THE USE OF MEDICINAL BY THE INDIANS OF ~

WILLIAM MILLIKEN AND BRUCE ALBERT

Milliken, W. (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TWP 3AE, England). and B. Albert (ORSTOM (MAA), 213 rue La Fayette, 75480 Paris cedex IO, France). THE USE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS BY THE YANOMAMI INDIANS OF BRAZIL. Economic Botany 50(2):10-25. 1996. The results of the first detailed study of the use of medicinal plants by a group of Yanomami Indians are presented. Contrary to previous assumptions, they are shown to possess a sub- stantial pharmacopoeia, including at least 113 species of plants and fungi. The changes in their use and knowledge of medicine are discussed in the context of the past and present influences on the Yanomami by the outside world.

Uso de plantas medicinais pelos indios Yanomami do Brasil. 0 presente trabalho apresenta OS resultados obtidos atraves do primeiro estudo detalhado a respeito do uso de plantas medicinais por urn grupo de indios Yanomami. Ao contrdrio do que se acreditava anteriormente, estes indios possuem uma farmacope’ia considerdvel, na qua1 incluem-se, pelo menos, 113 especies de plantas e jimgos. As mudanGas ocorridas no uso e no conhecimento das plantas medicinais sao discutidas no context0 das infIu&ncias que OS Yanomami v&m sofrendo atraves do contato corn o mundo exterior, tanto no passado coma no presente. Key Words: Yanomami; medicinal plants; AmazGnia; phytotherapy; intellectual property rights.

Although this paper is primarily a discussion mi territory. The long-term objective was to pro- of the medicinal plants used by a group of Yan- vide a base of information for future use by omami Indians, and those plants have been col- health workers in the re-establishment of tradi- lected and identified using rigorous ethnobotan- tional health practices (where appropriate), and ical procedures, only those medicinal species in the control of the dependence on introduced whose properties are widely used and which are allopathic medicine which has become estab- already well documented have been mentioned lished amongst the majority of the tribe. by name. This is a deliberate attempt to combine The Yanomami Indians have, since 1950, protection of the intellectual property rights of been the subject of a great deal of (primarily those people with scientific reporting. It is hoped anthropological) research. Their use of plants that it will help to emphasize the urgent need for has been discussed, occasionally in some detail, a satisfactory and equitable solution to an issue in the general anthropological literature (e.g., which ethnobiologists ought not to be able to Fuentes 1980; Lizot 1984: Ch. IV), but also by ignore. specific ethnobotanical studies (e.g., Anderson 1978; Prance 1972, 1984). Discussion of Yano- THEYANOMAMI mami curing techniques has, rightly, been fo- The data discussed in this paper were collect- cussed mainly upon their shamanic practices, ed during two visits by the authors to the Yan- and their associated use of hallucinogenic plants omami village of Watorikitheri in July-August (Virola spp. [] and Anadenanthera 1993 and July-August 1994. The principal aim peregrina (L.) Speg. [Leguminosae] etc.) has of the visits was to gather information for inclu- been documented in detail (e.g., Biocca 1979a; sion in a bilingual health manual, for use by Brewer-Carias and Steyermark 1976; Chagnon, medical personnel working within the Yanoma- Le Quesne, and Cook 1970, 1971; Prance 1970; Schultes and Holmstedt 1968; Seitz 1967). This I Received 25 March 1994; accepted 1 May 1995. is indisputably the most evident and the most

Economic Botany 50(l) pp. 10-25. 1996 J 0 1996 by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458 U.S.A. Fords DocumentaireORST0k.l 19961 MILLIKEN & ALBERT: YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 11

important aspect of their traditional healing epidemic of measles in 1973. As a belated mea- practices, perhaps as a result of which the Yan- sure to cushion the effects of the Perimetral Nor- om& have almost invariably been reported as te construction programme, a FUNAI sub-post using virtually no medicinal plants in the con- was then built on the Rio Mapulaú, with which ventional sense of the term (e.g., Chagnon 1968: the Indians established contact. The Mapulaú 52). A short paper by Biocca (1979b) appears to sub-post was then closed and a new post was be the only published work dealing specifically established at Demini (1976-1977), towards with Yanomami plant medicine, and although he which the Watorikitheri (led by their headman mentioned the occasional use of a few medicinal Lourival) began to approximate themselves. By plants, he nonetheless concluded that the 'un- 1982-1983 they were established in its vicinity, acculturated' Yanomami are almost completely and in regular contact with the white (FUNAI) ignorant of the vast natural pharmacy which in- people living there. evitably exists in their surrounding forests. This migration was the last move of the Data collected during anthropologicalhguis- Watorikitheri in the context of the general ex- tic fieldwork at Watorikitheri by B.A. and the pansion of the Yanomami of the highlands of the ethnolinguist Gale Goodwin Gomez in 1991 Serra Parima into the lowlands of the Rio Bran- demonstrated that, contrary to the earlier as- co tributaries, which probably began during the sumptions of most other researchers, at least latter part of the 19th century. This expansion some of the Yanomami possess a significant was underpinned by a demographical increase body of knowledge of medicinal plants. The thought to have been due to the acquisition of names and uses of 58 medicinal plants, most of metal tools and new cultigens, and the avail- which had not been collected or identified, were ability of land caused by disappearance of recorded during the 1991 fieldwork and these neighbouring peoples (see Albert 1985: Ch. I data'formed the basis for the present study. and II). THEVILLAGE METHODS The ethnobotanical data collected during this The village of Watorikitheri consists of a sin- study were supported by herbarium voucher gle, round, open-centred palm-thatched structure specimens. These have been lodged at the her- housing a population of 89 at the time of the baria of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da 1993 study, of whom 46% were children under Amazônia at Manaus (INPA), Kew (K), Boa the age of ten. It lies at the southern edge of the Vista (MIRR) and New York (NY), and a full upland massif which forms the watershed be- set including sterile voucher specimens is main- tween the Amazon and the Orinoco basins, and tained at Kew. Collection of specimens and pre- which constitutes the bulk of the traditional Yan- liminary data was carried out in the forest with omami territory. The village is situated close to Yanomami informants (principally Justino and Km 211 on the abandoned Perimetral Norte Antonio), and subsequently plant identifications (BR210) highway, which runs eastwards to Boa and usage data were checked by consensus back Vista and peters out some 24 km to the west. in the village. Identification of plant species was Approximately 3 km from the village, on a strip only recorded when a consensus agreement was of the abandoned highway, there is an airstrip reached. (62"49'22'W, 1"30'48"N, alt. 154 m a.s.1.) and Discussions of the properties of the plants an indigenous post (PIN Demini) run by the Bra- were conducted in the Yanomami language. The zilian Indian Foundation FUNAI (Fig. 1). This number of people with whom the data were ini- post incorporates a medical facility which at the tially checked varied from two to several, de- time of study was manned by a nurse employed pending upon availability. Subsequently, sys- by the Comissão Pró-Yanomami (CCPY), who tematic discussions of the entire data set were were responsible for the medical support for the held with all the adult men in the village (using Yanomami in that sector of their territory. only the plant names as prompts), both in 1993 The people of Watorikitheri moved down and in 1994. In certain cases, medicinal use data from their upland territories on the upper Lobo were recorded without corroboration, on the d'Almada affluent of the Rio Catrimani in the grounds that the precarious state of the knowl- early 1970s, and were decimated by a disastrous edge of medicinal plants (see Results) has in- I a 12 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 50

i pj&

Rio Branco BR174 j ...... \

Fig. 1. Approximate location of the study area (Demini Indigenous Post).

evitably resulted in much of that information be- cultivated varieties of Cyperus articu2atus L. coming ‘uncommon knowledge’ but nonetheless (Cyperaceae), had been obtained by trade with valid. On the rare occasions that uncorroborated other villages, sometimes considerable distances data were specifically denied by others, they away, and their owners could recall with clarity were rejected. In some cases, plants were from whom they had acquired them and for what brought in independently by other villagers, and they had exchanged them. One of the cultivated these were subjected to the same checking pro- medicinal plants, Zingiber ofJicinale Roscoe cess. Subsequent efforts were then made to ob- (Zingiberaceae), was not being grown at serve these species growing in the forest. Watorikitheri,and had to be collected from the village of Toototobi approximately 100 km to RESULTS the west. The total number of species of medicinal Of the wild medicinal plants, six species did plants (including fungi) collected during the not occur in the vicinity of Watorikitheri but study was 113, representing 92 genera and 51 were collected in the upland territories (at Hom- families (Table 1). Of these, 11 were cultivated oxi) during a short visit there by a group of men plants, 6 of which were apparently grown spe- from Watorikitherifollowing the 1993 massacre cifically for their medicinal (and often magical) at Haximu (see Albert 1994). The seeds of one properties. Some of these, such as the numerous of these, Phytolacca rivinoides Kunth & Bouché 1 19961 MILLIKEN & ALBERT: YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 13

(Phytolaccaceae) were then planted close to the TABLE1. MEDICINALPLANT AND FUNGUS FAMI- village and were flourishing there in 1994. Two LIES RECORDED AT WATORIKfTHERI. further species were identified as possessing me- dicinal properties by a visitor from Toototobi, Family No. species one of which was apparently unknown to the Angiospermae Acanthaceae 2 people of Watorikitheri and the other of which Anacardiaceae 2 was known to them by name but was not rec- Annonaceae 4 ognized in the forest. Apoc ynaceae 4 Araceae 6 The medicinal plants collected appeared to Aristolochiaceae 1 represent the great majority of those whose Bignoniaceae 3 properties were still known by the inhabitants of Bombacaceae 1 the village. All of the medicinal plants whose Burseraceae 2 names could be remembered at the time (101 Costaceae 2 species), were collected in 1993. Furthermore, Cucurbitaceae 1 although during the early part of the 1993 study Cy peraceae 1 the sighting of certain medicinal plants in the Dioscoreaceae I forest stimulated the Yanomami to remember Euphorbiaceae 1 Flacourtiaceae their medicinal properties (although they had 1 Gesneriaceae 2 been unable to remember their names when Gramineae 1 asked previously to list medicinal species known Guttiferae 4 to them), this occurred increasingly rarely to- Heliconiaceae 1 wards the end of the study. It is therefore rea- Hernandiaceae 1 sonable to assume that the bulk of the medicinal Iridaceae 1 plant information extant in the village was col- Leguminosae 9 lected. Malpighiaceae 1 Malvaceae During the return visit in 1994, a further 12 1 Marantaceae 1 species were added to the list. In some cases Menispermaceae 2 these were plants which had been encountered Monimiaceae 3 in 1993 but whose medicinal properties the Van- Moraceae 6 omami had omitted to mention, and in others Musaceae 2 they were plants which were encountered for the Myristicaceae 1 first time in 1994 and whose properties were im- Palmae 3 mediately remembered. The medicinal use of Passifloraceae 1 one species, Ceiba pentundra (L.) Gaertn. Phytolaccaceae I Piperaceae (Bombacaceae), had been learned from another 8 Po1 ygonaceae 3 group of Yanomami Indians during a visit earlier Rubiaceae 6 in the year. Rutaceae 2 The majority of the plant medicines demon- Scrophuiariaceae 1 strated by the Yanomami at Watorikitheri did not Simaroubaceae 1 appear to be in current use. This was almost cer- Solanaceae 2 tainly largely due to the increasing availability S tercu 1iaceae 1 of Western ailopathic medicines since the rnid- Theophrastaceae 1 Urticaceae 2 1970s (through the presence of health organi- Violaceae 2 zations), in which they had probably established Zingiberaceae 3 their faith as a result of their obvious effective- Pteridophyta Dryopteridaceae ness against otherwise incurable introduced ep- 1 Polypodiaceae 2 idemic diseases (see Discussion). Another of the consequences of these epidemics, however, was Fungi Meruliaceae 1 Phallaceae that most of the elders of the group died during 2 Tricholomataceae 1 that period of early contact. The initial epidemic Xylariaceae 1 of 1973 killed the majority, and another in Total 51 113 1976- I 977 seriously affected a part of the group .

+ o I

b 14 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 50

Fig. 2. Direct application of the aromatic crushed Fig. 3. Use of the young of a leguminous stem of Renealmia (Zingiberaceae) to treat headache. to treat eye infection. The leaves are heated in the flames of the fire and held close to the open eye as a poultice. which had stayed on the upper Lobo d’Almada in the 1970s and who rejoined the people of Watorikitheri in 1984. Two of the eldest surviv- important in terms of numbers of species used ing shamans (Noé and Valdo) died at the end of (>4) are the Piperaceae, Leguminosae, Araceae, the 1980s, leaving only the current leader Lou- Rubiaceae, Moraceae, Annonaceae, Apocyna- rival surviving. This had resulted in a very un- ceae and Guttiferae. These are also well repre- balanced age distribution within the group, of sented in the literature on Amazonian medicinal whom only 35% were adults over 20, nine were plants, all of them featuring amongst the 13 above the age of 40 and one over 50. most represented families (by number of species It was said that the knowledge of traditional used) in a broad survey of the pharmacopoeia plant medicine had originally been kept and of (Grenand, Moretti, and Jac- practised largely by the older women. In many quemin 1987). cases, particularly for treatment of fevers etc., The plants were attributed a broad range of this phytotherapy would have taken the role of medicinal properties, which are listed in Table 2 a follow-up treatment after a shamanic healing along with their modes of administration. A few session had been performed by men. There of the medical problems which the plants are were, however, no survivors of the generation of used to treat are attributed to sorcery by the Yan- women who had a wide knowledge of these tra- omami, but this does not alter the fact that they ditional medicines remaining in the village. The are genuine clinical disorders which modem last of them (the mother of Antonio, one of the medicine may attribute to other causes. As the men who provided much of the information table demonstrates, a high proportion of the gathered here) had died in 1984. Most of the treatments involve extemal application of the knowledge of medicinal plants remaining within plant preparation, even for internal disorders. the group (i.e., that collected during this study) The most prominent example of these is fever, was that which a few of the older men had for which the great majority of applicable plants picked up from their mothers and grandmothers (e.g., Piper and Peperomia spp., Piperaceae) are while they were still living in the Rio Catrimani prepared as an infusion (generally aromatic) uplands before their migration in the early 1970s which is poured over the head and body. As has (although the five remaining women over the already been mentioned, these fever medicines age of 40 in the village also knew of some of are primarily for use following sessions of sha- the medicinal plants collected). It is therefore manic treatment. likely that this information represents only a part For some other medicinal applications, e.g., of what was originally known. headache and stomach ache, the bark or stems The medicinal plants and fungi collected rep- of the plants used are softened by beating (which resent a broad spectrum of plant families. The also releases the juices) and then tied around the majority are represented by only one or two spe- affected region, as in Fig. 2 where Renealmia cies (50% and 24% respectively), and the most alpinia (Aubl.) Maas (Zingiberaceae) is being II L n ' 19961 MELIKEN & ALBERT: YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 15

TABLE2. APPLICATIONAND ADMINISTRATION OF YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS.

Administration technique Externally applied

solid/ vapour/ Application Spp. Ingested. liquid smoke Plant families employed

FeverIWeakness 20 4 16 O Ana/Ara/Cyp/DrylGeslLeglMaUh4odPallPas/Pip/ RublZin Stomach acheDiarrhoea 11 7 40Ana/Ara/Ari/B igLeg/Men/Mor/M yr/Rub/Zin Eye infection AcalCuclGutlLeglMuslRubNio 10046'O Malaria 10 7 3 Ann/ApolAra/Leg/MenfPhalRub Toothache 9090Ara/Bom/Cyp/Fla/MarMor/PolyglRutEin Itching (skin disorders) 7070Aca/Ann/BiglGes/Scr Congestiodcolds 72 1 4 Ann/Bur/EuplLeg/Polyp/Rub/e Infantile thrush (oral) 5050Big/Irr/Leg/PaVSte Cough 54 1 O Pip/Rub/Si"heEin Parasites 53 20Apo/Eup/Leg Fungal skin infection 4040Gumor Dizziness 4004ModPol yg/Sol Nausea 43 O 1 Cos/Pas/Rut Abscess 30 3 O Leg/TdXyl Ant sting 3030VioMedHel Localized body pain 30 30Gra/Urt/Zin Snake bite 3030Big/Gut/Zin Headache 30 30Urt/Zin Lumbar pains 30 2 I Ara/Urt Crampsneg pains 303 O Mus/Urt Bums 20 20Mor Chiggers 2020Gut/Phy Convulsions 21 1 O MaWolyg Sore throat 2200Leg/Sim Bruising 10 1 O Her Crying (baby) 100 1 Leg Hemia Dio 10 1 O Imminent blindness 10 1 Sol Infected wounds O 10 1 O Apo Lesions (leishmaniasis?) 10 1 Gut Scorpion sting 10 1 O Ara Wounds (arrow) 10 1 O Sim Totals 33 88 17

used to treat headache. Some of the medicinal huramu (to have malaria) literally means 'to be plants used in this fashion, such as Uncaria gui- spleening.' The direct application of the plants anensis (Aubl.) Gmel. (Rubiaceae) and Aristo- to the swollen spleen has also been observed lochia sp. (Aristolochiaceae) may also be taken amongst the Wayãpi Indians of French Guiana internally (as an infusion) for the same ailment, (Grenand, Moretti, and Jacquemin 1987). which suggests that the active constituents may The sniffing or inhalation of crushed aromatic equally be absorbed through the skin as through leaves or resins such as Siparuna guianensis the stomach lining. It was particularly interesting Aubl. (Monimiaceae) and Protium spp. (Burser- that some plants and fungi were said to be used aceae) is used for a number of ailments includ- in this manner to treat malaria, by direct action ing congestion, colds, dizziness and nausea. on the spleen. Swelling of the spleen is a com- Likewise the young leaves of several plant spe- mon symptom of the disease and this is evi- cies, including a cultivated banana variety, are dently well known to the Yanomami. Their word used in an interesting fashion for the treatment hura means both 'malaria' and 'spleen', and of eye infections. The leaves are heated in the ' 16 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 50

TABLE3A. SOMEMEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE YANOMAMIINDIANS, AND A COMPARISON WITH MEDICINAL, PLANTS USED BY OTHER PEOPLES. VOUCHER NUMBERS REPRESENT COLLECTIONS IN THE WIL- LlAM MILLIKENSERIES, KEPT AT KEW (K) AND OTHER HERBARlA (SEE METHODS).

Medicinal plants used by the Yanomami Indians

Species (Yanomami name) Family A p p Ii ca t i o n Method Voucher Aristolochia disticha Mast. Aristolochiaceae Diarrhoea & stom- Stem infusion drunk, or WM1713 vel sp. aff. (xuu thoPo) ach ache crushed stem wrapped round waist

Aspidosperma tzitidum Apoc y naceae Malaria Bark decoction drunk WM1734 Benth. (hura sihi)

Bauhinia guianensis Aubi. Leguminosae Diarrhoea & stom- Stem infusion drunk, or WM1736 (tüwakaramë tkb) ach ache beaten stem wrapped round waist

Chia aff. nemorosa G. E Guttiferae Infected wounds Resin from the fruit or WM1982 W. Meyer (poripori Potho) aerial applied di- rectly to wound

Cyperus articulatus L. (haro Cyperaceae Fevers Rhizome infusion drunk WM1751 kiki) & poured over the head & body

CeophiEa repens (L.) I. M. Rubiaceae Eye infections Juice.of crushed fruits WM1712 Johnst. (mamo wayi kiki) dripped into eyes

Inga acuminata Benth. (ria Leguminosae Infantile thrush Powdered dried leaves WMl865 moxiririma hi) (oral) put in baby's mouth -

Musa sp. (paixima si) Musaceae Eye infections Young leaves heated & WM1907 held close to open eyes Peperomia macrostachya Piperaceae Fevers infusion poured over WM 1886 (Vahl) A. Dietr. (kona head & body hanaki)

Peperomia rotundifolia (L.) Piperaceae Coughs Leaves chewed & swal- WM1720 Kunth (oru kiki wrte) lowed Philodendron solimoesensis Araceae Scorpion stings Exudate from aerial roots WM1790 C. A. Smith @uu thothoki) applied to sting

Phlebodium decumanum Pol ypodiaceae Coughs & conges- Leaf infusion poured over WM1890 Willd. (tokosi hanaki) tion ' head & body Phytolacca rivinoides Kunth Phytolaccaceae Chiggers holes in Juice of crushed fruits ap- WM1928 & Bouché (kripiari hi) feet plied to holes after re- mova1 of chiggers Piper arborea Aubl. (kahu Piperaceae Fevers Leaf infusion poured over WM 1804 mahi) head & body ' 19961 MILLIKEN & ALBERT: YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 17

TABLE3B.

Medicinai plants used by other peoples

Species Users Application Method SOUrce(Sl Aristolochia spp. Bolivia (ChAcobo In- Diarrhoea & stomach Plant decoction drunk Boom (1987), Vick- dians), Ecuador ache ers & Plowman (Siona Indians), (1984), Grenand et French Guiana al. (1987) (Wayãpi Indians) Aspidosperma nitid- Brazil Malaria Bark decoction drunk Altschul (1973), um Brandã0 et al. (1992) Bauhinia guianensis Brazil (Waimiri Diarrhoea & dysen- Stem infusion or de- Milliken et al. & other Bauhinia Atroari Indians), tery coction drunk (1992); Grenand et SPP. French Guiana al. (1987) CWayãpi) Chia spp. Colombia (Makuna, Sores, wounds & lep- Resin applied directly Schultes & Raffauf Karijona & Makú rosy to affected region (1990), Morton Indians), Mexico, (198 1) Costa Rica Cyperus articulatus Ecuador (Secoya In- Fevers Rhizome infusion Schultes & Raffauf & other Cyperus dians), Brazil (Tiri- drunk & poured (1990), Cavalcante SPP. y6 Indians) over the head & & Frikel (1973) body Geophila repens Ecuador (Ketchwa Fungal infections Crushed fruits ap- Schultes & Raffauf Indians), French plied to affected (1990). Grenand et Guiana ( In- region al. (1987) dians) Inga spp. French Guiana (Way- Buccal dermatitis of Bark decoction, leaf Grenand et al. ãpi Indians); Co- children, fungal & decoction (19871, Schultes & lombia (Tikuna in- skin infections Raffauf (1990) dians) Musa paradisiaca L. Indonesia Eye infections Leaves used: method Dharma (1987) unspecified Peperomiu macros- Colombia (Taiwan0 Fevers Leaf decoction ap- Schultes & Raffauf tachya Indians), French plied as external (1990), Grenand et Guiana (Wayãpi bath al. (1987) Indians) Peperomiu rotundi- French Guiana (Way- Coughs Leaves taken raw or Grenand et al. (1987) folia ãpi Indians) in decoction Philodendron spp. & Peru, Brazil (Waimiri Insect stingshites Exudates applied to Duke & Vasquez other araceous epi- Atroari Indians), the sting (1994), Milliken et phytes Colombia al. (19921, Schultes & Raffauf (1990) Phlebodium decu- Colombia (Miraiía Pulmonary disorders Infusion of the rhi- La Rotta (1988) munum Indians) zome drunk Phytolacca rivinoides Colombia (Andoke Inflamed & infected Infusion or poultice Schultes & Raffauf Indians j, Ecuador wounds (disinfec- of the leaves ap- (1990) tant) plied externally Piper spp. , Brazil, Fevers Leaf decoction or in- Morton (1981), Colombia fusion poured over Branch & Silva body or drunk (1983), Schultes & Raffauf (1990) ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 50

TABLE3A. CONTINUED.

Medicinal plants used by the Yanomami Indians Species (Yanomaminame) Family Application Method Voucher Protium unifoliolatum Burseraceae Congestion & respi- Resin from trunk dis- WM2066 Spruce ex Engl. (warapë ratory infections solved in water & kohi) drunk or poured over head; crushed fruits sniffed Renealmia alpinia (Aubl.) Zingiberaceae Headache, stomach Crushed stem tied around WM197 1 Maas (mãokori sinaki) ache & general forehead or midriff, or weakness infusion poured over head & body Sipamna guianensis Aubl. Monimiaceae Dizziness Crushed leaves sniffed WM1702 (múe hanaki) and rubbed on head & body

Spondias mombin L. (pirimë Anacardiaceae Fevers Leaf infusion poured over WM1733 ah+' thotho) head & body

Tabemaemontana angulata Apocynaceae Intestinal worms Bark infusion drunk WM 1820 Mart. ex M. Arg. (akiä hi) (roundworms) Tanaccium noctumum (Barb. Bignoniaceae Itching Leaves cooked & their WM1719 Rodr.) Bur. ex K. Schum. juices rubbed onto the @uu thotho moki) skin Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) Rubiaceae Diarrhoea & stom- Stem infusion drunk, or WM1738 Gmel. (ërdthotho) ach ache crushed stem wrapped round waist Urera baccifera (L.) Gaud. Urticaceae Aches & body pains Stinging leaves pressed WM 1968 (gru naki) (including head- onto affected region - aches)

Vismia angusta Miq. boasi Guttiferae Fungal skin infec- Resin from the bark ap- WM1865 hi) tions plied to the affected re- gion

Zanthoxylum pentandm Rutaceae Toothache Bark grated & kept as a WM1747 (Aubl.) R. Howard (na- wad in the lip hmä hi)

Zingiber oficinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Toothache Rhizome chewed WM2058 (amatha kiki)

flames of the fire and held up close to the eyes bark which is carefully prepared as a hot water (Fig. 3), which are kept open and are presum- infusion in the village may, if required urgently ably affected by the vapours emanating from the in the forest, be simply crushed and squeezed hot leaves. out into an impromptu leaf-cup of cold water The preparation of ingested medicines, many and drunk. Medicinal barks are generally col- of which are made from the inner bark of lected by scraping off the outer bark from the and vines, varies considerably and may depend trunk, and then scraping off fine shavings of the upon the circumstances when required. Thus a inner bark which are caught in a leaf. In a num- 19961 MILLIKEN & ALBERT YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 19

TABLE~B.CONTINUED.

Medicinal plants used by other peoples

Species USerS Application Method SoUrce(s) Protium unifofiola- Colombia (T'na In- Colds & congestion Resin put into nos- Schultes & Raffauf fzun & other Proti- dians), Brazil (Ka- trils (1990), Balk um spp. 'apor Indians) (1994)

Renealmia spp. French Guiana (Créo- Tonic & fortifier Infusion of plant Grenand et al. les), Colombia used as bath, or (1987), Schultes & (Andoke Indians) leaves rubbed on Raffauf (1990) the body Siparuna guianensis Brazil, Colombia Headaches, nausea, Leaf infusion or de- Branch & Silva & other Siparuna ("a Indians), fever; calmative coction used exter- (1983), Freise SPP. Ecuador (Quechua nally as bath (1933), Schultes & and Waorani Indi- Raffauf (1990), ans) Lescure et al. (nd.) Spondias mombin Mexico, Brazil Fevers Decoction of bark or Morton (1981), Bran- leaves taken or dão et al. (1992) . used externally Tabernaemontana Colombia (Taiwan0 Intestinal worms Decoction of the Schultes & Raffauf undulata Vahl Indians) leaves drunk (1990) Tanaecium noctum- French Guiana (Way- Cutaneous eruptions Stem decoction ap- Grenand et al. (1987) um ãpi Indians) plied to skin

Uncaria guianensis Bolivia (Chácobo In- Diarrhoea & stomach Stem decoction drunk Boom (1987). Schul- dians): Colombia ache tes & Raffauf (1990) Urera baccifera Ecuador (Siona Indi- Muscular pains & Stinging leaves Vickers & Plowman ans), Colombia, paralysis pressed onto af- (1984), Schultes & Brazil fected region Raffauf (1990), Freise (1933) Vismia angusta & Colombia (Tiina'In- Fungal infections Latex applied to af- Schultes & Raffauf other Vismia spp. dians), French fected region (1990), Grenand et Guiana (Wayãpi al. (1987), Branch Indians), Brazil & Silva (1983) Zanthoxylum spp. French Guiana, North Toothache Bark chewed Grenand et al. America, Hondu- (1987), Heckel ras, W. Indies (1897), Schultes & Raffauf (1990), Morton (1981) Zingiber oficinafe Colombia Toothache Rhizome chewed Schultes & Raffauf (1990)

ber of cases these must then be wrapped in a nipple of the nursing mother with a little saliva tight package made from a marantaceous leaf or with the sticky sap from the skin of a green (Fig. 4) and cooked in the embers of the fire. plantain, and when the baby is suckled they are When ready, they are removed from the fire and effectively dispersed around its mouth and pre- the juice is squeezed from them and drunk. sumably into its digestive tract. The dried tan- A few plants and fungi are burned and their nin-rich leaves of Inga acuminata Benth. (Le- ashes are used medicinally, particularly for the guminosae), powdered but not burned, are used treatment of oral thrush (yeast infections) in ba- in the same manner. It was said that three of the bies. For this purpose the ashes are glued to the plants indicated for this purpose could be used ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 50

jointly. In general, however, the use of mixtures of plant species appears to be relatively rare in Yanomami medical practice; the great majority of the plants being used on their own. Most of the medicines are prepared from the leaves or the bark of the plants concerned (Fig. 5). In addition to the information collected on the use of medicinal plants by the Yanomami, ob- servations were made on their use of insects for medicinal purposes. The majority of these were Hymenoptera, which in most cases were em- ployed either for the therapeutic properties of their stings (in the case of ants) or of the prop- olis and pollen from their nests (in the case of bees). These will be documented in detail else- where. DISCUSSIONAND CONCLUSIONS The results of this study demonstrate that the Yanomami Indians, at least in the area visited, possessed at the time a rich knowledge of me- dicinal plant properties, although the transmis- sion of this knowledge was threatened by the consequences of the population losses of the 1970s/1980s and by their increasing access to introduced (manufactured) medicines. Clearly Fig. 4. Preparation of a medicinal bark. The bark it would not be possible adequately to assess scrapings are being wrapped in a marantaceous leaf the efficacy of their plant medicines without and will be cooked in the fire before the juice can be lengthy and detailed pharmacological screen- extracted and drunk. ing. However, an initial (limited)- search of

E E

Fig. 5. Relative use of plant and fungal parts in Yanomami medicine (left) and use of medicinal plant parts by the ChAcobo (centre) and TiriyÓ Indians of Bolivia and Brazil (right) (Boom 1987; Cavalcante and Frikel 1973). B = bark & wood-including liana stems; E = Exudate; Fr = Fruitheed; Fu = Fungal fruiting body; I = = = = = I Inflorescence; L Leaf; P PitWpalm heart; S Stem [herbaceous]; R Roothhizome. I , I. . ‘ 19961 MILLIKEN & ALBERT: YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 21

some of the relevant ethnobotanical literature identical (see Fig. 5) with a strong predomi- (principal sources are cited in Table 3) has re- nance of leaves employed. Data for the Yano- vealed a substantial degree of overlap with the mani are similar, again with leaves being the properties attributed those species (or genera) most used plant parts, the differences being a by other peoples elsewhere, strongly suggesting slightly greater use of fruits and barks and a that these species are indeed clinically effec- lesser use of exudates. However, amongst the tive. Wayãpi medicinal plants collected by Grenand, For example, the use of bitter bark of Aspi- Moretti, and Jacquemin (1987) in French Gui- dosperma nitidum Benth. (Apocynaceae) for ana, bark and stems were employed in many treating malaria and associated liver disorders more cases than leaves. These figures will in- is very widespread in Amazonia, although its evitably be influenced by the types of vegeta- effectiveness has yet to be proven. Amongst the tion amongst which the group is living and the indigenous groups of State it was the proportions of plant growth habits represented only species consistently cited as effective for amongst them: Grenand and co-workers con- this disease during a survey of the anti-malarial cluded that in most cases the choice of plant plants of the region (W.M., unpublished data). part probably depended upon the ease and Similarly the use of the woody vines Bauhinia speed of its collection. guianensis Aubl. (Leguminosae) and Uncaria If one compares the applications to which the guianensis (Aubl.) Gmel. (Rubiaceae) to treat Yanomami put their medicinal plants with those diarrhoea and stomach ache are widespread, of other groups, one again encounters consid- both in Roraima and beyond. For some of these erable similarities (see Table 4). Clearly it is species, the chemicals which are almost cer- not possible to make a direct quantitative com- tainly responsible for their effects (e.g., the tan- parison between them, since the differences in nins in Bauhinia guianensis) have already been the ways in which these groups (and to some identified, and many of the genera represented extent the ethnobotanists who worked with have been shown to be rich in alkaloids and/or them) perceive disease affects the way that the other bioactive compounds (Grenand, Moretti, medicines are classified, but nevertheless there and Jacquemin 1987). A selection of the Yan- is a clear preponderance of certain problems omami medicinal plants whose use data are such as fevers, stomach and intestinal disor- corroborated by published information is given ders, bacterial and fungal infections of skin, in Table 3. Overall, it was found that for at least wounds and eyes, respiratory disoriiers, tooth- 105 (93%) of the medicinal plants, the same ache, etc. genera are used elsewhere for medicinal pur- The Waorani Indians of Ecuador, shortly af- poses, and for 55 (49%) of them those genera ter their contact with the outside world, were are employed elsewhere for the same medicinal recorded as being affected by external para- purposes as by the Yanomami. More signifi- sites, fungal infections, poor dentition and un- cantly, at the species level at least 58 (51%) of defined fevers as well as a high rate of snake- the plants are used medicinally elsewhere, with bite, but to suffer minimally from epidemic dis- 24 (21%) being used for the same purpose. eases, internal parasites or bacterial infections These figures are of course to some degree sub- (Larrick et al. 1979). Of the 35 medicinal plants jective, depending upon the measure of ‘same- recorded amongst them by Davis and Yost ness’ used. In this case, applications are con- (1983), the majority (30) were used to treat sidered to be the same if they are for essentially only fungal infections, snake-bite, dental prob- the same disorders (rather than the same clini- lems, fevers, botfly larvae and stings. The de- cal effects), although the methods of prepara- gree to which remedies for diseases not native tion and administration may differ. to the New World (see Newman 1976) are rep- A comparison of the way in which the Yan- resented in a pharmacopoeia will of course de- omami employ their medicinal plants with the pend to some extent upon the history of contact ways in which other south American indige- of the group concerned, although diseases have nous groups use theirs, highlights considerable often reached indigenous peoples through inter- similarities. The proportions of the various tribal contacts long before they can be said to plant parts used by the Chácobo of Bolivia and have been ‘contacted.’ Cook (1946), in a com- the Tiriyó of Brazil, for example. are almost parison of the remedies prescribed in a 17th

I Y

I

3" .

22 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 50

TABLE4. THEPRINCIPAL USES OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AMONG FOUR TRIBES OF SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS (RANKED BY NUMBERS OF SPECIES EMPLOYED). DATAFROM BOOM(1987), LA ROTTA(1988), CAVALCANTE AND FRIKEL(1973) AND THE PRESENT STUDY.

Chhh Suu. MiraÏla SUP. Tiriy6 SPP. Yanomami SPP. Stomach ache 32 Skin disorders 23 Fevers 53 FeverNeakness 20 Skin infections 26 Fevers 19 Wounds/ulcers 21 Stomach achemiarrhoea 11 Diarrhoea 25 Gastro-intestinal 19 Rheumatism 9 Eye infections 10 Rheumatism 25 Rheumatism 8 Headache 8 Malaria 10 Toothache 10 Infections (bacteria) 10 Anaemialweakness 7 Toothache 9 7 Hepatitis 10 Inflammation 8 Stomach ache 6 Itching (skin disorders) 9 7 Fevers Pain (analgaesic) 8 Toothache 6 Congestiodcolds Vomiting 9 Wounds 8 Dizziness/vision 6 Infantile thrush (oral) 5 Appendicitis 6 Bronchial disorder 5 Coughs 6 Coughs 5 Headache 5 Snakebite 6 Convulsions 5 Parasites 5 Eye infections 4 Eye infections 3 Eye infections 4 Fungal skin infections 4 Head colds 3 Liver 3 Hepatitis 4 Dizziness 4

century English herbal with those from two ac- has only recently come to light merits attention. counts of Mexican herbal remedies, found that One possibility is that the knowledge is to some in Mexico there were significantly greater pro- extent a regional phenomenon, and that other de- portions of remedies for infectious diseases, tailed studies amongst other groups of Yano- particularly respiratory disorders, diarrhoeal mami would not reveal the same quantity of dysentery and fevers (in that order of impor- data. It is hoped that this will become clear in tance). He took this to indicate that these were, future work. Another possibility is that the Yan- at that time, more prevalent there than in Eu- omami groups visited previously by ethnobotan- rope. ists had already reached the stage of having lost The fact that the majority of the plant medi- the majority of their traditional medicinal cines used by the Yanomami are applied exter- knowledge-a position in which the Wato- nally (see Table 2), even for internal disorders rikitheri Yanomami may well find themselves in in many cases, is not unusual among South the near future. It may also be that the intense American tribes. Of the 209 applications record- interest demonstrated during previous studies on ed among the Tiriyó of Brazil, for instance, 41 shamanic medicine and its associated hallucin- were used internally and 168 externally (Cav- ogens diverted attention from the use of medic- alcante and Frikel 1973). Among the second cat- inal plants. The fact that plant medicine was tra- egory, the majority (119) were used as baths and ditionally practised primarily by women (al- washes, as is also the case for the Wayãpi In- though this was no longer the case at dians (Grenand, Moretti, and Jacquemin 1987). Watorikitheri), but that most ethnobotanists who The Wayãpi, like the Yanomami, use most of their medicinal plants singly (266 versus 16 ap- visited the area were men, may also be of some plications), rather than in combinations. Both the significance. Wayãpi and the Tiriyó use similar methods of The discovery of a number of plants which preparatiodadministration to the Yanomami, in- are used against malaria was interesting. Since cluding the softening of leaves in the fire to re- the invasion of their lands by prospectors lease their juices, the burning of leaves to ashes in the late 198Os, malaria has been a very seri- for ingestion or external application, defumation ous health problem amongst the Yanomami, of the afflicted part of the body with heated or reaching epidemic proportions and causing nu- burning aromatic plants, rubbing of grated merous deaths. Although this was largely under '

leaves or bark into the skin, application of poul- control at the time of study thanks to the efforts 3 tices, etc. of various health organizations, it remains a sig- That the existence and breadth of the knowl- nificant threat. The initial malaria epidemic was edge of medicinal plants amongst the Yanomami particularly savage in the highlands of the Serra I '' - 19961 MILLIKEN & ALBERT YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 23

Parima, where the people had not, on account of kuxi Indians, and brought the plant (Scopariu their isolation, been previously exposed to the dulcis L. [Scrophulariaceael-a species widely disease. However, the population bloc to which used in phytotherapy) back to Watorikitheri the Watorikitheri belong had maintained regular where it caused considerable interest amongst contact with the Catrimani/Toototobi Yanomami the other men, who had not formerly recognized who entered the neighbouring lowlands in the it as a useful plant, nor indeed had a name for first decades of the 20th century, and who prob- it. ably encountered malaria at some time between It has already been mentioned that at the 1920s and the 1940s. These Catrimani Yan- Watorikitheri the knowledge of medicinal plants omami were in contact with buluteiros (latex has largely been transferred, inadvertently, from collectors) in the 1920s, and the Border Com- the women to the few remaining older men with- mission (CBDL) and the Indian Protection Ser- in the last twenty years. However, there is no vice (SPI) entered the CatrimanUI'oototobi area sign that the oral transfer of this information is at the beginning of the 1940s. being perpetuated within the male line as it used Thus it seems probable that the anti-malarial to be among the women. The young men of the plants collected at Watorikitheri (which are cur- village, who are periodically subjected to in- rently being investigated for their pharmaceuti- creasing external influences (including the pres- cal properties at the University of Brasília) were ence of researchers in their village), are appar- discovered by these groups within the last 70 ently showing little interest in acquiring this type years. Although there are references to certain of traditional knowledge, whose benefits are far of these species or their congeners being used from obvious in the light of the current avail- elsewhere to treat fevers etc., only one (Aspi- ability of modern medicines. Amongst the older dosperma nitidum) appears widely to be used to men, who provided the information but who treat -malaria. It is unlikely that the properties of rarely actually used the medicines, there was oc- these plants would have been learned by these casionally considerable discussion over the man- south-western Yanomami from other tribal ner in which the plants were used (see Methods). groups, since their immediate neighbours had Within the next decades these men will have been extinct as independent peoples since the died, and most of that information will almost end of the 19th century, although a few rem- certainly have been lost from the oral tradition. nants of the Pauxiana (Caribs) and the Bahuana If nothing is done to prevent this from happen- () lived on the Catrimani and Demini ing, then the potential value (direct or indirect) rivers respectively until the first decades of the which that knowledge might have had for the Yanomami will have been lost, but more impor- 20th century. Instead, at least some of them may have been discovered through experimentation, tantly the people of Watorikitheri will have lost part of their ability to support themselves inde- possibly using bitterness (koaimi)as an indicator pendently on their own lands, and will have of their likely activity. This association of bit- moved a step nearer towards a scarcely control- terness with anti-malarial properties is very lable dependence on the outside world. commonly encountered amongst the indigenous peoples of Roraima (W.M., pers. obs.). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Yanomami have, however, been in ex- This research was carried out under the aegis of the Universidade de tended contact with neighbouring tribes in the BrasMa/CNPq/ORSTOM accord, with funding and support from the Roy- al Botanic Gardens Kew, the Baring Foundation, the hest Cook Trust. more distant past (see Albert, loc. cit.) and it is George Mark Klabin and the Medical Foundation. Lloyd Aero more than likely that they have adopted at least Boliviano and Virgin Atlantic Airways provided support in kind. The work was carried out jointly with ethnolinguist Dr Gale Goodwin Gomez. some of their plant medicines from them. A po- whose input was invaluable, and also (in 1994) with the artist Jane Ruth- tential example of such a transfer of knowledge erford. The staff of CCPY in Boa Vista and PIN Demini gave invaluable was observed during the 1993 study visit when support and assistance. Cynthia Sothers generously gave her time to con- duct a literature search for complementary references, and G. T. Prance Davi Kopenawa, who lives at Watorikitheri and and €! J. Cribb made valuable comments on the manuscnpt. Nothing at has travelled widely both within and outside all would have been possible without the cooperation and kindness of the Yanomami of Watorikitheri. Brazil as a spokesman of the Yanomami people, was assisting with medicinal plant collection at LITERATURECITED Homoxi. He noticed a small herb which he had Albert, B. 1985. Temps du sang, temps des cendres. observed being used to treat itching by the Ma- Représentation de la maladie, Systeme rituel et es- *‘ 24 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 50

pace politique chez les Yanomami du sud-est. Doc- Davis, E. W., and J. A. Yost. 1983. The ethnobotany toral thesis, Université de Paris X-Nanterre. of the Waorani of Eastern Ecuador. Botanical Mu- . 1994. Gold miners and Yanomami Indians in seum Leaflets, Harvard University 29(3):273-297. the Brazilian Amazon. Pages 47-55 in B. R. John- Dharma, A. P. 1987. Indonesian medicinal plants. ston, ed., Who pays the price? The sociocultural Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. context of environmental crisis. Island Press, Wash- Duke, J. A., and R. Vasquez. 1994. Amazonian eth- ington. nobotanical dictionary. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Altschul, S. von R. 1973. Drugs and foods from lit- m. tle-known plants. Harvard University Press, Cam- Freise, F. W. 1933. Plantas medicinais brasileiras, bridge, MA. Boletim de Agricultura, São Paulo (1933):252494. Anderson, A. B. 1978. The names and uses of palms Fuentes, E. 1980. Los Yanomami y las plantas sil- among a tribe of Yanomama Indians. Principes 22: vestres. Antropol6gica 54:3-138. 3M1. Grenand, P., C. Moretti, and H. Jacquemin. 1987. Balée, W. L. 1994. Footprints of the forest. Ka’apor Pharmacopées traditionelles en Guyane. ORSTOM, ethnobotany-the historical ecology of plant utili- Paris, France. zation by an Amazon people. Columbia University Heckel, E. 1897. Les plantes médicinales et toxiques Press, New York. de la Guyane Française. Protat Frères, Maçon, Biocca, E. 1979a. Sciamanismo, allucinogeni e melo- France. terapia: relazione introduttiva. Pages 445-453 in Larrick, J. W., J. A. Yost, J. Kaplan, G. King, and Simposio internazionale sulla medicina indigena e J. Maykall. 1979. Patterns of health and disease populare dell’ America Latina, IILA-CIS0 Rome among the Waorani Indians of Eastern Ecuador. 12-16 December 1977. IILA, Rome. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Med- . 1979b. Piante medicinali degli Yanomami. icine and Hygiene 72(5): 147-191. Pages 421425 in Simposio internazionale sulla La Rotta, C. 1988. Espécies utilizadas por la comu- medicina indigena e populare dell’ America Latina, nidad Miraña. Estudio Etnobotánico. FEN,Colom- IILA-CIS0 Rome 12-16 December 1977. IILA, bia. Rome. Lescure, J.-P., H. Balslev, and R. Alarcon. n.d. Boom, B. M. 1987. Ethnobotany of the Chficobo In- Plantas utiles de la Amazonia Ecuatoriana. Pron- dians, Beni, Bolivia. Advances in Economic Bot- areg Ed., Quito. any 4:1-68. Lizot, J. 1984. Les Yanõmami centraux. Cahiers de Branch, L. C., and M. F da Silva. 1983. Folk med- l’Homme, Editions de L‘EHESS, Paris. icine of Alter do Chão, Parfi, Brasil. Acta Amazon- Milliken, W., R. P. Miller, S. R. Pollard, and E. V. ica 13(5-6):737-797. Wandelli. 1992. Ethnobotany of the Waimiri Brandáo, M. G. L., T. S. M. Grandi, E. M. M. Ro- Atroari Indians of Brazil. Royal Botanic Gardens, cha, D. R. Sawyer, and A. U. Krettli. 1992. Sur- Kew. vey of medicinal plants used as antimalarials in the Morton, J. F. 198 1. Atlas of medicinal plants of Mid- Amazon. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 36: 175- dle America. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL. 182. Newman, M. T. 1976. Aboriginal New World epi- Brewer-Carias, C., and J. A. Steyermark. 1976. demiology and medical care, and the impact of Old Hallucinogenic snuff drugs of the Yanomamö Ca- World disease imports. American Journal of Phys- buriwe-Teri in the Cauaburi River, Brazil. Econom- ical Anthropology 45:667-672. ic Botany 30( 1):57-66. Prance, G. T. 1970. Notes on the use of plant hal- Cavalcante, P. B., and P. Frikel. 1973. A farmaco- lucinogens in Amazonian Brazil. Economic Botany peia Tiriy6. MPEG, Belém, Brazil. 24:62-68. Chagnon, N. A. 1968. Yanomamö: the fierce people. . 1972. An ethnobotanical comparison of four Case studies in current anthropology, 1st Edition. tribes of Amazonian Indians. Acta Amazonica 2(2): Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. 7-27. , P. Le Quesne, and J. Cook. 1970. Algunos . 1984. The use of edible fungi by Amazonian aspectos de uso de drogas, comercio y domestica- Indians. Advances in Economic Botany 1: 127-139. ci6n de plantas entre los indígenas yanomamö de Schultes, R. E., and B. Holmstedt. 1968. The veg- Venezuela y Brasil. Acta Científica Venezolana 21: etal ingredients of the Myristicaceous snuffs of the 186-193. northwest Amazon. Rhodora 70:113-160. --,and -. 1971. Yanomamö hal- , and R. F. Raffauf. 1990. The healing for- lucinogens: anthropological, botanical, and chemi- est-medicinal and toxic plants of the northwest cal findings. Current Anthropology 12( 1):72-74. Amazonia. Historical, ethno- and economic botany Cook, S. F. 1946. The incidence and significance of series, Vol. 2. Dioscorides Press, Portland, OR. disease among the Aztecs and related tribes. His- Seitz, G. J. 1967. Epene, the intoxicating snuff pow- panic American Historical Review 26:32&335. der of the Waika Indians and the Tucano medicine " 19961 MILLIKEN & ALBERT: YANOMAMI MEDICINAL PLANTS 25

man, Agostino. Pages 315-338 in D. H. Efron, B. Vickers, W. T., and T. Plowman. 1984. Useful Holmstedt, and N. Kline, eds., Ethnopharmacologic plants of the Siona and Secoya Indians of eastern search for psychoactive drugs. U.S. Public Health Ecuador. Fieldiana Botany 15:1-63. Publication no. 1645.