The Practice of Ophthalmology in Rural Wisconsin in the Mid-19Th Century from the Casebooks of Francis Paddock, MD

SPECIAL ARTICLE The Practice of Ophthalmology in Rural Wisconsin in the Mid-19th Century From the Casebooks of Francis Paddock, MD

Daniel M. Albert, MD, MS; Sarah L. Atzen, BA; Payam Morgan, MD

rancis Paddock (1814-1889), a graduate of Fairfield Medical College in western New York State, opened a general medicinal and surgical practice in the small town of Salem in Kenosha County, Wisconsin, between 1838 and 1839, where he lived and worked until his death a half century later. Two early volumes of his casebooks, spanning the yearsF 1841 to 1852, came to light and are now analyzed from the standpoint of ophthalmic-related problems and their treatment. His life as a frontier physician and leading citizen of his community are documented in the context of 19th-century medicine in America and Wisconsin. Arch Ophthalmol. 2010;128(6):783-788

The history of American ophthalmology, as before his casebooks’ ophthalmic con- usually reported, is the history of cel- tents are discussed, the man himself ebrated physicians in the major East Coast should be given a proper introduction. cities: men and, occasionally, women who first attempted the medical and surgical FRANCIS PADDOCK’S EARLY LIFE treatment of eye disease. Subsequently, the historical record continues as their stu- Francis Paddock was born in Camillus, On- dents and successors begin to specialize in ondaga County, New York, on September eye disease treatment and form the soci- 15, 1814.1 He was the oldest of 6 children eties and journals we recognize today. But and took his education seriously from a what of rural America, where most Ameri- young age. Because of his industrious na- cans in the 19th century lived? What of ture and intellectual curiosity, he acquired those people west of the Allegheny Moun- a good education and became a school- tains? Is there a record of who treated their teacher at the age of 17 years. He taught in eye diseases and how they did it? It is often the winter and attended Fairfield Medical difficult to gain insights into this aspect of College in Herkimer County, New York, American ophthalmic history. during the summer, receiving his medical To help explore this lesser studied degree sometime between 1835 and 1839.2 facet of American ophthalmic history, one of us (D.M.A.) recently obtained the PADDOCK’S MEDICAL EDUCATION casebooks of Francis Paddock, MD AND TRAINING (1814-1889), a frontier physician and leading citizen in Salem, Kenosha Paddock’s alma mater, Fairfield Medical County, Wisconsin (Figure 1). The College, was the first medical school casebooks cover the details of Paddock’s west of the Hudson River and was an off- medical practice from 1841 to 1852, and shoot of the Fairfield Academy, a private its pages are a window into the extent high school that opened in 1803.3 The and method of ophthalmic practice dur- academy, in its early years, had several ing those years (Figure 2). However, instructors who were physicians. Over Author Affiliations: Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University time they offered medical courses that of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison (Dr Albert and included anatomy, surgery, medicine, Ms Atzen); and The Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, pharmacy, and obstetrics. By 1812, a University of California, Irvine (Dr Morgan). total of 43 students were studying medi-

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©2010 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 10/02/2021 Figure 2. An excerpt from Francis Paddock’s casebook. Reprinted from the private collection of Dr Daniel M. Albert. Figure 1. Francis Paddock, MD. Lyman FH. The City of Kenosha and Kenosha County, PADDOCK’S MENTOR dition, closing old ulcers by new skin Wisconsin: A Record of Settlement, transplantation was continually at- Organization, Progress and Achievement. Chicago, IL: SJ Clarke Publishing Company; Francis Paddock studied with Frank tributed to him by French and Ger- 1916:319. Hastings Hamilton, MD, of Auburn, man physicians.7 New York (Figure 4), before leav- Dr Hamilton was also a consult- cal subjects, and in that year the ing for Wisconsin.2 Already distin- ing surgeon to many hospitals and be- academy was granted a charter guished at the time Paddock studied came a well-known authority on sur- under the formal name The Col- with him, Dr Hamilton became an im- gery. His important works include lege of Physicians and Surgeons of portant figure in American surgery. Treatise on Strabismus (1844), Trea- the Western District of New York Hamilton was well trained. In 1833, tise on Fractures and Dislocations (Figure 3). It continues to be at the age of 20 years, he received a (1860; fifth edition was published in commonly referred to, however, as medical degree from the Medical 1880), Practical Treatise on Military Fairfield Medical College and was School of the University of Pennsyl- Surgery (1861), and The Principles the second medical college to be vania. He settled in Auburn, where he and Practice of Surgery (1872).10 He chartered in New York State, the gave lectures on anatomy and physi- had many surgical terms named af- 11th in the United States. The ology.7 It was during this period that ter him, including the Hamilton ban- school attracted numerous well- Paddock studied with him.2 Five years dage, a compound bandage for the qualified physicians to its faculty after receiving his medical degree, lower jaw made of leather and linen; and built an excellent reputation. Hamilton was appointed professor of the Hamilton test, which involves Nonetheless, the medical college surgery at Fairfield Medical College. luxation of the shoulder joint so that was forced to close its doors in Later, Dr Hamilton would serve as a rule or straight rod is applied to the 1840 because of competition from a military surgeon for 2 years during humerus and touches the outer numerous new medical colleges the Civil War and was appointed condyle and the acromion simulta- established in New York and sur- medical inspector of the US Army in neously11; and the Hamilton pseu- rounding states. During its 28-year 1863. He was one of the consulting dophlegmon, a circumscribed swell- lifetime, the medical college surgeons after President James ing that may become red and granted more than 600 candidates Garfield was shot and performed indurated but never suppurates.12 medical degrees, 18 of whom many well-known operations in became professors at other medical which he improved upon surgical PADDOCK FAMILY’S colleges. Besides Paddock, notable techniques of the time. His inven- MIGRATION TO SALEM graduates of the medical college tions include a bone drill and a bro- include William Mather, scientist ken jaw apparatus, and he invented After Paddock completed his asso- and professor of chemistry, miner- or modified apparatuses for nearly ev- ciation with Hamilton, Paddock, at alogy, and geology4; Asa Gray, ery long-bone fracture. He was the the age of 25, together with 3 genera- botanist; and Marcus Whitman, first to introduce the use of gutta- tions of his family, traveled west from missionary to the Native Ameri- percha, the rubbery sap from certain New York in a covered wagon to what cans of the Oregon Territory. tropical trees,8 in the manufacture of was then the Wisconsin Territory. Graduates of Fairfield also created splints to support irregular joint sur- This trip occurred in 1838 or 1839, a medical college in Ohio, named faces and was the first to use gutta- depending on the information source. for Westel Willoughby, MD.5 percha in interdental splints.9 In ad- On the way, he passed Chicago and,

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©2010 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 10/02/2021 according to local legend, described it as “a marsh with a few Indian huts scattered here and there.”13 He and his family settled between 2 lakes, now known as Paddock Lake and Hooker Lake, in the town of Salem, Wiscon- sin, located at the southeast corner of the state. The property would even- tually be inherited by Paddock’s son, Alva.14 The eldest member of the Pad- dock clan was David Paddock, Fran- cis’s grandfather, a Revolutionary War veteran who lived in Salem un- til his death in 1847 at the age of 94 years. He was called Blind David be- cause he was blinded by powder burn injuries that had occurred in 1777 while fighting with George Wash- ington during the Revolutionary War Figure 3. Lecture ticket from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of the Western District of New at the second Battle of Saratoga.15 York. Reprinted with permission from Echols M. American Civil War Medical & Surgical Antiques. http: Starting life in Wisconsin, the //www.braceface.com/medical. Accessed July 2, 2009. Paddock family purchased approxi- mately 400 acres of land from the tic pencil. His eye water of choice was government at $1.50 an acre and a solution of lead acetate. This solu- built a log cabin on the land.13 It was tionwasderivedfromWilliamAlden’s Francis Paddock’s original inten- famous recipe and had been adapted, tion to come to Wisconsin to help published, and further popularized his parents relocate and then go on in the United States by Benjamin to Michigan and begin a medical Rush, MD, at the University of Penn- practice there. However, his father sylvania. According to Rush’s instruc- became ill when they arrived. This tions, 1⁄16 oz of sugar of lead (also compelled him to give up his origi- known as lead acetate; it was referred nal plans and remain in Wisconsin to as a sugar because it was used as a to manage affairs, where he stayed sugar substitute, although with fatal for the rest of his life, practicing results because of its poisonous medicine as a frontier physician.2 nature)16 and1ozofwhitevitriolwere mixed with 2 qt of spring water. This PADDOCK’S PRACTICE OF solution was used directly or pack- OPHTHALMOLOGY aged in small ampules and instilled Figure 4. Frank Hastings Hamilton, MD.6 3 or 4 times a day.17 An alternative eye Between 1841 and 1852, Paddock re- drop used by Paddock was a solution same ledgers, for comparison, we note corded 5122 medical visits in his case- madeupof2gofzincsulfatedissolved 25 lb of beef was 60 cents, a pair of books, of which 156 (3.0%) were eye in 1 oz of water.18 Zinc sulfate was also “thick” shoes was 49 cents, and la- related (ie, 13 cases a year, or approxi- an ingredient in Dr Thompson’s Cel- borers were paid 50 cents a day. mately 1 case a month). Most of these ebrated Eye Water, a patent medicine Surgical procedures were mostly were external diseases that consisted commerciallyavailablefrom1795and of a minor nature. No cataract op- of inflammations of the eyelids, con- well into the 20th century. Its com- erations were recorded, although an junctiva, and cornea, as well as the position, however, was not listed on operation for strabismus is men- presence of foreign bodies, frequently the label until the passage of the Pure tioned in 1852, only a decade after described as “motes” or “dirt.” The Food and Drug Act in 1906.19 Pad- Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach first latter were extracted and the eye was dock also prescribed camphor drops performed this procedure. Signifi- irrigated.Patientswithinflammations and salves. For systemic use, he gave cantly, Hamilton, Paddock’s precep- were given topical medications in the some patients ipecac, opium, and po- tor, was an American pioneer in stra- form of eye drops (referred to as eye tassium sulfate. bismus surgery and, as mentioned, water or eye wash) or salves and These treatments were relatively published a monograph on the sub- pastes. These were prepared by Pad- expensive, with Paddock collecting an ject.10 Strabismus and stammering dock himself or commercially pre- approximate average of 90 cents for were generally thought at the time pared and stocked and dispensed by a “penciling” procedure, 50 cents for to be comparable diseases, both him. His preferred treatment for eye- a vial of eye water, and 25 cents for caused by contraction of the muscles lid inflammation was the application salves, with prices apparently ad- surrounding the eye or tongue. Four of silver nitrate in the form of a caus- justed to patients’ means. From the years after Hamilton’s monograph

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©2010 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 10/02/2021 was published, Paddock records cut- in the pantry and when his supplies Paddock practiced medicine un- ting the frenulum of a child’s tongue got low, he would divide what was til a few years before his death. He in treatment of stammering. left among his patients. He would pull died on March 29, 1889, in his home a tooth for 25 cents. One night he had in Salem21 and was buried in Union EXAMPLES OF EYE MEDICINE to deliver a newborn at a home with- Cemetery in Salem (Community Li- USED BEFORE AND AFTER out a candle. Thinking quickly, he brary Services, Salem Community Li- THE DATES OF THE put grease in a dish, placed a rag in- brary, written communication, March CASEBOOKS side, and lit it, giving him enough 9, 2009). In 1960, the hamlet known light to make the delivery.13 as Paddock Lake was approved to Other examples of eye medicines used separate from Salem and the Village by American physicians during the PADDOCK’S LEGACY: of Paddock Lake was created.20 approximate time of the Paddock CONTRIBUTIONS Thereby, Paddock’s name became casebooks (1841-1852) include those AS A PHYSICIAN AND forever linked to the community he used on the Lewis and Clark expedi- COMMUNITY LEADER helped establish. tion and on the Oregon Trail. For the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1803- On August 19, 1841, Paddock mar- IN CONTEXT: 19TH-CENTURY 1806), Meriwether Lewis included ried Martha Cecilla Munson, and they MEDICINE IN AMERICA much of his company’s medical sup- had 14 children together, 9 of whom AND WISCONSIN plies based on recommendations by survived to adulthood.2 Paddock was Dr Rush, even though Thomas Jef- the first medical professional in the It is important to fully understand ferson preferred herbal remedies. area20; however, he was, of necessity, Paddock and the challenges he faced Their medical supplies included 6 oz a man of multiple trades. When not as a frontier physician in Wiscon- of sacchar or sugar of lead (lead ac- engaged in his medical practice, he sin. To do so, one needs a basic un- etate) for the treatment of eye prob- was also a politician, businessman, derstanding of 19th-century medi- lems.18 Another example is from 1866, and a farmer. He eventually became cine and medical education in the when the John and Mary Louisa Black one of the wealthiest and most influ- United States and the state of Wis- family left Missouri bound for Or- ential members of his community.1 consin. egon. Before the family’s departure, He was a member of the Masons and their physician gave them a list of helped organize the Old Settlers’ Club 19TH-CENTURY medicines (with recommended doses) of Kenosha County,21 which was MEDICAL EDUCATION they should take with them. The list eventually moved to the south side survives. For the eyes, the physician of Paddock Lake in Salem, and enter- After the War of 1812, the number recommends: “sugar of lead–4 tained guests from around Wiscon- of medical schools increased rap- drachms [lead acetate] and eye water– sin,includingCongressmanandGov- idly. However, the medical school fa- made of 2 grains of sulpt of zinc to one ernor Robert La Follette.20 From 1842 cilities were simple, with only 2 ounce water. The doctor recom- to 1844, Paddock was the supervisor rooms for lectures and dissection; mended two ounces of water be made of Salem. He also served as the Com- there were no laboratories and few up.”18(pp133-134) missioner of Schools13 and Justice of libraries. The clinical instruction was the Peace.21 In 1855, he was elected poor, with a typical faculty consist- PADDOCK’S PRACTICE to the Wisconsin State Senate.22 ing of 5 to 7 professors who de- OF GENERAL MEDICINE In 1843, Paddock acquired an ad- rived their sole income from stu- ditional 281 acres of land from the dent fees for classes and private Regarding Paddock’s practice of gen- US Land Patent Office. He became lessons. The medical school year was eral medicine, it was similar to that well known and respected, not only a term of 3 to 4 months with only 2 described by other country physi- for his proficiency in treating fe- years of instruction required to at- cians in the mid-19th century. He vers, but also for his large cattle tain a medical degree, the second brought patients into this world and herd.20 The Paddock farm had be- year being a repeat of the first. helped them leave it. He set broken tween 1500 and 2000 sheep and, at Graded curriculum did not exist un- bones, treated gunshot wounds, and one time, more than 100 cows and til after 1850 and was considered a struggled with infections and dys- a similar number of horses. great medical school reform.23 Need- function of any and all of the organ Concerned with providing his chil- less to say, medical education in the systems with the limited knowledge dren the best education possible, Pad- first half of the 19th century was and rudimentary therapies that were dock’s land became the site of the Pad- lacking in nearly every conceivable available to him, with variable results. dock schoolhouse. According to local way, not resembling today’s rigor- Paddock was also an example of history, when there were no funds to ous preparation in the least. the typical country physician in that pay a teacher for the local children, Typically, a physician out of medi- he had to ride horseback for miles in he would keep a teacher in the house cal school would study as an appren- all kinds of Wisconsin weather. Lo- for his own children and the neigh- tice for a few years to an established cal history recalls him carrying medi- bor children and pay the salary him- physician. Apprentices managed the cine in saddlebags as howling wolves self. He converted the front room of established physician’s horses and followed him during the winter. He his home into a schoolroom for this acted as the physician’s chauffeur for would store his medicines on shelves purpose.13 house calls. They helped with repairs

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©2010 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 10/02/2021 and other household duties and filled sin, which encompasses most of the 19TH-CENTURY patients’ prescriptions. In return, the years of Paddock’s casebooks. The MEDICAL TREATMENT apprentices received room and board Wisconsin physician of that period and studied medicine with an experi- was on call every hour of every day One must remember that a major encedphysician.24 Itisunclearwhether of every year. The frontier physi- challenge faced by these frontier phy- Paddock had the opportunity to be- cian traveled on horseback, by horse- sicians was that 19th-century medi- come a physician’s apprentice, but if drawn buggy, or on foot. Saddle- cal treatments were crude and often so, it is likely that he may have been bags carried all surgical instruments, useless. “Heroic medicine,” also apprenticed to Dr Frank Hastings bandages, drugs, and an obstetrical known as allopathy, was commonly Hamilton; however, it cannot be de- case. Patients were typically scat- practiced from the 1790s to the mid- termined from available sources tered within a 20- to 25-mile ra- 1800s.25 It was a painful way to prac- whether Paddock was Hamilton’s ap- dius, and the physician travelled to tice medicine, causing more harm prentice or just his student. respond to their ailments at the than good and turning many pa- speed of 2 to 5 mph. During the win- tients against the medical profession. WISCONSIN MEDICAL ter, physicians rode sleighs or cut- Rush, of eye water fame, who most HISTORY ters, which often overturned in high likely influenced Hamilton (and, snow drifts. Proper clothing was through him, Paddock), was one of Besides 19th-century medical educa- critical to their survival. For their the most famous allopathic physi- tion, also relevant to this discussion hard work, most frontier physi- cians of the time. He told his stu- is Wisconsin medical history. Wis- cians earned paltry incomes be- dents that there was only one dis- consin became a territory in 1836. In ease: “morbid excitement induced by cause patients often did not pay their 25(p2) 1838, Paddock arrived at an untamed medical bills in cash but bartered capillary tension.” This phrase and sparsely populated frontier. There items such as food.24 Paddock was cannot be translated into modern wereonly11 683settlerslivinginWis- unique in this regard because he was terms. Rush claimed that there was consin when it became a territory. one of the wealthiest members of his only one remedy: a combination of However,between1836and1840,the community. bloodletting and the purging of the territory population increased by stomach and bowels.25 Bleeding, vom- The image of frontier medicine 164%, and the following decade it in- iting, and purging formed the basis of that carries over to this day is that creased almost 10-fold.24 One reason allopathic medicine. These “heroic” of a frontier physician mounting his forthisrapidgrowthwasthatWiscon- treatments created patient distrust and saddlebagged horse and heading out sin was marketed by local promoters fear of physicians.24 The physicians into the night to heal the sick in as “remarkably free from those causes who prescribed these treatments were of endemic diseases...which have dimly lit log cabins. These iconic referred to scornfully as “leeches,” and been the misfortune of large portions images provided a limited view of their treatments punished the sick and of Michigan, and the scourge of In- frontier medicine, but they were shortened lives. “Heroic” medical diana, Illinois, Missouri, and part of common, and they leave us with a practices dated back to antiquity, but Iowa.” It was declared “the healthi- recognized physician-patient rela- some medical historians blame Rush 24(p7) tionship model that has outlived the est of western States.” These bold 24 fortheirpopularitybecauseofhisgreat proclamations comforted fearful pro- frontier physician. Padddock fit the influence as the close friend of Presi- spective settlers because sickness and image of a frontier physician, but his dent Thomas Jefferson and other lead- premature death were common oc- education, training, ambition, and ersofthetime.Whenhespoke,people currences. However, this hyperbolic personal and financial success make listened and dissenting voices were praise was untrue, and many Wiscon- him a standout. drownedout.Ontheotherhand,Rush sin settlers died of any number of dis- Another frontier physician liv- helped the medical establishment eases. Malaria, cholera, smallpox, ty- ing in the Wisconsin territory progress by championing women’s phoidfever,dysentery,anderysipelas, around the same time was Thomas education and better treatment of the along with childhood diseases such Steel, MD. He was one of the best- poor.25 However, by the 1830s, allo- as scarlet fever, measles, and diphthe- trained physicians in the territory, pathic physicians were facing compe- ria, were common for pioneers on the having received his medical degree titionfrommorepopularhomeopathic Wisconsin frontier. These pioneers from the University of Glasgow, physicianswhoavoidedharsh“heroic” were helped little by the medical pro- Glasgow, Scotland, in 1833. He methods, “stressed the need for sym- fession, which did not understand settled in Waukesha County, not far pathetic attention,” and “provided an how diseases were caused and did not from Mukwonago near Spring Lake. alternative to the...excesses of or- know how to cure them. Anyone Steel described being a frontier phy- thodox physicians.”25(p5) Patients did could proclaim himself a “doctor.” sician as “a harassing occupation to not want to suffer any longer. Early Wisconsin residents tended to mind and body.”24(p21) The heavy their own medical needs, trying their burdens and responsibilities faced by 19TH-CENTURY AMERICAN own cures and falling prey to their frontier physicians are illuminated ATTITUDE TOWARD THE lack of knowledge and experience.24 by the fact that of 5 physicians in MEDICAL PROFESSION Wisconsin became a state in Waukesha County, of which Steel 1848. This happened during the pe- was 1, a total of 3 ended up with se- Such painful medical treatments help riod of frontier medicine in Wiscon- rious mental disorders.24 explain why the American attitude to-

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©2010 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 10/02/2021 ward the medical profession in the active ingredients of which in- falo Med Surg J. Vol 27. Buffalo, NY: Medical Jour- 19th century was not a favorable one. cluded lead acetate, zinc sulfate, sil- nal Association; 1886;90-91. 7. Leale CA, Hull AG, Wight JS. In Memoriam: Prof. A new political movement would fur- ver nitrate, and camphor. The cost of Frank Hastings Hamilton. New York, NY: Society ther erode public goodwill toward the treatment was high. of Medical Jurisprudence and State Medicine; medical profession. When Andrew Although Paddock’s casebooks 1886. Jackson was inaugurated as presi- give insight into the practice of a 8. Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. 8th ed. Philadel- phia, PA: Elsevier BV; 2009. dent in 1829, the medical profession Midwestern frontier physician in the 9. Shrady GF, ed. Frank Hastings Hamilton, MD, LLD, became a victim of the new out- mid-19th century, the man himself Obituary. In: The Medical Record: A Weekly Jour- break of Jacksonian democracy that is deserving of further study for his nal of Medicine and Surgery. Vol. 30. July 3, 1886– spread throughout the country. The effect on and contributions to his December 25, 1886. New York, NY: William Wood Jacksonian ideals set out to establish community. Frontier physicians & Co; 1886:185-186. 10. Wilson JG, Fiske J. Appletons’ Cyclopedia of Ameri- equality of all adult white men, or “the such as Paddock should not be for- can Biography. New York, NY: D Appleton & Co; common man.” Views that only gotten. They must have their sto- 1898. proven “best” men should be in ries told because to see where we are 11. Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary. 30th ed. charge of public affairs were seen as going, it is important to see where Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2003. 12. Stedman TL. A Practical Medical Dictionary. New elitist and thus abandoned. In medi- we have been. York, NY: W Wood & Co; 1922. cine, patients rejected “elitist” phy- 13. History: Dr Francis Paddock. Brass Ball Mobil Web sicians and believed anyone could be Submitted for Publication: August site. http://brassballmobil.com/history.php. Ac- cured by commonsense approaches. 7, 2009; final revision received Sep- cessed June 19, 2009. At the time, state and local medical 14. Plat map Kenosha County. University of Wiscon- tember 17, 2009; accepted Septem- sin Digital Collections Web site. http://digicoll societies were establishing medical ber 21, 2009. .library.wisc.edu. Accessed February 20, 2007. regulations, standards, and certifica- Correspondence: Daniel M. Al- 15. Guida B. Plaque honors Revolutionary War vet- tions. Fifteen states had institutions bert, MD, MS, Department of Oph- eran “Blind David” Paddock. Kenosha News Web that licensed physicians. However, thalmology and Visual Sciences, Uni- site. http://www.kenoshanews.com/paddocklake /plaque_honors_revolutionary_war_veteran during the 1830s, new attitudes that versity of Wisconsin, Clinical __blind_david__paddock_5007623.html. Ac- favored commonsense approaches Science Center, Room K6/412, 600 cessed June 19, 2009. over medical knowledge led the medi- Highland Ave, Madison, WI 53792 16. Human sensory reception. Encyclopædia Britan- cal profession to abolish state licens- ([email protected]). nica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked ing in most of these states. By the early /topic/534831/human-sensory-reception/64852 Financial Disclosure: None re- /Food-choice#ref=ref531420. Accessed September 1840s (the start of Paddock’s case- ported. 4, 2009. books), anyone could practice medi- Previous Presentations: This study 17. Frayer WC. Doctor Rush’s eye water and the op- cine regardless of qualifications. Sci- was presented in part at the Cogan ening of the American West. Surv Ophthalmol. entific medicine became consumed by Ophthalmic History Society 22nd 2001;46(2):185-189. 18 18. Dary D. Frontier Medicine: From the Atlantic to the medical quackery. It is to Pad- Annual Meeting; March 28, 2009; Pacific, 1492-1941. New York, NY: Alfred A Knopf; dock’s credit that he was able to main- Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 2008. tain a thriving medical practice and 19. Ferry AP, Ferry MK. Dr. Isaac Thompson and his celebrated eye water. Ophthalmology. 1984; was given such respect by his neigh- REFERENCES bors, considering the prevailing atti- 91(5):535-536. 20. Village of Paddock Lake Public Service Directory. tudes toward physicians during his 1. Curfman RJ. The Paddock Genealogy Descen- http://www.paddocklake.net/vertical/Sites years of practice. dants of Robert Paddock of Plymouth Colony, /%7BEDC08DFE-A619-4779-BD39-0ACEB2341921 Blacksmith and Constable, 1646. Fort Collins, CO: %7D/uploads/%7B17161E8D-801C-4D62 Curfman; 1986:176-177. -A48D-CD7B02650DA1%7D.DOC. Accessed June CONCLUSION 2. Portrait and Biographical Album of Racine and 19, 2009. Kenosha Counties, Wisconsin, Containing Bio- 21. Commemorative Biographical Record of Promi- Despite all the challenges, Paddock graphical Sketches of Prominent and Represen- nent and Representative Men of Racine and succeeded as a frontier physician and tative Citizens. Chicago, IL: Lake City Publishing Kenosha Counties, Wisconsin, Containing Bio- Co; 1892. graphical Sketches of Business and Professional a member of his community. As ex- 3. O’Donnell TC. Tip of the Hill: An Informal History Men and of Many of the Early Settled Families. Chi- emplified by his casebooks, treat- of the Fairfield Academy and the Fairfield Medi- cago, IL: JH Beers & Co; 1906:423. ment of the eye constituted a small cal College. Boonville, NY: Black River Books; 1953: 22. Stone FS. Racine, Belle City of the Lakes, and Racine but significant portion of the busy 23. County, Wisconsin: A Record of Settlement, Orga- general practice of medicine in mid- 4. Syracuse University. Fairfield Academy and Fair- nization, Progress and Achievement. Chicago, IL: field Medical College Collection: an inventory of SJ Clarke Publishing Co; 1916:314. 19th-century rural Wisconsin. Most the collection at Syracuse University. http://library 23. Starr P. The Social Transformation of American of the ocular disorders seen were .syr.edu/digital/guides/f/fairfield.htm. Accessed Medicine. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1982:42-43. blepharitis, conjunctivitis, keratitis, June 19, 2009. 24. Numbers RL, Leavitt JW, Medicine W. Historical and presence of foreign bodies. For- 5. Dieffenbacher J. The Town of Fairfield, Herkimer Perspectives. Madison: University of Wisconsin County, NY, 1996. Herkimer County Web site. http: Press; 1981. eign bodies were removed; inflam- //herkimer.nygenweb.net/fairfield.html. Ac- 25. Steele V. Bleed, Blister, and Purge: A History of mation and infections were treated cessed June 19, 2009. Medicine on the American Frontier. Missoula, MT: mostly with topical medications, the 6. Lothrop T, Davidson AR, eds. Editorial. In: Buf- Mountain Press Publications; 2005.

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