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The Assessrnent of Acculturation, Encuituration, and Culture in Asian The Assessrnent of Acculturation, Encuituration, and Culture 6 in Asian-American Samples Y.L. Zhang and J.L. Tsai to assess the mental health needs of specific Introduction Asian-American communities. In this chapter, we review the different instruments that have Based on the 2012 census, Asian-Americans are been used to assess acculturation, enculturation, the fastest growing ethnic group in the USA­ and culture in Asian-American populations. comprising 4.8 % of the US population, or 18.9 million individuals (US Census, 2013). Within this "Asian-American" group, however, exists Measures of Acculturation tremendous variation. "Asian-Americans" not and Enculturation only vary in the specific countries they come from (e.g., China, Korea, Japan), but also in the length of time they have spent in the USA (e.g., ... [Being from another culture is] definitely an asset because we can mold ourselves to fit into our 1 year vs. their entire lives), their generational surroundings and it makes us more open to and status (e.g., first generation vs. third generation), accepting of other cultures that are hugely different their reasons for migrating to the USA (e.g., in from the American culture.-Indian ilnmigrant search of occupational or educational opportuni­ (Kim, Brenner, Liang, & Asay, 2003) It is hard trying to fit into both worlds and cul­ ties vs. to flee persecution in their homelands), tures ... my parents viewed some of my ''American" and in their views of the USA (e.g., as a tempo­ behavior as not so good ... there are [a] lot of rary workplace vs. as a new home). In addition, benefits of being bicultural but it also means that there is tremendous variation in Asian­ you don't totally belong in one culture.-Korean immigrant (Kim et al., 2003) Americans' levels of engagement in American culture ("acculturation"), as well as their endorse­ Almost 2/3 of Asian-Americans were born out­ ment of specific Asian cultural ideas and prac­ side the USA. In addition, 60 % of Asian­ tices ("enculturation"). Scientists and clinicians American population growth in 2012 was due to alike have long acknowledged the importance of international migration (US Census, 2013). measuring this variation, whether to answer What is it like to move to and live in a culture scientific questions regarding how cultural ideas that is different from the one you were raised in? and practices shape psychological processes, or This process-adapting to a new culture-is what researchers refer to as "acculturation." Coming from a different culture may be an "asset," as Y.L. Zhang, M.A. (181) • J.L. Tsai, Ph.D. (181) described in the first quote, where individuals Department of Psychology, Stanford University, and the communities in which they live benefit 450 Serra Mall Bldg 420, Jordan Hall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA from the ideas and practices of different cultures. e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] However, as described in the second quote, L.T. Benuto et al. (eds.), Guide to Psychological Assessment with Asians, 75 DOI 10. 1007/978-1-4939-0796-0_6, ©Springer Science+ Business Media New York 2014 76 Y.L. Zhang and J.L. Tsai --·-----------------· ·- ---···-·· ..... --··----·-----···-·--------·--------------····--··--·-····--·--·-· coming from another culture may also be "hard" Hewitt, Abrams, & Cleary, 2012). This may be because of the stresses of trying to integrate the because many immigrants do not speak English, conflicting values and practices of two (or more) encounter discrimination, are poorly integrated different cultures (Berry, 2003). What factors socially, and/or live in poverty (Berry, 2003; Hwang determine whether Asian immigrants find adjust­ & Ting, 2008; Ward, 1997). Lower acculturation is ing to American culture easy or difficult? And also associated with more negative attitudes what are the positive and negative consequences towards mental health services in nondistressed of adjusting to a new culture? Asian-American groups (Kim & Omizo, 2003), and lower rates of psychological help seeking and adherence to counseling recommendations in dis­ Defining Acculturation, tressed ones (Kalibatseva & Leong, 2011; Ta, Enculturation, and Cultural Holck, & Gee, 2010). At the same time, however, Orientation lower acculturation and higher enculturation (iden­ tification with Asian culture) have been associated The word acculturation was first used to describe with positive outcomes such as higher educational the process of cultural change within a group due achievement and stronger work and family values to contact with European settlers (Berry, 2003; among Asian-American immigrants (Huntsinger, Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936). Today, Jose, Larson, Balsink Krieg, & Shaligram, 2000; the term acculturation is used more broadly to Shin, 2004). refer to cultural change that occurs when indi­ Researchers have also used the tem1 cultural viduals come in contact with a culture different orientation to refer to how engaged individuals from the one they were raised in (Suinn, 2010). are in their different cultures. This term has been Theoretically, two processes occur in parallel used for immigrant and nonimmigrant popula­ once cultural contact begins. At the individual tions (Ying, 1995; Ying & Han, 2008). Unlike level, immigrants may change their thoughts, immigrants, nonimmigrant minont1es (e.g., attitudes, behaviors, and values following first­ second-generation and above) are often exposed hand, prolonged contact with their host culture to multiple cultures simultaneously (e.g., Asian (cultural adaptation or psychological accultura­ culture at home and American culture at school), tion; Berry, 1990; Berry, Trimble, & Olmedo, and therefore, they may experience less cultural 1986). Most research has focused on this level. change. Thus, whereas acculturation and encul­ However, at the cultural level, host cultures may turation refer to processes that typically occur in also change in response to the ideas and prac­ immigrant groups, cultural orientation is an index tices that immigrants bring with them (Berry, of one's engagement in a culture at a particular 1990; Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Considerably moment in time, regardless of their place of birth fewer studies have investigated processes at (Tsai, Ying, & Lee, 2000). Moreover, while the this level. To refer to the process of maintaining term acculturation is often associated with contact one's culture of origin, researchers and clini­ with mainstream or Western culture, cultural ori­ cians use the term enculturation (Berry, 1994; entation is used to describe engagement in any Kim & Abreu, 2001). one or more cultures. Existing empirical evidence suggests that the processes of acculturation and enculturation are more complicated than previously thought. Lack Models of Acculturation, of engagement with one's host culture (i.e., lower Enculturation, and Cultural acculturation) has been linked to negative mental Orientation health outcomes, including heightened anxiety and depression, increased physiological symp­ Over the last few decades, two dominant models toms, and lowered self-esteem (Suinn, 2010; have emerged, the unidimensional (sometimes Wang & Mallinckrodt, 2006; Yoon, Hacker, termed "unilinear" or "bipolar") and the 6 Assessment of Acculturation 7'7 bidimensional ("bilinear" or "multidimensional") Asian-Americans might sever ties with their local models. Unidimensional models-dating back to Asian community and completely embrace the 1921-assume that changes to one's values, values and behaviors of their American host cul­ behaviors, and attitudes occur on a single continuum ture, while separated Asian-Americans may avoid (Flannery, Reise, & Yu, 2001), and typically view the contact with European Americans and retain their acculturative process in terms of stages that ultimately Asian values and behaviors by living in segregated result in assimilation to the dominant culture. For Chinatowns. Berry theorizes that integrated indi­ instance, in the context of food consumption, a viduals fare the best psychologically because they unidimensional model assumes that eating more experience the least amount of acculturative stress. American food means eating less Asian food. In contrast, marginalized individuals fare the While the unidimensional approach may make worst; indeed, they engage in deviant behaviors sense for measuring certain domains, like media and experience more depressive symptoms than or food consumption, it may be Jess useful for nonmarginalized individuals (Berry, 2003; Kim, more complex domains such as cultural identifi­ Gonzales, Stroh, & Wang, 2006). Assimilated and cation, or the degree to which individuals feel a separated individuals fall in between integrated part of their ethnic or cultural groups. For exam­ and marginalized individuals (Berry, 2003). ple, one may feel strongly American and strongly Berry and colleagues used four distinct scales Chinese at the same time. Unidimensional models to measure these styles (Berry et al., 1986; Kang, are unable to account for this "bicultural" identifi­ 2006). However, empirical research on French cation because they assume that once individuals and Hungarian immigrants in Canada show high strongly identify with their host cultures, they correlations between integration and assimilation, weakly identify with their cultures of origin. as well as between assimilation and separation, Bidimensional models emerged with these which suggests that these types may overlap drawbacks in mind. Bidimensional models allow (Kang,
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