Organic Agriculture and Womens' Empowerment
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Studies Organic Agriculture and Womens’ Empowerment by Cathy Farnworth and Jessica Hutchings Organic Agriculture and Womens’ Empowerment by Cathy Farnworth and Jessica Hutchings1 1 Equal Co-Authors: Dr. Cathy Rozel Farnworth, Pandia Consulting Dr. Jessica Hutchings The Rookery, Warleggan, Near Bodmin, Cornwall Papawhakaritorito Organics PL30 4HB United Kingdom Community Mail Box 65, Kaitoke, Upper Hutt, Wellington, Aotearoa, New Zealand [email protected] [email protected] © IFOAM 2009 Published in Germany by IFOAM © IFOAM, April 2009 Detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at http://dnb.ddb.de ISBN 13: 978-3-940946-15-7 Printed copies of this publication may be ordered via the IFOAM website at www.ifoam.org A download of the complete publication is available via the IFOAM website Organic agriculture and WOmens’ empowerment organic agriculture and womens’ empowerment table of contents List of Text Boxes vi List of Acronyms vi Acknowledgements vii 1. Executive summary 1 1.1. Recommendations 6 1.1.1. Making an Active Choice for Gender Equality 6 1.1.2. Working Positively with Indigenous People 6 1.1.3. Situation-Specific Interventions 7 1.1.4. Appropriate Market-Orientated Production 8 1.2. Continuing Research Needs 8 2. Methodologies, assumptions, epistomologies 11 2.1. Women’s Empowerment and Gender Relationships 11 2.2. Defining Organic Farming 12 2.3. Indigenous Knowledge and Organic Farming 14 3. Literature review 18 3.1. Gendered Identities in Farming 18 3.1.1. Associations Between Rural Masculinities and Farming 18 3.1.2. Gendered Spaces and Knowledge Production and Exchange 20 3.1.3. The Gender Division of Labour 21 3.1.4. The Contributions of Women Scientists to Organic Research 22 3.2. Challenging Gendered Identities Through Organic and Sustainable Farming 23 3.2.1. The Contribution of Women Farmers to Defining Sustainable Agriculture Paradigms 23 3.2.2. Space for Alternative Masculinities 23 3.2.3. Economic Valuation of Sustainable Women Farms 24 4. case study discussion 26 4.1. Women’s Empowerment and Organic Farming: Agency 26 4.1.1. Case Study Findings with Respect to Agency 27 4.1.2. Barriers to Agency 28 iii table Of Contents 4.1.3. Measures to Increase Agency 30 4.1.4. Men’s Support for Increasing Women’s Agency 31 4.1.5. Recommendations 32 4.2. Women’s Empowerment and Organic Farming: Structure 32 4.2.1. Case Study Findings 33 4.2.2. Key Points 34 4.3. Women’s Empowerment and Organic Farming: Relational 35 4.3.1. Case Study Findings: Relational 35 4.3.2. Recommendations and Key Points 37 4.4. Market-Orientated Organic Agriculture: The Impact on Women’s Empowerment 37 4.4.1. Case Study Findings: Market-Orientated Organic Agriculture 39 4.4.2. Key Points: Market-Orientated Organic Production 43 ANNEX 1 44 Presentation of Case Studies 44 A. East and South Asia and the Pacific (ESAP) 44 ESAP Case Study 1: The Green Foundation, Bangalore, India 45 ESAP Case Study 2: Krisoker Saar (Farmers’ Voice), Bangladesh 47 ESAP Case Study 3: Women in Business Development Inc., Samoa 56 ESAP Case Study 4: Te Waka Kai Ora, National Maori Organics Authority of New Zealand 57 B. Latin America and the Caribbean 59 LAC Case Study 1: Asociacion de Productores Organicos del Uruguay (APODU) 59 C. North America and Europe 62 NAE Case Study 1: Organic Farming in California 62 D. Sub-Saharan Africa 63 SSA Case Study 1: Women’s Organic Cooperatives in Uganda 63 SSA Case Study 2: Solidaridad 66 SSA Case Study 3: Sao Tomé and Principe: Participatory Smallholder Agriculture and Artisanal Fisheries Development Programme (IFAD Project) 69 annex 2. ifoam toR 71 annex 3: study design and methods 73 Case Study Selection 73 Analysis/ Interpretation of Information 73 Positionality and Reflexivity 74 iv Organic agriculture and WOmens’ empowerment annex 4: local and indigenous Knowledge 75 ANNEX 5. the survey questionnaire 78 ANNEX 6. the gendered nature of value chains 85 ANNEX 7. respondents to survey questionnaire i references ii v table Of Contents List of Text Boxes Box 1: Agency and Empowerment Box 2: Local and Indigenous Knowledge Box 3: Links Between Research Agendas and Women’s Crops Box 4: US Women Farmers Learn Through Information Seeking: Men Farmers Learn Through Shared or Observed Wisdom Box 5: North American Farming Women’s Perspectives on the Sustainable Agriculture Paradigm Box 6: Culturally Specific Understandings of Agency: Mana Wahine Box 7: A Cautionary Tale: Unclear Links Between Enhanced Social Capital and Control Over Physical Assets Box 8: Formal or Substantive Gender Equality Box 9: Mobility Constraints Upon Women’s Access to Markets List of Acronyms ADOPU Asociacion de Productores Organicos del Uruguay CSA Community Supported Agriculture ESAP East and South Asia and the Pacific FLO Fair Trade Labeling Organisations International ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (CGIAR Centre) IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development LAC Latin America and the Caribbean NAE North America and Europe OA Organic Agriculture SSA Sub-Saharan Africa TWKO Te Waka Kai Ora (National Maori Organics Authority of NZ) WAFF West African Fair Fruit Project vi Organic agriculture and WOmens’ empowerment Acknowledgements We would like to thank the respondents to our survey questionnaire for the tremendous amount of time and care they devoted to helping us understand their approach to, and understanding of, women’s empowerment in organic farming. They include: Vanaja Ramprasad (Green Foundation), Edith van Walsum (ILEIA) and Irene Guijt (Learning by Design), Zakir Hossain and Shaila Shahid (Farmers’ Voice), Percy Tipene (Te Waka Kai Ora), Ka- ren Mapusua and Adi Maimalaga Tafuna’I (Women in Business Development Samoa), Norman Messer (IFAD), Marta Chiappe (Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de la Republica, Uruguay), Laura-Anne Minkoff (University of California, Organic Grower/ Women’s networks). Many other people expressed an eager interest in our work and offered helpful suggestions. They include Arun Balamatti (AME Foundation), Sri Skandarajah (Swedish University of Agri- cultural Sciences), Annina Lubbock (IFAD), Ika Darnhofer (University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences BOKU, Vienna), Temra Costa, Cornelia Butler Flora (Iowa State Universi- ty), and Javed Rizvi (ICARDA Afghanistan). vii executive summary 1. executive summary Gender relationships are fundamental worldwide to the way farm work is organised, the way assets such as land, labour, seeds and machinery are managed, and to farm decision-making. Given this, the lack of adequate attention to gender issues within the organic and sustainable farming movements is worrying. The revolutionary potential of sustainable approaches to far- ming to reshape our food systems, and the way humans interact with those systems, will not be realized unless there is a concerted effort by committed sustainable farmers and consumers to work towards gender equality. Indeed, the question addressed by this paper can be turned on its head. As well as asking how participation in organic and sustainable farming can empower women, we can ask: How does the participation of women broaden and deepen the multiple goals of organic and sustainable farming? In this paper, we call upon the insights of the practitioners and academics who work in the sustainable and organic farming movements. We permit ourselves rather fuzzy boundaries, relying on the self-definition of the people involved. This is because the work of women in su- stainable farming (as opposed to certified organic farming) is quite well-researched, particularly in the North, and thus offers deep understandings to this paper. For this reason we use the terms organic and sustainable interchangeably. We make it clear when we are speaking only of certified organic production. We recognise that ecological farming, and agro-ecological farming, are useful synonyms, although we do not use them in this paper. Studies from indigenous communities are included in the belief that IFOAM and similar orga- nizations primarily located in the ‘developed world’ can learn much from the practices and tra- ditions of indigenous communities. The deep knowledge of such communities about local agro- ecologies, and the multiplicities of ways in which they create, interpret and interact with these ecologies, enables empirically verified farming practices to underpin sustainable approaches to farming. Such knowledge also enables more values to be brought into discussions about ‘sustainable and organic’ farming. This report is an important step in what we see as an urgent need for further work on understanding the interactions between the knowledge of indigenous women and organic agriculture. Our findings show that conventional farming in the North is strongly identified with the expres- sion of rural masculinities. One outcome is the creation of strongly male-gendered spaces, such as farm fairs, which are critical to knowledge production and exchange, yet to which women have almost no effective access. This can serve to restrict their learning, particularly experienti- al learning. Conversely, the very strength of the association of farming with male identity seems to make it more difficult for men in the sustainable farming movement to articulate the aspects of family life and spirituality that many women see as critical. For example, sustainable women farmers attempt to work more closely with natural methods (such as hand weeding) than do men, and prefer to work with family rather than hired labour, even if this means restricting the kind of crops that can be grown. Their practice is deviant not only from conventional agricul- ture, but also from how conventional male farmers express their identity. Thus, the continuing lack of women’s voice in farming means that the mainstream alternative agriculture paradigm 1 Organic agriculture and WOmens’ empowerment fails to capture important elements of why women are engaged in sustainable farming, and it also hinders the ability of men to express more nuanced identities.