, a9 a7se9 ba5sui -5. I SeqMkr; go_inland -Tel.Pun I went into (the jungle). Ba5sui -4 da8dv9 go_inland -Tel.Inc and-then I went in and then, a9 a7se9 be6 o -9. I SeqMkr; path take -Tot.Pun I blocked the path/hid in ambush (ie where the pig trail was) Be6 o -7 da8dv9 path take -Tot.Inc and-then I blocked the path and then, du9 a7se9 ba -9. wild_pig SeqMkr; come -Tot.Pun the wild pig came. Ba-7 da8dv9 Ba-7 and-then She came and then, bv6 a7se9 di -8 du7be7 I SeqMkr; shoot -Rlz.Dur but I shot at her but, be7fai -5 to_miss -Tel.Pun I missed. Many things, props, animals, food, weapons etc appear only briefly for a clause or two. These are introduced in the comment part of the clause. The props are unmarked, simply mentioned. The only one below introduced is the house, as the location where the next few events take place. dy4da8dv9 therefore so then y8 bo4 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 fvy5 sui -5. we_two_ SeqMkr; again into_the_canoe enter -Tel.Pun we two again got into the canoe. Fvy5 sui -4 da8dv9 into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Inc and-then We got into the canoe and then, a7se9 Sa6be7bi8 ui8 doe -9. SeqMkr; Sa6be7bi8 house see -Tot.Pun we saw the house at Sabebi. Ui8 doe -7 da8dv9 house see -Tot.Inc and-then We saw the house and then, ty7 Ba3kv3si6 o8sy9 a7se9 doe -9 person **** from SeqMkr; see -Tot.Pun people from Bakusi we saw some. dy4da8dv9 av7ta7 fi9dv5 ka6di8 be7 sa -3. therefore together fish many NMkrOb eat -Tot.Dur so then we ate lots of fish with them. Sa -8 da8dv9 eat -Rlz.Dur and-then We ate and then, y8 e8ta8fau7 fai9fa9ba7de7 ba -9. we again fai9fa9ba7de7 come -Tot.Pun we again came along with them.
8.2.1 Participant /Prop Activation in Iau Introducing or activating participants involves identifying and predicating them. In Iau nouns can be introduced, described, and identified using any of the NP predication devices in the language. Most often this is within the LDP
132 position of either topic –comment clauses or focus comment clauses. Nouns can also be introduced by placing them in the comment portion of the clause or by marking them with one of the be markers according to their role in the discourse unit. As we have seen whether they are introduced in the LDP or in the comment part of the clause has significance with respect to the topicality in the discourse segment. Lower ranking topics are often introduced within the clause rather than in the LDP and then after they are already given they are shifted to the LDP for the short time of their topicality.
Participant Introduction In The LDP In Iau narrative discourse global /main participants are often introduced in a left dislocated topic position in the sentence, which is bounded by or marked by the chronological sequence marking particle a7se9 as illustrated in the example below. Words About Wives By Ananias A9 a7se9 Fai9tav8 bay2 du -8 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; Fai9tav8 down go around -Rlz.Dur and-then I was down at Faitau and then, si6 a7se9 bi7si9 be7 a9 bvy -9. woman SeqMkr; one NMkrOb me ask_for -Tot.Pun a woman asked for me (as husband). A9 bvy -7 da8dv9 me ask_for -Tot.Inc and-then She asked for me and then, boi9 av4 a7se9 Fav8dvs7 foi -5. older_sibling his/her SeqMkr; Fav8dvs7 tell -Tel.Pun her older brother said to Paulus,
Participant Introduction Within The Comment Secondary participants are introduced within the clause proper rather than in the left dislocated position. In the example above in the last clause Paulus, the man the speaker was staying with is a minor participant in the story and is introduced within the clause. boi9 av4 a7se9 Fav8dvs7 foi -5. older_sibling his/her SeqMkr; Fav8dvs7 tell -Tel.Pun her older brother said to Paulus, The following is another example of a secondary participant introduced within the clause while the main participant is introduced in the left dislocated position. After his introduction the participant becomes a unit with the writer, referred to as “we two” A9 a7se9 Sai8ta9 bui2 i -7 se -5 I SeqMkr; Sai8ta9 upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact I was going to go upstream to Saita dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 A8des8 foi -5 therefore I SeqMkr; A8des8 tell -Tel.Pun so then I said to Ades. " A8des8 v6y3 a9 bui2 i -7 se -5 A8des8 v6y3 I upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact "Ades I am going to go upstream di4du7be7 ty7 ai -6 to -5." but person ai -Res.Pun CntraryToHearer -Assert.HrResis.Persuade but I have no one (to go with me.) dy4da8dv9 A8des8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 therefore A8des8 SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then Ades said, " A9 ba -7 se -5." I come -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact "I will come." ` dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 i -9. therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; go -Tot.Pun so then we two went. Participants introduce withint the clause comment section can then be shifted to the LDP for topicalization when appropriate. The following is an example, the enemies as a generic participant are introduced in the clause comment. Then topicalized in the following sentence, a shift from right to left. A7se9 dy4dau7 av8 foi -4 be7-8 SeqMkr; dy4dau7 each_other tell -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Saying like that to each other, tui2 bv8 tv9. someone_killed/murdered for has_left/gone they went to kill. Dy4be7-8 tui2 ty7 a7se9 be4dy4 be9sy9 and_then victim people SqMkr as_a_result inevitably
133 di -4 be7-8 kill -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Then, killing in revenge, si6 da8be3 so6 ko4du8 fa3fu7 vy -3 woman including/even child small all vy -Tot.Dur be7-8 SqPreReqSClMkr taking all the women and the children, da -8 bi -3. carry -Rlz.Dur arrive -Tot.Dur they brought them here.
Participant Introduction In The Comment With Bv8ke7 The following is another example of a minor participant introduced within the clause proper rather than in the left dislocated position. A9 a7se9 a6ty9 bv8ke7 be5 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; mother also/and fish_trap for go -Tot.Inc and-then I went with my mother to check a fish trap and then, Note that in the example above, the secondary participant, a minor participant in the story is introduced in the main clause marked by an accompaniment marker “bv8ke7” ‘with/and’. In this type of participant introduction, the participants are secondary and may not be part of the main action or all of it. Mother is going to get her fish trap, but her son, the narrator is going to do something entirely different while his mother is busy with her fish trap. What the son does is the real story, so he is marked in the left dislocated position as a main character, while the mother is peripheral. The following is another example of a secondary participant introduced in a secondary position in the clause. In this case the secondary participant Timotius does participate in the action but he is a secondary victim. The main participants are the author and the grasshopper, both introduced in the left dislocated topic position as opposed to Timotius who is introduced within the clause proper. Words About A Grasshopper By Ananias. A9 a7se9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 bv8ke7 be3ta9 du -3. I SeqMkr; Ti8bo8ti7vs8 _be_with/accompany be3ta9 walk -Tot.Dur I was walking around with Timotius. Be3ta9 du -7 da8dv9 Be3ta9 walk -Tot.Inc and-then I was walking around and then, ka3av9 a7se9 bi7si9 doe -9. grasshopper SeqMkr; one see -Tot.Pun I saw a grasshopper.
8.2.2 Participant /Prop Identificational Information In Iau identificational and descriptive information can be done within the noun slot in LDP’s or within the clause. One way is to juxtapose the topic phrase and the predicational /equative phrase Another way is to predicate an attribute or a quantity about the LDP topic, within the clause proper in what looks like a split noun phrase. A third way is to put the atributes in the NP itself. Iau NP’s have the order HEAD followed by modifiers. See the paper on Topics And Focus In Iau for additional non narrative examples.
ID In The LDP Of A Topic Comment Clause The left disclocated position in the clause one of the places where identificational and descriptive information can be predicated. It is used to predicate identificational and descriptive information about topical participants. The following are various ways of predicating names in the LDP . Example 1 ty7 o7su4 Fo6bi4 a7se9 a9 foe6 bay2 be4 fe6ka -7 da8dv9 person name Fo6bi4 SeqMkr; I bottom downwards AdvMkr sleep -Tot.Inc and-then a person named Fobi was sleeping down near my backside and then, Example 2 \tx Ty7 bo4 Des8 Daud a7se9 fvy5 sui -9 be7-8 \gl they_two Des8 Daud SeqMkr; into_the_vehicle enter_into -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr \fte Two people, Des and Daud getting into the plane,
\tx Bu3di3 a5 i -9. \gl Bu3di3 land go -Tot.Pun \fte went to Mulia.
Often a number of participants who act as a group are introduced by a noun phrase -the pronoun we plus a number identifying how many people “we” includes. If the identity of these participants is also being predicated, the speaker is left implicit and only the others are specifically names as illusted below. Example 1 \tx y8 bo4 boi9 o8sy9 Di9u7ba3 ty7 a7se9 av8 foi \gl we_two_(incl.) older_sibling my *** person SeqMkr; each_other tell
134 \tx -4-7 se5 \gl -Tel.Inc+Tot.Inc intend_to \fte My older brother Diuma were going to tell each other (who we wanted as wife)
Example 2 \tx Y8 baui7-8 be7 E7fi3 Ti7vs8 bv8ke7 y8 a7se9 fe6ka -4 de8 \gl we three PredNInfoPartialGivn *** *** also/and we SeqMkr sleep -Tel.Inc had(stative) \fte we three, Efi, Tius (and I) we were/had been sleeping
The following example not only identifies the participant by name but also by kin relationship. \tx A9 da8du7 si6 bvy -7 ae7 da8dv9 \gl I at_first wife ask_for -Tot.Inc have_not_yet and-then \fte Before I had asked for a wife (Lit I in the beginning had not asked for a wife and then,
\tx y8 bo4 boi9 o8sy9 Di9u7ba3 ty7 a7se9 av8 foi \gl we_two_(incl.) older_sibling my *** person SeqMkr; each_other tell
\tx -4-7 se5 \gl -Tel.Inc+Tot.Inc intend_to \fte My older brother Diuma were going to tell each other (who we wanted as wife)
The following illustrates using a NP that is placed in the LDP to predicate adjective attributes. Additional identificational information is given in the nominalized clause. Du9 a7se9 ba8day -8 da8dv9 wild_pig SeqMkr; flee -Rlz.Dur and-then The pig fled and then,
LDP : NP + Nominalized Clause ty7 ko4du8 ty7 a7se9 da -8 du -8 be8 -y9 ba7bv9 person small person SeqMkr; carry go around -Rlz.Dur PstCont NowRelev. –Nomnlzr this a younger boy that they had brought with them
a7se9 bi8 be8 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 this SeqMkr; news NMkrAg house to go -Tot.Inc and-then came back and brought news and then,
\tx a7se9 ty7 ui8 o8sy9 foi -5, \gl SeqMkr; household tell -Tel.Pun \fte he told the people in the houses.
ID In The LDP Of A Focus Clause Predicating information about an NP in a focus LDP is more common in non narrative discourse, but there are a few examples in the narrative database. The sentence below predicates that the sago was pig trap sago, that is sago used a bait for a pig trap. dy4da8dv9 tv9 du7be7 tav3 tv9 therefore sago Focus Mkr pig_trap sago(starch/palm) a sago tree ( for bait for) a pig trap, y8 a7se9 bi7si9 be7 bui -5 de8 we SeqMkr; one NMkrOb cut_down -Tel.Pun had(stative) when we had cut down one The following example shows an NP –Head plus modifier, in a focus LDP marked by by7by9 du7be7 Ty7 ko4du8 by7by9 du7be7 person small it's_only_...that It’s only the smaller ones that du9 foe4-7 di -8 a9 -e9 wild_pig close to shoot -Rlz.Dur customarily... –Nmlzr da9ki6 y -4." is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp *** should shoot wild pigs up close, alright?."(ie younger boys are more agile to escape)
ID In The Clause /Comment The appositional or predicated ID information can also be introduced within the clause as illustrated in the examples below. The second example is within a nominalized clause. Example 1 a9 a7se9 boi9 o8sy9 foi -5, I SeqMkr; older_sibling my tell -Tel.Pun I said to my elder brother,
Example 2 a9 boi9 o8sy9 Bvy8ta7sui8 be8 da8 di9 du -8 sa -7 be9 -e9 I older_sibling my *** IDCsAg take - food go around –Res.Dur eat -Tot.Inc PstMultpl.-Nominlz when I was taken by my older brother Buita8sui to go steal food,
\tx bv6 bi8fa -7 se -5.
135 \gl I speak -Tot.Inc intention -Tel.Pun \fte I am going to tell (about that).
8.2.3 Reactivating Participants And Props Participants can be reactivated in any of the ways participants are introduced. In the example below “the two people /those two” have been deactivated during the focus on the willd pig whom the dogs find and bark at. “They two ” are reactivated in an LDP plus a deictic . U6 dy4 -e8 before do_like_that -*** Before this/ in the past, ty7 bo4 be7 a7se9 da7 da -8 i -9. they_two NMkrOb SeqMkr; dog carry go-Tot.Pun two people took their dogs out hunting. Da7 da8 i -7 da8dv9 dog carry go -Tot.Inc and-then They took their dogs out hunting and then, du9 a7se9 bi7si9 dae7 avy -3. wild_pig SeqMkr; one by_a_dog bark_at -Tot.Dur the dogs barked at a wild pig. Dae7 avy -8 da8dv9 by_a_dog bark_at -Rlz.Dur and-then The dogs barked at a wild pig and then, REACTIVATE ty7 bo4 ba7bv9 a7se9 du9 di -7 da8dv9 they_two this SeqMkr; wild_pig shoot -Tot.Inc and-then those two shot the pig and then, Reference At PEAK 1 ty7 bo4 da7 da8 i -7 a9 -e9 ba7bv9 they_two dog carry go -Tot.Inc be_...-ing+IndefEv/Prtc -Nominlz this the two who had taken their dogs hunting a7se9 dui9 sa -3. SeqMkr; by-a-pig bite were attacked by the pig
See also the section 4.9 on multiple eventlines. See also the section on the use of the be maker in narrative discourse.
9.0 Speech Events, Quotes And Dialogues In Iau In Iau narrative there are multiple ways of using and referring to speech acts. Speech acts can be used as in Iau narrative to initiate thematic proposals, illustrate and present thematic problems, mark thematic outcomes and resolutions. Speech acts also highlight thematic relationships between participants, give evaluative comments on the eventline and on participants, give eventline summaries, give reasons, grounds, purposes and explanations of various kinds. In Iau myths they are even used as thematic openings and closings for the eventline. Speech acts can be encoded in Iau narrative as single quotes, as dialogues or as verbs referring to specific kinds of speech acts (refuse, laugh at, search for). Quotes and dialogues in Iau narrative can be either marked by generic quote margin verbs (say tell respond) and deictics or they can be unmarked.
9.1 Marking And Embedding Of Quotes On Eventlines The following illustration shows two quotes taken from Iau narrative discourse segments, one marked by a quote margin and and the other unmarked. MARKED QUOTE Dy4 a7se9 ty7 I7a9dai5 boe8 du7be7 doe4 av3. And we offered someone from Iyadai but, he refused it.
"A9 to6 sa8 ai4 y3. "I won't eat it.
Au7sy9 sa4 be3di9 bv8 tai7 da8dv9 sa7 sa9 y3." At some future time we will hunt for ours and, we will eat that."
A7se9 ba9 by7 dy4dau4 bi8fa9. He said words like that.
UNMARKED QUOTE A7se4 doe7 da8dv9 We looked at it and then,
“To8 by7by9 by5
136 it was the pig (we came for).
"Y8 e8 kae7 ba5." "Let's tie up its feet."
dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 fa3fu7 ba5sui5. so then, we all went in (after it).
When unmarked by quote margins, the quote /speech act sentences are embedded in the narrative sentence structure as parts of medial verb clauses or compound sentences as illustrated by the example above.. The sentence structure is diagrammed below. COMPOUND QUOTE SENTENCE Medial Verb Clause LinkingClause A7se4 doe7 da8dv9 We looked at it and then,
Independent Clause 1 (Slot filled by 2 quote sentences) Quote S1 “To8 by7by9 by5. it was the pig (we came for).
Quote S2 "Y8 e8 kae7 ba5." "Let's tie up its feet."
Compound Sentence Conjunction dy4da8dv9 so then,
Independent Clause 2 y8 a7se9 fa3fu7 ba5sui5. we all went in (after it).
The following is an example of a unmarked quote embedded in a medial verb clause. Fvy5 sui4 da8dv9 We got into the canoe and then, ke8fa8da7 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa9 the headman said, "Ty7da7y3 bei7 de8 dy3." da8dv9 "People, wait." so then (medial verb clause conjunction), a7se9 bai7 de9. we waited. When quotes are marked by quote margin verbs, the quote margin can occur preceding the quote, following the quote or as a sandwich both preceding and following the quote, as illustrated below. QUOTE MARGIN PRECEDING THE QUOTE Fvy5 sui4 da8dv9 We got into the canoe and then,
ke8fa8da7 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa9 the headman said,
"Ty7da7y3 bei7 de8 dy3." da8dv9 "People, wait." so then,
a7se9 bai7 de9. we waited.
QUOTE MARGIN FOLLOWING THE QUOTE Ty7 o7su4 a7se9 taui7 da8dv9 y8 a7se9 fv7 bv8 tai9. The next day we wrote down people's names again and then began to look for a canoe.
"Y8 by6 i7 a9e8 fv7 ai6 y7." y8 a7se9 dy4dau4 ty7 foi5. "We don't have a canoe to go downstream in," we said to the people.
di4du7be7 ty7 fi4be8 ki8da8 ae5. But no one responed.
A SANDWICH QUOTE MARGIN Dy4 y8 v4 be7 dy4dau4 bi8fa9 and we said to our selves,
"Y8 di8 ba3?" "Are they going to kill us?"
Y8 v4 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa9. We said to ourselves like that.
137
Quote margins can be independent clauses or medial verb clauses as illustrated below. Tv9 ka6di8 be7 doe7 da8dv9, When he saw lots of sago,
"Ay8, a9 ba9 be7 ui8 davy7 se5." "Okay, I will build a house here."
Au7 v4 a7se9 dy4dau7 da8dv9, He thought to himself like that and,
dy4da8dv9 tv9 bui5, and then he cut down sago trees,
tv9 bai6 a9, and pounded the sago.
9.2 The Role Of Quotes In Iau Narrative Quotes in Iau narrative are used for thematic proposals, presenting thematic problems, marking thematic outcomes and resolutions, giving evaluative comments on the eventline and on participants, giving eventline summaries, giving reasons, grounds, purposes and explanations of various kinds. In Iau myths they are even used as thematic openings and closings for the eventline.
9.2.1 Thematic Proposals The following segment from the short story about Having No Canoe the encoding of thematic proposals in quotes. The first quote initiates the global eventline of the narrative, hunting a crocodile whose tracks they have sighted. The second quote initiates a ‘meanwhile’ eventline. As they hunt the crocodile they also hunt and get turtles. Also the second quote illustrates a quote being used to state a thematic problem. Except for the title “Having no canoe” the clause “Since we have no canoe” is the only place where the thematic circumstance for the narrative is given. Since they had no canoe they had to go on foot through the water, which brought about the hunt of both crocodile and turtles.
TEXT: Having No Canoe y8 bo4 a7se9 o2 i7 da8dv9 we went along on the sandbar and then, dav2 e8 a7se9 doe9. we saw crocodile tracks. dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa9, so then, we two spoke words. "Te8be7 be4? "Where is it? Bui2 i7 be8 Did it go upstream? by6 tv9 be4? or perhaps it went downstream? Y8 bo4 a7se9 bai6 sui7 se5." We are going to get into the water." dy4da8dv9 fe6 ai8 a7se9 fai9taui9. so then, we got our underwter goggles ready. "Y8 fv7 ae6 se9 "Since we have no canoe, y8 bo4 A9da7 bv8 bi8 be4 praying to God, sui8 i7 ba5." let's get into the water and go on." dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 A9da7 bv8 bi3 so then, I prayed dy4da8dv9 a7se9 fe6 ai8 o7 da8dv9 so then, we put on our goggles and then, kei9 bv8 tai7 se9 i9. we went looking for turtles.
9.2.2 Thematic Problems And Resolutions We saw in the preceeding example a quote being used to emphasize a thematic problem already introduced in the title of the discourse. The following is another example of a thematic problem introduced by a quote. In this narrative about the establishment of their village and the changes that came to them with the arrival of the evangelist, the thematic problem is that they want to follow the evangelist’s teachings but they still have one revenge killing outstanding that they are reluctant to give up. The thematic problem and the solution are given in two quotes that encode a short dialogue. Dy4be7-8 so7 a7se9 be8 bae -8 da7be8 and_then 8 tree SeqMkr; tall have/has_become -Rlz.Dur because(given_info) Then, because the so tree had become tall,
ty7 a7se9 be4dy4 av8 foi -9
138 person SeqMkr; as_a_result each_other tell -Tot.Pun they because of that said to each other,
" Ty7da7y3 a4 I6dus8 be8sy9 y8 bv8 tui2 di -9 ae -4 du7be7 people! father I6dus8 belonging_to we because_of kill_in_battle -Tot.Pun not -planned/still but "People, we haven't killed in revenge for Idus father, but,
ku8du8 ba -7 to -4." preacher come -Tot.Inc CntraryToHearer -NAssert.ExpRsp the teachers have come." (teaching that they should not get revenge anymore)
A7se9 dy4dau4 av8 foi -4 a3. SeqMkr; like_that each_other tell -Tel.Inc PstHab They said like that.
Dy4 a7sy9 dy4dau4 foi -5 then already like_that tell -Tel.Pun So then, they said like this,
" Ty7da7y3 tui2 bi7si9 ba7bv9 y8 di -4 be7-8 people! someone_killed/murdered one this_one we kill -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr "People, killing someone in revenge,
A9da7 ba9 o -7 ba -5. " God word receive -Tot.Inc let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade " let's receive God's word."
A7se9 dy4dau7 av8 foi -4 be7-8 SeqMkr; dy4dau7 each_other tell -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr Saying like that to each other,
tui2 bv8 tv9. someone_killed/murdered for has_left/gone they went to kill. We saw in the preceeding example both a thematic problem statement and a themaric resolution proposal given in quote form. The following narrative illustrates a thematic problems statement and a report of the resolution in quote form. i3 a7se9 doe -9. crayfish SeqMkr; see -Tot.Pun we saw a crayfish.
Doe -7 da8dv9 see -Tot.Inc and-then We saw it and then,
bv6 a7se9 o7di7 o -9. I SeqMkr; by/with_hand catch -Tot.Pun I caught it with my hand.\
O -7 da8dv9 catch -Tot.Inc and-then I caught it and then,
a9 oi7-8 a7se9 i8ki -9 I hand SeqMkr; pinch -Tot.Pun it pinched/grabbed my hand.
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 A8des9 foi -5, therefore SeqMkr; A8des9 tell -Tel.Pun so then, I said to Ades,
" A9 oi7-8 o8sy9 i3 sa -8 ay -3." I hand my crayfish bite -Rlz.Dur Multpl.InitiallyBound.Realis -Establish_as_Rlzd "The crayfish is biting my hand."
dy4da8dv9 A8des9 a7sy9 ui -7-8 be7-8 therefore A8des9 already stand_up -Tel.Inc-Res.Dur SqPreReqSClMkr so then, Ades standing up,
a9 bv8 ba -9 I to come -Tot.Pun came to me.
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 au7 foi -5, therefore I SeqMkr; he tell -Tel.Pun so then I said to him,
" Bv6 a7se9 fo -4 y -3." I SeqMkr; fo -Tel.Inc RspStatmnt -Assert.RspActivated "I have already gotten it loose."
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2
139 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur so then we two laughed hard.
9.2.3 Thematic Outcomes The following segment from the end of a narrative about what happens when a child dies and comes back to life again, shows a quote marking thematic outcome, by repeating it in the words of the particiants Ba7 da8dv9, (He) came back and,
a7se9 fe6si6. he woke up/came to life.
A7se9 fe6si6 a9 y9. He came to life.
Dy4dau4 be7 bi8fa9. It is said like that. The following example shows a quote giving the final outcome of a crocodile hunt as a proposal which is then executed by the participants Y8 ui8 bv8 i -7 da8dv9 we house to go -Tot.Inc and-then We went to our house and then,
Fai9tav8 foi -5, *** tell -Tel.Pun We told the Faitau (people),
" Da9 da8 su -6 da8dv9 you_(pl) sky dry_up -Res.Pun and-then "When it gets light, you
dav2 ta9 bv8 ba -7 ka7 dy -8." crododile meat for come -Tot.Inc ImpIntns do_it/that -Assert.ExpRspASAP come to get some crocodile meat."
Dy4dau9 foi -4 da8dv9 do_like_that tell -Tel.Inc and-then We told them like that and then,
be7si -9 leave -Tot.Pun left them.
dy4da8dv9 Fai9tav8 a7se9 da8su6 ba -7 da8dv9 therefore Fai9tav8 SeqMkr; in_the_morning come -Tot.Inc and-then so then, the next day the Faitau people came and then,
dav2 ta9 o -9. crododile meat take -Tot.Pun they got some crocodile meat.
Dav2 ba9 by7 ae -6. crocodile words that's_the_one_that not -Res.Pun That's all the words about crocodiles.
Quotes can also be used to predict thematic outcome. Y8 bo4 a7se9 ui8 bv8 i -7 du7be7 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; house to go -Tot.Inc but We two went home but,
ty7 bo4 fi4au7 ba8sy9 ba -7 ae -5 they_two very/always quickly,soon come -may/could_be not -Assert_NPres_Fact they other two took a long time coming,
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then we two said,
" Ty7 bo4 du9 be -4 se9 they_two wild_pig is/are -Tel.Inc since "Since those two have got a pig,
ba8sy9 ba -7 ai -9 y -3." quickly,soon come -Tot.Inc not -Establish_as_fact ExplanStatmnt -Assert.RspActivated they are taking a long time coming."
Y8 bo4 a7se9 av8 foi -4 be7-8 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr We two telling each other,
140 av -5 de -7 da8dv9 quiet -Tel.Pun stative -Tot.Inc and-then we were just quiet (ie waited) and then,
ty7 bo4 a7se9 du9 by3 da -8 ba -9 they_two SeqMkr; wild_pig dead_body carry -Rlz.Dur come -Tot.Pun those two brought back a dead pig.
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 v4 bv8 dui -8 da8dv9 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; thoughts because_of shake -Rlz.Dur and-then so then we two were happy and then,
bo9ka -9. congratulate -Tot.Pun we congratulated them.
9.2.4 Conclusions: Eventline Summaries And Evaluative Comments The following shows how a final quote is used to summarize the participants viewpoint of what happens when one has no canoe. The title of the narrative is Words About Having No Canoe. The eventline is about a trip up river, wading, swimming and hunting as they go along. They have underwater goggles which they use to catch turtles and look for the crocodile until the goggles break. In their view in spite of the turtles they caught it was a disappointing discouraging day. Final Segment 3 dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 dav2 therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; crododile
bv8 v4 fe7 be -7 da8dv9 because_of heart not_good is -Tot.Inc and-then so then, we two felt bad about the crocodile and then,
kei9 bv8 du -8 ae -5. turtle for go around -Rlz.Dur not -Assert_NPres_Fact we didn't hunt turtles (anymore).
Fo8 sui -8 i -9. nonpurposeful enter_into -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Pun We just went along in the water.
Y8 bo4 a7se9 sui -8 i we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; enter_into -Rlz.Dur go
-7 da8dv9 -Tot.Inc and-then We two went along in the water and then,
a4 fv7 a7se9 bui2 be -7 da8dv9 father canoe/plane SeqMkr; upstream is -Tot.Inc and-then father's canoe came from upstream and then,
doe -9 see -Tot.Pun we saw it.
dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 a4 foi -5, therefore we SeqMkr; father tell -Tel.Pun
so then we told our father,
" Dav2 y8 bo4 bi7si9 o -7 crododile we_two_(incl.) one catch -Tot.Inc
be8du7 when "We two were catching a crocodile when,
tv -9 y -9." go_away'leave -Tot.Pun Statmnt -Assert.NRsp *** he got away."
Dy4dau4 a4 foi -5. like_that father tell -Tel.Pun We told father like that. The following shows an eventline summary given by the participants which in turn is the basis for evaluative comments by bystanders. This story was told as an example of a funny story. The quote summarized the part of the story that is funny and the evaluative comment explains why it is funny.
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 a9tai -6 da8dv9 therefore SeqMkr; a9tai -Res.Pun and-then so then, they landed and then,
141
a7se9 av8 foi -5. SeqMkr; each_other tell -Tel.Pun they said to each other,
" Ty7da7y 3 y8 da6 bi -8 -y9 people! we now arrive -Rlz.Dur -Nomnlzr "Hey, when we were just now coming,
fv7 si9 bay2 bau -6 de9, back_of_vehicle downwards go_down -Res.Pun since when the plane's tail dropped down,
bi8 bv6 dv4ui -9 be7-8 chair I dv4ui -Tot.Pun SqMnsSClMkr lifting up the chair,
da -8 bi -8 a9sy3." carry -Rlz.Dur arrive -Rlz.Dur *** *** I arrived holding/carrying it."
Ba9 a7se9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 word SeqMkr; like_that say -Tot.Inc and-then They said words like that and then,
ty7 a7se9 i8si4ba7 be4 bi7sai -2. person SeqMkr; big AdvMkr laugh -Tel.Dur they laughed hard.
" Ba7bv9 sai7fo8 dy -4 to -9 " this_one for_no_purpose do_it/that -Tel.Inc CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp " "They did that for no purpose. (ie it did no good)."
dy4da8dv9 ty7 fi4au7 au7 doe4 bi7sai -2. therefore person very/always he at laugh -Tel.Dur So then people really laughed at them.
9.2.5 To Introduce And Close An Entire Eventline The following example is from a series of myths about what happens when people die. This story opens and closes with a quote margin, making the entire eventline in effect a quote. Story Opening Dy4 ty7 bi7si9 a7se9 ba9 u6dy4e9 dy4dau8 be7 bi8fa9. And in former times someone said like this.
a6ty9 av7bv9 a7se9 u6 sui9-3. His mother had already passed into (the world of the dead)...... (remaining eventline)
Eventline (not givenf)
Story Closing tx Y8 a7se9 su4 da8dv9, When we died and,
fe6si6 a9 y9 by7by9 du7be7 bi8fa9. came to life it's what was said.
9.2.6 Reasons, Grounds, Explanations For Events The following narrative segment illustrates a quote used to give explanatory information about the eventline events. The quote tells why the man did not fight back when others threatened to shoot him. a7se9 au7 a7se9 ty7 bo4 av8 fa9si3 bi4 ae5. he did not threaten the two men with his drawn bow in exchange (ie when they threatened him).
sa4 av5de9. He just kept still.
"A9 fe7 be4 taui9 a9 y9." because (he said to himself) "I have done wrong."
dy4da8dv9 sa4dy8 av5 de4. therefore he just kept still.
9.3 The Grammatical Form Of The Quote And It’s Relationship To Function The specific function of a quote or a dialogue is marked by the grammatical form in which it occurs. Quotes marked with quote margins have a higher level discourse function than quotes with no quote margins which tend to be local in function. A quote margin both preceding and following the quote or a double quote margin marks speech events of global significance. Quote margins consisting of independent verb clauses have a higher discourse level function
142 than those consisting of medial verb clauses. The tone on the speech event verb, like tone on other verbs in the narrative indicates the role of the speech event in the tension contour of the narrative. For example, in the narrative above, the second speech event has no quote margin, It is the second speech event that initiates the secondary eventline of the narrative, the turtle hunt. The first speech event marked by an independent verb quote margin, contains a proposal initiating the primary eventline, the hunt for the crocodile. Also at the end of the story, a quote marked before and after by independent verb quote margins, serves as a thematic summary of the primary eventline, the crocodile hunt. This is shown below. Y8 bo4 a7se9 sui -8 i -7 da8dv9 we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; enter -Rlz.Dur go -Tot.Inc and-then We two went along in the water and then, a4 fv7 a7se9 bui2 be -7 da8dv9 father canoe/plane SeqMkr; upstream is -Tot.Inc and-then father's canoe came from upstream and then, doe -9 see -Tot.Pun we saw it. dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 a4 foi -5. therefore we SeqMkr; father tell -Tel.Pun so then we told our father, "Dav2 y8 bo4 bi7si9 o -7 be8du7 crododile we_two_(incl.) one catch -Tot.Inc when "We two were catching a crocodile when, tv -9 y -9." go_away'leave -Tot.Pun Statmnt -Assert.NRsp *** he got away." Dy4dau4 a4 foi -5. like_that father tell -Tel.Pun We told father like that.
9.4 Dialogues
9.4.1 Grammatical Encoding Of Dialogues Dialogues in Iau narrative can be narrated with each unit as an independent sentence or sentence cluster, or whole dialogues can be embedded in a sentence as shown below. DIALOGUE NARRATED IN INDIVIDUAL SENTENCES I6 a7se9 u8 fui4 da8dv9, (the boy's) head hit the wall and INITIATING COMMENT au7 a7se9 di6 a9. He was startled. "Y9 ty7 du9 di4 be7 by5 aui8 a3 y3." "Oh its the people who have killed a pig and are drumming on the tree roots. COUNTER-COMMENT dy4da8dv9 a7se9 fvy6 ba7bv9 ba9 bi8fa9, so the boy said, "Bai6e3, a9 i6 du8be7 u8 fui4 be8 y3." "No it's not, it was my head that hit the wall." A7se9 dy4dau8 y7 da8dv9, He answered like that and EMBEDDED DIALOGUES Fe6ka4 de7 da8dv9 They were asleep and then, THEMATIC SPEECH EVENT a7se9 ty7 be7 foi5 we told them, DIALOGUE PASSING ON THE MESSENGERS’ NEWS "Ty7da7y3" "People!" dy4da8dv9 "Da9 te7bv8 bi3?" so then "What have you come for?" dy4da8dv9 "Y8 by3 bi8 da8 bi8 y3." so then "We bring news of a death/dead person." DIALOGUE CONFIRMING NEWS CONTENT Dy4dau7 da8dv9 (We said) like that and then, a7se9 "Ty7 be7 sui4 y3." (they said) "The person has died." dy4da8dv9 "By7 sui4 y3." so then, "Yes he has died." DIALOGUE CONCERNING A NEED THEY HAVE
143 Dy4 "Te7bv9 i9 a4?" Then, "Why /For what are you going?" dy4da8dv9 "Y8 to8 bv8 i9 a9 y9." so then, "We are going to get a pig (for the funeral)." dy4da8dv9 a7se9 "Y8 i7 se5 so then, "We are going to go, di4du7be7 y8 fv7 ae6 to9." but we have no canoe." dy4da8dv9 fv7 Kaf be8sy8 a7se9 bi7si9 bav9bay9. so then, we were given permission to use one of Kaf's canoes. "Fv7 bi7si9 be4 du7be7 "There is one canoe but, tv9i8 ae6 be9? maybe there are no paddles. I6 da9 doe7 dy3.” just look and see." dy4da8dv9 y8 a7se9 bv8 bai6. so then we went in. Note in the example of embedded dialogues above, that the segments of dialogue are organized in sentences, according to a common purpose. The first dialogue sentence consists of three units, the call (from outside the house), the response, and the message to be passed on. The second dialogue sentence consists of the part of the dialogue where the recipients request confirmation that they have understood the message correctly. The third dialogue sentence is about the next leg of the messenger’s journey, their request for a canoe. and the granting of the request. This last dialogue sentence about a new topic is marked by the higher level conjunction dy4 indicating what follows is the next point /next subject addressed in the dialogue.
9.4.2 Functions Of Dialogue In Iau Narrative Dialogues are conversational exchanges embedded in the eventline of the discourse or in some cases serving as the eventline. Since dialogues consist of a minimum of two quotes they are inherently longer than single quotes and single eventline events. The effect is to to slow down the action and focus attention on or highlight the thematic points they are making. Dialogues are used for many of the same functions as quotes. They present discourse problems and initiate thematic eventlines. They mark thematic outcomes, summarize the eventline and make evaluative comments on it and on the participants in a more highlighted form.
9.4.2.1 Presenting Discourse Problems The following is an example of how dialogue can be used to present the discourse problem without saying it in so many words. In this narrative, the older brother is being mean to his younger brother by vetoing every request and suggestion. This is presented by a sequence of dialogues between the older and younger brother as follows. Dialogue 1 dy4da8dv9 tv -9 du7be7 therefore go_away'leave -Tot.Pun but so then, we went but,
tav3 tv9 y8 a7se9 bi7si9 be7 bui -5 de8 pig_trap sago(starch/palm) we SeqMkr; one NMkrOb cut_down -Tel.Pun had(stative) when we had cut down a sago tree for the trap bait,
a9 a7se9 boi9 o8sy9 foi -5, I SeqMkr; older_sibling my tell -Tel.Pun I said to my elder brother,
" Boi9 v6y5 tv9 fi4tai9 bv6 tav3 be4 ay older_sibling *** sago(starch/palm) source I pig_trap NMkrInst place
-7 di -7 y -3." -Tot.Inc Bounded.Realis -hypothetical Statmnt -Assert.ExpRsp *** "Elder brother, I would like to make a pig trap with the top of the sago tree if I could."
A9 a7se9 dy4dau4 boi9 o8sy9 foi -4 du7be7 I SeqMkr; like_that older_sibling my ell -Tel.Inc but I asked my elder brother like that but,
boi9 o8sy9 a7se9 av -8 a3 older_sibling my SeqMkr; refuse_to_do -Rlz.Dur was/has_been...-ing my elder brother refused.
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 fe7su -9. therefore I SeqMkr; feel_sorry/deprived -Tot.Pun so then, I felt bad.
Dialogue 2 Tav3 u8 ba7 ty7 u6 tav3 be4 da -3 -e9 pig_trap tree old/ancient person before pig_trap used_for put_down_on -Tot.Dur -Nominlz An old pig trap that someone had put there before,
144
bv6 a7se9 sa4 i3 fvy -4 be7-8 I SeqMkr; SimltCntrst vine cut -Tel.Inc SqPreReqSClMkr I cutting the vine on it,
tv9 a7se9 di -4 be7-8 sago(starch/palm) SeqMkr; hit -Tel.Inc SqMnsSClMkr and striking into the sago tree,
fa7 bv6 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 (sago)_grub/larva I SeqMkr; get -Tot.Inc and-then I got some grubs and then,
boi9 bv6 a7se9 foi -4 a3 older_sibling I SeqMkr; tell -Tel.Inc was/has_been...-ing I asked my older brother,
" Boi9 v6y5 fa7 ba7bv9 y8 sa4dy4 sa -8 older_sibling *** (sago)_grub/larva this we urge_to eat -Rlz.Dur
be3." perhaps; *** "Elder brother, can we eat these sago grubs?"
Bv6 a7se9 dy4dau4 foi -4 du7be7 I SeqMkr; like_that tell -Tel.Inc but I asked him like that but,
boi9 a7se9 a9 foi -5, older_sibling SeqMkr; me tell -Tel.Pun my older brother said to me,
" Fa7 di9 dy4sy7 o -7 day3. (sago)_grub/larva you_s. shouldn't take -Tot.Inc shouldn't "Don't take those sago grubs.
Fa7 e9fo6 toe -2 dy -3." (sago)_grub/larva jungle throw -Tel.Dur do_it/that -Assert.ExpRsp *** Throw them away in the jungle."
A7se9 dy4dau4 a9 foi -4 da8dv9 SeqMkr; like_that me tell -Tel.Inc and-then He said like that to me and then,
fa7 bv6 a7se9 e9fo6 toe -2 da8dv9 (sago)_grub/larva I SeqMkr; jungle throw -Tel.Dur and-then I threw away the sago grubs and then,
tav3 bv6 a7se9 ay -9 a9 pig_trap I SeqMkr; place -Tot.Pun Nar:initiateResponseS I set the trap. The following is another example of the use of dialogue to highlight a discourse thematic concern that underlies all the stories about going to the house of the dead, the fear of the river that has to be crossed. A7se9 fv7 bai6 da8dv9, He lands the canoe and then,
ai6 o8sy9 a7se9 foi5, I tell my crosscousin,
"Y7 ai7bv9 tui4 be7 to4." "That water is dangerous."
A9 dy4dau8 foi4 da8dv9, I tell him like that and then,
au7 ba7bv9 a7se9, he (says),
"Ba6-3 di9 dy4sy7 i8ba8 day3. "No, you shouldn't be afraid.
Y8 sa4dy8 i7 se4. Let's just go.
Di9 dy4sy7 tui4 be8 y8 da3 day3. You shouldn't say that it is dangerous.
Ba7bv9 sa4 fe8di7 be9 y4. It's safe (Lit weak).
Y8 sa4dy8 dai6 ba5. Let's cross (the river).
145
To6 fe7 ba7 ai9 y3." It's not bad at all."
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 fvy5 sui4 da8dv9, so then, we get into the canoe and then,
du9 a7se9 fa3fu7 dai3 a7se9 fa3fu7 a9 bv8ke7 fvy5 sui5. all the wild pigs and all the cassowaries get into the canoe with me.
9.4.2.2 Initiating A Thematic Eventline The following is an example of a dialogue that initiates the thematic eventline. This is a strategy used especially in travel narratives, both long and short. A9 a7se9 Sai8ta9 bui2 i -7 se -5 I SeqMkr; Sai8ta9 upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact I was going to go upstream to Saita
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 A8des8 foi -5 therefore I SeqMkr; A8des8 tell -Tel.Pun so then I said to Ades.
" A8des8 v6y3 a9 bui2 i -7 se -5 A8des8 v6y3 I upstream go -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact
"Ades I am going to go upstream
di4du7be7 ty7 ai -6 to -5." but person ai -Res.Pun CntraryToHearer -Assert.HrResis.Persuade but I have no one (to go with me.)
dy4da8dv9 A8des8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 therefore A8des8 SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then Ades said,
" A9 ba -7 se -5." I come -Tot.Inc intention -Assert_NPres_Fact "I will come."
` dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 i -9. therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; go -Tot.Pun so then we two went.
9.4.2.3 Thematic Outcomes Like single quotes, dialogues can be used to highlight outcomes. In the following hunting story, the hunters shot at but missed the mother pig and she got away, but they caught her baby. The author highlighted the catching of the baby pig with dialogue as a redeeming feature of the hunt that looked previously like it would not have a good outcome. du9 so6 av7bv9 a7se9 ba -9. wild_pig offspring its SeqMkr; come -Tot.Pun a young piglet came.
Ba -7 da8dv9 come -Tot.Inc and-then It came and then,
a9 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 I SeqMkr; catch -Tot.Inc and-then I caught it and then,
A8des9 foi -5 A8des9 tell -Tel.Pun I told Ades
" A8des9 v6y5 so6 av7bv9 bv6 sv4 bi -9 y -9 " A8des9 v6y5 offspring its I by_self acquire -Tot.Pun Statmnt -Assert.NRsp " "Ades, I only got her baby piglet."
dy4da8dv9 A8des9 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 therefore A8des9 SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then Ades said,
" Ay8 da9ki6 y -4. okay is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp "That's alright.
So6 av7bv9 y8 sa4dy4 o -7 ba -5." offspring its we go_ahead take -Tot.Inc let's -Assert.HrResis.Persuade
146 Let's take her child then."
A8des9 ba9 a7se9 dy4dau7 bi8fa -9 A8des9 word SeqMkr; dy4dau7 say -Tot.Pun Ades said words like that.
dy4da8dv9 y8 bo4 a7se9 e8ta8fau7 fvy5 sui -5. therefore we_two_(incl.) SeqMkr; again into_the_canoe enter_into -Tel.Pun so then, we two again got into the canoe.
9.4.2.4 Summarizing Eventlines And Making Evaluative Comments The following is an extensive closing dialalogue that summarizes the eventline of a narrative about someone getting attacked by a wild pig and reiterates community values and opinions about the proper way to do things. Dy8 Di9u7ba3 au7 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 ay4 and *** he SeqMkr; word speak -Tot.Pun begin -Incomplet And then, Diuma said.
" Ty7da7y3 da9 dy4sy7 y -7 day3." people! you_(pl) shouldn't cry -Tot.Inc don't *** "People, don't cry (for him)."
Di9u7ba3 a7se9 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -9. *** SeqMkr; like_that word speak -Tot.Pun Diuma said like that.
Dy8 ty7 v4 a7se9 and person thoughts SeqMkr; And people said to themselves,
" Ay8. okay "Right.
By7by9 correct That's true.
to6 so7dy 4 y -7 ae -7 du7be7 not(CntrExp) *** Statmnt -Tot.Inc not -Establish_irrealis that He's not lieing in that
di9 da9ki3 bi8bay -4 ae -7 da -3 de3 you_s. well hear -Tel.Inc not -Establish_irrealis known_that -Establish_as_Rlzd since...was because you didn't listen well to him,
di9 dy8 dui9 da -9 y -4." you_s. therefore by-a-pig injure -Tot.Pun ExplanStatmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp *** you were attacked by the pig."
Ty7 a7se9 fa3fu7 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -9 ay4 person SeqMkr; all like_that word speak -Tot.Pun begin&continue -Incomple All the people said like that.
Dy8 Des9 ba7bv9 ba4 y -9 ay4 and *** this right_here/there say -Tot.Pun begin&continue -Incompletive And Des said there at that place,
" Ty7 i8si4 dy4dau -4 de -7 -y9 person grown do_like_that -Tel.Inc stative -Establish_irrealis -Nomnlzr "For grown/big people like he is
du9 davy7 di -8 de -9 wild_pig far_away_place shoot -Rlz.Dur stative -Establish_as_fact to shoot pigs from far away
da9ki6 y -4. is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp would be good.
Ty7 ko4du8 by7by9 du7be7 person small it's_only_...that For the smaller ones
du9 foe4-7 di -8 a9 wild_pig be_temporarily_at_the_edge_of shoot -Rlz.Dur generally/customarily...
-e9 Nominlz to shoot them from up close
147 da9ki6 y -4." is_good Statmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp *** is alright."(ie younger boys are more agile to escape)
Des9 a7se9 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 *** SeqMkr; word like_that speak -Tot.Inc and-then Des said words like that and then,
" Ay8. okay "Right,
By7by9. correct It's true.
To6 so7dy4 y -7 ai -9 y3." not(CntrExp) lie -Tot.Inc not -Tot.Pun reply *** He's not lieing."
Ty7 a7se9 fa3fu7 ba9 dy4dau4 bi8fa -9. person SeqMkr; all word like_that speak -Tot.Pun They all said words like that.
A7se9 dy4dau4 ba9 bi8fa -7 da8dv9 SeqMkr; like_that word speak -Tot.Inc and-then They all said words like that and then,
E7fi3 a7se9 vy-3 be7 *** SeqMkr; *** SCCjand/after taking/picking up Epi,
da8 ui8 bv8 tv -9. bring house to go_away'leave -Tot.Pun they took him home.
9.4.2.5 Highlighting Functions Of Dialogue In the series of myths about what happens when people die, dialogues are used in several of the stories for highlighting kin relationships of high significance to the Iau. The following is an example. Fe8 da8dv9, I appear and then,
ty7 u6 sui9-8 e9 a7se9 a9 bv8 bi3, The peo0ple who have died before (me) call over to me,
"Di9 ty7-8 boe4 v8?" "Who are you?"
A7se9 dy4dau4 y7 da8dv9, They say like that and then,
a9 a7se9 bi3, I call out,
"A9 boe4 y8." "It's me."
dy4da8dv9 ai6 o8sy9 a7se9 be3di9e8 a9 bv8 bi3, so then, my crosscousin later call to me,
"Di9 boe4 by8." "It's you!."
dy4da8dv9 ai6 o8sy9 a7se9, so then, my crosscousin,
"Y9 ai6 o8sy9 du7be7 bi3 ay3. "It's my cousin who has just arrived.
A9 bv8 i7 se5." I'm going to get him."
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 fay8 su3 be7 o9 a9, so then, he puts on crown pigeon feathers,
9.4.2.6 Tension Building Functions Of Dialogue Dialogues can be used to build or heighten the tension in a narrative. In the following narrative the author is moving step by step towards his goal of getting his brother to put a grasshopper up to his ear so he will get bit like the author was. The following is a segment of dialogue used to heighten the tension.
148 Bi8o8kay -7 da8dv9 suppress_news -Tot.Inc and-then I didn't say anything and then,
a7se9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 foi -5. SeqMkr; Ti8bo8ti7vs8 tell -Tel.Pun I said to Timotius,
" Ti8bo8ti7vs8 v6y5 ka3av9 ba7bv9 bv6 y5 bay -4 da8dv9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 v6y5 grasshopper this I ear place/put -Tel.Inc and-then "Timotius I put this grasshopper to my ear and then,
da7 so6 fai9fa9ba4 de7 tui7 sa -8 to -9. dog child in_same_way breast drink -Rlz.Dur CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp it was just like a little puppy drinking from its mother's breast.
Bi4 av7bv9 fi4au7 da9ki6 y -4." tooth its very/always is_good ExplanStatmnt -NAssert.ExpRsp His teeth (feel) really good."
Dy4dau9 foi -5. do_like_that tell -Tel.Pun I told him like that.
Dy4dau4 foi -4 da8dv9 like_that tell -Tel.Inc and-then I told him like that and then,
Ti8bo8ti7vs8 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9. Ti8bo8ti7vs8 SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun Timotius said,
" Di -4 be -3?" " did_occur -Tel.Inc perhaps -Assert.ExpRsp "Is that right?"
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9 therefore I SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then, I said,
" Di -9 y -3." did_occur -Tot.Pun RspStatmnt -Assert.ExpRsp "Yes."
dy4da8dv9 Ti8bo8ti7vs8 a7se9 o -7 da8dv9 therefore Ti8bo8ti7vs8 SeqMkr; take -Tot.Inc and-then so then Timotius took it and then,
y5 av7bv9 bay -5. ear his place/put -Tel.Pun he put it to his ear.
9.4.2.7 Dialogues As Narrative Eventlines In some narratives most of the narrative consists of a dialogue between the participants. The following is an example. After the initiatl setting, the eventline begins with a speech act verb “a woman asked for me (as husband)”. The remainder of the eventline is dialogue. si6 a7se9 bi7si9 be7 a9 bvy -9. woman SeqMkr; one NMkrOb me ask_for -Tot.Pun a woman asked for me (as husband).
A9 bvy -7 da8dv9 me ask_for -Tot.Inc and-then She asked for me and then,
boi9 av4 a7se9 Fav8dvs7 foi -5. older_sibling his/her SeqMkr; Fav8dvs7 tell -Tel.Pun
her older brother said to Paulus, \com Paulus is the Iau evangelist at Faitau whom Das was visiting
" Fav8dvs7 v6y3 y3 du7sy9 ai9 o8sy9 bvy -7 Fav8dvs7 v6y3 younger_sibling/cousin your sister my ask_for -Tot.Inc
to -9." CntraryToHearer -Assert.NRsp "Paulus, my sister is asking for you younger brother/cousin."
Ba9 dy4dau4 Fav8dvs7 foi -5 word like_that Fav8dvs7 tell -Tel.Pun He told Paulus in words like that.
149
dy4da8dv9 Fav8dvs7 a7se9 a9 foi -5 therefore Fav8dvs7 SeqMkr; me tell -Tel.Pun so then, Paulus said to me
" Das6-3 v6y5 si6 bi7si9 ai7bv9 di9 bvy -7 da7 a9sy3." Das6-3 v6y5 woman one that_one you_s. ask_for -Tot.Inc it's_obvious
"Das you should know that that woman is apparently asking for you."
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 Fav8dvs7 foi -5 therefore I SeqMkr; Fav8dvs7 tell -Tel.Pun so then I said to Paulus
" A9 to6 Fai9tav8 ba4 be7 si6 o -7 I not(CntrExp) Fai9tav8 right_here/there Loc/DirAdvMkr _wife take -Tot.Inc
ai -9 y -3." ai -Establish_as_fact Statmnt -Assert.Rsp "I am not going to take a wife from here in Faitau."
A9 a7se9 dy4dau4 Fav8dvs7 foi -5 I SeqMkr; like_that Fav8dvs7 tell -Tel.Pun I told Paulus like that.
dy4da8dv9 Fav8dvs7 a7se9 boi9 av4 foi -5 therefore Fav8dvs7 SeqMkr; older_sibling his/her tell -Tel.Pun
so then, Paulus told her older brother,
" Au7 bv6 foi -4 du7be7 he I tell -Tel.Inc but "I told him, but
au7 av -8 to -5." he av -Rlz.Dur CntraryToHearer -Assert.HrResis.Persuade he doesn't want her."
Fav8dvs7 ba9 a7se9 dy4dau4 au7 foi -5 Fav8dvs7 word SeqMkr; like_that he tell -Tel.Pun Paulus told him words like that
dy4da8dv9 si6 boi9 av4 a7se9 ba9 bi8fa -9. therefore woman older_sibling his/her SeqMkr; word say -Tot.Pun so then, the woman's older brother said
" Ay8 sy9 be7 dy 4 de -7 a9." okay should it(topic) do_it/that 4 stative -Establish_irrealis RealisIndefMult ***
"Okay, that's alright."
Ba9 a7se9 dy4dau4 Fav8dv7 foi -4 da8dv9 word SeqMkr; like_that Fav8dv7 tell -Tel.Inc and-then He told Paulus words like that and then,
au7 e8ta8fau7 Ko8di8de7si9 bui2 i -9. he again Ko8di8de7si9 upstream go -Tot.Pun he again went back to Korodesi
9.5 Speech Events Iau not only has quote margin verbs like bi8fa9 ‘say, speak’, foi5 ‘tell’ and y9 ‘answer, respond, speak’, it also has a number of verbs representing various speech events as illustrated below. From Words About Wives si6 a7se9 bi7si9 be7 a9 bvy -9. woman SeqMkr; one NMkrOb me ask_for -Tot.Pun a woman asked for me (as husband).
From Words About Two Men Taking A Dog Hunting Bv8 bi8 da8dv9, sa4dy4 bv8 av3 He called out, but he refused.
From Words About Going To Saita Again tx be7fai -5 to_miss -Tel.Pun I missed.
dy4da8dv9 a9 a7se9 e -6 a9 therefore I SeqMkr; exclaim -Res.Pun RealisIndefMult so then, I called out,
150 From Grandparent’s Tales About The Kuskus Dy8 o7 da8dv9 It took on a kuskus body and then,
a6ty9 av7bv9 fi4au7 v4 bv8 tai9. the mother wondered to herself,
"Y5 so6 o8sy9 te8dau9 a3? "Oh, what kind of child is this that I have?
Bv7 to4 a3?" What is it doing?"
From Words About Killing A Wild Pig Y8 bo4 v4 dy4dau -7 da8dv9 we_two_(incl.) thoughts do_like_that -Tot.Inc and-then We two thought like that and then,
Ba8ti8vs8 bv6 a7se9 bav9sa -7 da8dv9 *** I SeqMkr; order -Tot.Inc and-then I told Matius (to shoot the pig again) and then,
du9 by3 a7se9 ba -8 da8dv9 wild_pig corpse SeqMkr; come -Rlz.Dur and-then he shot the dead pig and then,
a7se9 kavy -6 ae -7 SeqMkr; *** -Res.Pun not -Tot.Inc it didn't move.
From Grandparent’s Words About Pandanus Dy8 ty7 a7se9 ba9 fvy3, They men had discussed it.
Dy8 a7se9 dy4dau4 y8 be7 Saying like that,
ba9 fvy8 da8dv9, they discussed it and,
"Ay8 av8e5 be7, "Okay, in exchange,
av8e5 be7 di3." we will kill them."
From Words About Crossing The River Of The Dead si6 a7se9 be7 av8 fi9fa3. the women fought over him
"Y5 y8 bo4 bv8 i7 se5." "We two will go get him."
"Ba6-3, bv6 sv4 bv8 i7 se5." "No, I will go by myself."
dy4da8dv9 be7 "Ba6-3 y8 bo4 sa4dy8 bv8 i7 ba5." so then, "No, let's both of us go."
The last two examples show how speech event verbs can also be used as quote margin verbs, with the quote content giving more specific information. The final example shows a verb which represents a negative-speech act, silence or no answer.
a7se9 da8 i7 da8dv9, He took the dog hunting and so,
boi9 av7bv9 be3di9 fo9bi3 be7 bi3, his brother later looking down called,
"By7 te8bai5 de9." "Which one is it?"
dy4da8dv9 ki5 da8 ae5. but he did not answer.
"Sv9di9 te8bai5de8 y9(?)?" "Which (branch) is the kuskus on?"
dy4da8dv9 fi4au7 ki5 da8 ae5. but there was no answer.
151 The speech act verbs used in quote margins can also be used alone in a narrative as an event on the eventline when the content of the speech event is already known in the context as illustrated below. From Going To Get A Pig --Example 1 dy4da8dv9 E7fi3 y9 so then, Epi said,
"A9 i7 se5." "I will go."
dy4da8dv9 a9 bo8ke7 a7se9 y9 so then, I also answered
dy4da8dv9 a7se9 Ti7vs8 bo8ke7 y9. so then Tius also answered.
From Going To Get A Pig --Example 2 ty7 bo4 U8du8bav7dvs8 E7fi3 bo4 a7se9 be3di9 ba7 da8dv9 two (others) Urumadus and Epi later came and then,
foi5. told them.
Foi4 da8dv9 They told them and then,
a7se9 by6 i9. we went downstream (ahead of them).
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Analyzing discourse: text and talk. Georgetown University Roundtable on Languages and Linguistics, . Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. 1981. Episodes as units of discourse. In Analyzing discourse text and talk, Georgetown University roundtable on languages and linguistics, ed. by Deborah Tannen. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Ross, Malcom.(2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. Usher. 2018. New Guinea World, Lakes Plains. SEE https://sites.google.com/site/newguineaworld/families/lakes- plains. Note on the website, there is no mention of Usher or a date. This info from Wikipedia. van Dijk, Teun A. 1977. Text and context; explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of discourse. . Voorhoeve, C.L. 1975. Languages of Irian Jaya: checklist, preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists. Pacific Linguistics Series B, No. 31. Wurm, Stephen A. (1982). The Papuan Languages of Oceania. Tübingen: Narr. ISBN 3-87808-357-2. OCLC 8592292.
Appendix 1 Iau Phonology and Orthography Iau is basically a monosyllablic language. Two syllable words are for the most part morphologically complex or they are loan words. The syllable structure allows complex syllable nuclei of up to 3 vowels. There are no consonant clusters and only one type of closed syllable ending in an unreleased [p]with very limited distribution.
Segmentals The following are the Iau phonemes along with their allophones and the orthographic representation used in this paper. (See Bateman 1990b) Orthographic Symbol Phoneme Phonetic Representation
153 a /a/ [a] b /b/ [b ]$[m] d /d/ [d ]$[n]$[l] e / / [ ]$[ ] f /p/ [p]$[h]$[p] i /i/ [i] i /i / [i ] k /k/ [k]$[k] o /o/ [o]$[ ] s /s/ [s] t /t/ [t] u /u/ [u] v* /o/ [o]$[v] y* /e/ [e]$[i] 2** /1-4-3/ [1-4-3] 3 /3-4/ [3-4] 4 /2-3/ [2-3] 5 /1-4/ [1-4] 6 /4-3/ [4-3] 7 /2-1/ [2-1] 8 /3/ [3] 9 /2/ [2] * ‘v’ and ‘y’are taken from the original Iau orthography based on early Dani orthography
Tones Iau has 8 phonemic tonesv: 2 contrastive level tones and 6 contrastive contours (3 falling contours, 2 rising contours and 1 fall-rise contour) which are displayed in Figure 1 below. In the currrent orthography, these are indicated by using the numbers 2-9 be9 father-in-law |-- [2] High Level be8 fire |-- [3] Low Level be7 belt |/ [2-1] High Rise be6 path |/ [4-3] Low Rise be5 fish trap |\\ [1-4] High-Low Falll be4 flower |\ [2-3] High Fall be3 eel |\ [3-4] Low Fall be 2 tree fern |\/ [1-4-3] Fall-Rise
Tone Sequences In addition, there are 4 combinations of 2 tone sequences that commonly occur on single syllables, The sequences 7-8 and 4-7 are the most common sequences on verbs, adjectives and particles.. The following are some examples. da8-4 mountain. sae6-4 machete Baui⁷⁻⁸(be⁷) three (Note 7-8 is a tonal variant of 7-3.) bui4-7 (se5) will cut down (intention marking particle)
154 Appendix 2: Iau Verb Phrase And Meanings of the Iau Tone Morphemes, Segmental Particles and Their Abbreviations
adv dir loc +VERB T1 Stative+T2 Negative +T2 Temp Bound +T2 Evidential+T2 Cl Deontic Intensifier+T2 Deontic Modality+T3 Eviden+T3 Sent Man Dir Loc Stems Aspect de + ae,ai+ di,be,ay,a da+status tone ka dy, day, to, daby, didv Degr Deictic compnd tone Status tone Status tone dybe+status tone be/ba,bv se,fo,fe,by y,
# adv dir loc +VERB T1 Stative Negative Temp Bounded Evidential+T2 Cl Deontic Deontic Modal Eviden Sent +T2 +T2 ness+T2 Intens+T2 Modal.+T3 +T3 Man Bi²up, bay² down Deictic Stems Aspect de ae,ai no, not, none di, initial final bd da known,given ka urge dy, Imper, to, daby, didv Degr bui²Upstrm Ba⁹ here compnd tone be, final bd; ay, initial bd +status tone day, Prohb oppose by⁶ Dwnstrm Ai⁹ there a, not bd; dybe pending, be/ba, Y₋N?, dav² across water cancelled bv Permis se, ,by Intend, Poss fo, Desire, fe ContraDes y, State, Opinion 1 Av⁸be⁸ i 7 dy³ 2 Bui2 i 9 3 Ba⁹ ba 7 dy³ 4 ba 7 ka⁷ dy³ 5 ba 7 dy³ da⁹ 6 (A⁷se⁹) ba 9 7 (Da⁶) ba 7 to⁹ 8 E⁹fai 6 de⁹ 9 (bv⁸)bai 7 de⁸ dy³ 10 ba 7 ae⁷ da³ 11 (A⁷se⁹) 7 di³ taui
#1 Av⁸be⁸ i⁷ dy³. Go quickly. # 2 Bui² i⁷ dy³. Go upstream. #3 Ba⁹ba⁷ dy³. Come here. #4 Ba⁷ ka⁷ dy³. Come here (hurry/immediately). #5 Ba⁷ dy⁸ da⁹. I said “Come!” #6 A⁷se⁹ ba⁹. He/she/we/I/they have come. #7 (Couldn’t be) (I ) have just now (/only now) come/arrived? #8 E⁹fai⁶de⁹. (He/she/I/we) are hiding. #9 Bv⁸ bai⁷de⁸ dy³. Wait! #10 Ba⁷ ae⁷ da³. (He/she/they) did not come (as expected)/no show. # 11 A⁷se⁹ taui⁷ di³. (I/he/she) already made it .
155 The Segmental Verb Phrase Particles and Their Abbreviations The postverbal particles in Iau are listed below in order of occurrence with the abbreviations used in this paper. Each word of an abbreviation for the segmental particles begins with a capital letter. Stative Marker de Stative (Sta) Negative ai /ae Negative (Neg) Modality se Intention, Commitment to (Inten) sa Intention /Obligation Being Realized (IntRlz) fe Future Certain Contradesiderative (Ctrds) fo Desiderative (Ds) fefu Desiderative Inabilitative (Inab) Reality Status di Realis: Punctiliar Bounded Realization (PBd: A single unit occurrence realized at some specific temporally bounded time be Realis: Durative Bounded Realized (DBd): Multiple or extended occurrence over some specific temporally bounded period of time a Realis: Durative Unbounded Realized (DUBd): Multiple or extended occurrence over some undefined temporally unbounded period of time ay Realis: Durative Initially Bounded Realized (DIBd): Multiple or extended occurrence over some terminally unbounded time period beginning from some temporally specific starting point. dy Irrealis: Pending Realization (Pnd) dybe Irrealis: Pending Realization Frustrated (FPnd) Evidential da Reported speech /hearsay (RpSp) bede Inferential (Inf) da7by9 Obvious Truth (Obv) di7dv3 Emphatic Obvious truth (EObv) fi Repeated Information (Irritation) (RInf) Mood y Give informtion (Info) iy Information Unknown to the Hearer (InfoU) by Give Information:Subjunctive (Subj) /Directive: Advice /Recommendation (Recom) be /ba Information Probable /Uncertain (Uncer) to /ta Information Contrary to Hearer Beliefs, Customs Expectations, etc Refute Hearer (RHr) e Give information: Explain, Justify (Exp) asy Direct Hearer's Attention to Something (Attn) bv Request Permission /Instruction /Action (Rq) dy Imperative (Imp) dyda Emphatic Imperative (EImp) day Prohibition (Proh) da Negative Subjunctive `never should have been' (NSubj)
156 Tone Morphemes
T1: On Verb Stems: Aspect 9 TOTALITY OF ACTION PUNCTUAL (TOT PUN) 3 TOTALITY OF ACTION DURATIVE (TOT DUR) 7 TOTALITY OF ACTION INCOMPLETIVE (TOT INC) 6 RESULTATIVE PUNCTUAL (RES PUN) 8 RESULTATIVE DURATIVE (RES DUR) 5 TELIC PUNCTUAL (TEL PUN) 2 TELIC DURATIVE (TEL DUR) 4 TELIC INCOMPLETIVE (TEL INC) Tone clusters: various kinds of CHANGE OF STATE (CHS)
T2 Reality Status Tone Morphemes (Meaning of tone morphemes all other particles) 9 Is, was, used to be reality; did happen (FACT) 3 Have been, have done, do; accomplished reality or viewed as reality (RLZ) 7 Would have, could have, might have; or about to be; Hypothetical (HYP) 6 there is /is; a current fact (CFACT) 8 Currently being realized; accomplished reality with immediate relevence (CRLZ) 5 Did happen, was true but no longer in effect /true; nonpresent fact (NPFACT) 2 Highly expected /usually realized but not realized at present time (NPRLZ) 4 Is or was probable, planned, being brought about but not yet realized (URLZ)
T3 On Mood Particles: Illocutionary Force
On Directives /Yes-No Questions 9 Speaker does not need /demand /expect Hearer compliance (NRS) Speaker Authoritative /Information Asserted (SA) 3 Speaker needs /demands /expects a response from Hearer (RS) Speaker Authoritative /Information Asserted (SA) 8 Speaker needs /demands /expects a response from Hearer (RS) Speaker Authoritative /Informtion Asserted (SA) Situation is being brought about in the immediate context or is of current /immediate relevence (CR) 5 Speaker does not need /demand /expect Hearer compliance (NRS) Speaker is authoritative /assertive (SA) Both Speaker and Hearer participate in /bring about the situation. (SHR) 4 Speaker needs /demands /expects response from the Hearer (RS) Speaker is not authoritative /not assertive (SNA)
On Statements 9 Speaker controlling discourse topic and or information about discourse topic (SC) Speaker assertive (A) Information is discourse topic or is about discourse topic (DT) 3 Speaker is noncontrolling (SNC) Speaker is assertive (A) Information is discourse topic or is about discourse topic (DT) 7 Speaker is noncontrolling (SNC) Speaker is nonassertive (NA) Information is discourse topic or is about discourse topic (DT) 8 Speaker is noncontrolling (SNC) Speaker is assertive (A) Information is of current relevence (CR) 4 Speaker is noncontrolling (SNC) Speaker is nonassertive (NA) Information is not directly about discourse topic (NDT)
157 Appendix 3: List of Abbreviations Note: The abbreviations in all capital letters indicate Tone Morphemes. Abbreviations with only the first letter capitalized indicate the meanings of the segmental stems. A SPEAKER ASSERTIVE (Mood Tone) Attn Direct Hearer's Attention to Something (Mood) CFACT CURRENT FACT (Reality Status) CHS CHANGE OF STATE (Aspect) Cntrds Contradesiderative (Modality) CR OF IMMEDIATE /CURRENT RELEVENCE (Reality Status) CRLZ CURRENT REALIZATION (Reality Status) DBd Durative Bounded (Reality Status) DIBd Durative Initially Bounded (Reality Status) Ds Desiderative (Modality) DT ABOUT DISCOURSE TOPIC (Mood) DUBd Durative Unbounded (Reality Status) DUR DURATIVE EImp Emphatic Imperative (Mood) EObv Emphatic Obvious (Evidential) Exp Explain, justify (Mood) FACT IS, WAS, USED TO BE A REALITY; DID HAPPEN (Reality Status) FPnd Frustrated Pending (Reality Status) HYP HYPOTHETICAL (Reality Status) Imp Imperative (Mood) Inab Desiderative Inabilitative (Modality) INC INCOMPLETIVE (Aspect) Inf Inferential (Evidential) Info Gives Information (Mood) InfoU Gives Information Unknown to Hearer (Mood) Inten Intention (Modality) IntRlz Intention /Obligation Being Realized (Modality) NA SPEAKER NONASSERTIVE (Mood) NDT NOT ABOUT DISCOURSE TOPIC (Mood) NPRLZ DID HAPPEN, WAS TRUE BUT NO LONGER IN EFFECT /TRUE; NONPRESENT FACT /REALIZATION (Reality Status) NRS SPEAKER DOES NOT NEED /DEMAND /EXPECT HEARER RESPONSE (Mood) NSubj Negative Subjunctive (Mood) Pbd Punctual Bounded (Reality Status) Pnd Pending Realization (Reality Status) Proh Prohibition (Mood) PUN PUNCTUAL (Aspect) Obl Obligation Obv Obvious Truth /Fact (Evidential) Recom Recomendation /Advice (Mood) RES RESULTATIVE (Aspect) RHr Give Information Contrary to Hearer's Beliefs, Customs, Expectations; Refute Hearer (Mood) RInf Repeated Information (Evidential) RLZ HAVE BEEN, HAVE DONE, DO; ACCOMPLISHED REALITY, VIEWED AS REALIZED (Reality Status) Rq Request for Permission, Instruction or Action (Mood) RS EXPECT /NEED /DEMAND HEARER RESPONSE (Mood) SA SPEAKER AUTHORITATIVE (Mood) SC SPEAKER CONTROLLING (Mood) SHR BOTH SPEAKER AND HEARER PARTICIPATE IN OR BRING ABOUT THE SITUATION (Mood) SNA SPEAKER NONAUTHORITATIVE (Mood) SNC SPEAKER NONCONTROLLING (Mood) SqMkr Sequence Marker; Indicates situation is in Chronological Sequence with Other Events in Context Sta Stative Subj Subjunctive, Advice, Recommendation (Mood) TEL TELIC (Aspect) TOT TOTALITY OF ACTION (Aspect) Uncer Information Uncertain or Probable (Mood) URLZ IS OR WAS PROBABLE, PLANNED, TO BE BROUGHT ABOUT, NOT YET REALIZED, UNREALIZED (Reality Status)
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1 Iau area Papua, Indonesia GPS 03-13.86S 137-43.56E 2 For a language map See the Ethnologue. There is a copy of northern Papua Mamberamo area available on Pinterest https://www.pinterest.com/pin/378372806171726901/ . See also Helja Clouse and Peter J Silzer. 1991, map V. 3 The Tariku river is a western branch of the Mamberama. Also known from Dutch days as the Rouffaer River. It has a southern branch along the central mountain range, known in Dutch days as the van Dalaan. There is a small connecting river between the northern branch of the Tariku and the southern branch along the central mountain range. This marks the central point of the current Iau territory. Google Earth has a very good view of the Mamberamo River and it’s tributaries. The Faui airstrip is visible on the Van Dalaan river. https://www.google.com/maps/place/3%C2%B013'44.9%22S+137%C2%B043'32.0%22E/@- 3.229138,137.72336,843m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m2!3m1!1s0x0:0x0 4 Iau input based on personal contact with fathers, grandparents and great grandparents who participated in these events as well as passed on information concerning ancestors. v A Rise-Fall contour was originally designated as tone 1. However, as language analysis progressed the tone 1 rise fall contour turned out to be comprised of a number of contrastive two tone sequences, all with an over all rise fall pattern, eg 6-3, 7-8. 7-4 and 8-4.
159