DONKEYS IN NORTH MACEDONIA, BULGARIA AND – ACTUAL SITUATION, NEW OPPORTUNITIES AND BUSINESS MODELS FOR NEW FUTURE Curriculum in protection & donkey care

Radka Vlaeva, Trakia University/Bioselena, Bulgaria Neven Ciganovic, Magare, Croatia Stoilko Apostolov, Bioselena, Bulgaria

Skopje, Sofia, Ivanic Grad December 2019

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This publication has been produced as intelectual output of the Project: 2018-1-MK01- KA202-047135 "New opportunity for rural development".

This Project has been financed by EU within the ERAZMUS + Program, with support of National Agency for European Educational Programs and Mobility, Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia

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CONTENT:

1. ABOUT THE PROJECT ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. HISTORY, CURRENT SITUATION IN THE WORLD - WHY PRESERVATION OF DONKEYS IS IMPORTANT? ...... 6 3. PRESENTATION OF THE STATUS QUO IN NORTH MACEDONIA, BULGARIA AND CROATIA ...... 7 4. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, CARE, FEEDING, BUILDINGS ...... 16 4.1. Differences between and donkeys...... 16 4.2. Understanding donkey behaviour ...... 16 4.2.1. Factors that influence a donkey's behaviour ...... 16 4.3. DONKEY CARE ...... 21 4.3.1 Stable and pasture management ...... 21 4.3.2. Animal welfare and the “Five freedoms” ...... 22 4.3.3 Shelter ...... 22 4.4. DONKEY HEALTH CARE ...... 23 4.4.1. Prevention – the best treatment ...... 23 4.4.2. How to recognize if a donkey is felling unwell? ...... 24 4.4.3. When to call a vet? ...... 24 4.4.4. Foot care ...... 24 4.4.5. Grooming the donkey ...... 25 4.4.6. Estimating donkey’s age by examination of teeth ...... 25 4.4.7. Nutrition of donkeys ...... 25 4.5 WHAT FARMERS NEED TO KNOW IF THEY WANT TO START BREEDING DONKEYS? ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5. MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN ORDER TO KEEP DONKEYS IN BULGARIA, NORTH MACEDONIA AND CROATIA ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.1 POLITICAL MEASURES (SUPPORT FROM THE STATE FOR THE CREATION OF BREEDING PROGRAMS, KEEPING A HERD BOOK, PAYMENT FOR THE OWNERS IN MEASURE 10 AGROECOLOGY) – THE GOOD EXAMPLE OF CROATIA ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2. BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES FOR NEW DONKEYS PRODUCTS – EXAMPLE OF MAGARE FARM – CROATIA ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.1. History of donkey milk production ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.2. Donkey milk preserves beauty and youth? ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.3. Donkey milk as a cure-all ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.4. Requirements for the production of donkey milk ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.5. Reproduction ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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5.2.6. Nutrition of donkeys for milk production ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.7. Feeding in the summer ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.8. Feeding in winter ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.9. Parasites control ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.10. Accommodation ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.11. Parlors ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.12. Dairy ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2.13. Milk processing ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 6. FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 7. References ...... 27

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1. HISTORY, CURRENT SITUATION IN THE WORLD - WHY PRESERVATION OF DONKEYS IS IMPORTANT?

Although it is known that, the domestic donkey originates from the African wild ass (Equus africanus) there is limited evidence for the domestication of that animal in the region of Africa. First records for domestication of donkeys were found in Egypt and were dated back to 4th millennium B.C. For a period of nearly 7000 years since its domestication, the donkey undergoes, a minimal evolutional change, and its use as a working animal remain its main purpose. For its wider use in man’s everyday life, the donkey spread all over the world. Historically the main use of donkeys was as a mean of transport and as a tracking animal. Donkeys were well used for many energy-requiring activities in mining, milling, and even in military. According to FAO, the number of donkeys world-wide in 2000 was 43,472 million and in 2006 it falls down to 41 million (Table. 1).

Table 1. Distribution of donkeys in different regions of the world. Number of donkey % of world donkey Region breeds population (over 41 million) Africa 26 26,9 Asia 32 37,6 Europe/Caucasus 51 3,7 Latin America/Caribbean 24 19,9 Near and Middle East 47 11,8 North America 5 0,1

The largest donkey population was recorded in China – 11.000.000 donkeys, followed by Pakistan, Ethiopia and Mexico. Some authors believe that the number of donkeys worldwide is much larger than the reported in the official statistics. The distribution of donkeys in different regions shows significant difference. Greatest number of donkeys is reported in Asia, Africa and Latin America and the lowest number is observed in North America and Europe. It is interesting to point out that in the region of Europe and Caucasus the number of donkeys is not that big, but there is large diversity of breeds registered in that region, which probably is due to the fact that in Europe there is a well-developed identification system for . In 1995, the number of registered donkey breeds was 77 and in 2000, this number goes up to 97, and 8 years later in 2008 – 185 donkey breeds were reported. The growing number of registered donkey breeds is due to the efforts for description and registration of the donkeys in Europe. In the poor regions, the number of donkeys is significantly higher, but there are very few distinguished breeds, mostly those are local donkeys without affiliation to a certain breed.

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We all know that the modern world does not need donkeys for their main purpose, as we know it – a working animal. However, donkeys are important and needed for the population in the poor regions of the world were having a donkey may mean an independence; having a donkey provides an access to fresh water and allows children to education or helps for farming that is more productive. In the developed countries, however the status of donkeys has a completely different dimension. They have no economic value, but are well used for recreation or as a companion animal; some of them are used for light agricultural work, or as a part of a completely new trend in donkey breeding – for dairy and meat production. Nevertheless, protection and conservation of the donkey is significant to avoid loss of biodiversity and genetic resources. The importance of donkeys needs to be considered not just as an agricultural animal or as an animal that need to be protected. It is an animal that is closely related with the population in the rural areas, an animal that is engaged with the folklore and the traditions of humans. Preserving the donkey, we preserve history, traditions and cultural values.

2. PRESENTATION OF THE STATUS QUO IN NORTH MACEDONIA, BULGARIA AND CROATIA

The information about the number of donkeys in Republic of North Macedonia has been organized by the Veterinary Center “Zdravje” from the city of Delchevo, in cooperation with other national veterinary stations (august, 2018), as a part of the project, which has been financed by the National agency for European educational programs and mobility. Furthermore, data was collected from the Food and Veterinary Agency Informative System, in which donkeys has been counted on the general Animal Census, but under the family of Equidae. The data for number of donkeys was collected through a survey which was consisted of: ▪ Municipality ▪ Living area ▪ Donkey gender ▪ Age (older than 1 year and younger than 1 year) ▪ Total number

The total number of donkeys in the Republic of North Macedonia registered in 2018 is 897 donkeys, out of which 543 are males and 354 are females. On figure 1 are presented number of male and female donkeys on different age. There is a dramatic difference in numbers between donkeys under 1 year of age and donkeys over 1 year of age. The female and male donkeys under one year of age represent respectively 2% and 3% of the population. This information is very indicative about the level of the reproduction process or the lack of it. Although the number of male animals is clearly stated, it is not known how many of them geldings and how many could be used for reproduction are. As we know, in the Balkan countries, donkeys are reared mainly by older people, that are still connected with their past,

7 but prefer to work with geldings or female donkeys due to the fact, that they are easy to handle.

Figure 1. Number of male and female donkeys divided by age group in Republic of North Macedonia.

Males younger than 1 year Males older than 1 year Females younger than 1 year Females older than 1 year 600

500 528

400

346 300

200

100

0 15 1 8

Table 2 presents the information regarding number of registered donkeys in eight different regions of North Macedonia. There is very uneven distribution of the number of donkeys in the different regions of the country. The highest recorded number of donkeys is in the Southeast and East region of North Macedonia, and the lowest number was registered in the region of Skopje.

Table 2. Number of male and female donkeys in different regions of Republic of North Macedonia. MALES FEMALES TOTAL

No. Region Younger Older than 1 Younger Older than

than 1 year year than 1 year 1 year

1 Skopje 0 6 0 6 12

2 East 1 135 1 116 253

3 South-East 5 182 0 78 265

4 North-East 2 27 4 17 50

5 Pelagonija 2 66 0 33 101

6 Vardar 2 44 0 71 117

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7 South-West 0 13 1 18 53

8 Polog 2 37 1 6 46

Total 14 510 7 345 897

Not long ago the donkey was present in the rural areas in Bulgaria, almost in every small household as a working animal for small agricultural land, for transport and as a tracking animal (Picture 1 and 2).

During the period 1975-1995, the donkeys in Bulgaria represented the highest number of animals used as a live tracking power. At the beginning of the 20th century, the number of donkeys was significantly lower than the number of horses (Table 3). After 1939, there is a turning point and the number of donkeys in Bulgaria increased contrary to the number of horses, which was falling down. After 1985, the number of all equids was going down. Presumably, the reason for that could be the fast spread of small farm equipment in the farmyards and the process of depopulation of the rural areas. An important factor influencing the dramatic reduction of donkeys in Bulgaria is the absence of a system or a procedure that can organize and control the breeding process. In recent times, donkey breeding and preservation depend upon the good will of people who are conquered by the charm of these long-eared animals. There is no state policy for development of the donkey population. One of the reasons might be the lack of an organization which to develop and maintain a studbook, and to register and control the animals in the population.

Table 3. Number of horses, donkeys and in Bulgaria during the period 1900-2013 (Data collected from DID-IS) Year Horses / Nr. Donkeys / Nr. Mules / Nr. 1900 – 1905 494.557 107.098 8.889 1934 531.452 180.703 36.660 1939 614.406 169.390 34.335

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1952 471.064 197.113 36.416 1960 333.813 241.676 34.037 1975 137.351 317.077 30.925 1985 118.089 348.769 27.196 1990 118.902 328.587 21.751 1995 133.045 275.627 15.855 2000 141.025 207.689 15.539 2005 135.000 90.000 9.500 2010 112.000 45.000 4.000 2013 58.000 35.000 3.000 According to the data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Bulgaria (Table 4) for the period 2010 – 2016, the number of donkeys reared in small farms and farmyards is going down dramatically. In 2010 the number of recorded donkeys was 40189 in 39 539 different farms and for just 6 years this number drops down more than four times to 8 411 donkeys registered in 2016. Table 4. Number of donkeys and farms in six regions of Bulgaria during the period 2010-2016 (Data provided by Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry) 2010 2013 2016 Region Farms Donkeys Farms Donkeys Farms Donkeys

North Western 6.494 6.529 2.151 2.152 768 777 North Central 4.775 4.801 2.028 2.029 534 539 North Eastern 5.706 5.736 1.577 1.578 748 754 South Eastern 4.858 4.918 1.487 1.578 608 635 South Western 5.587 5.920 3.837 4.144 2.184 2.568 South Central 12.119 12.285 6.901 6.956 3.127 3.138 Total for the 39.539 40.189 17.981 18.437 7.969 8.411 country

The information presented in the table shows that the number of registered farms nearly equals the number of registered donkeys which indicates that mostly, there was just one animal in each farm. Another obvious fact is the higher number of donkeys registered in the South Western and South Central regions of Bulgaria (Figure 2). Those are mountain regions with poor rural population, which is traditionally using donkeys for transport and agricultural work.

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Figure 2. Social-economic regions of Bulgaria and distribution of donkeys for the period 2010-2016.

In 2006 in Croatia was started a process for dividing donkey population in separate registers. The process included revision of the holdings, identification and measuring of the animals and collection of hair samples for DNA profiling. According to that now there are three officially recognized donkey breeds: Istrian donkey, North Adriatic donkey and Littoral Dinaric donkey all of them protected by National legislation since 2009. In connection with that process, the first studbook was closed on first of January 2018. The main differences between the three breeds are body measurements (withers height, chest circumference, and cannon bone circumference), body size, colour and visible body characteristics.

Characteristics of the Istrian donkey (Picture 3) are:

Head: white eye region, white mizzle. Neck: no markings Legs: no markings Body: white/grizzled abdomen Colour: black or grey (20 %) Withers height: 124.07 cm Chest circumference: 144.01 cm Cannon bone circumference: 16.30 cm

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Characteristics of the North Adriatic donkey (Picture 4) are:

Head: white eye region, white mizzle.

Neck: no markings Legs: no markings Body: white/grizzled abdomen Colour: dark Withers height: 115.28 cm Chest circumference: 131.80 cm Cannon bone circumference: 14.85 cm

Characteristics of the Littoral Dinaric donkey (Picture 5) are:

Head: white eye region, white mizzle.

Neck: no markings Legs: stripes, visible or light Body: cross, white abdomen Colour: grey Withers height: 96.93 cm Chest circumference: 112.75 cm Cannon bone circumference: 12.82 cm

In Croatia was developed a Central register for equidae (CRE), which is an electronic register for equidae identified in the country, breeding documentation and issued identification documents for equidae – passports. The Ministry of Agriculture of Croatia runs the register and the aim of it was the identification and registration system, traceability and administrative support. The number of registered equidae in CRE for 2018 is presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Number of registered equidae in Croatia in 2018

Species Number of equidae

Horses 23.649 Donkeys 3.683 Mules 22 3 3 Total 27.360 Figure 3 presents the dynamic in number of registered donkeys in Croatia. It is easily noticeable that the number is slowly but gradually going up and for a period of 20 year

12 multiplied 6 times. The number of registered equidae foals in 2018 was 3.149 in total, as 2.805 of them were horses and 344 were donkeys.

Figure 3. Number of registered donkeys in Croatia during the period 1998 – 2018.

In 2019 in the country were registered 96 equine breeds as 89 of them are breeds, four are donkeys and three represent mules, hinny and zebras. There is a special state program developed for protection of native and protected breeds that include seven out of all 96 registered breeds (Table 6).

Table 6. Native and protected equidae breeds in Croatia in 2019. Breed No. of animals Difference in 2018 Part in protected (%) breeds Croatian Coldblood 7.052 0,3 39,08 Croatian Horse 5.085 4,4 28,7 Lipizzan 2.112 -0,3 11,9 Medjimurje Horse 37 -11,9 0,2 Istrian donkey 600 9,5 3,4 Littoral Dinaric donkey 2.721 11,6 15,3 North Adriatic donkey 124 17,0 0,7 Total 17.731 100,0 Although the donkey breeds in Croatia are classified as critically endangered and highly endangered according to FAO classification it is visible that the number of donkeys representing those three breeds is growing each year and for a period of four years doubled and tripled, and has its stable trend of going up (Figure 4). For sure, the main reason for that is the state policy for subsidies and subsidizing. In 2018 and 2019, more measurements were implemented with the reduction of fees connected to sector. Some of them were:

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Subsidy of authorized breeding organizations (BO) in horse breeding sector • eligible only authorized BO in Croatia • financed from the national budget within the Ministry of agriculture • each BO signs the contract with the Ministry • financial report and all the expenses used with that subsidy has to be sent for review and control • in 2018: total subsidy for livestock sector = 679.000,00 kn (92.000,00 euro), horse breeding sector 225.582,50 kn (30.500,00 euro) • in 2019: total subsidy for livestock sector = 2.000.000,00 kn (270.300,00 euro)

Subsidy for native and protected breeds of domestic animals • eligible only owners of N&P breeds (4 horse breeds and 3 donkey breeds) • financed from the European budget • financing program for 5 continuous years • owners have to keep same (or larger) number of N&P animals in ownership • in 2018: 200,00 euro per animal (older than 12 months)

Horses • Croatian coldblood - 396,32 eur (+98,2 %) • Croatian Posavina horse - 404,98 eur (+102,5%) • Mjedjimurje horse - 502,04 eur (+151%) • Lipizzan - 387,11 eur (+93,6%)

Donkeys • Istrian donkey - 304,97 eur (+52,5%) • North Adriatic donkey - 275,97 eur (+38%) • Littoral Dinaric donkey - 230,95 eur (+15,5%)

Subsidy of horse breeding sector with the quota for blue gas oil consumption • eligible owners of horses and donkeys • min 3 registered equidae • 90 lit per registered horse and 20 lit per registered donkey • in 2018: • approved 228.870 lit • financial effect: 875.428,00 kn (118.000,00 eur)

Subsidy of measurements intended for animal diseases protection • until 2018: state subsidy of laboratory analysis (veterinary service for blood sampling was paid by the keeper) • from 2019 - elimination of all fees for owners/keepers • eligible owners of all equidae breeds • Equine Infectious Anemia, West Nile, Leptospirosis

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Subsidies for breeding horses and for organization of horse competitions

Subsidies for meadows and pastures: • eligible for equidae owners • registration of equidae obligatory • payment by conversion per Livestock Unit (animal)

Elimination of fees for equidae owners and BO • eligible authorized breeding organizations and owners • elimination of fees for: • identification assets (microchips for equidae) • forms in identification system in equidae breeding (Identification documents for horses - Passports) • all costs for material assets are financed by the Ministry of agriculture • only service fee for identification and registration procedure is financed by the owners • for the following procedures, owners’ fees were eliminated: • changes of ownerships • evaluations/scoring of horses • breeding documents

Figure 4. Number of donkeys by breeds in Croatia during the period 2014 – 2018.

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3. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, CARE, FEEDING, BUILDINGS

4.1. Differences between horses and donkeys Regardless the fact that they belong to the same zoological family (Equidae) the donkeys and horses differ from each other. Unlike the horse, donkeys have a different nutritional need, and react very different to the environment. When it comes to exterior, donkeys are smaller in size, with their mane standing upright, and a “broomstick” tale. Quite noticeable is the difference in the size of the ears. Donkeys have a coarse head, with short and horizontally attached neck. The withers is low, not well formed and not suitable for saddling. The back and lower back are elongated, connected with short not well-developed croup. Chests are flat and elongated. The donkey have one less lumbar vertebra than the horse and a fewer caudal vertebrae. The legs have a very strong ligaments and tendons. The hoofs are more upright compared to the horse’s hoofs. Less known fact is that donkeys bleed more than horses. Compared to horses donkeys have a longer gestation length of 360-375 days. The estrous cycle of jennets is between 23-30 days. There is a well-known chromosome difference as donkeys have 62 chromosomes and horse have 64, so mules will have 63, and that is the reason they are sterile. In addition, donkeys have a longer life span more than 45 years.

4.2. Understanding donkey behaviour Behaviour is a term used to describe everything that an animal or human does. The science of behaviour is a vast subject, made more difficult because each animal is an individual and therefore, every behaviour is unique in the way it is formed and the way the animal exhibits it. It is important to understand that a donkey who is standing still and being stroked is exhibiting as much behaviour as a donkey that kicks when its feet are picked up.

4.2.1. Factors that influence a donkey's behaviour Evolution For 60 million years, horses and donkeys have been flight animals, surviving by running away from predators. Even today, after approximately 5,000 years of domestication, donkeys still try to escape from danger. Anything that is scary will elicit the donkey's flight response. If a donkey is restricted in its ability to move away from fearful experiences, they use the fight response to save themselves. Donkeys fight mechanism is more easily engaged than a horses, this is perhaps because wild donkeys often live in very small groups of one or two animals where running away is not always such a successful method of survival compared to the horse tenancy to live in larger herds. In the wild, donkeys are more territorial than horses. Therefore, our domesticated donkeys can also be territorial. This may lead them to become aggressive towards small animals such as sheep, cats, chickens and dogs when defending their territory. Donkeys evolved to travel long distances in search of sparse vegetation. This search for food, and the environment in which the donkeys lived, kept them mentally stimulated, fit and lean. The domesticated donkey lives in a restricted environment. Food is readily available and fencing

16 restricts the distance they can travel. Domestication can cause donkeys many problems that develop from overfeeding, boredom, and poor social interaction. Genetics Donkeys inherit their parents' genes and perhaps the behavioural characteristics that go with these genes. It is difficult to know whether behaviours are passed on in the genes or if certain behaviour is learnt from parents during the juvenile stage. The behavioural traits of the parents cause their offspring to behave in a similar way. It is important that in foal are well handled to help them develop correct behaviour towards humans, which will be beneficial to their offspring. Foals should also be consistently handled correctly as they are growing up. Environment One of the most important elements provided by the environment is mental stimulation. Without this stimulation, problem behaviours develop; these behaviours are often designed to relieve the boredom of domestication. Insufficient space increases the competition with herd mates for food and personal space; this in turn increases stress which can affect the temperament of the donkey. When interacting with a donkey, owners and handlers become part of the environment; therefore, changes in the behaviour of people can change the behaviour of donkeys. Any stress that is caused by the environment will be reflected in the donkey's behaviour.

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Donkeys in the family farm Koynovi, Kaloyanovo, Bulgaria

Any change in the environment or herd dynamics can change the behaviour of a donkey. Changes of normal routine can also change the behaviour of donkeys. Wherever possible, environmental changes should be made slowly and planned carefully to allow the donkey to adjust to changes without becoming stressed. Environmental enrichment is vital for domesticated donkeys. Pain Pain is one of the most common causes of behaviour problems in donkeys. If the donkey is in pain, it will do all it can to relieve this pain. Arthritis, back problems and other injuries can lead to kicking and refusal to have the feet lifted. If lifting the foot is painful, kicking is an attempt to have the foot placed back on the floor, therefore relieving the pain. Painful tooth growth in young donkeys can increase the incidences of chewing and nibbling in the environment or of human handlers. Pain should always be considered if a donkey is displaying difficult or abnormal behaviour, and especially in cases of sudden changes of behaviour or if the behaviour is out of character with the donkey's normal temperament, such as where a normally placid donkey becomes aggressive, or starts to kick. In all cases of behavioural problems it is advisable to consult your veterinary surgeon first to eliminate pain as a possible cause of behaviour change.

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Medical Conditions There are numerous medical conditions that may lead to changes in behaviour or the development of problem behaviours; these include cystic ovaries, hormonal conditions, mineral and vitamin deficiencies, brain tumours, blindness, hearing loss, skin conditions, photo sensitivity and food intolerances, to name but a few. Often, these conditions are extremely difficult to identify and a vet should always be consulted to ensure an accurate diagnosis and treatment programme. Female donkeys are likely to come into season every three weeks for four to six days and during this time it is normal for them to express a range of behaviours including aggressive or difficult behaviour as well as extremely social behaviour. It is important to remember that seasons will not happen all year round and in the winter they don't usually occur. These behaviours are under the influence of normal, hormonal cycles and will vary from to mare. Previous Experience/Learning Learning starts from the moment a donkey is born and continues throughout its life. Learning can be described as the gaining of knowledge that leads to changes in behaviour. Whether a foal has been socialised with other donkeys and allowed to develop correctly through the phases of juvenile development will determine whether the donkey has behavioural problems as a mature animal. Situations that induce pain or fear will quickly teach the animal to fear people involved with such experiences. Every time you interact with your donkey it will learn something. During learning the donkey does not consider its behaviour to be good or bad for the human, but only whether the behaviour is effective for them. Many behaviours that we consider to be problems, are in fact, not a problem for the donkey and extremely successful in creating a more comfortable or rewarding life for the animal. Human Interaction A donkey's behaviour will be influenced by the ability, experience and confidence of its handler. A nervous handler will increase the nervousness of the donkey. When a donkey is labelled as "difficult, naughty or bad", the behaviour of the handler changes in accordance with the label and the animal's behaviour will reflect how it has been labelled. Donkeys are large, strong animals and it is normal for inexperienced handlers to lack confidence or even be fearful. Anyone intending to handle a donkey should gain as much knowledge and experience as possible, prior to commencing any behaviour training.

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Family farm MAGARE, Ivanic grad Croatia Training Donkeys easily learn things that are closest to their natural behaviours. Activities, which are completely unnatural to donkeys such as being driven, ridden, holding their feet up for the farrier or travelling in a trailer, can take longer to learn because they are so far removed from the natural behaviours of the donkey. How donkeys are trained and handled will determine their behaviour. An experienced trainer who communicates well with the donkey will help a donkey to overcome problems and learn more rapidly than a donkey with an impatient or inexperienced handler. Donkeys have a reason for everything they do. Their behaviour is controlled and influenced by a wide range of factors. To a donkey, its behaviour is always justifiable; it is we humans that find their behaviour difficult or inappropriate. When looking at problem behaviour, it is important to consider what benefit the behaviour provides for the donkey. Essentially, by establishing the motivation for the behaviour, the cause can be established, and by removing this cause, there will be a change in the donkey's behaviour. When attempting to establish the causes of behaviour it is important to look at each of the areas contained in this fact-sheet and consider the possible influences of each one, on the donkey's behaviour.

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Always consult a veterinary surgeon to eliminate any painful or medical conditions, before starting on a training programme or engaging the services of an equine behaviourist experienced in handling and training donkeys. The science of behaviour and learning is a very large and complicated subject, and in the case of more difficult or dangerous behaviours, professional assistance should be sought before commencing training. Care should be taken when working with donkeys with behavioural problems. The handler should be confident with donkeys and take all the necessary precautions to avoid accidents.

4.3. DONKEY CARE

4.3.1 Stable and pasture management The donkey’s rearing in the different regions is related with cultural peculiarities, traditions and economic conditions. Usually due to the fact that they are working animals, they are being bred under inappropriate conditions. To avoid that, the following should be noted: ▪ Council Directive 98/58/EC of 20 July 1998 concerning the protection of animals kept for farming purposes ▪ European Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Farming Purposes

Family farm Koynovi, Kaloyanovo, Bulgaria

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4.3.2. Animal welfare and the “Five freedoms” ▪ Freedom from hunger and thirst ▪ Freedom from discomfort ▪ Freedom from pain, injury and disease ▪ Freedom to express normal behaviour ▪ Freedom from fear and distress

4.3.3 Shelter Donkeys should be provided permanent access to a shelter, all the time when on pasture. Each animal must have a designated space of at least 2 m2 per animal, there must be enough space in the feeding area, about 90 cm per animal. The shelter need to have at least two sides and a roof, and the back of the shelter should face north with opening from the south. Fresh water should be available all the time, especially during the hot summer days. During the winter, freezing should be avoided.

Family farm Koynovi, Kaloyanovo, Bulgaria Pastures should be well maintained and clean from all possible poisonous plans. When there are trees which fruits contain stones, access to those trees need to be restricted to avoid digestive problems. In order to recognize the signs if ill health, one should be familiar with the normal behaviour of donkeys. Donkeys are different and usually indications for an illness or other problems show on a later stage. The easiest accessible indicators for bad health are: ▪ Behaviour – a healthy donkey should be aware of the environment, curious, with ears pointed upwards.

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▪ Appetites – the lack of appetite, as well as extreme appetite are signs of a problem. The food should be chewed and easily swallowed. ▪ Thirst – the amount of consumed water depends on many factors mostly related with the environmental temperature. ▪ Faeces – need to be observed for any unusual elements (blood, worms, etc.,), consistence and colour. ▪ Urine – should be clear, slightly yellow in colour ▪ Coat and skin – should be clean and even with no bald areas, without any signs of parasites, wound, etc. ▪ Eyes, ears, nose – clear, without discharges. ▪ Movement – it should be observed for any change in the normal movement pattern, lameness or unwillingness to move.

Family farm MAGARE, Ivanic grad Croatia

4.4. DONKEY HEALTH CARE

4.4.1. Prevention – the best treatment It is of a great importance for donkeys to get regular treatments in order to avoid some deceases and parasites. ▪ Regular treatments for endoparasites and ectoparasites. ▪ Annual vaccination against equine influenza. ▪ Vaccinations against Tetanus every other year.

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▪ Dental check, at least once a year. ▪ Regular hoof care, every 6 to 10 weeks.

4.4.2. How to recognize if a donkey is felling unwell? ▪ Observe its behaviour, appetite, faeces, urine, coat and skin, discharges from eyes or nose, movements and weight. ▪ Check the vital signs temperature – for young donkeys it ranges from 36,6 – 38,9 ˚C, for adults 36,5 – 37,7˚C. heart rate – 31 – 53 beats per minute. respiratory rate – 13 – 31 inspirations per minute.

Family farm MAGARE, Ivanic grad, Croatia

4.4.3. When to call a vet? It is important to have a reliable veterinary specialist on hand, who is familiar with your donkeys. Call him any time, you suspect that the donkey is felling unwell, or if it is wounded, limping, etc.

4.4.4. Foot care ▪ Train your donkey to lift and hold its legs ▪ Check legs and hoofs daily, for any wounds or injuries. Use a hoof pick to clean the hoofs

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▪ Hoofs need to be trimmed every 6 to 10 weeks to avoid problems

4.4.5. Grooming the donkey Grooming is an important part of donkey’s daily routine. It helps not only to clean the donkey’s coat, but also helps to get a closer look on the body, skin condition, wound, scratches, swollen areas if any. It helps to improve the human-donkey relationship and to get used to some basic manipulations.

4.4.6. Estimating donkey’s age by examination of teeth Dental anatomy. Equine teeth especially the Incisors (front teeth) are quite long, well attached in the jaw and they grow and grind continually through life. At the top of the incisors is formed so-called “cup”, which have different depth on the upper and lower jaw, respectively 16 mm and 9-10 mm. Aging by examine the teeth of equine animals is possible, when some changes during different time periods are observed (Table 7). Changes are easily observed on the Incisors. They are 12 in total, 6 on the upper and 6 on the lower jaw. The different time of appearing of the teeth is one indicator, and other is grinding or disappearing of the teeth surface. Table 7. Timing of changes in donkey’s incisors Appearance of Change of Disappearing of the Disappearing temporary teeth temporary with cups of the of the base of permanent teeth permanent teeth the cup

I1 0 – 2 weeks 2,5 years 7 – 8 years 12 – 15 years

I2 8 weeks 3,5 years 9 – 10 years 12 – 15 years

I3 12 months 4,5 years 11 – 12 years 15 – 20 years

4.4.7. Nutrition of donkeys During the spring and summer months when donkeys have accesses to pasture, mostly they provide the required nutrients by grazing. During winter months, donkeys are housed and should be provided hay, haylage, concentrate and minerals. However, no matter the season some rules regarding feeding should be followed: ▪ Feeding needs to be on a small portion, but often. ▪ When new forage is introduced it should happen gradually. ▪ When feeding donkeys, physiological state and category should be minded.

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▪ Avoid feeding dirty and mouldy forages. ▪ When possible, minerals should be added to the diet. ▪ Access to fresh water all the time.

Family farm MAGARE, Ivanic grad, Croatia

The most suitable forages for donkey are: ▪ Straw – the best option is barley straw that is high in fiber and low in sugar. Straw is also low in calories and allow donkeys to eat with appetite without gaining weight. ▪ Hay – meadow hay is most appropriate for donkeys, it consists of natural mix of grasses and it is not as reach in protein like alfalfa fay for example. Otherwise, the high protein hay could be mixed with a good quality straw. ▪ Concentrate might be fed to donkeys as an addition to their main diet. It should be fed only to animals that require more energy like heavily working donkeys, pregnant or lactating jennets. ▪ Silage should be avoided for feeding donkeys. It is high in protein and moister and low pH and fibre.

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4. REFERENCES

Council Directive 98/58/EC of 20 July 1998 concerning the protection of animals kept for farming purposes Dai F., Dalla Costa E., Minero M., Burden F., Judge A. 2017 - Diary donkeys. Good animal management practices for donkey milk production. University of Milan, Italy, The donkey sanctuary, pp 1-68. European Convention for the Protection of Animals kept for Farming Purposes Kugler W., 2013 – Added value of donkey breeds in Europe. Project reports January 2013, SAVE foundation, Switzerland. Kugler W., Grunenfelder H.P., Broxham E. 2008. - Donkey breeds in Europe. Inventory, description, need for action conservation. Monitoring Institute for Rare Breeds and Seeds in Europe, Report 2007/2008, pp 1-62. Regulation 44/2006 for veterinary requirement for livestock buildings (Bg) Scherf B. (Ed.), 2000. World watch list for domestic animal diversity. Third edition, FAO, Rome, Italy. The donkey sanctuary. Donkey care handbook 2015. Fourth edition, UK, pp 1-160. The working equine veterinary manual 2016. Chapter 10, The teeth – Ageing and a practical approach to dentistry. pp 223-252, The brook, action for working horses and donkeys. Vlaeva R., Barzev G., Georgieva S., Ivanova I. 2017. Dynamics in the development of donkey population in Bulgaria. Trakia Journal of Sciences, No 1, pp 56-59. Blench R. 2012. Wild asses and donkeys in Africa: INTERDISCIPLINARY EVIDENCE FOR THEIR BIOGEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND CURRENT USE. SOAS, 9th May 2012. Berard L., Cegarra, M., Djama, M., Louafi, S., Marchenay, Ph., Roussel, B., Verdeaux, F. 2005. Biodiversity and Local Ecological Knowledge in France Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique; Centre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Developpement; Institut du Developpement Durable et des Relations Internationales; Institut Francais de la Biodiversite. ISBN 2-915819-06-8, p.109, 2005. Zewdie B., K. Welday and S. Kumar Pal. 2015. Conservation of Indigenous Donkey Breeds of Ethiopia: A Review. International Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Studies (IJIMS), 2015, Vol 2, No.6, 13-22 Meutchieye, F.; Kwalar, N.N.; Armelle, R.; Nyock, F. Donkey Husbandry and Production Systems. In Current Donkey Production and Functionality, 1st ed.; González, F.J.N., Ed.; UCO Press: Córdoba, Spain, 2005; pp. 1–24. http://www.fao.org/dad-is/en/ https://ec.europa.eu/food/animals/welfare_en http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/pregastric/aginghorses.html https://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/what-we-do/why-donkeys-matter https://www.mrrb.bg/bg/rajoni-ot-nivo-1-i-nivo-2/ Picture on page 24 presenting dental anatomy - courtesy of www.vivo.colostate.ed

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