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Ethnolinguistic Vitality and Language Behavior Among Indigenous Speakers of Quichua in Ecuador

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Ethnolinguistic Vitality and Language Behavior Among Indigenous Speakers of Quichua in Ecuador CAN MINORITY LANGUAGES SURVIVE IN A SITUATION OF SUSTAINED BILINGUALISM? ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY AND LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR AMONG INDIGENOUS SPEAKERS OF QUICHUA IN ECUADOR by Sonia Lenk Licenciatura, Universidad Católica del Ecuador, 1987 Master of Arts, Bowling Green State University, 1996 Master of Education, Bowling Green State University, 1996 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Pittsburgh in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh thA? 2007 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Sonia Lenk It was defended on April 9, 2007 and approved by Pascual Masullo, Associate Professor, Department of Linguistics Elaine Rubinstein, Adjunct Assistant Professor, Department of Health Information Management, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Office of Measurement and Evaluation Teaching Bruce Stiehm, Associate Professor Emeritus, Department of Hispanic Languages and Literatures Dissertation Advisor/Director: Robert DeKeyser, Professor, Program in Second Language Acquisition, School of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, University of Maryland ii Copyright © by Sonia Lenk 2007 iii CAN MINORITY LANGUAGES SURVIVE IN A SITUATION OF SUSTAINED BILINGUALISM? ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY AND LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR AMONG INDIGENOUS SPEAKERS OF QUICHUA IN ECUADOR Sonia Lenk, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2007 Abstract In this study, I examine the sociological, socio-psychological, and psychological domains of two Quichua-speaking communities—one urban and one rural—in Imbabura, Ecuador. The goal of the study is to determine the ethnolinguistic vitality (EV) of these two groups, and, ultimately, to predict whether a situation of language maintenance or language shift will prevail. Previous studies of EV have considered one of these three domains, but very few have considered all three. Furthermore, none has sought to measure ethnolinguistic vitality in the Quichua context. This study examines the role of various factors, particularly the individual network of linguistic contacts, in the survival of a particular language and ethnic group. Giles, Bourhis, and Taylor introduced the notion of ethnolinguistic vitality—defined as “…that which makes a group likely to behave as a distinctive and active collective entity in intergroup situations” (1977, p. 308)—in the late 1970s as a theoretical framework for analyzing intergroup relations within a contact situation. Those with little vitality eventually cease to exist as distinctive linguistic groups within the intergroup setting. Allard and Landry (1987) developed a macroscopic model, including Giles et al.’s notions of objective (sociological level) and subjective (psychological level) EV, and adding to them the notion of individual networks of linguistic contacts (socio-psychological level) to mediate between the other two levels. This macroscopic model is the one I have followed in this study. iv To examine the sociological level, I used census and descriptive data. To investigate both the socio-psychological and the psychological levels, I used quantitative and qualitative approaches. I employed questionnaires, orally administered to a sample of 100 Indigenous persons between the ages of 18 and 25, and six elite interviews with Indigenous leaders. The findings of this study reveal the importance of the individual network of linguistic contacts for maintenance of a stable bilingual situation. At the same time they reveal the pervasive influence of the dominant language and culture, which threatens to undermine efforts to maintain and revitalize the ethnic language. Only with considerable planning and effort will these two communities be able to maintain Quichua in a stable bilingual situation. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ...................................................................................................................... XIV 1.0 CHAPTER 1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION: LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE ........................ 1 1.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK..................................................... 10 1.2.1 The Interactive Acculturation Model (IAM)..................................... 10 1.2.1.1 Acculturation Orientations from the Perspective of Subordinate Groups ................................................................................................. 12 1.2.1.2 Acculturation Orientations from the Perspective of Superordinate Groups ................................................................................................. 14 1.2.1.3 Agreement or Disagreement Between Superordinate and Subordinate Group Orientations ...................................................... 15 1.2.1.4 Acculturation Orientation from the Perspective of the State......... 16 1.2.1.5 Superordinate Group Alignment with State Acculturation Policies .............................................................................................................. 17 1.2.1.6 U.N. Mandate for Multicultural Policies .......................................... 18 1.2.2 Social identity theory ........................................................................... 19 1.2.3 Ethnolinguistic Vitality........................................................................ 24 1.2.3.1 Demographic Factors ......................................................................... 28 1.2.3.2 Institutional Support Factors ............................................................ 30 1.2.3.3 Status Factors...................................................................................... 36 1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 39 2.0 CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY............................................................... 59 2.1 CENSUS & DESCRIPTIVE DATA PART....................................... 61 2.2 QUANTITATIVE PART .................................................................... 62 2.2.1 Participants........................................................................................... 62 2.2.2 Quantitative Instrument: Questionnaires.......................................... 63 2.2.2.1 Questions on the Background of Respondents................................. 63 2.2.2.2 Questions on Language Use of Respondents.................................... 64 2.2.2.3 Socio-Psychological Factors............................................................... 64 2.2.2.4 Psychological Level............................................................................. 68 2.2.3 Validity and Reliability of Allard and Landry’s Beliefs on Ethnolinguistic Vitality Questionnaires and Networks of Linguistic Contacts Questionnaires...................................................................... 73 2.2.3.1 Validity of the BEVQ.......................................................................... 74 2.2.3.2 Reliability of the BEVQ...................................................................... 77 vi 2.2.4 Procedure.............................................................................................. 79 2.2.5 Scoring of Results................................................................................. 82 2.2.5.1 Scoring of Socio-Psychological Factors ............................................ 82 2.2.5.2 Scoring of Psychological Factors....................................................... 83 2.3 QUALITATIVE PART ....................................................................... 84 2.3.1 Rationale for Conducting Elite Interviews........................................ 84 2.3.2 Participants in Elite Interviews and Their Affiliations .................... 85 3.0 CHAPTER 3. SOCIOLOGICAL LEVEL: OVERVIEW OF THE ECUADORIAN CONTEXT ........................................................................ 90 3.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CAPITAL ............................................................. 91 3.1.1 Demographic Capital in Ecuador....................................................... 91 3.1.2 Demographics of Quechua/Quichua .................................................. 93 3.1.3 Demographics of Otavalo and Cotacachi .......................................... 93 3.1.4 Changing Demographics ..................................................................... 96 3.2 POLITICAL CAPITAL ...................................................................... 97 3.2.1 The Indigenous Movement in Ecuador.............................................. 97 3.2.2 Local Political Organizations and Representatives ........................ 102 3.3 ECONOMIC CAPITAL.................................................................... 104 3.3.1 Economic Overview ........................................................................... 105 3.3.2 Economic Situation in the Cantones of Otavalo and Cotacachi .... 108 3.4 CULTURAL CAPITAL .................................................................... 111 3.4.1 Education............................................................................................ 112 3.4.2 Religion ............................................................................................... 116 3.4.3 Customs, Traditions, and Celebrations ........................................... 118 3.4.4 Media................................................................................................... 119 3.4.4.1 Newspapers.......................................................................................
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