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The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan Dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66

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The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan Dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. THE STUDY OF POLITICAL CULTURE IN INDONESIA Kacung Marijan Introduction by the absorption of ideas of disciplines such as anthropology, psychology and This paper aims to review the literature on sociology into politics. On one hand, the political culture per se and on political political scientists influenced by the culture in Indonesia. Since its appearance, behavioral approach were more through paying more attention to the interested in the individual level and subjective aspect of politics in the political behavior occurring in informal classical studies of politics, the study of political institutions, while on the other political culture has stimulated debates hand, there were political scientists whose among political scientists. 1 The level of analysis emphasized the macro level and interest in political culture, however, has formal political institutions. The latter been uneven. While, in the 1960s, studies level was very influenced by sociology of political culture were fairly common and anthropology, while the former was among political scholars, in the 1970s, beholden to psychology. Political culture many turned to structural perspectives to theory was thus developed by political explain political phenomena after scientists as an attempt to forge a considering that the cultural perspective compromise between the two analytical could not provide satisfactory frameworks. As Pye explains: explanations. However, since the lat e The theory of political culture 1980s, the cultural perspective has once was developed in response to the again gained more attention. To begin, need to bridge a growing gap in the then, reviews this paper demonstrating the behavioral approach in political dynamics of political culture theory, science between the level of including some critiques of this theory. microanalysis based on This is followed by a survey of the study psychological interpretations of the of political culture in Indonesia. individual's political behavior and the level of macro-analysis based on the variables common to The Study of Political Culture political sociology.2 The emergence of the contemporary study Generally, there are two categories of political culture occurred in the late of the concept of political culture. 3 First, 1950s and the early 1960s in reaction to a political culture is understood structurally. polarization in the levels of analysis by This point of view looks at political political scientists - a polarization sparked culture as part of the political phenomena 57 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. consisting of attitudes, orientations, means the demands of society that become beliefs, emotion and images in society. materials for the political process in that Second, political culture is viewed system. Output object refers to the functionally or instrumentally. In this authoritative policies which are sense, political culture functions as the implemented. Finally, the self object is the determinant of political behavior. The involvement of individuals in both the second point of view seems to be the most political process and the policies' popular in political science, such as those implementation. Almond and Verba considering the contribution of political categorize three kinds of political culture in shaping democracy. It can be orientation: seen in the works of Almond and Verba, (1) "cognitive orientation," that is, Pye, Putnam, Rosenbaun, Kavanagh, knowledge of and belief about the Eckstein, and Diamond. 4 These authors political system, its roles and the believe that democracy requires particular incumbents of these roles, its values, beliefs and attitudes toward the inputs, and its outputs; (2) objects of politics. It can apparently be "affective orientation," or feeling seen in their cross-national studies of about the political system, its roles, political culture which recognize that to personnel, and performance, and some extent the different political cultures (3) "evaluational orientation," the of each nation influences the nature of judgments and opinion about their democracies. political objects that typically Perhaps the most influential study involve the combination of value of political culture in contemporary standards and criteria with political science is Gabriel Almond’s and information and feelings. 8 Sydney Verba’s study on “civic culture”. This is an empirical study of five nations Almond and Verba mention three in which the concept of political culture forms of political culture based on these has been elaborated from Talcott Parson’s political orientations. The first is parochial and Edward Shils’s concept of "the political culture, which refers to those psychological orientations toward social people who have no political orientations objects."5 Almond and Verba claim that toward political objects.9 The second form “when we speak of the political culture of is subject political culture, that is, when the society, we refer to the political system people have a passive orientation towards as internalized in the cognitions, feelings, a political system and conceive and evaluations of its population.” 6 In this themselves as having minimum influence sense, political culture is understood by on the political process. 10 The third form questioning the orientation of people is participant political culture, referring to toward political objects, i.e.: the system as people who respond positively to all general object, input object, output political objects.11 However, they argue, objects, and the self object. 7 The system there is never a single political culture. object is the political system in general, The nature of a national political culture is including the roles or structures of a mixture of several political cultures. The political institutions such as the executive, ideal sort of political culture which ‘fits’ legislature, and bureaucracy. Input object well with democracy, and provides a 58 Kacung Marijan, “The Study of Political Culture in Indonesia, “ Masyarakat Kebudayaan dan Politik, Th XII, No 2, April 1999, 57-66. remarkable foundation for the existence of the so-called process of political political stability, is civic culture. Almond socialization. That is why one of the and Verba note that this kind of political focuses of the study of political culture is culture can be found in the USA and political socialization.14 Verba mentions Britain. two sources of political culture. First, it Almond and Verba emphasize that comes from the individual's experience in a democratic political system functions non-political situations such as in the properly if there is a balance between family, school, and peer group. The values “governmental power” and “governmental and beliefs coming from these institutions responsiveness”.12 Governmental power are assumed to influence the individual’s means elite in the political system gain attitude toward political objects. Second, authority from the people so that they are it comes directly from the operation of the more likely to decide and implement political process. As he argues, "one's policies legitimately. Governmental attitudes toward governmental output will responsiveness refers to the idea that the obviously be affected by what the elite should be accountable so that the government produces."15 Another factor people can evaluate what the elite have that influences the performance of done. This condition enables the political political culture concerns the political system to achieve and maintain po litical history of the nation. stability. The civic culture is appropriate According to Verba, the study of and a necessary condition for democracy political culture helps us in understanding and political stability because it is a and explaining political change and mixture of parochial, subject and modernization. By considering that participant political cultures. In the civic political culture is "the system of beliefs political culture, political participation of about patterns of political interaction and people occurs without destroying political institutions" he believes that governmental authority because citizens political culture might be a guide to the are aware that the continuity of political development and changing of political system needs obedience from them. This institutions.16 His explanation, however, condition happens because the seems to be ambivalent when he states "to government implements its responsibility a large extent these beliefs may represent and accountability, and provides for stabilizing elements in a system." 17 people’s needs according to the abilities of Perhaps, because of such ambiguity, many political system. If the government does critics say that the perspective offered by not do this, it is possible that it will lose political culture was “conservative, static, its legitimacy and face the possibility of tautological, ignored power relations, and the people seeking to elect another could not explain change.” 18 It is also government at the next general electi on. understandable why many social scientists In a separate work, Verba explores in the 1970s and the 1980s favored a how political culture is formed. 13 He structural approach which emphasizes argues that political culture is a result of economical factors in explaining social the social processes
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