3. S. Sernpore, "Conditions of Theological Service is Africa: Prelim­ 11. H. Maurier, "Chronique bibliographique sur la Religion Africaine inary Reflections," in in Independent Africa, E. Fashole-Luke traditionnelle," Bulletin Secretariatus pro nonChristianis 69, XXIII/3(1988): et al., eds. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), p. 516. 237. 4. A. N. Mushete, "Theologie Africaine: Bibliographie" Bulletin de 12. A. Ekwunife, "African Culture: A Definition," African Christian Theologie Africaine 6, no. 12 (lune-December 1984): 390. Sempore (see Studies 3, no. 3. (September 1987): pp. 7, 8. n. 3) makes the same point on p. 517. See also M. P. Hebga's Eman­ 13. R. Jacobs, "The Church in National Garb," Impact 41, no. 4 (No­ cipation d'Eglises sous tutelle (Paris: Presence Africaine, 1976). vember 1984): 4. 5. Sempore, "Conditions," p. 517. 14. B. Bujo, "Africa: Theological Education and Its Implications in 6. G. Setiloane, "Where Are We in African Theology?" in African Africa," p. 38. Theology En Route, K. Appiah-Kubi and S. Torres, eds. (Maryknoll, 15. P. Bowers, "New Light on Theological Education in Africa," East N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1979), p. 62. Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 6, no. 2 (1987): 13-26. 7. K. A. Dickson, P. A. Kalilombe, and T. Presler, "Development of 16. E. Kodjo, ... et demain l'Afrique(Paris: Editions Stock, 1986), pp. 15­ African Theologies," Mission Studies: Journal of the International Asso­ 16. ciation of Mission Studies 2, no. 1 (1985): 94. 17. B. Bujo, "Africa: Theological Education and Its Implications in 8. J. S. Ukpong, "Current Theology: The Emergence of African Theo­ Africa," p. 38. I have argued the same in my doctoral dissertation logies," Theological Studies 45, no. 3 (September 1984): 502. "The Problem of Methodology in African Christian Theologies" 9. Ibid., pp. 501-2. (Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 1984). 10. Ibid., p. 501.

Korean Minority Church-State Relations in the People's Republic of

Wi Jo Kang

I. Historical Background

n the latter part of the nineteenth century local rebellions When many converts moved from North Korea to China, it I against the government of and other situations was natural that mission work be extended into the area of Buk of unrest in China weakened the political power of the Ching Kando. Canadian Presbyterians started work there in 1898. Dynasty. Taking advantage of this situation, Japan and Czarist Canadian missionaries like the Reverend Robert G. Grierson Russia extended their military and economic activities in China's supported the work of Dong-Hui Vee, who was both a Christian northeastern region. The newly rising military power of Japan minister and a nationalist political leader. Grierson worked not confronted China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95, and ten only among the Koreans in Buk Kando, but also among the years later Czarist Russia engaged in war with Japan. To the Korean immigrants in the Russian port city of Vladivostok. 1 surprise of the world, Japan was victorious in both wars. Many Christian leaders believed that the success of Christian In 1905, Japan and Russia signed the Peace Treaty of Ports­ mission among the Koreans was the best way to liberate Korea mouth, and the Korean king was forced to establish a so-called from Japanese rule and to eventually achieve independence. Among Protective Treaty with Japan. At that point, the king handed over such leaders was Sang-SuI Yee, who believed that through Chris­ diplomatic and economic rights to the Japanese, and Korea be­ tian education of Korean youth, the Korean people could achieve came a colony of Japan. Also in the latter part of the nineteenth independence from Japan. He migrated to Buk Kando in 1906 century, Koreans crossed the Yalu and Tumen rivers to China to and established a Christian church in Yong Jong where it became escape Japanese encroachment and to engage in the resistance a center of the Korean nationalist movement and Christian ed­ movement against Japan. ucation. In church meetings Sang-SuI Yee preached the Gospel Among those Korean immigrants to the northeastern part of of Christ and the liberation of Korea at the same time. China, then called Buk Kando, there were early Christian con­ In the same year, Presbyterian elders Jong-Sik Vee and Kwon­ verts. They wanted to have religious freedom and also to engage Ho Vee migrated from the northeastern Han Kyung province of in political activities for the independence of Korea. These early Korea to Buk Kando and established a new Christian town named converts were the result of work that Presbyterian missionaries Kusechon, or "the salvation town." In 1911, another Pres­ had begun in 1884 within Korea. The Presbyterian mission ex­ byterian elder, Hyung-Sik Ryang, led his entire family from Korea tended to the northern part of Korea; already, in 1892, Northern to an isolated village in northeastern China and established a Presbyterians from the United States established a mission station church there, calling the village the "dwelling of [God's] grace." in the port city of Wonsan. Such towns and villages with church-related names like "town of eternal life" and "village of paradise" were common among the Korean settlements in China. Wi Jo Kang is Wilhelm Loehe Professor of World Religions and Mission at Wart­ In the initial stages of Korean immigration to China, the burg Theological Seminary, Dubuque, Iowa. He earned his Ph.D. from the Uni­ Chinese government did not welcome Koreans for fear of Japa­ versity ofChicago after graduating from Concordia Seminary in St. Louis, Missouri. nese military retaliation, especially nationalist Koreans who were He is President of the Association of Professors of Mission in North America for engaged in anti-Japanese political activities, There were conflicts 1989-90. between Korean immigrants and Chinese residents. However,

APRIL 1990 77 the Chinese government officials soon sympathized with the po­ Presbyterian Church was formed. Meanwhile, Japan's imperialist litical cause of the Koreans, because China too was threatened military government continued to extend its influence in China by Japanese power. and brutally suppressed Korean nationalists and Christians there. The Chinese also welcomed Koreans because they were good It was not unusual for the Japanese police, with the support of rice farmers and produced high quality rice in difficult farm land. the military, to demolish entire Korean villages and arrest the In daily life the Korean emphasis on children's education earned Christian leaders. In many towns and small villages of Korea, the respect of the Chinese, so much so that the Chinese often one finds monuments erected to commemorate Korean patriots sent their own children to Korean church-schools. martyred by the Japanese. Such suffering escalated in 1919 when When Korean Christians migrated to northeastern China, there were popular uprisings in Korean villages and towns against many missionaries to China and their European and North Amer­ the Japanese occupation. A Presbyterian record of that year notes ican mission agencies welcomed the Koreans because of their zeal that many churches were confiscated or burned by the Japanese. for evangelistic outreach and their strong commitment to church Christian houses were burnt, and thirty-three church leaders in life. Often, when the Japanese police sought to arrest Korean Buk Kando lost their lives." nationalists, the missionaries protected the Koreans with the mis­ This persecution, however, did not stop the church activities sionaries' own extraterritorial legal rights granted by the Chinese of Koreans in China. In 1925 a record of the Methodist Church government. reported: In such circumstances Korean Christian movements were often identified with the nationalist movement. Dong-Hui Yee In North Kando, we have sixteen Sunday schools for both adults openly associated his Christian ministry with the independence and children, the enrollment of which is over eight hundred. We movement. He often led revival meetings in which he asked his have at present two Epworth Leagues organized with the mem­ fellow Koreans "to believe in Jesus to save the nation"; and bership of eighty.... We hope to organize more leagues in the coming year. The unique feature of our work in North Kando is he advocated the building of church-schools to educate the chil­ the childrens' daily Bible school in Rong long, which is probably dren for the independence of Korea. He would say that "when the only one of its kind in the Orient. This school is to teach the one million Koreans become Christians, Korea will achieve in­ Bible to the children who are attending the private and public dependence." This identification with political independence is schools and who are voluntarily coming to the church to learn the one important reason for the "miracle in mission history," the Bible. We teach them from four to five o'clock every afternoon, success of work among Koreans in Korea and except Sunday afternoon on which we have regular Sunday schools China. It is also why a pro-Japanese scholar from America who for the children. At present the school has an enrollment of 138 visited Korea in the early part of the century complained that boys and girls and the attendance is very good." Korean Christians were not motivated by moral and spiritual Even after the Japanese controlled the entire northeastern reasons, but by economic, social, and political reasons.i region of China and established in 1932 the so-called state of Korean Christians in northeastern China increased in num­ Manchukuo, with a Japanese-controlled puppet government, bers until, in 1921, an independent Korean presbytery of the Korean Christians in China extended their work. The general

Readers'Response

To the Editors: offended at his gross overstatement: an "incredible amount of history" links Hebrew Christians with anti­ Dr. Eugene Fisher's response in the January BULLETIN to Semitism. He disparages their possible contribution to this our comments on the WCC's Sigtuna statement (October dialogue. He also forgets that today's most notable Jew-for­ 1989 BULLETIN) calls for factual clarification. First, biblical Jesus is currently the archbishop of Paris. Although most Christianity emerged from a major religious controversy of Cardinal Lustiger's relatives were destroyed at within Jewry prior to any Gentile involvement. Auschwitz, this Jew came to faith through reading the Bible Second, today's Rabbinic Judaism reflects centuries of (Dare to Believe [New York: Crossroad, 1986]).Lustiger writes, evolutionary change. In part it reflects reaction against Jews "In becoming a Christian I did not intend to cease being who found in Jesus their Messiah and Redeemer. Cyrus H. a Jew It was Christ who gave me the key to my search­ Gordon's "Jewish Reactions to Christian Borrowings" ings I found Judaism's fulfillment in welcoming Jesus, details Judaism's efforts to establish an antithesis with the the Messiah of Israel. . . . I said to my parents: I am not traditional Jewish thought and worship retained by emerg­ leaving you and going over to the enemy.... I am not ing messianic congregations (Carol L. Meyers and M. ceasing to be a Jew; on the contrary, I am discovering an­ O'Connor, eds., The Wordof the Lord Shall GoForth [Winona other way of being a Jew" (pp. 38, 41, 42). Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983], pp. 665-90). Dr. Fisher un­ The dialogue must continue, and the central issue is wittingly states the exact opposite: "The Evangelists rad­ Jesus Christ! ically modified the concept [of Messiah] in applying it to Jesus." Arthur F. Glasser, Dean Emeritus Third, Dr. Fisher charges us with "absolute igno­ School of World Mission, Fuller Theological Seminary rance." Would that he knew the long efforts we've put forth Pasadena, California to enter this century's total Jewish experience. And we are

78 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH superintendent of the Korean Methodist Church urged: fare against Japanese troops in Manchuria. When the war ended, the Communist influence in the northeastern region of China ex­ Our missionary specialty is the work in Manchuria. It is wide and panded. The Communist Chinese army occupied most of the rural rich country which is fit for farming. So the Koreans are migrating areas and participated in disarming the Japanese forces. The Na­ to Manchuria by the thousands and tens of thousands every year. tionalist government, with the help of the United States and in- It has been reported that there are already more than a million Koreans and they are in sore need of the Gospel message. During the past, our church has done a great deal of work in cooperation with the Mission Boards in America, but we must do much more The Japanese police and in the future. 5 army would demolish Korean Christians within China and Korea responded fa­ vorably to such an appeal, and Christian work continued to be entire Korean villages and successful among the Koreans in China, despite Japanese oppres­ arrest the Christian sion, especially during the years of World War II. The end of that war brought the surrender of Japan, and that was understandably leaders. an occasion of great celebration. When the war ended, however, the thirty-eighth parallel was taken as the dividing line between the two areas where the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. would accept the ternational recognition, tried desperately to hold its influence in surrender of Japanese forces. The United States occupied the area the northeast region. But civil war with the Communists and south of the parallel, while the Soviets occupied the area north political corruption steadily weakened the Nationalists, and they of the line and in Manchuria. As the Soviets occupied Manchuria, did not have the popular support of the people, at least not in most of the Korean Christians, knowing the Marxist ideology and northeastern China. the hostile attitude to religions of the Soviet government, fled to Finally, the Communist Chinese army was victorious. On 1 South Korea. Some Korean Christians, however, primarily the October 1949, when the People's Republic of China was born, elderly and the poor who could not afford to travel south, re­ there were about three million Chinese Catholics. There were mained in China and continued to live as Christians. But their about 800,000 Protestants of all denominations. In the north­ life as Christians was now conditioned by the new situation in eastern region of China (Buk Kando), there were 162 Protestant Chinese history. churches and 31,886 Protestant church members." It was clear to these churches that if they were to continue their existence in the new China, they would have to support the revolution and the II. Church-State Relations in New China Communist government. The Christian movement to support the revolution emerged Shortly before the end of World War II, the Chinese army, under in the "Three-Self Movement," led by Y. T. Wu, a leader in the leadership of the Communist party, engaged in guerrilla war­ the YMCA in China. Already more than a year before the success

To the Editors: actual and identifies the present and future reality of the Messiah. In yourJanuary 1990issue (p. 30), EugeneJ. Fisher responds Against this background I agree with Fisher that we to my critique of the Sigtuna Statement in the October 1989 must listen to Jews when they remind us of the eschato­ issue and questions the affirmation that "Jesus is the logical aspect of the messiahship, and we welcome the new Messiah for Jews and gentiles." awareness in biblical scholarship of this basic element in The messiahship of Jesus is a crucial question in the the New Testament creed and its Jewish background. How­ relationship between the church and the synagogue. There ever, against this background we must also question a sit­ is no dispute among us concerning the different post­ uation in which "the term Messiah as used by Christians biblical developments in the Jewish and the Christian con­ is essentially unrecognizable to Jewish tradition," and up­ cepts of the Messiah. However, dialogue and witness should hold the genuine messiahship of Jesus in dialogue and wit­ move beyond a static recognition of this difference, as there ness. Today we experience that Jewish people in Israel and is also an intrinsic link between Jewish tradition and Chris­ other countries read the (Hebrew) New Testament, recog­ tianity at this point. nize Jesus as the Messiah of Israel and come to faith in him. The New Testament affirmation that "Jesus is the Why is it so difficult for the contemporary Jewish-Christian Messiah for Jews and gentiles" originated in a Jewish con­ encounter to deal with this fact and this theological text, it was shared by Jewish persons with Jewish people, challenge? and became part of the essential Jewish heritage of the church. This affirmation of the messiahship of Jesus, how­ Ole Chr. M. Kvarme, General Secretary ever, was not so much "a radical modification of the Norwegian Bible Society, Oslo, and International Coordinator, concept," as it was an identification of the person Messiah. LAusanne Consultation on Jewish Evangelism The New Testament moves from the conceptual to the

APRIL 1990 79 of the Communist revolution, in April 1948, TienFeng, a Christian in China, and the relationship of the church to the new state magazine published under the auspices of the Christian Literature reflected it fully. Society, published the following statement by Wu: In October 1950, delegates to the biennial meeting of the National Council of Churches in China, after careful discussion, A world revolution is developing before our eyes. No matter how decided to adopt the manifesto as the official position of the we may fear and hate it, this revolution is already an undeniable Chinese churches. By the adoption of this manifesto, all of the fact. The opposition of the toilers, the struggles of small nation­ administrative power over the churches was transferred to the alities, and on the international scene the sharp opposition between Three-Self Committee. After the close of the meeting, some of democratic and anti-democratic forces, all these are inevitable phe­ the church leaders saw how the church had irreversibly aligned nomena of that world revolution. At the present stage the most important task of that revolution, negatively speaking, is to oppose itself with the Communist state of the People's Republic of China. the attempt of the new and its corollary feudalistic Knowing what this would mean for the future of the National forces to oppress peoples and enslave the world; and positively Council of Churches in China, some of the leaders resigned from speaking, to unite all democratic forces in establishing a new society their positions on the council. of freedom and equality, a society of no classes, where everyone The manifesto continued to be signed, however, by many works and everyone receives the results of his labors. Capitalism Christians; now that it had the approval of the National Council can no longer meet the needs of our time; it only creates economic of Churches in China, its popularity increased. There were ba­ 7 inequality and imperialism. sically two reasons why many Chinese Christians signed the man­ The Chinese revolution, according to Wu, was a righteous ifesto: first, the document emphasized a patriotic attitude toward movement to liberate the people from the evils of capitalism and the country; and second, the resentment that the Chinese felt imperialism. He also criticized his fellow Christians who did not toward foreign agents extended to some missionaries as well. The support the revolution: manifesto really spelled the end for missionary work in China. Meanwhile the started in the neighboring Christianity has no understanding of today's revolutionary move­ Korean Peninsula. The Three-Self Movement formed a committee ment; what it sees is not the positive meaning of that movement, called the "Preparatory Committee to Oppose the U.S.A. and but only its negative processes. It sees only its eye-for-eye, tooth­ Help Korea." The committee engaged in the work of asking Chinese for-tooth reactions, and has come close to renouncing the whole Christians to volunteer as soldiers to fight against U.S. soldiers movement." in Korea. The committee also pressured the Chinese churches Criticizing the attitude of many Christians against the Com­ not to receive any aid from the United States. The Korean War munist revolution, Wu advocated Christian "reformation" in brought out great antiimperialist feelings throughout China. The China. The first task of this reformation was the separation of the people were led to believe that the Chinese were making a great Chinese churches from the "mother churches" and mission last stand against the Western imperialists by helping North Korea agencies in the West. Wu, in December 1949, communicated a and confronting the United States. In April 1951, the delegates "message from Chinese Christians to mission boards abroad," of 151 Protestant churches met in Beijing and issued the "United asking for the severance of the relationship between those boards Declaration of the Delegates of Chinese Christian Churches." The and Chinese churches: declaration called upon the Christian community

We Christians in China feel the urgent necessity of reexamining 1. To enthusiastically support and carry out the Central Govern­ our work and our relationship with the older churches abroad in ment Legislative [Body's] plan of control for all cultural and edu­ the light of this historical change in China.... Traditions of de­ cational and relief organizations and religious bodies receiving nominationalism have been imported and taken root here. Much American financial aid. . . . of the church administration is still in the hands of missionaries, 2. To enthusiastically take part in the "Oppose-America, Sup­ and in many instances church policies are still determined by the port-Korea" movement, strongly support the resolution of the Ex­ mission boards abroad." ecutive of the World Peace Movement concerning the Five Nations Peace Treaty, support all decisions of the "Oppose-America, The message then stated that "the authority of policy Support-Korea" People's Central Organization, also make known determination and financial administration must pass over to and definitely carry out the patriotic program; every local church, Chinese leadership.t'" This was a clear indication of the Chinese every church body, every Christian publication must implement church's determination to be self-governing, self-supporting, and the "Oppose-America, Support-Korea" propaganda and make self-propagating, to truly implement the Three-Self principle of this propaganda known to every Christian;" mission theory. On the basis of this "message from Chinese Christians to In 1951 the drive to purge Christianity of its "imperialistic mission boards abroad" in 1949, the leaders of the Three-Self connections" greatly intensified. By this time many Christian in­ Movement formulated the "Christian Manifesto" in May of stitutions, like schools and hospitals, were administered by the the following year, in consultation with Zhou En-Lai, the premier People's Committee. In an April 1951 meeting, the government of the People's Republic of China. The manifesto denounced im- ' and church leaders denounced missionaries as agents of impe­ perialism and all connections of Christianity with Western rialism. All institutional funding from abroad was cut off. In ad­ imperialism, and it asked Chinese Christians to denounce through dition to the institutional funds, all private funds to Chinese self-criticism all inroads of imperialism and to support the Com­ churches were cut off. After the meeting, one of the new demands munist government. They were urged to promote the Three-Self made upon the churches was a denunciation movement, in which Movement by cutting off all foreign aid and dependence. all Christians sympathetic to anything American were to be de­ On 3 June 1950, Wu presented a draft of the manifesto to nounced. Likewise, the churches were to take up the responsi­ some church leaders, and it was published in July with the sig­ bility to "Oppose-America, Support-Korea" as the "most natures of forty prominent Christians. By September of that year, important" work of the church.12 fifteen hundred people had signed the document, and the Three­ Roman Catholic Christians in China also participated in a Self Movement was the official reality of the Christian movement similar movement. In November 1950, five hundred Catholic lead­

80 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ers issued their own manifesto, calling for the independence of ernment that they were serious about being the Chinese church. the Chinese Catholic Church and for severing ties with Catholic This effort of Christians in China must be respected and admired agencies outside of China, including the Vatican. Throughout the by all Christians outside of China. period of the Korean War, Roman Catholics were asked to do the Granted, the situation is not without its problems. The Ro­ same as other Christians-oppose America and help North Korea. man Catholic community in China does not recognize nor have And in order to have a similar organization like the Three-Self liaison with the Vatican, and the papal office does not recognize Movement, the National Catholic Patriotic Association was es­ the new bishops appointed by the Patriotic Association. Also, tablished in 1957. This became the officially recognized Catholic despite Vatican policy, Chinese priests and bishops have married. organization in China, through which all communication to their On the Protestant side, there are some house churches that constituents was made. are nostalgic about their former denominational identity and re­ In the years after the Korean War, the churches enjoyed lationships with foreign mission agencies. There are also some considerable religious freedom. It was now the official govern­ Koreans in China who distrust the government, primarily due to ment position to say that "Christianity is no longer a foreign the suffering they experienced during the Cultural Revolution. religion" and "Christianity is to be respected." On my visits to Northeast China I have noticed that some Koreans Of course, there were many youth activities on Sunday that are admirers of South Korea and are attracted to the growth of were sponsored by the government in order to discourage the the churches there. Although the Bible is published in the Korean young people from attending church. Also, the Marxist govern­ language in China, many Koreans prefer to carry the "South ment did not like many of the church activities, saying that they were "nonproductive." But the Christian churches continued to maintain their identities and grow in new China. All Chinese Christians Korean Christian churches in the northeastern region were especially active in supporting the Three-Self Movement's call to sympathetic to anything "Oppose-America, Support-Korea." They participated in re­ American were to be cruiting young people to volunteer as soldiers, or in raising funds to support the soldiers. So Korean churches became strong par­ denounced. ticipants in the Three-Self Movement of the Chinese state. This relationship, however, changed drastically during the Cultural Revolution of 1966-76. All religions were considered to Korean Bible." (One pastor told me that the people choose it be remnants of old feudal and capitalist societies, and thus they because the paper is of better quality and less bulky than its had to be wiped out. Christian Bibles were confiscated and burned, Chinese counterpart.) and Christian churches were closed and used for storage or as But most Korean Christians in China support the Three-Self factories. The first floor of the Korean church in Yanji City was still Movement. It is irrelevant and irresponsible for outsiders to try being used as a factory when I visited there in early 1987. Pastors to reintroduce denominations, developed outside of China, into and church workers suffered public humiliation and were forced the Protestant community. Yet many Korean Christian leaders to work on farms or in factories. who visit China today from South Korea and the United States With the death of in 1976, the "Gang of are advocating their particular denominational theology and church Four," including Mao's wife, who had masterminded the Cultural polity. There are also numerous Korean mission societies for China Revolution, was arrested. The clearly formed within South Korea and the United States. They solicit recognized that something had gone wrong during the Cultural funds for the cause of missions and are generously supported. It Revolution: The outcome was the reform movement and liber­ is not clear, however, how these funds for China are distributed alization of the country, including the liberalization of religious or who receives them. The Korean leaders I met in China were affairs. In 1979, Christian churches were officially reopened. And strongly critical of these developments. The Korean Christians in the following year, the was formed welcome visitors, but they are put in a very difficult situation by to work more effectively with the affairs of the churches as they the anti-Three-Self Movement and anticommunist propaganda relate to the state. spread by Korean visitors. Some Korean Christians from outside China talk about "underground Korean churches," as if these churches were III. Korean Church-State Relations in China in opposition to the Three-Self Movement churches. But an elder Today I met in Yanji City told me that these are simply churches that do not have pastors and buildings in which they can worship In spite of the remarkable survival, growth, and vitality of Korean openly. Christian churches in China, which seek to maintain their A Korean pastor from Los Angeles recently visited China and "postdenominational" and independent stance, some Chris­ subsequently reported that "China is one country where open tian groups from abroad have been taking advantage of the liberal church meeting is not allowed. Therefore I conducted a secret policies in China today. Korean Christians from abroad, often service without public announcement or advertisement.t" How­ strongly anticommunist, use their visits to China to try to influence ever good this pastor's intentions were, his conducting a secret the Korean Christians politically and theologically, even trying to service is not only a violation of the law of the land but puts reintroduce denominational confessions. Korean Christians in a difficult situation in their relation to the This is a serious issue facing the Korean churches in China state. Korean Christians are allowed to conduct their services in today. As indicated, the Three-Self Movement and the Roman public or in their homes. But the government prohibits foreigners Catholic Patriotic Association were formed to make Chinese from bringing in money or holding church meetings secretly to churches truly Chinese, to serve the Chinese people and not influence people with their denominational theology. Why should North American and European institutions. In doing so, the Chinese outsiders jeopardize the freedom Korean churches presently churches demonstrated to the people of China and to the gov- enjoy in China?

APRIL 1990 81 Not only do some Koreans from abroad conduct such meet­ Christian worship because we supported the Three-Self Move­ ings but they also distribute anti-Three-Self Movement materials. ment of self-support, self-government, and self-propagation." It They go so far as to say that the Three-Self Movement is nothing goes on to emphasize, "Our life today is different from pre­ but an agent of the Communist party. 'This can only create a liberation days. How the churches in China are to behave is the stressful relationship between the Korean churches and the Chinese policy which we Christians in China decide by ourselves, not by state. outsiders.t" Thus the document strongly opposes foreign inter­ The April 1987 issue of Tien Feng reported that the Korean ference in the conduct of the affairs of the Korean churches in church in Harbin received four kinds of anti-Chinese and anti­ China. Three-Self Movement materials. These materials were written in A particularly blatant attempt to influence the Korean com­ Korean. There was no indication given as to where they came munity in China is found in a project of the Unification Church. from, other than the name of the sponsoring organization "Jung- This group offered to donate a building and initiate the teaching of English at Yanbian University. The university administration accepted the offer of the building but decided that the teaching program could not be administered by the Unification Church Korean Christians are itself. Thus the social-science building was constructed with out­ allowed to conduct their side donations and Unification personnel assist in the English services in public or in program under the university's administration. Any such large donation of money carries with it the danger of unwarranted their houses. influence by the donor. The distrustfulness of some Korean Christians in China and the accusations against the Three-Self Movement by outsiders are Mi Gidohoe" (China-U.S. Prayer Association). One publication serious issues for church-state relations in China today. Any dis­ of considerable length criticized socialism and the Chinese gov­ trust and disloyalty on the part of Korean Christians toward the ernment as well as the Three-Self Movement and Korean Chris­ state is subject to manipulation by outsiders who oppose the tians who supported the Three-Self Movement." Three-Self Movement. Consequently there is risk that the cordial The Office of Religious Affairs of Yanbian Korean Autono­ church-state relationship that exists through the work of the Three­ mous Prefecture published a study document in 1982. It states, Self Movement may be destroyed, to the detriment of the welfare "Today we Christians in China are able to enjoy freedom and and continued growth of the Korean churches in China.

Notes ------­

1. Kwang-ll So,"Buk Kando Kidokgyoin Dului Minjok Undong Yongu" Kwang-Il So, "Buk Kando," pp. 134-35. In this source there is no (A study of the Christian nationalist movement in Buk Kando) (Seoul: list of Roman Catholic churches. Unpublished monograph, n.d.), p. 136. 7. Francis P. Jones, ed., Documents of theThree-Self Movement (New York: 2. George T. Ladd, In Korea with Marquis Ito (New York: Charles Scrib­ National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., 1963), p. 1. ner's Sons, 1908), p. 391. 8. Ibid., p. 4. 3. Korean Society of Church History, ed., The Historical Records of Jesus 9. Ibid., p. 15. Presbyterian Church of Korea (Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1968), p. 10. Ibid., p. 17. 393. 11. Donald E. MacInnis, Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China 4. Fifth Annual Meeting of the Korean Department of the Siberian Mis­ (New York: Macmillan, 1972), pp. 99-100. sion of the Methodist Episcopal Church, held in Harbin, Manchuria, 12. Ibid., pp. 97-98. 22-23 September 1925, "Minutes," p. 9. 13. Korean Christian Journal, 27 February 1987, p. 13. 5. General Conference of the Korean Methodist Church, Assembled in 14. Reported in New Korean Times, 18 April 1987. Seoul, Korea,S October 1938, "Address of the General Superin­ 15. Haksup Jaeryo (Study Material) (Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefec­ tendent," pp. 18.-19. ture: Office of Religious Affairs, 1982), p. 1. 6. The last reliable statistics are found in 1934 in a list of churches. See

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