Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in , “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66.

THE STUDY OF POLITICAL CULTURE IN INDONESIA

Kacung Marijan

Introduction by the absorption of ideas of disciplines such as anthropology, psychology and This aims to review the literature on sociology into . On one hand, the political culture per se and on political political scientists influenced by the culture in Indonesia. Since its appearance, behavioral approach were more through paying more attention to the interested in the individual level and subjective aspect of politics in the political behavior occurring in informal classical studies of politics, the study of political institutions, while on the other political culture has stimulated debates hand, there were political scientists whose among political scientists. 1 The level of analysis emphasized the macro level and interest in political culture, however, has formal political institutions. The latter been uneven. While, in the 1960s, studies level was very influenced by sociology of political culture were fairly common and anthropology, while the former was among political scholars, in the 1970s, beholden to psychology. Political culture many turned to structural perspectives to theory was thus developed by political explain political phenomena after scientists as an attempt to forge a considering that the cultural perspective compromise between the two analytical could not provide satisfactory frameworks. As Pye explains: explanations. However, since the lat e The theory of political culture 1980s, the cultural perspective has once was developed in response to the again gained more attention. To begin, need to bridge a growing gap in the then, reviews this paper demonstrating the behavioral approach in political dynamics of political culture theory, science between the level of including some critiques of this theory. microanalysis based on This is followed by a survey of the study psychological interpretations of the of political culture in Indonesia. individual's political behavior and the level of macro-analysis based on the variables common to The Study of Political Culture political sociology.2

The emergence of the contemporary study Generally, there are two categories of political culture occurred in the late of the concept of political culture. 3 First, 1950s and the early 1960s in reaction to a political culture is understood structurally. polarization in the levels of analysis by This point of view looks at political political scientists - a polarization sparked culture as part of the political phenomena

57 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. consisting of attitudes, orientations, means the demands of society that become beliefs, emotion and images in society. materials for the political process in that Second, political culture is viewed system. Output object refers to the functionally or instrumentally. In this authoritative policies which are sense, political culture functions as the implemented. Finally, the self object is the determinant of political behavior. The involvement of individuals in both the second point of view seems to be the most political process and the policies' popular in , such as those implementation. Almond and Verba considering the contribution of political categorize three kinds of political culture in shaping democracy. It can be orientation: seen in the works of Almond and Verba, (1) "cognitive orientation," that is, Pye, Putnam, Rosenbaun, Kavanagh, knowledge of and belief about the Eckstein, and Diamond. 4 These authors , its roles and the believe that democracy requires particular incumbents of these roles, its values, beliefs and attitudes toward the inputs, and its outputs; (2) objects of politics. It can apparently be "affective orientation," or feeling seen in their cross-national studies of about the political system, its roles, political culture which recognize that to personnel, and performance, and some extent the different political cultures (3) "evaluational orientation," the of each nation influences the nature of judgments and opinion about their democracies. political objects that typically Perhaps the most influential study involve the combination of value of political culture in contemporary standards and criteria with political science is ’s and information and feelings. 8 Sydney Verba’s study on “civic culture”. This is an empirical study of five nations Almond and Verba mention three in which the concept of political culture forms of political culture based on these has been elaborated from Talcott Parson’s political orientations. The first is parochial and Edward Shils’s concept of "the political culture, which refers to those psychological orientations toward social people who have no political orientations objects."5 Almond and Verba claim that toward political objects.9 The second form “when we speak of the political culture of is subject political culture, that is, when the society, we refer to the political system people have a passive orientation towards as internalized in the cognitions, feelings, a political system and conceive and evaluations of its population.” 6 In this themselves as having minimum influence sense, political culture is understood by on the political process. 10 The third form questioning the orientation of people is participant political culture, referring to toward political objects, i.e.: the system as people who respond positively to all general object, input object, output political objects.11 However, they argue, objects, and the self object. 7 The system there is never a single political culture. object is the political system in general, The nature of a national political culture is including the roles or structures of a mixture of several political cultures. The political institutions such as the executive, ideal sort of political culture which ‘fits’ legislature, and bureaucracy. Input object well with democracy, and provides a 58 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. remarkable foundation for the existence of the so-called process of political political stability, is civic culture. Almond socialization. That is why one of the and Verba note that this kind of political focuses of the study of political culture is culture can be found in the USA and political socialization.14 Verba mentions Britain. two sources of political culture. First, it Almond and Verba emphasize that comes from the individual's experience in a democratic political system functions non-political situations such as in the properly if there is a balance between family, school, and peer group. The values “governmental power” and “governmental and beliefs coming from these institutions responsiveness”.12 Governmental power are assumed to influence the individual’s means elite in the political system gain attitude toward political objects. Second, authority from the people so that they are it comes directly from the operation of the more likely to decide and implement political process. As he argues, "one's policies legitimately. Governmental attitudes toward governmental output will responsiveness refers to the idea that the obviously be affected by what the elite should be accountable so that the produces."15 Another factor people can evaluate what the elite have that influences the performance of done. This condition enables the political political culture concerns the political system to achieve and maintain po litical history of the nation. stability. The civic culture is appropriate According to Verba, the study of and a necessary condition for democracy political culture helps us in understanding and political stability because it is a and explaining political change and mixture of parochial, subject and modernization. By considering that participant political cultures. In the civic political culture is "the system of beliefs political culture, political participation of about patterns of political interaction and people occurs without destroying political institutions" he believes that governmental authority because citizens political culture might be a guide to the are aware that the continuity of political development and changing of political system needs obedience from them. This institutions.16 His explanation, however, condition happens because the seems to be ambivalent when he states "to government implements its responsibility a large extent these beliefs may represent and accountability, and provides for stabilizing elements in a system." 17 people’s needs according to the abilities of Perhaps, because of such ambiguity, many political system. If the government does critics say that the perspective offered by not do this, it is possible that it will lose political culture was “conservative, static, its legitimacy and face the possibility of tautological, ignored power relations, and the people seeking to elect another could not explain change.” 18 It is also government at the next general electi on. understandable why many social scientists In a separate work, Verba explores in the 1970s and the 1980s favored a how political culture is formed. 13 He structural approach which emphasizes argues that political culture is a result of economical factors in explaining social the social processes throughout the life of and political change, an approach for individuals, namely, a learning process or example informing the work of O'Donnell, 59 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. which explains authoritarian phenomena institutions, and then to discuss the impact in .19 of this relation on the political culture. 23 The relationship between political Since the middle of the 1980s, culture and political structure, and the some political scientists have attempted to significant contribution of political culture revive the glorious days of the study of in the appearance of democracy and political culture. Inglehart calls this effort political stability, is also questioned, as the "renaissance of political culture". 24 has been discussed by Barry and The revival of the cultural approach, Pateman.20 Barry argues that, even though according to Inglehart, is occurring Almond and Verba provide magnificent because the rational choice model which data, there is insufficient explanation focuses on economic variables and which about the relationship between public has dominated perspectives in political attitudes and the working of a political science since the late 1960s, could not system.21 The relationship between provide satisfactory answers to some political culture and political structure, political phenomena, such as the influence and also with democracy and political of the church in Latin America and the stability, is not simply linear. As Pateman involvement of (, Judais m notes, political structure or the democratic and ) in the political tensions political system can produce civic culture of the . 25 Basically, because, through democratic institutions culturalists argue that the cultural factor is such as political parties, elections, one of the main variables determining parliament, and a set of rules of law, political behavior. As Wildavsky people and political elite eventuall y work mentions, culture, in the sense of “shared in the democratic framework as well. values legitimating social practices”, From another point of view, Wiatr also provides guidance for individual’s questions that relationship. 22 Departing political behavior.26 It means that when from the Marxist perspective that political individuals participate in politics, their consciousness reflects the development of basic consideration is not merely one political economics of society, he agrees concerning costs and benefits as rational with Pateman that political structure choice suggests, but also their values. (including the people’s social, economic In addition, Eckstein defends the and status), contributes to political culture. argument that political culture is dynamic. However, he differs from Pateman’s To support the argument that political position that the relationship is culture can explain political change, he interdependent, viewing instead that reminds us of some postulates of social political structure as a more independent scientists using the cultural political variable. This notion refers to the vulgar orientations are not homogenous but have Marxist thought that existence determines variations and are not solely “subjective” consciousness. Political culture, therefore, reflections of the objective conditions. is one of the forms of superstructure According to this postulate, the which is determined by the mode of socialization of individuals influences production. Thus, he suggests there is a their orientations. This leads to the third need to analyze the relationship between postulate of “cumulative socialization”, socio-economic reality and political meaning that socialization occurs during 60 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. the whole life of an individual. 27 In democracy, a country should have certain explaining political change, it seems that values such as "moderation, cooperation, Eckstein refers to Parson's theory of bargaining, and accommodation among “pattern-maintaining change”. In this political elite".31 For these scholars, those sense, change happens under the direction values implying the existence of tolerance of certain patterns through which the and pragmatism are important for values and norms of society play an democratic society because with them, important role. distrust and political conflicts, among Generally speaking, culturalists others, can be minimized. According to argue that the cultural approach has a Diamond, their point of view has significant function in explaining political weaknesses due to the fact that they ignore events, even in shaping political behavior the importance of mass culture as another and democracy. In addition, in explaining element of political culture. They also do this notion, Diamond argues that many not give much attention to the complexity critics of the cultural perspective of processes which embody political misunderstand cultural determinism for behavior, focusing more on the behavior three reasons.28 First, referring to itself.32 Probably, this notion appears Almond's theoretical argument, he because Diamond considers (coming from emphasizes that culture does not solel y a pluralistic point of view) that in order to determine democracy - it is one of the study the political culture of the nation, factors that affect democracy. In this one must consider the sub-political sense, political culture is seen as an cultures of that society, including the mass intervening variable.29 The second reason who support the entire political system. is empirical. As Diamond points out, Diamond appears to be saying that if one democracy is not shaped and reshaped by ignores the political culture of the mass, culture alone but also by other factors as this implies that the mass do not have the well, such as the changes of economical same level of tolerance and pragmatism and social structures, international factors, political culture as the elite, while in fact and political practices in the political this feature is also found in the mass. system.30 The last is a normative reason. The critiques of Diamond are He argues that political culture is open to probably right since we must look at the evolution and change. This notion can be complexity of political culture and the seen in the fact that a number of states, important of mass culture in its such as Germany, Japan, Spain, and Italy, establishment. However, the argument of evolved into democracies even though those who pay attention to the elite is also formerly they were not considered to have probably right since we argue that, in the those particular values related to indirect model of democracy, which is democracy because of their authoritar ian commonly implemented in the democratic and totalitarian characteristics. states, the position of elite is inevitably Diamond also criticizes some more important in terms of the power they political scientists such as Almond, Verba, wield than the position of the masses. This Lipset, Dahl, Putnam and Inkeles who notion becomes more relevant when we argue that, in developing and maintaining analyze the political culture of societies 61 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. which, to some extent, still embody symbols, a system of paternalistic values such as in Indonesian inherited conceptions society. In this sense, the study of politic al expressed in symbolic forms culture among elite is still important. by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about attitudes toward life. 34 Studying Indonesian Political Culture On the basis of this sense, and then The model of “civic culture” in studying connecting with the Javanese social political culture has not really been structures of "market," "village," and applied by those who have studied "bureaucracy," he mentions three forms of Indonesian politics. Notwithstanding, as , namely santri, Robison points out, "culture has long been and priyayi.35 The santri is a devout a prominent explanatory for Western Muslim who is associated with a market analysts of Indonesian politics, in part social structure and affiliated with the because orientalist approaches have modernist scripturalist party, Masyumi, strongly influenced Western studies of and the traditionalist scripturalist party, non-Western societies."33 He argues that NU. The abangan is a Javanese based social scientists studying Indonesian peasant Muslim who performs Islam politics such as Kahin, Geertz, Feith, partially, being heavily influenced by the Castles, Anderson, Liddle, and others, pre-Islamic traditions, and who was have been heavily influenced, for instance, affiliated with the Indonesian Communist by Weber's concept of "systems of Party (PKI) and the Indonesian National meaning" and the Parsonian concepts of Party (PNI). The priyayi is the Javanese structural-functionalism such as "role," noble and bureaucrat who is influenced by "norms," "values," and "legitimacy". In Indic traditions and is associated with the this sense, it can be concluded that social PNI. scientists studying Indonesian politics Geertz's framework has been used have applied a cultural perspective in by a number of social scientists, such as which culture is assumed as one of the Howell, in explaining the political important instruments in understanding behavior of the Javanese voters. 36 Donald political phenomena in Indonesia. Emerson also use the concepts of santri The concept of the stream of and abangan with several critiques while beliefs (aliran), for example, according to analyzing the political culture of the prominent anthropologist Clifford Geertz, Indonesian elite.37 In his research he has contributed to the rise of the political found that the Indonesian political elite tensions in Indonesian politics. By means with santri background were less of this, essentially, Weberian concept he compromising, and less pragmatic than argues that the political affiliation of the the abangan. In addition, whilst also using Javanese relates to their culture which he a cultural perspective, but with difference defines as an: point of view, Herbert Feith explains the historically transmitted pattern political conflicts among the Indonesian of the meanings embodied in political elite in the early decades of 62 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66.

Indonesian independence as being due to hierarchical than Javanism. However, the fact that the elite had different values there is also a contradiction between as well as different idea on the ways to Western political culture and Islamic develop Indonesia. In this Feith has political culture. The former is secular and distinguished two types of Indonesian the latter is more theocratic. Liddle is elite, namely "administrators" and concerned with the contrast between the "solidarity makers".38 The first elite are indigenous political culture and Western those who are “leaders with the political culture. In view of his argument administrative, technical, legal and (of a transition from transition from foreign-language skills”. They are tradition to modernity) he suggests that reflected in the figure of Vice President the modern political Hatta. Meanwhile, the second should be dominated by the liberal and elite are those who are “skilled as ‘rational’ (read, modern) ideological mediators between groups at different system. This notion is similar to the levels of modernity and political argument of political development affectiveness, as mass organizers, and as theorists that the ultimate goal of political manipulators of integrative symbols” as development basically is a democratic personified by President Soekarno. secular state in which the influence of Conflicts between the two were ended traditional values, including the religions, when Muhammad Hatta withdrew from are marginalised. the position of Vice President in 1956. Actually, the contradiction within After that, power became concentrated i n the building of Indonesian political culture President Soekarno and, in the New is not as sharp as Liddle seems to suggest. Order, with President Soeharto. Since Islam came to Indonesia in the William Liddle situates Indonesian thirteenth century, for instance, there has political culture in the context of the been an acculturation process in which, to transformation from traditional to modern some extent, Islam absorbed the pre-Islam culture. Traditional political culture, he traditions whilst Javanism also took on states, is symbolized by the various parts of Islamic values. That is why the ethnicities, religions and other local Islamic feature in , including the cultures, whereas modern political culture tradition within NU, seems more is understood as part of western political paternalistic than in Islam as stated in the culture. In the traditional political culture, holy Qur'an and the Prophet Muhammad Indonesia is dominated by Javanism tradition. The kiai, for example, has which, in terms of the relationship particular privileges and “should be between the ruling elite and the people, is benevolent”, and the ummat (people) characterized by patron-client follows the teachings of Islam from kiai relationships. In this sort of relation, and “should be obedient”. Processes of Liddle highlights that “the leader should “acculturation” and mixture, may occur be benevolent and the people should be between all indigenous cultures and obedient”.39 To some extent, the Javanese . Therefore, the future culture opposes both Islam and western form of the Indonesian political culture political culture. Both of the latter are less 63 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. might be different from Liddle’s is not embodied by horizontal prediction. heterogeneity but more by vertical Furthermore, in applying a cultural heterogeneity or class. perspective to the study of Indonesian In contrast, the "innovators" politics, Liddle places culture in the attempt to improvise political culture in dynamic process. He understands culture order to obtain a more democratic political as “pattern of values, beliefs, and system. This group, according to Liddle, customs,” not a permanent and immutable consists of a number of political activis ts, thing but immanent and improvised in intellectuals, and parts of state accordance with its environmental apparatus.43 In demanding a more context, changing from one generation to democratic system they are also supported another.40 In an attempt to explain this by international forces which, since the point of view, Liddle looks at the interplay late 1980s, have been concerned with between political culture of the democratisation in authoritarian and “defenders” and the “innovators” in totalitarian states. The target of Indonesia. The "defenders" political “innovators” might be a sort of “civic culture is a set of beliefs to maintain the culture” as Almond and Verba suggest. political status-quo. Liddle describes the "defenders" as having resources such as: a supporting cast of tens of Conclusion millions of believers, many of whom are mobilisable against Studies of political culture basically change; the cultural and social attempt to look at the subjective aspect of inertia that typically accompanies political life. A set of values, beliefs, and long-held beliefs, a high degree of attitudes, is often regarded as political ‘recoverability’ or capacity to culture which underlines democracy and adapt to new situations; and political stability or otherwise. Some powerful networks of social forces studies, alternatively, suggest that political and institutions with an interest in structure contributes to the establishment their preservation.41 of political culture. The civic culture, for instance, is determined by demo cratic The concept of “defender” seems to me political structure, rather than vice versa. similar to Gramsci’s concept of hegemony In this sense, political culture is part of in which, a particular class attempts to political context, as this study suggests. In obtain support from other classes through studying the Indonesian political culture coercion and persuasion. 42 Creating a many scholars realize that there are culture which provides supports for the various cultures in Indonesia sinc e ruling class is included in this process. Indonesia is regarded as a plural society in Liddle’s perception of “defenders” is terms of ethnicity, race, , and different from the concept of hegemony, class. As a consequence, the portrait of the however, because in his understanding, it Indonesian political culture is basically means more pluralism. Gramsci’s concept still one of a process of interactions, even of hegemony, however, deals with classes contradictions, among its components. of society in which the interests of people The most important part of that process in 64 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. contemporary Indonesia, as Liddle has 5 emphasized, is the interplay between the Almond and Verba, op. cit., p. 13. 6 supporters of the ruling groups political Loc. cit. 7 culture and the supporters of a more ibid., pp. 13-14. 8 democratic political system. ibid., p. 14. 9ibid., p. 16. 10ibid., p. 17. 11 Endnotes ibid., p. 18. 12ibid., p. 341. 1See, G. Almond, “The Study of 13S. Verba, “Comparative Political Political Culture,” in G. Almond (ed.), A Culture,” in Pye and Verba, op. cit., p. Discipline Divided: Schools & Sects in 550. Political Science, (California: Sage 14Kavanagh, op. cit., pp 28-36; D. Publication), 1990. Cattell and R. Sisson, Comparative 2L. Pye, “Introduction,” in L. Pye Politics: Institutions, Behaviour, and and S. Verba (eds.), Political Culture and Development, (California: Mayfield Pub. Political Development (Princeton: Co., 1978), pp. 142-235. Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 8. 15Verba, op. cit., p. 553. 3J. Pammett and M. Whittington, 16ibid., p. 516. “Introduction: Political Culture and 17ibid., p. 519. Political Socialization,” in J. Pammett and 18M. Thomson, et.al., Cultural M. Whittington (eds.), Foundation of Theory, (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990), Political Culture and Political p. 215. Socialization in Canada (Toronto: The 19See, G ’Donnell, Modernization Macmillan Company of Canada, 1976), p. and Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism: 31. Studies in South American Politics , 4See, G. Almond and S. Verba, (Berkeley: Institute of International The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Studies, University of California, 1973). Democracy in Five Nations, First Sage 20B Barry, Sociologists, Printing (London: Sage Publications, Economists and Democracy, (London: 1989); L. Pye, op. cit.; R. Putnam, Collier-Macmillan, 1970). C. Pateman, “Studying Elite Political Culture: The “Political Culture, Political Structure and Case of Ideology,” The American Political Political Change,” British Journal of Science Review, Vol LXV, September Political Science, Vol. 1, 1971, and “The 1971; D. Kavanagh, Political Culture, Civic Culture: A Philosophic Critique,” in (London: Macmillan, 1972); W. G. Almond and S. Verba (eds), The Civic Rosenbaum, Political Culture, (London: Culture: Revisited, (Boston: Little, Brown Nelson, 1975); H. Eckstein, “A Culturalist and Company, 1980). Theory of Political Change,” American 21Barry, ibid., p. 48. Political Science Review,” Vol. 82, No. 3, 22J. Wiatr, “Civic Culture from a 1988; L. Diamond (ed), Political Culture Marxist Sociological Perspective,” in and Democracy in Developing Countries , Almond and Verba (eds), “Civic Culture: (London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1994). Revisited,” op. cit.

65 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66.

23ibid., p. 114. 39W. Liddle, Politics and Culture 24R. Inglehart, “The Renaissance in Indonesia, (Columbus: The Ohio State of Political Culture,” American Political University, Centre for Political Studies Science Review, Vol. 82, No. 2, 1988. Institute for Social Research The 25ibid., p. 1203. University of Michigan, 1988), p. 1. 26A. Wildavsky, “Choosing 40W. Liddle, Leadership and Preferences by Constructing Institutions: Culture in Indonesian Politics, (Sydney: A Cultural Theory of Preference,” Allen & Unwin, 1996), p 143. American Political Science Review, Vol. 41ibid., p. 153. 81, No. 1, 1987, pp. 5-6. This notion 42R. Simon, Gramsci’s Political seems similar to the concept of ideology. Thought: An Introduction, (London: The different is, culture constitutes many Lawrence and Wishart, 1982), pp. 20 -28 kind of social practices, while the 43Liddle, “Leadership…” op. cit., ideology is more related to the political p. 159. sphere. <<<<<>>>>> 27Eckstein, op, cit., pp. 790-791. 28Diamond, “Introduction,” in Diamond (ed), op. cit., pp. 9-10. 29ibid., p. 9. 30ibid. 31ibid., p. 10. 32ibid. 33R. Robison, “Culture, Politics, and Economy in the Political History of the ,” Indonesia, No. 31, 1981, p. 1. 34C. Geertz, The Interpretation of Culture: Selected Essays, (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1973), p. 89. 35C. Geertz, The Religion of Java, (London: Free Press, 1960). 36J. Howell, “Javanese Religious Orientations in the Residency of ,” in Carol A. Smith (ed), Regional Analysis, Vol. II: Social System (New York: Academic Press, 1976). 37D. Emerson, Indonesia’s Elite: Political Culture and Cultural Politics , (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976). 38H. Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia , (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), pp. 113-123. 66