National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation

National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation

National Security Agency Defending Our Nation. Securing The Future 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency, circa 1950s. n November 4, 2012, the National Security Agency (NSA) celebrates its 60th anniversary of providing critical information to U.S. decisionmakers and Armed Forces personnel in Odefense of our Nation. NSA has evolved from a staff of approximately 7,600 military and civilian employees housed in 1952 in a vacated school in Arlington, VA, into a workforce of more than 30,000 demographically diverse men and women located at NSA headquarters in Ft. Meade, MD, in four national Cryptologic Centers, and at sites throughout the world.

While the mission to defend the Nation against all adversaries has not changed, the adversaries have changed considerably. During the Cold War, NSA’s primary focus was on the Soviet challenge, punctuated by tense crises, such as the one in Cuba in 1962. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, the adversary was less likely to be wearing the uniform of a specific country. In fact, today our greatest threat may be a lone person using a computer.

Throughout its six decades, NSA has pursued its mission by employing smart, committed, and courageous people, developing innovative technology, partnering with allied nations, and collaborating with our DoD and IC colleagues. Our commitment to upholding the law of the Nation and protecting the civil liberties of its people has never wavered.

On behalf of the dedicated employees of the National Security Agency, we are pleased to present this publication that tells the fascinating story of NSA – 60 years of “Defending Our Nation and Securing The Future.” We have only just begun.

Keith B. Alexander General, U.S. Army Director, NSA/Chief, CSS

John C. Inglis Deputy Director The Mission Never Sleeps National Secuirity Agency

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Foreword 3

An Agency is Born 10

Decade of Change 28

Advances in Technology 50

A Period of Growth 68

The End of an Era 80

Adapt and Adjust 94

An Agency Rich in Heritage 112

NSA Timeline •1952 to 2012 114

NSA and CSS Seals Description 116

8 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency • Central Security Service National Security Agency • Central Security Service 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 9 1950s

oday, if you head north on Interstate 95 and exit on Rt. 32 towards Annapolis, you will find yourself on a dual lane highway that passes old Rt. 1 and then begins to rise up Ta small hill. As you reach the crest, you cannot help but notice a collection of buildings off in the distance.

In daylight, the area – save for the wide array of towers and satellite dishes – could well be mistaken for a corporate campus of a Fortune 500 company. Those who live in Central Maryland are well aware of this organization’s existence, but those viewing the area for the first time might not easily guess that they are passing the headquarters of the National Security Agency, an organization that for more than 60 years has provided and protected our Nation’s most important communications.

At night, the same area takes on an eerie glow. To many, the image of the buildings speaks of power and vigilance; to others, the vision imparts a sense of mystery and secrecy. Despite the many perspectives on its purpose and mission, one thing is certain - NSA has played a critical and indispensable role in securing our Nation.

Today, NSA’s thousands of affiliates around the world, both military and civilian, employ the latest methods and technologies to accomplish its mission. In the beginning, however, there An Agency were no buildings or people or technology. In the beginning there was only Lieutenant General Canine.

March 17, 1953. Flag presentation: (L to R) Major General George A. Horkan, Quartermaster General, USA, presents a three-star flag to Lieutenant General Ralph Canine in honor of his promotion and appointment as Director of the National Security Agency. Is10 60 Years of Defending Our Nation BornNational Security Agency • Central Security Service National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 11 1950s 1950s

Lieutenant General Canine A-2 at end of chapter). In 1952 when the Agency from hostilities. By 1947, however, the hostility Born in Flora, Indiana, in the late 19th century, was formally signed into existence, Canine was between the Soviet Union and the United States LEADERSHIP Ralph J. Canine had entertained thoughts of named its first Director. Smart, experienced, had grown to such a degree that it was referred becoming a doctor, but America’s entry into and practiced in sound management principles, to as “the Cold War.” In 1950, the conflict would WWI prompted him to change his career plans. Canine began to mold the new entity into an turn hot on the Korean Peninsula, and one of Canine entered the Army as a second lieutenant effective organization. Time would demonstrate NSA’s first challenges would be to support the DIRECTORS that he was the right person for the job. efforts of the United States and its Allies in “The and stayed on after the Armistice was signed. LTG Ralph J. Canine, USA (July During WWII, he was appointed Chief of Staff Land of the Morning Calm.” 1951 – November 1952) for XII Corps under the command of General Infused with a sense of both urgency and George S. Patton, and after the war, he served dedication to his mission, Canine quickly Korea for a time as Commander of the famed 1st began to use the new authorities given him by The Korean War began in the early hours of Lt Gen John A. Samford, USAF Infantry Division. President Truman and the Secretary of Defense June 25, 1950, when the forces of communist (November 1956 – November to create a stronger cooperative effort between North Korea invaded South Korea. Within 1960) Despite having scant experience in the realm NSA and the Service Cryptologic Components days, the United States had committed itself to of intelligence, 1951 found him as head of (then called “Agencies”). He also successfully restoring the Republic of Korea in the south the fledgling Armed Forces Security Agency advocated for budget supplements to pursue and had persuaded the United Nations to join (AFSA), an organization created after the war research and to purchase computers and the endeavor. to streamline and consolidate the Nation’s communications infrastructure components. cryptologic assets. However, AFSA was unable to By month’s end, the North Korean offensive VICE DIRECTORS Aware of the other agencies’ challenges to his had forced the U.S. 8th Army into a defensive achieve its desired purpose, and a new approach RADM Joseph Wenger, USN was needed. young organization’s mandates, he frequently position. Although 8th Army commander General tangled with other leaders in the Intelligence (December 1952- November Walton H. Walker’s situation was extremely 1953) Community, starting with his parent Due to the efforts of the Truman administration, tenuous, he was committed to holding the line. organization at the Department of Defense AFSA transitioned into the newly created With the twin resources of effective SIGINT (DoD). He was particularly at odds with the CIA National Security Agency (See Document A-1 and to assist him in making the right moves in over several issues, especially CIA’s failure to keeping the perimeter secure and sound Brig Gen John Ackerman, USAF inform him about operations that infringed on communications security (COMSEC) to protect (November 1953 – June 1956) NSA’s activities, which included a CIA attempt his own communications from being exploited, to create its own Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) Walker was able to maintain his position. system. American strategic-level communications during Maj Gen John A. Samford, USAF While Canine was adept at fighting off the (June – August 1956) the operation remained safe from the enemy due outside forces that threatened the new organization, he was even more skilled at largely to the dependable communication tools developing the critical internal elements of NSA, such as the SIGABA device and the M-204. particularly morale. He interacted regularly and directly with employees and successfully infused During the early difficult days of the battle, both the civilian and military members of the Walker had firmly remarked to his 25th Division workforce with a strong esprit de corps. staff, “I want everyone to understand that we DEPUTY DIRECTORS are going to hold this time. We are going to win.” One of Canine’s senior subordinates said he Thanks to the dogged determination of the Joseph H. Ream (August 1956 – October 1957) “raised the National Security Agency from a UN forces, and effective SIGINT and COMSEC, second-rate to a first-rate organization.” Most Walker would remain true to his words. importantly, Canine’s hard work and vision While there had been no intercept or analytic established the foundation of an Agency that, Dr. Howard Engstrom (October unlike AFSA, would provide America’s leaders coverage of North Korea before the war, the 1957 – August 1958) with the cryptologic support they needed to same was not true of China. The U.S. had meet the challenges of the Cold War and beyond. been providing communications intelligence (COMINT) on the Communist Chinese since LTG Ralph J. Canine After the surrender of Japan in 1945, the General Marshall’s attempt to broker peace in Dr. Louis W. Tordella (August The first National Security Agency Director victorious Allied powers enjoyed a brief respite the Chinese Civil War in 1946. In fact, China was 1958 – April 1974)

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Lieutenant General Samford A year later, he was appointed NSA’s Deputy and influence as an imperial power, In the fall of 1956, LTG Canine retired, and Director, a position he held for less than a year particularly in the oil-rich Middle East. Lieutenant General John A. Samford, USAF, before returning to private industry. was appointed NSA’s second Director. Like An Israeli assault on the Sinai and an ensuing Canine, Samford could claim an impressive Agency leaders began to understand the need British and French bombing campaign military career. Unlike Canine, by the time he for cryptologic experience at the top. General temporarily restored British control of the was promoted from the position of NSA Vice- Samford successfully argued that if he was Canal Zone, but the U.S. – working through Director to the head of NSA, he had several years to have a civilian deputy, it needed to be an the UN – forced a ceasefire and an eventual of Intelligence Community experience under “insider.” With this goal in mind, Samford withdrawal of French and British forces. Egypt his belt. A 1928 graduate of West Point, Samford selected Dr. Louis Tordella. It would prove to retained control of the canal, although it agreed served as Chief of Staff of the 8th Air Force be an excellent choice (Tordella would go not to restrict shipping. during WWII, and in the postwar period as Chief on to become NSA’s longest serving Deputy of U.S. Air Force Intelligence. Director). Tordella had a Ph.D. in mathematics Hungary, like other East European countries, and had worked in both cryptanalysis and suffered under the yoke of post-World War II Like his predecessor, Samford possessed a wide communications security. Further, he had been Soviet occupation and domination. In 1956, range of experience and management skills; manager of a high-profile technical project, and discord erupted into rebellion in Budapest. however, while Canine was known for using served in the Pentagon office that controlled The Soviet response using tanks and troops the stick, Samford was much more inclined NSA’s budget. Most importantly, he was ready was a ruthless squelching of the revolt. As the to use the carrot. Samford’s preference for to serve as the Director’s sounding board, situation heated up and hostilities erupted, diplomacy rather than confrontation eventually an important consideration for Samford. The NSA was quick to supply President Eisenhower led to improved relations between NSA and original concept had been for a civilian to hold and his senior staff with an accurate picture of AFSA was responsible for supplying its partners in the Intelligence and Defense office for only a few years, and then move on. As Soviet movements. the Army’s codes and ciphers, Korea, 1950s Communities. Ironically, Samford had initially it happened, Dr. Tordella served almost 16 years, been opposed to the creation of NSA, yet proved establishing a long list of accomplishments and After the uprising subsided, there was some to be one of its most effective leaders. an enduring legacy of leadership. criticism that COMINT should have provided one of the major production areas in the early more warning before the crisis. In fact, there 1950s, with coverage of both the Communists Move to Civilian Deputy Director Tested by Crises were some COMINT indicators, but at that time and the Nationalists. In addition to building on Canine’s success, During Samford’s directorship, NSA provided NSA was not authorized to analyze intercepts; Samford established the tradition of a civilian rather critical cryptologic support in several crisis NSA’s role was simply to forward the information As the Korean War went on, analysts at AFSA than military Deputy Director. The AFSA practice situations in the Middle East and Eastern to other intelligence agencies. developed information from Chinese messages of having military vice-directors continued when Europe, such as the Suez Crisis and the 1956 about the movement of crack Chinese units General Canine was the Director of NSA despite revolt in Hungary. The Move to Ft. Meade – 1957 from central China to the coast and then to President Truman’s 1952 memorandum calling for a The latter part of the 1950s witnessed NSA’s Manchuria. COMINT provided information on civilian NSA Deputy. When Canine retired, however, The Suez Crisis rose out of U.S. and growth in both size and importance. When the units and number of Chinese troops poised General Samford appointed a civilian Deputy. international concerns over Egypt’s aggressive NSA was created, the assumption was that on the China-Korea border, although there were At the time, the Eisenhower administration’s move to nationalize the Suez Canal, at that in time the new entity would establish new no intercepted messages saying the forces were preference was to bring nongovernment expertise time owned by a French and British company. headquarters to unify its many important but to cross into Korea. into federal departments, and Agency leadership The canal was of great importance to the disparate parts. In short, NSA needed a home was prompted to select a civilian deputy from economic development of both nations, – but where? At its inception, NSA was split The Korean War was a watershed time for outside NSA. Joseph Ream came to NSA from CBS and they considered it vital to their national between different locations and facilities. AFSA/ the United States. Before the outbreak, U.S. Broadcasting. However, as a noncryptologist, he security, due to its strategic geographic NSA’s headquarters were in the Naval Security policy had been to downsize the military and faced a stiff learning curve. When this challenge location. At the same time, Egypt was Station on Nebraska Avenue in the District of intelligence services. Policy changed virtually was compounded by family illness, he resigned. increasingly turning to the USSR as an ally. Columbia, as were the cryptographic functions. overnight to one of rapid and expansive buildup. However, the COMINT functions were located Dr. Howard Engstrom, a naval officer who NSA intelligence reporting at the time at Arlington Hall Station, the Army’s cryptologic This changed policy affected NSA as well. worked cryptology during WWII, was Ream’s showed Soviet shipments of military materiel headquarters in northern Virginia. The National Security Council in July 1950 successor. After the war and a period as vice to Egypt and Syria. While the U.S. was approved a sizeable increase in hiring for president at a private corporation, Engstrom pursuing anti-communist and anti-imperialist These military posts were already crowded, AFSA, which continued into the NSA era, well served as Associate Director and Director of policies, Britain – though anti-communist – and the geographic division of the two after the end of the war. NSA’s Research and Development Organization. was equally determined to retain its status principal functions created management

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challenges. In addition, after it was known that The Move the USSR had exploded an atomic bomb, the government began dispersing key agencies to Fort Meade to ensure their survival in case of a surprise Soviet atomic attack on the capital. AFSA/NSA was one of those key agencies.

A planning committee recommended that Fort Knox, Kentucky, be a permanent home. It was away from likely atomic targets and well protected. Planning for a move to Kentucky began, but there remained two serious obstacles. First, many in NSA’s leadership felt that a location so remote from Washington would prevent effective interaction with DoD and other intelligence agencies. Second, there was considerable resistance within the cryptologic workforce to a move that would involve such dislocation of families.

These challenges ultimately proved too great to overcome. The planners rethought their options and decided that Fort George G. Meade in Maryland offered a workable solution. It National Security Agency, circa 1950. was considered far enough away from the expected blast zone around Washington to meet the survivability requirement. The move difficulty in recruiting and retaining Over time, NSA asserted control over location to Maryland was approved, and NSA began qualified employees for its specialized surveys, a prerequisite to establishing physical “Meade Mobile” provided information on relocating to the occupying buildings on Fort Meade in the workforce. Typically, personnel from the locations for new sites. Consequently, NSA was Fort Meade area for employees. late 1950s. Fort Meade has remained NSA’s Service Cryptologic Agencies did not stay able to influence where the Service Cryptologic headquarters ever since. long after converting to civilian status. To Agencies established their field sites. A great deal of preparation went into add to the recruitment challenge, none of the move to Fort Meade. Employees Leadership anticipated that the initial building NSA’s job descriptions were in the Civil Eventually, a three-tier COMINT system were offered field trips to look over the would unite both halves of NSA’s mission at Service Registry. Throughout the 1950s, NSA emerged worldwide, driven by needs for construction of the new buildings and given Fort Meade. However, NSA quickly outgrew the pushed to have recognition as an “excepted COMINT and the communications capacities all the information they could use to line building. NSA, along with other intelligence and service,” with hiring and firing authority and of the era. Forward sites collected and up housing and address the challenges defense components, expanded rapidly during the ability to define its own jobs. President processed any “take” that was time-sensitive associated with the transition. and after the Korean War. The initial building Eisenhower supported this approach. and could be handled without sophisticated even proved too small to contain the entire Eventually, NSA’s hiring and firing authority equipment. Intermediate stations, often at Once in place, the workforce appreciated COMINT workforce. Planning and construction was granted through the enactment of Public theater level, dealt with material that needed the newly constructed facilities after of additional buildings began soon after the Law 86-36, “National Security Act of 1959.” more processing but still had to be distributed existing in structures hastily thrown up early first was finished.T he COMSEC organization quickly. Intercept that required processing on in World War II. The new buildings had remained in D.C. until a new building was A World-Wide Cryptologic System massive computer banks or needed only for several interesting features, including what completed on Fort Meade in 1968. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, as the long-term study was sent to NSA. In addition, was reputed to be the country’s longest dimensions of the Cold War became apparent, the Navy and Air Force operated mobile unobstructed corridor. Offices were linked Recruiting a Qualified Workforce NSA and the uniformed services moved from collection platforms that fed intercept into the by a 99 station pneumatic tube system. And, Finding a new home was only one of the a collection focus on Germany and Japan to system at appropriate levels. particularly attractive to the young workforce, many challenges NSA faced during its sites better situated for collecting signals there were snack bars, with hot grills, on formative years. Because cryptology is a from the USSR, Eastern Europe, China, and To serve worldwide customers, particularly alternate floors. n unique profession, NSA faced considerable North Korea. the major military commands in Europe

16 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 17 1950s 1950s and Asia, NSA established the role of senior NSA did not stop there. It now looked to more the Service Cryptologic Agencies. First, the representatives in Europe and the Pacific. advanced machine systems for enciphering text administration was worried about the potential messages and safeguarding speech privacy. security risks of the number of people who had On the protect side, when President Truman access to COMINT. A commission on government established NSA in 1952, he created a central Dwight D. Eisenhower organization chaired by former President board for COMSEC policy. However, this board In 1953, the man who led America and the Allies Herbert Hoover found that almost 30,000 never materialized and eventually NSA assumed to victory in Europe in World War II, Dwight D. Americans were cleared for COMINT. Of this responsibility for COMSEC. In October 1953, Eisenhower, ascended to the presidency. The number, not more than 5,000 were consumers a year after NSA was established, the National United States had faced grave perils during of the product -- the majority were producers. Security Council gave NSA authority in COMSEC WWII, but now America and the world faced The administration recommended reducing the technical matters, although policy direction and not only the prospect of conflict with the Soviet number of people with COMINT access and budgeting still came from a special board. Union, but also the threat of nuclear war. strengthening security procedures.

One major COMSEC project begun at AFSA From its earliest days, the Eisenhower In 1957, the Eisenhower administration continued at NSA. At the end of World War II, administration was deeply concerned about the asked Deputy Secretary of Defense Reuben possibility of a surprise attack on the United Robertson to chair a high-level committee to the government needed a replacement for the States by the Soviet Union and reducing the review spending on COMINT. Although initially SIGABA/ECM, the highly sophisticated cipher drain of DoD appropriations on the annual committed to radical funding reductions, machine used by both the Army and Navy. budget. The President convened a number of Robertson came to appreciate the value After 1949, AFSA began developing a device panels and committees to study how these COMINT had in decision making. At the end of that would be smaller, lighter, faster, and seemingly incompatible goals might be achieved. the study, the Robertson Committee proposed economical. The device, the KL-7, was ready by two principal recommendations. the early 1950s. The President also commissioned a study of defense matters by Dr. James Killian, president The Committee’s first recommendation was to NSA looked in-house to develop its next cutting of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. consolidate some collection stations to eliminate edge device, the KW-26, to secure teletype Among other things, Killian recommended that duplication. The second had farther-reaching or other kinds of record communications. It NSA be strengthened, because awareness of consequences. Robertson recommended that The KL-7, originally the AFSAM-7 employed the latest technology and electronic an imminent attack would most likely to come all budget lines for cryptologic activities be online encryption and could withstand combat through COMINT sources. centralized under the Director of NSA. This conditions. The U.S. military now had strongly move was implemented in 1959 by the protected communications. Over 14,000 units The Eisenhower administration had two creation of the Consolidated Cryptologic it has continued as the principal budgeting were used into the 1980s. personnel concerns that involved NSA and Program (CCP). With only a few changes, process for the cryptologic community.

tempo to developing and sustaining a new level The combined efforts of America and its post- Second Party Partners and type of effort reflecting the evolving needs war allies led to numerous successes. One of the of Cold War era policymakers. most impressive was the VENONA project, which In 1940, before the United States entered the Kingdom-United States] Agreement), reflecting not only clearly demonstrated the prowess of war, the U.S. and Britain began exchanging the realities of the new Cold War. Both countries The actual rate of success achieved by this Soviet cryptologic systems but also showed sensitive information about their cryptanalytic knew they had advantages the other lacked partnership is still classified, but it is known an uncanny ability by the combined Western efforts against Germany and Japan. Sharing and that their need for each other was nearly that valuable intelligence was extracted from intelligence agencies to overcome seemingly became especially close in the war years, and as great as it was during the War. A strong unencrypted Soviet communications. As a result, insurmountable challenges. By overcoming and eventually this relationship was extended to motivation for this partnership was the threat senior leaders in the U.S. and the UK jointly solving such immense problems, NSA began to include Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. posed by growing Soviet political and military received more robust intelligence. build a solid reputation. n aspirations. This threat was compounded by Shortly after the end of the War, President Soviet efforts in Europe and elsewhere to expand Truman authorized the COMINT agencies to Communist interests, control, and influence. continue this relationship with the UK. The initial These ambitions drove the U.S. national 1946 BRUSA (British-United States) Agreement policymakers’ intelligence needs. NSA had to was revised in 1952 (as the UKUSA [United evolve from maintaining a wartime operations

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Other distinguished members of the scientific A study determined that the U.S. SIGINT System VENONA and technological community, including Dr. had the best communications in the government. William O. Baker from Bell Laboratories, It had been operating 24/7 since World War II, reviewed NSA operations. Baker and his panel and, moreover, many sites where CRITICs would The VENONA project was one of the great organization. Although the Soviets changed recommended that NSA be split into a think be produced already belonged to the system. cryptologic triumphs of the Cold War. The their encryption system, they could not retrieve tank and an operational component. Eisenhower Dr. Louis Tordella, soon to become the Deputy effort was a “compartmented” (i.e., restricted the accumulated diplomatic traffic being did not agree, but liked Baker’s concept of Director of NSA, was assigned to develop a access) operation targeting Soviet diplomatic exploited at NSA. This accumulated traffic a cryptologic think tank. Consequently, the plan and brief CRITICs to the President. He traffic. The Army initially began analysis of revealed many intelligence secrets over the President personally supported the establishment described the plan and its costs at a meeting this material during World War II, and quickly following years. of a high-level cryptologic research component of the National Security Council. After Tordella realized it had been enciphered on a one-time under the auspices of the Institute for Defense finished talking, Eisenhower asked a DoD senior pad system. (Webster’s defines a one-time Throughout the life of the VENONA project, Analyses in Princeton, New Jersey. executive with communications expertise if the pad as a “system of random additive or mixed U.S. and British crypto-linguists recovered plan could be achieved, and when told it was key in sequence that is used one time and portions of thousands of messages. Gradually, Over the years, Baker’s idea paid high feasible, merely said, “Let’s do it.” To get it done, then destroyed.”) Used properly, the system is a picture of a massive Soviet espionage effort dividends in terms of theoretical research into the SIGINT System needed extensive upgrading. virtually unbreakable. that posed a very real and significant threat cryptology and computers, much of which was Through NSA’s determination and effort, to national security began to emerge. This subsequently turned into practical applications Eisenhower’s goal of a ten-minute standard was The newly- discovery was for crisis support. The importance and met in 1963. indispensable contribution of cryptologic think established alarming. The tanks continues to this day. The Great Leap Forward NSA took on Army and NSA As the 1950s came to a close, the National the challenge shared decrypts NSA’s business did not end with COMINT. Security Agency had become one of the most of gleaning with the FBI. The Electronic intelligence (ELINT) was exploding important components of the United States’ intelligence from firm condition as our adversaries employed more and defense against the Soviet threat. However, the the “unbreakable” that NSA imposed more weaponry and systems emitting non- challenge posed by the Soviets, while daunting, VENONA traffic on the FBI was communications signals. NSA needed to exploit was only one of many. During WWII, American previously that the material this intelligence but needed an effective system. industry had produced the machines and devices analyzed by that had been The system as it existed was fragmented because necessary to win the war. Superior technology the Army. decrypted could each military service had its own processes. had given the Allies a great advantage, but the Through what not be used in need to keep pace and surpass the Soviets gave was described court, or otherwise Understanding the pressing need for impetus to even greater achievements in the in 1995 by NSA be made public. consolidation of the two systems, Eisenhower technological realm. Deputy Director Although NSA gave NSA the authority for both strategic analysis Julius and Ethel Rosenberg at their trial in March 1951. and reporting of ELINT. As with COMINT, Many argue that the first operational computer William P. Crowell was committed As a result of information gleaned from the Venona project, they were each service kept a tactical capability, but the was the COLOSSUS, designed by the British as a “brilliantly to keeping the found guilty of treason and executed. system was no longer fragmented. The melding to exploit a high-grade German machine intellectual Nation safe, of COMINT and ELINT led U.S. intelligence encryption system. Whether or not it is correct cryptanalysis effort,” skilled British and protection of sources and methods, as well personnel to speak of SIGINT and to treat it as that COLOSSUS was the first computer, the Allies American cryptanalysts uncovered some as civil liberties, mandated that these foreign an independent discipline. accrued considerable experience with machine anomalies indicating a solution might be intelligence successes could not be revealed. processing during World War II. possible. They found that, under wartime As the crises of the Cold War continued, pressures, Soviet communicators had re- NSA kept working on VENONA messages President Eisenhower was concerned that he By the mid-1950s, however, things had begun used some one-time pads. This discovery until 1980. At that time, it was decided the was not receiving information about crisis to move at even greater speed. The computer was critical because pads that had been cost of continuing the program outweighed events fast enough. He set a standard for critical age had fully arrived, and new concepts and used twice were vulnerable to decryption. any possible benefits, and the project was information to reach the President’s desk -- systems that allowed both military and civilian Further detailed analysis also disclosed closed down. The FBI kept its side of the ten minutes after recognition. This standard organizations to do things faster and more that the communicators belonged to Soviet bargain, and VENONA stayed under wraps was to be achieved through use of a Critical efficiently were quickly becoming the rule. espionage services: the GRU, Soviet military until 1995, when it was officially declassified Communications system, called CRITICOMM; As the cryptologic community began to learn priority messages on this system later came to of developments in computing at a number intelligence and the KGB’s predecessor by the U.S. Government. n be called CRITICs. of universities, technical experts at NSA and

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President Eisenhower himself believed that NSA’s development of robust computer power and speed would be essential to its continued ability to meet national requirements, particularly in warning. He authorized the use of his name in recruiting specialists in the field.

In 1956, the DoD approved an extra $5 million above normal budget limits for the next five years to develop high-speed computers. The goal was achieved in the early 1960s with a system named HARVEST.

The 1950s were important years for NSA in computers. In 1955, NSA purchased one IBM computer, which later came to be called the HARVEST system and proved pivotal to NSA’s LTG Ralph J. Canine, USA (left) congratulates future successes. NSA made this purchase after Dr. Louis W. Tordella, NSA’s first civilian and a one-year study that revealed that the cost of National Security Agency longest-serving Deputy Director. running the computer was $51.78 an hour, while a person cost $15.02 an hour (see Document in the military began to devise ways to apply Historic Documents B at end of chapter). Nevertheless, the study computers to cryptologic work and to design ended with a recommendation to purchase machine support systems directly applicable to specific targets. a HARVEST because it predicted that NSA could manipulate and program the computer Document A – Framework for NSA, 1952, pages 1 and 4 NSA needed computers for cryptanalytic to eventually be faster and more economical processing of foreign systems, compiling than a person. This prediction turned out to Document B – Excerpts from a study on the purchase of the HARVEST cryptomaterials for U.S. use, and for be correct. The technology quickly transferred distributing intercept and reports. As a result, outside NSA and became an important factor System, 1957 NSA adopted the goal of developing a general- in commercial computer development and purpose computer. academic research. Such transfers of technology happened frequently over the ensuing decades This effort gave rise to the NSA Scientific and continue to this day. Advisory Board (NSASAB), a group of security- cleared scientists and academics from outside Pleased with its initial forays into the computer the government who met annually to help age and anxious to maintain its leadership in NSA understand the latest developments the field, NSA was quick to adopt technology in technology and incorporate them into and advancements from outside sources. cryptologic work. At a 1954 NSASAB meeting, For example, NSA substituted transistors for the members were asked, “What are things you vacuum tubes, an efficient and economical dream about, but do not dare hope for?” The move. Also, in-house or contracted research answer came back clearly “more speed in smaller resulted in several innovations, such as remote- boxes.” The only point of disagreement among access systems and advanced data storage board members and NSA technologists was the methods. The initiatives NSA took in this decade magnitude of computing power to be set as established its determination to push the their goal. This goal led directly to an accelerated technological envelope and stay at the cutting program of computer development. edge of technology. n

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Document A-1: Framework for the new National Security Agency, October 1952, page 1. Document A-2: Framework for the new National Security Agency, October 1952, page 4.

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Arlington Hall Station, the Army’s cryptologic headquarters in northern Virginia, circa 1950.

Document B: Table from a six-page study conducted on the purchase of the HARVEST System in 1957. This study revealed the cost for the computer was $51.00 per hour and a person was $15.00. (This analysis is on the DVD.)

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y the 1960s, NSA was regarded as a vital element in the effort to provide U.S. policymakers and war fighters the critical intelligence needed to successfully complete their missions. BWhile NSA entered the ‘60s with pride in its accomplishments, the decade would not be without its challenges. NSA sought out the best and the brightest to meet these challenges. (See Documents A1 & A2 at end of chapter.) Early in the new decade, the Agency would also realize the importance of loyalty in the workforce.

Martin and Mitchell Then and now, intelligence agencies operate on the premise that the information they collect will be kept secret. To accomplish this requirement, vast sums of money are spent on tangible devices to secure and protect the environment in which the information resides. However, physical security measures can only do so much. In the end, every intelligence organization depends on the integrity of its workforce to protect its sensitive information.

In June 1960, Bernon F. Mitchell and William Martin, two NSA employees, applied for annual leave to visit their families on the West Coast. That was what they told their superiors. Instead, the pair traveled to Mexico City, then to Cuba, and eventually to the USSR. Decade of Soon after, they surfaced in Moscow as the main attraction of an international press conference sponsored by the Soviet Government. Their actions came as a shock to NSA and the United States. As the event unfolded, it became clear that the point of the proceedings was to provide a forum for the men to describe in detail NSA

USS Liberty Change 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 29 1960s 1960s operations, including activities that involved the tightened its hiring and security practices to parts; however, over time it began to develop its monitoring of the communications of some of include full background checks and polygraphs. own unique identity. In early 1963 NSA adopted LEADERSHIP America’s allies. a seal that proclaimed the Agency a component Bearing the Burden of the Department of Defense. Two years later, Alarmed by the actions of the pair in divulging The decade of the 1960s for the National Lieutenant General Marshall S. Carter, USA, the NSA’s critical information, President Eisenhower Security Agency and America began with hope new Director of NSA, wanted to emphasize that ordered an investigation of the incident that and confidence in the future.T his optimism was the Agency served the needs of the entire U.S. culminated in a comprehensive report. The tempered, however, by the Soviet threat and Government, even though it was subordinate 13-month study revealed that Martin and the even more ominous menace of nuclear war. to DoD. Consequently, he had a second seal Mitchell were mathematicians, first with the In his 1960 inaugural speech, President John F. prepared that incorporated this idea into the DIRECTORS Naval Security Group and, from 1957 to 1960, as Kennedy spoke to this dichotomy noting that new design. NSA civilian employees. Both men had become “mankind holds in his mortal hands the power VADM Laurence H. Frost, USN disaffected with U.S. policy toward the Soviet to abolish poverty, but also the power to abolish Vice Admiral Frost (November 60 – June 62) Union as the Cold War developed and together human life.” Kennedy was equally adamant, In the fall of 1960, NSA would see its first U.S. made the decision to defect. however, that despite the challenges the United Navy Director, Vice Admiral Laurence Frost. A States faced, America would “…bear any burden native of Fayetteville, Arkansas, Frost was born in Ultimately, life in the Soviet Union proved to be and endure any hardship… to ensure the 1902 and graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy disappointing, but their attempts to return to the survival and success of liberty.” in 1926. Frost, like the other early Directors, had United States were thwarted by their inability seen war firsthand and had been awarded the to obtain immunity from prosecution. Martin NSA proved to be a crucial part of this effort Bronze Medal and two Silver Stars. died in Tijuana, Mexico, in 1987; Mitchell in St. under the strong leadership of Army, Navy, and Air Petersburg, Russia, in 2001. Force Directors. All of them had experienced the Frost brought a wealth of experience in crucible of war, and all were imbued with a sense communications both at sea and in staff Lt Gen Gordon A. Blake, USAF The Martin and Mitchell defection of 1960 had of commitment and dedication to their country. positions to his brief tenure as Director. After a (July 62 – June 65) strong repercussions. Due to the incident, NSA In the beginning, NSA was the sum of many dispute with the Pentagon, he stepped down as Director in June of 1962, three months before one of the most harrowing and dangerous moments in NSA and U.S. history.

Lieutenant General Blake Air Force Lieutenant General Gordon A. Blake replaced Frost. Like the previous occupants of his office, Blake was no stranger to combat. Blake gained valuable experience during World War II in operations communications LTG Marshall S. Carter, USA and later in the field of research and (June 65 – August 69) development. His experience eventually led to his appointment as Commander of the Air Force Security Service. Blake’s wartime and service pedigree were valuable assets in his role as NSA Director. Shortly after he assumed the post, he would have to draw on every bit of his talents and experiences to assist the Nation in dealing with the harrowing series of events that would come to be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The Cuban Missile Crisis DEPUTY DIRECTORS (Left) William Martin and Bernon Mitchell (center) tell Moscow press why they defected. In the autumn of 1962, the United States faced Dr. Louis W. Tordella (August (See attached DVD for audio and transcript) its most serious crisis of the Cold War. 1958 – April 1974)

National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 31 1960s 1960s

The crisis had its beginnings in Fidel Castro’s advance warning of the attempted installation of On October 22, President Kennedy appeared Scholars differ as to when Kennedy learned Cuban Revolution. Castro’s revolution initially these missiles. on television and announced the U-2 findings that the Russian ships would not challenge the drew strong support from all levels of Cuban to an anxious public. Despite assurances from quarantine line. However, there is no doubt society. However, by the summer of 1958, he had To provide timely intelligence to a wider range the Soviet Government that the buildup was that U.S. SIGINT was the source. A Navy SIGINT denounced the United States and established of consumers, including The White House, defensive, medium-range and intermediate- direction finding net in the Atlantic located the diplomatic relations with the communist world. NSA sought new, innovative ways to expand range ballistic missiles had been introduced Soviet ships by intercepting and triangulating Castro’s move to the left prompted President collection capabilities so that the intelligence into Cuba. He called for their withdrawal or messages that the ships were sending back to Eisenhower to set the Central Intelligence derived was the most up-to-date possible. To destruction and established a naval “quarantine” the Soviet Union. Some of the Russian ships Agency (CIA) to work at putting an end achieve this, collection specialists worked with of Cuban ports to prevent additional Soviet were stopped dead in the water, outside the to Castro’s reign. By the time President Kennedy the Naval Security Group, the Navy’s cryptologic armaments. Kennedy also warned that further ring of American naval vessels waiting for them. occupied the Oval Office, plans to overthrow organization, to develop concepts of operation actions might be needed if the buildup of Others had turned for home even earlier. By the Castro regime were fully in place. A CIA- for Technical Research Ships. During the crisis, offensive weapons continued. 0930 on October 24, SIGINT had determined sponsored invasion of the island was planned ships such as the USS Oxford reinforced the that the Russian ship Kimovsk had turned near the coastal town of Trinidad. Kennedy worth of the concept. As the crisis moved toward a critical point, around and was heading away from Cuba. moved it to the less conspicuous location of SlGlNT collectors listened to the radio By noon on the same day, it was clear from Playa Giron, or the Bay of Pigs. On October 21, due largely to the work of the messages to and from the Soviet vessels on information provided by NSA and its partners Oxford, NSA analysts were able to conclude that the On April 17, 1961, approximately 1,300 members their way to Cuba. Would they turn around, that the Russians were no more anxious to Soviets had assumed control of Cuba’s air defense or would they challenge the U.S. Navy start a nuclear war over Cuba than were the of a CIA-supported counter-revolutionary Cuban network. The stakes were raised even higher. exile force stormed the beach. Despite assurances quarantine? Any potential conflict between Americans. A confrontation had been averted, American and Russian ships had the potential one that might have precipitated war. The that their effort would foster a counterrevolution During this trying time, NSA worked overtime that would rally the Cuban people to their cause, to escalate into a wider war between the President, his Cabinet, and the American people to keep the Executive Branch informed. The two superpowers. could breathe a little easier. the force was quickly defeated by Cuban forces White House Situation Room was reorganized and forced to surrender. to receive SIGINT product directly rather than through intermediary organizations. An NSA The disaster at the Bay of Pigs had huge employee was assigned to The White House ramifications well beyond the events of the Situation Room and became a major figure operation. Wanting to ensure the viability of in White House operations, even facilitating his revolution, Castro sought even closer ties decision making. In addition, occasionally NSA with Moscow, which Moscow reciprocated. Director Blake personally carried NSA’s classified Russia was fearful of America’s attempts to information to The White House. encircle the USSR. The United States had placed nuclear weapons in Turkey, and Premier Nikita Khrushchev saw an opportunity to give the Despite the fact that Kennedy controlled a wide Americans some of their own medicine by range of nuclear weapons, hundreds of ships and an installing offensive nuclear weapons in Cuba. even greater number of men and equipment, he was unable to discern the mind of his counterpart, Nikita But Khrushchev realized he would have to Khrushchev. What were his goals? Were the missiles get the weapons on the island and operational a negotiating ploy, or were the Russians really willing before the U.S. knew what was happening. to start a war to protect Cuba?

On the morning of October 16, President Without knowing what was happening around John F. Kennedy was informed, through defector the world, Kennedy faced the potential of a debriefings and U-2 photographs, that the CIA catastrophic nuclear exchange. As the threat had discovered the Soviet Union was preparing of Russian missiles became clearer, many of to install nuclear-tipped SA-2 missiles in Cuba. Kennedy’s advisors began to lobby for an all-out Once installed, these missiles had the range to invasion of the island before it was too late. hit almost every major American city. Despite the pressure from some of his most Due to effective denial and deception work, trusted advisors, Kennedy would eventually the Soviets were able to keep their activities demur from the invasion option and choose secret; SIGINT had not been able to provide any another route. Soviet Strategic Missile sites under construction in Cuba, 1962.

32 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 33 1960s 1960s

It would be wrong to say that NSA and its intercepts. Often, reports consisted of nothing Gradually, NSA began to release analysis of its In the end, as was the case with much of partners saved the world from destruction; more than a 3x5 card with a typed verbatim text intercept. Some other intelligence agencies America’s involvement in the conflict, the results however, it is clear that during one of the most sent through an interagency mail system. continued to insist that the COMINT system of NSA’s cryptologic efforts to try to solve the perilous moments in the history of mankind, should issue only translations of intercept, riddle of Indochina were decidedly mixed. the leader of the free world was provided By 1962, at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, leaving analysis to them. Over time, as COMINT information that led him to make prudent a few NSA offices had converted to electrical production became more sophisticated and As early as 1961, the Director of NSA ordered decisions that kept the peace, not just for distribution, releasing reports via a machine that new sources opened up, it became evident that reviews of existing activities and contingency America, but for the world. resembled a teletype. The Cuban Office, at least, NSA analysts were best equipped to manage and plans for Vietnam and neighboring countries. also issued summary reports, compilations of analyze their own product. NSA responded to military requests for COMINT Communications Intelligence many reports consolidated for ease of reading. support by recommending limited, mobile From their experiences during the crisis, NSA Tides and Hurricanes collection in Vietnam, with an emphasis on leaders knew that communications intelligence Winston Churchill once cautioned that one should Direction Finding (DF), including some training (COMINT) needed to be distributed faster The experience of the missile crisis made “never believe that any war will be smooth and of the South Vietnamese in DF techniques. and more widely. Over the next decade, they it clear to all offices that the future was in easy or that anyone who embarks on the strange developed and implemented procedural and rapid dissemination of reports. Over the next voyage can measure the tides and hurricanes he The Army Security Agency (ASA), at the request technical improvements to enhance support to decade, although some bulkier products were will encounter...” To this day, individuals debate of a high-level intelligence board, became the intelligence consumers. still released only in hard copy, systems were whether the Vietnam War was a noble cause lead agency for SIGINT support in Vietnam. installed and expanded for more timely and or a horrible mistake. But from a cryptologic The first ASA troops arrived atT an Son Nhut Air In NSA’s earliest days, COMINT reports greatly widespread release of reports. The new style perspective, the war that raged in Indochina from Base in May 1961 and began operations. NSA resembled those of the prewar and wartime eras. reports were known as “Electrigrams” or the early sixties until the mid-seventies was a time initially sent technical personnel to Vietnam for Most were straight translations of decrypted “EGRAMs” for short. of supreme service and sacrifice. temporary duty and first assigned a permanent

Courtesy of John F. Kennedy Presidential Library

USS Oxford, a Navy COMINT collection vessel during the Cuban Missile Crisis. NSA provided vital information to President Kennedy during the perilous days of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

34 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 35 1960s 1960s

representative to Saigon in April 1962. Tragically, In response to the incident, President Johnson Satellite Collection the first soldier killed in combat in Vietnam was publicly warned North Vietnam of serious Specialist James Davis, an advisor to a South consequences should there be a repeat of As technology and methods advanced, Vietnamese Radio Research unit. the incident. On the night of August 4, 1964, NSA senior technical personnel realized that the Maddox and a companion vessel, the information could also be collected from As each of the services deployed its own USS Turner Joy, reported a possible second satellites. The collection and analysis of that SIGINT assets to provide support in the war, attack, although local confirmation of North information was referred to as electronic NSA worked with the command structure Vietnamese activity was inconclusive. intelligence (ELINT). Collection from satellites in Saigon to provide central direction and focused on electronic signals from radars in the coordination of the efforts. This was not While the administration was deliberating its Soviet Union, and NSA joined the Air Force in entirely welcomed at the Military Assistance response, they received COMINT reports from analyzing ELINT signals. By the mid 1960s, the Group in Saigon. Senior military leaders were a field site and later NSA, both seeming to Agency was directly involved in the analysis of apprehensive about questions of control confirm a second attack. Unfortunately, both intercept from overhead collection, as well as for such an important asset as SIGINT. In reports were mistranslations. When the first the tasking of this increasingly valuable source. Vietnam, NSA set up a number of SIGINT intercepted North Vietnamese reports came Support Groups (SSGs) with a mission that in regarding the incident, they were assumed As would be expected, other intelligence was expanded beyond that of previous wars. agencies wanted to be players in satellite to be describing a second attack on August 4; The SSGs provided and explained SIGINT to collection, analysis and production, but they in reality, they were actually North Vietnamese commanders, helped incorporate SIGINT with had conflicting priorities. These differences after-action messages related to the original other kinds of intelligence, and relayed local were eventually resolved, resulting in a attack on August 1. requirements to SIGINT producers. This “one- collaborative approach to satellite tasking and analysis. stop” concept proved invaluable for military This false information would not be recognized commanders’ needs. for months, and the lapse in time would The Nation’s first electronics signals satellite, prove to be critical because the alleged GRAB (Galactic Radiation and Background), America’s early involvement in Indochina was confirmation of a second attack prompted The first Soldier killed in combat in Vietnam was developed by the Naval Research Lab initially somewhat limited. While it considered the Johnson administration to swiftly order was Specialist James Davis, an advisor to a South Vietnamese Radio Research unit. (NRL) and was followed by a series of U.S. Vietnam an area of interest, as late as November retaliatory bombing of North Vietnamese intelligence satellites given the code name 1963 the Kennedy administration had no firm facilities. In addition, the incident convinced POPPY. The National Reconnaissance Office plans on the future of the operation. the administration that new congressional (NRO) took over the operation of the POPPY authorization for military action in Southeast COMSEC and Purple Dragon program in 1962, shortly before the program’s After Kennedy’s death, however, President Asia was warranted. American cryptologic efforts on the protect first satellite launch. n Lyndon Baines Johnson decided that Vietnam side of the equation were not as successful. was a war that needed to be won. Over time, In the end, it turned out that the Gulf of Tonkin The attitude that the North was a primitive Johnson escalated the number of troops incident had been a minor incident; however, the culture with little in the way of cryptologic and resources devoted to the conflict to event would have major ramifications as it gave talent and resources led to complacency and unprecedented levels. One of the critical events the Johnson administration good reason to forge overconfidence regarding U.S. efforts to protect that led Johnson to this conclusion occurred in ahead with its plans for Vietnam. critical information on the air waves. In the the summer of 1964 off the coast of Vietnam, mid-1960s, NSA analysts could demonstrate from and NSA played a major role. As the United States increased it efforts in the intercepted sources that the North Vietnamese region, NSA and its partners provided critical were able to provide advance warning of Gulf of Tonkin intelligence on the enemy and protected the U.S. bombing missions over North Vietnam (a On August 1, 1964, the USS Maddox, a destroyer program known as ROLLING THUNDER). critical information of the United States Armed patrolling the Gulf, was attacked by North Forces from its adversaries. By the mid-1960s, Vietnamese torpedo boats in the vicinity of When the United States captured a North the Gulf of Tonkin. Due to some excellent a vast network of listening posts had been established. These units’ work provided the Vietnamese intercept site near Saigon, NSA communications-related intelligence that warned confirmed that North Vietnam heavily relied the ship about the impending waterborne units in the field the information they needed NRL team at Cape Canaveral for spin test of GRAB1 on SIGINT as an intelligence source. This assault, the Maddox was able to successfully to conduct their respective missions. (See atop Transit 2A. (Left to Right) Martin J. Votaw, George G. discovery was significant. NSA analysts briefed Kronmiller, Alfred R. Conover and Roy A. Harding repel the attack. Documents B1 & B2 at end of chapter.)

36 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 37 1960s 1960s the Joint Chiefs of Staff and components of the practices that made bombing raids predictable. The The Liberty Intelligence Community on this development study group made a number of recommendations In 1967 tensions were once again rising The Ears and its implications. to correct the problems. The findings of the PURPLE in the Middle East between Israel and her DRAGON team were partially implemented and Arab neighbors. Hoping to collect critical of Neptune In response, the Defense Intelligence Agency gave rise to the discipline of Operations Security intelligence in the region, the USS Liberty was (DIA) convened an interagency taskforce in (OPSEC), which is still used today. sent to the eastern Mediterranean. The ship, The critical work of the USS Oxford during the the Pacific to identify remediation measures manned by a full complement of Navy SIGINT Cuban missile crisis prompted the “powers that As the Nixon administration adopted the policy that could be taken to address security personnel and three NSA civilians, was on be” in the community to expand the program of “Vietnamization” of the war, NSA helped in the weaknesses and vulnerabilities. Eventually, this station just as the Six-Day War broke out. of U.S. Navy ships collecting critical SIGINT. DIA-led group was known by the covername transfer of equipment and provision of training to a PURPLE DRAGON. South Vietnamese intelligence organization. U.S. Navy ships were ordered to draw back at least Like U.S. Navy ships everywhere, cryptologic 100 miles from the area of operation; however, vessels like the Oxford were a flexible asset After the PURPLE DRAGON group completed The Nation’s experience in Vietnam will be debated due to a host of errors, the Liberty did not get that could be deployed on short notice its review, the blame for the breaches in security for years to come. But no one should ever forget the the message. On the afternoon of June 8, while and sent to any coastal location to gather surrounding ROLLING THUNDER missions was countless acts of courage and bravery demonstrated steaming off the coast of Israel, the ship was pertinent and real-time intelligence. placed on poor communications security (COMSEC) not only by our Nation’s war fighters, but also by the attacked by Israeli Navy and Air Defense Forces. practices by U.S. forces, compounded by operational silent sentinels of the cryptologic service. But, while these technical research ships Thirty-four crew members were killed and 171 were indeed versatile and manned by crews wounded, and the ship itself was badly damaged. of talented and dedicated men, they also Commander William McGonagle, the ship’s proved to be exceedingly vulnerable. This captain, despite being wounded, was able to vulnerability led to two tragic incidents at sea direct a robust salvage operation that somehow involving the USS Liberty in 1967 and the USS managed to keep the ship afloat. For his bravery, Pueblo in 1968. These experiences exposed heroism, and actions in saving the ship and the problems in the use of these ships and administering to his crew, McGonagle would ultimately led to the program’s termination by n later be awarded the Medal of Honor. the end of the decade.

Eventually, the Israeli Government apologized for the incident and attributed it to a series of errors. In addition, Israel agreed to pay compensation to the United States. After an investigation, the U.S. ultimately accepted the apology. To this day, historians continue to debate the exact nature of events that transpired, and intense controversy remains over whether or not the attack was deliberate.

Despite the controversy, what can be said unequivocally is that the crew’s service and sacrifice exemplified the best traits of the U.S. Navy and the cryptologic service, and demonstrated once again that the discipline can sometimes be a dangerous one. (More information on the USS Liberty can be found on NSA.gov.)

The Pueblo Six months after the Liberty incident, another distressing incident, involving the USS Pueblo, U.S. Army Signal Corps Communications on Monkey Mountain, Vietnam. occurred. In 1967 North Korean aggression The USS Liberty in drydock, Malta 1967.

National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 39 1960s 1960s against South Korea increased markedly. as General Marshall’s executive assistant and as the concept of a centralized watch center for Needing to know more about the events in Deputy Director at CIA. His broad experience the Agency was approved. The Travis Trophy the region, the U.S. Navy deployed the USS helped to shape his vision for dealing with NSA’s Pueblo to collect critical information off the emerging role in the Intelligence Community. A general outline for a National SIGINT Watch In 1963 a worker at Arlington Hall Station, home North Korean coast. On January 28, 1968, while Center was prepared by September, but delays to the Army Security Agency and some elements the Pueblo was in international waters, North Watchmen on the Walls of Freedom occurred. Turf battles erupted over the loss of NSA, found a trophy on a shelf in a storeroom, Korean patrol boats attacked and overwhelmed On the day of his untimely death, President of individual watch centers. Finally, in 1972, which was brought to the attention of the the lightly defended ship. John F. Kennedy planned to give a speech in after several delays, a formal location was Director, Lt Gen Blake. Dallas that would focus on the fact that America identified.T he Center began limited operations During the capture of the vessel, one crew and Americans were “Watchmen on the Walls of in December of that year and a few months The trophy had been given to the United States member was killed. The remaining 83 crew Freedom.” It was in this same spirit in the 1960s later on February 21, 1973, was formally in 1948 by Sir Edward Travis, Director of Britain’s members, including the ship’s captain, LCDR that NSA began to develop a series of watch inaugurated as the National SIGINT Operations Government Communications Headquarters Lloyd Bucher, were captured and taken to North centers to ensure that the United States could Center (NSOC). (GCHQ). Travis proposed that it be awarded to Korea where they were harshly interrogated better respond to the grave challenges of the the winner of a complicated sports competition and brutally tortured. After a long series of Cold War. Eventually, NSOC was able to assume a wide between the Army and Navy cryptologic negotiations, the United States agreed to sign a range of functions in NSA’s daily operations organizations. The trophy was awarded to the “confession” claiming that the ship had violated NSOC and quickly became the focal point for crisis Army after a tournament that involved games of North Korean waters, and the crew’s year-long The crises of the late 1960s led directly to the response at NSA until Operation DESERT tennis, golf, and chess. As far as is known, there captivity finally came to an end. However, while establishment of the National SIGINT Operations SHIELD in the early 1990s, when the practice was not another such competition after 1948. Bucher had managed to bring all but one of Center (NSOC). Efforts had been made to of convening special cells tailored to particular his crew back safely, copious amounts of both consolidate the huge volume of traffic into a crises became standard. NSOC is known as the After the discovery of the trophy in 1963, General sensitive and precious cryptomaterials had fallen central location to enhance the ability of NSA to “Nerve Center of NSA” and was renamed to the Blake consulted with the Director of GCHQ, and, into the hands of the North Koreans. provide accurate and timely intelligence. NSOC National Security Operations Center in 1996. with his concurrence, designated the loving cup was a significant step forward in accomplishing as an annual award to the U.S. cryptologic field It is worth noting that NSA’s role in the Pueblo this goal. DEFSMAC station that had made the year’s most significant case was mainly as a technical advisor. The Agency, Many Americans feared that the USSR was contribution to operations, management, or as part of the wider Intelligence Community, was The multinational character of the crises of the much more advanced than the United States administration in cryptology. Though later joined asked for its advice on the mission itself, which 1960s prompted Agency leadership to organize in development of intercontinental missiles. by other competitions and awards, the Travis had been deemed dangerous by several experts along geographic lines. This structure meant that This was not true; however, there was a Trophy became the most prestigious award in and organizations. In the end, NSA decided to the wars and subsequent tensions in the Middle growing threat from a wide range of Soviet the cryptologic community and still holds that approve the mission, but also forwarded a warning East, the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, and weapons systems. The threat became even position today. n statement prior to the vessel’s deployment about the capture of the USS Pueblo would be handled more apparent after the Cuban Missile Crisis the growing aggressiveness of North Korea. Despite by employees in different offices.T he events of October 1962. the warnings and concerns, the mission went of the 1960s demonstrated to NSA leaders the forward. need for immediate input from several offices to In January 1963, NSA consolidated existing get a full understanding of what was happening warning facilities into the Space and Missile Change of Command around the globe. Analysis Center (SMAC). Later in the year, the The 1960s were challenging times for both NSA Agency joined with the Defense Intelligence and the Nation. Events like the Cuban Missile Crisis To achieve this goal, the National SIGINT Agency (DIA) to consolidate this facility with demonstrated that policymakers and generals Watch Center was created in December 1968. other Defense Department components in the needed information that was both accurate and Ironically, while the proposal was being missile warning business. timely, and the Agency took a number of steps to considered, a major crisis occurred -- the increase its efficiency and operations. shootdown of a U.S. Navy EC-121 SIGINT From this innovative consolidation, a new reconnaissance aircraft by North Korea in April organization emerged – the Defense Special Lieutenant General Carter 1969. As was typical for that time, information Missile and Astronautics Center (DEFSMAC). In the spring of 1965, General Blake retired for crisis management for this incident went Today, DEFSMAC is a leader in weapons and and was succeeded by one of his West Point to several watch centers at NSA, with no space intelligence. Over the last half century, this classmates, Lieutenant General Marshall S. Carter, central repository, compounding the difficulty vital organization has had an NSA senior official USA. General Carter had extensive experience in of collating the intelligence. This incident as chief and a deputy chief from DIA. It remains In 1964, the first winner of the Travis Trophy was the 6988th the realm of civil affairs and intelligence, serving clearly demonstrated the need for change, and headquartered at NSA’s Fort Meade complex. Security Squadron in Yokota, Japan.

40 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 41 1960s 1960s

The Enterprise Expands The crises of the 1960s and, more particularly, After the first building constructed in the the war in Vietnam, necessitated rethinking mid-1950s proved inadequate for NSA’s COMSEC doctrine and equipment. In response, growing workforce, the Agency constructed an NSA developed the KW-7 device to encrypt adjacent, nine-story structure, which opened tactical message traffic in combat. in 1963. Offices at the newly-configured A series of devices was developed to protect campus focused primarily on the COMINT communications during the Vietnam War. The function. The Director located his office on original cipher machine, the KY-8, was generally the top floor, and the workers began to refer viewed by the military as too heavy and too to the building as the “Headquarters Building,” slow for use in combat. Later versions, such as with its “Ninth Floor” synonymous for the the KY-28 and KY-38, took advantage of newer Agency’s leadership. technology with integrated circuits, making them more portable, but still secure. Things were changing on the protect side as well. In 1968 the Communications Security The National Cryptologic School (NCS) organization also opened a new building in the While buildings and technology are important, NSA complex. While the two buildings were on the need to train employees in effective the same campus, the COMSEC organization was cryptologic methods is vital to NSA’s mission. some distance away from the main complex. Each step in the cryptologic process is

The NSA Headquarters Building, a nine-story structure, opened in 1963.

specialized and technical and requires unique and, in April 1965, the Department of Defense training to enable employees to operate at high founded the National Cryptologic School via professional levels. One of the most important DoD Directive 5100.47. Since that time, the organizations in achieving this goal is the institution has served as the cryptologic training National Cryptologic School. ground for both military and civilian members of the workforce. Employee training has been part of U.S. cryptology since NSA’s 20th century inception. In In 1965, the NCS superintendent title changed the beginning, much of what passed as training to commandant to more accurately reflect was the result of on-the-job mentoring, but the authority vested in the position and the over time Agency leaders began to realize that organization. The Cryptologic School or “The organized classes were also needed. Schoolhouse” -- as it was popularly known among the workforce – grew in scope and The role of NCS grew as NSA’s hiring increased importance, and in 1972, it was given additional in the 1960s. More new employees came to the responsibility for training throughout the Agency from universities and lacked military cryptologic community, including the Service cryptologic experience that had been typical Cryptologic Agencies. Today the NCS continues in the past. More and more, Agency operations to meet the training challenges through its required specific technical knowledge that could many well-respected training programs and not be found anywhere other than within the educational opportunities. walls of the Agency. More Speed in Smaller Boxes LTG Marshall S. Carter, USA, Director NSA, observes class in progress during a 1967 visit. With this in mind, NSA tailored its in-house Early on, NSA recognized computing as a professional training and education program, cornerstone of modern cryptologic operations

42 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency 1960s 1960s and took strong measures to become a this system had the capacity to handle a large leader in the field. The Agency invested volume of communications from remote aggressively, emphasizing computer stations simultaneously. purchase requirements in its budget. Some advanced models were procured and others During this period, NSA technicians constantly were developed by the Agency’s research sought solutions and developed advanced component. NSA also worked with outside programs for receiving and distributing sources to develop specific- and general- communications intercept, as well as for storing purpose computers. The goal was to get large amounts of data. the Agency as close to the borders of the technological frontier as quickly as possible. The result of this corporate effort was that by the end of the 1960s, NSA could boast that it had Evidence of NSA’s pursuit of computerization over 100 computers, covering five acres of floor is the fact that the Agency was an early space, serving both defense and national SIGINT adopter of the UNIVAC. Purchased in 1963, and COMSEC customers. n

National Security Agency Historic Documents

Document A – Two excerpts from the Recruiters Manual: Interviewing and Recruiting for NSA, December 1960 Document B – Two messages in response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, August 1964

UNIVAC system purchased by NSA in 1963.

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Document A-1: The outline of the recruitment interview pattern from the Recruiters Manual. Document A-2

46 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 47 1960s 1960s

Document B-1: Above and opposite page, messages from the Joint Chiefs of Staff in response to the Document B-2 Gulf of Tonkin Incident in August 1964. (Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum)

48 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 49 1970s

s the 1970s dawned, thousands of American servicemen continued to fight and die in Vietnam. While both the Soviet Union and the United States appeared to be far more cautiousA regarding nuclear war than in previous decades, the issues that had brought the Cold War to fruition were far from being settled. In addition, the ever-present tensions in the Middle East continued to simmer.

During this time, the Soviet Union and its allies continued to be NSA’s major concern. Cold War intelligence targets included Russian military forces, strategic rocket forces, air defense forces, and airborne troops. In addition, commanders also sought intelligence on the other countries of the Warsaw Pact, including Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.

At the same time, technology continued to advance to unprecedented levels. Although the information revolution was decades away, the ‘70s would see a number of technological advances that would prove to be key to the Agency and its mission.

The decade brought America some unique challenges, including many in which NSA would play a major role.

Vice Admiral Gayler In the late summer of 1969, General Carter retired from active duty. Although his replacement, Vice Admiral Noel Gayler, USN, had little intelligence Advances in experience, he had distinguished himself in combat in WWII and was the first U.S. Navy pilot to win three Navy Crosses.

By the mid-1970s, NSA was moving toward desktop terminals and away from supercomputers like the one Technology shown here. 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 51 1970s 1970s

Gaylor relied heavily on his military experience Tordella stayed in the Navy until 1949, when he The Central Security Service LEADERSHIP during the formation of the Central Security joined the newly created Armed Forces Security Today NSA is truly a worldwide enterprise with Service (CSS), one of his major accomplishments Agency (AFSA). thousands of both military and civilian workers. as Director. However, despite its presence around the globe, His ingenuity and skill brought him to the very it cannot do its job without one of its most DIRECTORS Louis W. Tordella, Ph.D. front rank of cryptologists. He was an early important partners, the Central Security Service. Born in Garrett, Indiana, Lou Tordella showed advocate of the use of computers for cryptologic work and helped to cement a close working VADM Noel Gayler, USN an uncanny affinity for mathematics, eventually Traditionally, the U.S. Intelligence Community (August 1969 – August 1972) relationship with American industry. Dr. Tordella has depended on the Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen, obtaining a doctoral degree in the discipline. became the Deputy Director of NSA in 1958, During WWII, he served in the Navy, and after the and remained in the post until his retirement Marines, and Coast Guardsmen of the United war, he went directly into cryptologic work for in 1974. He thus became the longest serving States Armed Forces and their resources to collect the Navy’s codebreaking organization, OP-20-G. Deputy Director in NSA’s history. intelligence throughout the world. However, as NSA requirements increased, it became clear that the organizations and systems used by the Lt Gen Samuel C. Phillips, USAF military to collect cryptologic intelligence needed (August 1972 – August 1973) to be updated and formalized.

In 1971 President Richard Nixon, in response to a Pentagon study, announced plans to consolidate NSA and the Service Cryptologic Lt Gen Lew Allen, Jr., USAF Agencies (SCAs) into a new unified command, (August 1973 – July 1977) with NSA absorbing SCA functions. As Director, Admiral Gayler was tasked with overseeing the consolidation designed to “provide a more unified cryptologic organization within the Department of Defense.” VADM Bobby Ray Inman, USN A year later, Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird (July 1977 – March 1981) expressed his concern that the proposed consolidation would result in NSA focusing on strategic requirements rather than the needs of tactical military commanders. Laird proposed a compromise that would assure senior military DEPUTY DIRECTORS leaders that under the new arrangement they would continue to receive the required Dr. Louis W. Tordella (August 1958 – April 1974) cryptologic support.

Eventually all parties involved came to terms with the concept, and in February of 1972 the CSS was established via National Security Council Intelligence Directive 6 and Department of Defense Directive 5100.20. While the proposal Benson K. Buffham (April 1974 – April 1978) stopped short of establishing a combined command, it proved effective in increasing performance standards and training. Most importantly, the initiative laid the groundwork for the increased centralization of NSA and military cryptologic assets. (See Document A at Robert E. Drake The NSA campus as it looked in 1970 end of chapter.) (May 1978 – April 1980)

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A critical part of the directive called for the the Cold War, the Army Security Agency appealed the United States Signals Intelligence Directive The Church Director of NSA to serve simultaneously to the patriotic sentiments of the companies to (USSID) system. Unlike previous systems, as the Chief of the CSS. The initiative also continue to provide copies of messages to and these directives provided timely procedural Committee tasked the Director to carry out a wide range from the Soviet Union. This practice, by then guidelines for practitioners throughout the From its inception, NSA had developed of responsibilities in the areas of tasking, known as Operation Shamrock, continued up to SIGINT system. They could also be updated what could only be described as a cursory training, research and career development, and the NSA era. quickly to reflect changing needs and relationship with the U.S. Congress. At times, government cryptology. procedures and be disseminated rapidly via the Agency would engage with Congress The Church Committee raised concerns electrical communications. on budget matters and other serious issues. Lieutenant General Phillips about whether NSA, in carrying out Operation However, due to the secretive environment In the early summer of 1972, Admiral Gayler SHAMROCK, had exceeded its legal authorities The development and promulgation of USSID of the Cold War and the perception that gained his fourth star and headed off to and violated the privacy rights of Americans as #1 proved to be critical to the Intelligence the subject matter the Agency dealt with Hawaii to become head of the U.S. Navy’s was both highly specialized and classified, protected by the Fourth Amendment. Community. Issued in 1971, the document many congressmen were uncomfortable Pacific Command. Taking his place was Air spelled out the structure of the U.S. SIGINT exercising more than minimal oversight. Force Lieutenant General Samuel C. Phillips. Operation MINARET began in the 1960s. System around the world. (See Document C Phillips had no intelligence experience, The project involved the monitoring of the at end of chapter.) Over time these USSIDs -- This scenario changed dramatically after but was well versed in the area of missiles international voice communications of specific NSA directives on SIGINT -- would prove to be credible media reports surfaced that U.S. and space. His focus during his brief time U.S. citizens whose names had been placed on indispensable to NSA employees and affiliates intelligence agencies had violated the at NSA was on organizational reforms and a “watch list.” in gaining an understanding of the proper rights of American citizens by engaging in streamlining NSA operations. handling of SIGINT. To ensure that all Agency unlawful behavior. In order to investigate A Guide for the Silent Sentinel: United employees and affiliates were familiar with these claims, the United States Senate formed Lieutenant General Allen States Signals Intelligence Directive the standards, training requirements on the an investigating committee under Senator He was replaced by another Air Force General, (USSID) handling of information regarding U.S. persons Frank Church (D, Idaho). Soon after, the Lieutenant General Lew Allen, Jr., in August 1973. The activities of the Church and Pike were stringent and demanding. House would follow suit, forming a committee Previous to his appointment to the Directorship, Committees revealed holes in the legal under Congressman Otis Pike (D, New York). Allen had managed a wide range of overhead When their work was finally completed, procedures that underpinned NSA and its A Host of Increasing both investigative bodies produced reports assets, including satellites that monitored Soviet work, although, from its earliest days NSA had Asymmetrical Challenges denoting that two specific NSA projects, nuclear arms control treaty compliance. Allen sought to construct standards and regulations In addition to the Soviet threat, terrorism Project SHAMROCK and Project MINARET, was the first NSA Director to hold a Ph.D., to govern and guide its work. emerged as an important concern in the ‘70s, had violated a number of Americans’ Fourth having obtained his doctorate in physics at the which sparked a significant shift in how NSA Amendment rights. n University of Illinois. The predecessor to the USSID system, dating organized its operational and analytic business. from 1958, was the Manual of U.S. SIGINT Real-time reporting was essential. One of his most compelling challenges Operations (MUSSO). MUSSO was intended was to deal with the ramifications of the to bring structure and orderly procedures to Despite the challenges associated with investigations of the U.S. Intelligence a SIGINT system that had grown rapidly over “standing up” a new analytic area, NSA proved Community, including NSA, by the Church the previous decade and worked efficiently in to be adept at producing critical information and Pike Committees. its early years. on terrorist incidents and activities. In 1974 Agency analysts uncovered a plot to SHAMROCK and MINARET System managers, however, found serious assassinate Secretary of State Henry Kissinger In the 1930s Congress passed a law prohibiting difficulties with MUSSO as the cryptologic during an overseas trip. communications companies from revealing the environment evolved and greater challenges content of telegrams to third parties. During emerged. Specifically, there were serious During the ‘70s, NSA became directly involved WWII, however, Congress implemented a series problems in trying to craft a system that in covering terrorist-related kidnappings, of censorship laws that superseded the original could adapt to the wide range of changing assassinations, and hijackings. The support and law and allowed U.S. authorities to examine the procedures and practices in timely ways. Most assistance provided by the Agency in these content of telegrams sent to and from the United importantly, the manual did not provide any events were ultimately seen as indispensable States. In addition, any encrypted messages were clear authority for the procedures in question. to the Nation’s ongoing effort to prevent sent to Arlington Hall. and manage terrorist threats. These activities With the growing demand for SIGINT, it was further cemented NSA’s key role in providing When WWII ended, the authorization for the clear that NSA needed better guidelines and, in intelligence support to The White House, as NSA Director, Lt Gen Lew Allen, Jr. USAF testified during a Senate hearing in 1975. (See Document B at end of chapter) program expired. However, with the coming of the early 1970s, NSA’s leadership introduced well as other important consumers.

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Vice Admiral Inman were beginning to come to the forefront. After expertise in the field, the Agency developed a leader in strong communications security In 1977 General Allen gained his fourth serving as DIRNSA, VADM Inman went on group of cipher machines, including the first practices and devices. star and became Commander of the U.S. Air to become Deputy Director and later Acting device that combined radio and encipherment Force Systems Command. He was replaced Director of the CIA. in a single unit. The Mayaguez Incident by Vice Admiral Bobby Ray Inman, USN, the In May 1975, NSA issued a series of summary fourth Director of the ‘70s era. Unlike some Securing Networks During this time, NSA was also developing intelligence reports detailing the capture of his predecessors, he had an impressive Developments in cryptographic technology lighter and more efficient communication of American merchant sailors on the ship intelligence background. Inman served in boomed in the 1970s. The new public systems for military use. The Vietnam War Mayaguez by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. the Korean War and had assignments as an cryptography gave NSA a fresh challenge -- it taught the Agency’s system developers The Mayaguez was a U.S. cargo ship involved Operations Intelligence Analyst at NSA and as had to not only keep up with, but find a way that troops in the field were reluctant to in the support of U.S. forces in Southeast Asia. Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence to the to stay ahead of the curve. use communications equipment that was On May 7, 1975, the ship left Hong Kong on Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet. His prior too heavy or cumbersome. As a result, what was to be a routine voyage. On May 12, assignment as Vice Director, Plans, Operations Great leaps forward in computer and electronic the Agency’s communications security 1975, the Mayaguez was 60 miles off the and Support at DIA also gave Inman invaluable network technology meant NSA had to become organization began to develop equipment coast of Cambodia when it was attacked and experience in the complexities of intelligence. expert in securing information systems. As better suited to COMSEC in a war zone. boarded by Khmer Rouge naval forces and His tenure continued to focus on the Soviet/ newer, faster, and more efficient ways of storing Under the NESTOR program a number of forced to follow the Cambodian ships toward Warsaw Pact target, although transnational and moving information developed, the private portable devices that retained high security the mainland. targets, such as terrorism and counternarcotics, sector and scientific community grew concerned and good voice quality were produced. about the security of their communications. President Gerald Ford denounced the action Demands for protection led to rapid The White House and Executive Branch as an “act of piracy” and demanded immediate developments in publicly available cryptology. In 1976 The White House directed NSA to release of the ship. Despite the attempts of look for solutions that would ensure U.S. the Ford administration to find a diplomatic NSA struggled with this dilemma, largely communications were secure. By that time, solution, all efforts failed, and on May 14, because, while the Agency understood the senior officials had begun to realize the threat the President ordered military action. A U.S. need for robust public cryptography, its first posed by Soviet monitoring of communications Marine Corps detachment in the Philippines mission was to maintain the cryptologic within the United States and the vulnerability of was given the assignment and instructed to capabilities needed to protect the Nation. American communication networks. board the ship at sea. The fear was that the Nation’s adversaries would be able to easily buy U.S. commercially The National Security Decision Memorandum Early in the morning of that day, the Marine available encryption technology. tasked NSA to work with the Office of contingent boarded the Mayaguez and Telecommunications Policy to develop took control of the vessel. Shortly after the The Agency and federal authorities realized an action plan for the express purpose of boarding, a Thai fishing boat approached that, while exporting the new technology ensuring that “U.S. citizens and institutions the USS Wilson, which was supporting the was good for economic reasons, it needed have a reasonable expectation of privacy amphibious assault. Aboard the fishing boat to be balanced against security concerns. from foreign or domestic intercept.” were a Thai crew and the 39 men of the In sum, strong public cryptography could Mayaguez. They had been set free by their harden COMINT targets, and thus deny vital The White House plan, implemented in captors. By noon, all Mayaguez crewmen information to decision makers. On the other 1977, called for expedited measures to were back aboard their own ship. hand, if the Agency took too aggressive a secure communications in the Washington, stance, it would run the risk of being seen as New York City, and San Francisco areas. Since the resolution of the incident, curtailing the rights of American citizens. NSA The administration considered these areas historians and analysts have debated the had to proceed cautiously in its efforts to as the most vulnerable to Soviet intercept reasons for the unexpected release of the allow the free flow of commerce while at the efforts. These proactive measures worked Mayaguez crew. Some have proposed that same time doing what was needed to protect and were later extended more widely in the either China or another nation with influence the Nation. U.S. Preventive measures included shifting over the Khmer Rouge played a role, but the sensitive government communications from complete reason will never be known. But while the Agency was rightfully concerned microwave to cable and bulk scrambling for The NESTOR system was developed in answer to the about the challenges of public cryptography, its microwave links (See Document D at end of Remote Keying military’s need for lighter and more efficient communication first obligation was securing government and chapter.). NSA’s success in this arena earned Soviet espionage activities in the United systems. The Soldier above is using the KY-38 “manpack.” military communications. Drawing on its vast it the reputation it still enjoys as the world’s States steadily grew in the 1970s, prompting

56 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 57 1970s 1970s the U.S. to develop improved voice security reluctance placed U.S. information and assets The BELLFIELD concept was further refined technique. Finally, remoting was both efficient equipment. Despite these efforts, there were at risk. NSA realized that improvements were and was eventually incorporated into the and increasingly cost effective, which allowed limits to what could be accomplished. needed, and over time the voice quality of design of the STU-I (Secure Telephone Unit) the Agency to reduce the number of sites and the systems greatly improved. However, the telephone system, but again the cost of the personnel overseas. Because it is both effective First, the limit on users for each secure problem of limited users still remained due to units was a major issue. The STU-I, in its final and efficient, remoting is still a vital part of telephone system in the 1960s was capped both cost and technical issues. version, cost $35,000 each and still required Agency operations. for technical reasons at about 300. This cap supporting equipment equal to a two-drawer prevented the widespread deployment of To address this challenge, in 1967 NSA’s safe. Based on cost, the DoD limited the Catching Up and Staying Ahead devices throughout the Department of Defense’s Research and Development organization purchasing of the phones. In the 1950s and into the 1960s, NSA and the other government departments. In addition, proposed the concept of a central keying Service Cryptologic Agencies (now known existing COMSEC voice equipment was facility. The proposal rested on the premise While the work on the STU-I validated the as “Components”) led the country, if not the cumbersome to use and had poor voice quality that every communication device would have BELLFIELD concept, cost and other drawbacks world, in computer development. By the 1970s, –often described as “Donald Duck” quality. a unique cryptographic key. All secure calls would lead to its discontinuance. Nevertheless, however, the computer industry outside NSA would be routed to a central facility that held the critical research done on these systems had changed from a few elite users to a market For these and other compelling reasons, many keys for all potential users. This revolutionary led to the development of the STU-III, a device driven by heavy business use. Universities moved officials resisted using the equipment. Their concept was called BELLFIELD. that met both the cost and efficiency standards from offering a few computer-related courses to that had been so hard to achieve in the past. advanced degree programs in computer science. Eventually, the STU-III would become ubiquitous The outside world was catching up, and perhaps within the intelligence and defense communities overtaking the cryptologic community in this and set the stage for even greater achievements field. in the realm of secure voice. NSA wisely took advantage of the burgeoning Remote Control Cryptology outside expertise and wider availability of As the ‘70s advanced, the need for versatile and equipment. The sheer volume of signals acquired creative approaches in technology increased. daily could be processed only with assistance During this decade, NSA, for the first time, used from computer technology. the highly successful concept of remoting to enhance and improve its operations. This In the mid-1970s, NSA was moving toward initiative was made possible by other advances desktop terminals, with offices making their in satellite collection, communications, and own decisions about types of equipment and computing. products. The terminals were not generally assigned to individuals during these early years, Collection of foreign signals from stationary but rather were available as an office resource. facilities is expensive. By the mid-1960s, NSA leaders were growing increasingly concerned As more offices began relying on computers, about the high cost of its foreign operations disparate groups of users emerged, each favoring and started exploring options. In addition, different, and often incompatible, systems. In many nations around the world were averse to 1974, building on an idea pioneered by the allowing Agency assets within their borders. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, NSA established an interconnecting system Early successes helped NSA researchers to fully known as PLATFORM, which centered computer explore satellites for relaying communications operations on four core host complexes. The around the globe. Concepts were developed new system allowed for the use of a variety of in the early to mid-1960s for COMINT signals interactive systems around the Agency. It would to be collected remotely. These signals could be some time before an Agency-wide initiative Courtesy of Gerald Ford Presidential Library then be forwarded by satellite for processing. was implemented, bringing NSA fully into the Several innovative approaches developed Information Age. during the Vietnam War showed the potential of During the Mayaguez Incident, decision makers relied on NSA’s timely and focused remoting operations and provided an incentive In the 1960s, NSA worked with the Defense intelligence reports for critical information on the Khmer Rouge’s reaction to the Marine rescue operation. for accelerating the development of the Intelligence Agency to develop COINS

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(Community On-line Information System), As the Vietnam War ended, NSA, along with the prepared to take over, but what about the that gave intelligence customers direct access other members of the defense and intelligence leaders coming after them? Mrs. Minnie M. Kenny to stored SIGINT data. This immediate access communities, took big cuts in its budget and Having grown up in Philadelphia, was revolutionary – customers could now get staffing levels. In addition to a smaller workforce, With this challenge in mind, Inman created Pennsylvania, Minnie Kenny was amazed by intelligence quickly. In 1972 another database, promotions were frozen. Compounding the an executive career panel, giving it the task the discrimination she found when she came SOLIS (SIGINT On-line Information System), problem, the average grade level of NSA of identifying the “water walkers” in mid-level to Washington for employment, and since began storing actual SIGINT product, making employees was above that of other government management. Once he received the list, Inman joining NSA’s predecessor in 1952, worked it more widely available and permitting faster agencies. This meant that over time personnel surprised everyone by demanding that all tirelessly throughout her career to further the searches. Both systems pointed to a time when a costs consumed an increasingly larger share of personnel on the list be assigned a different job cause of minorities in the Agency. comprehensive intelligence information sharing the Agency’s budget. within the next year. This began a practice of network would no longer be a dream, but a increased career diversification for those tapped She quickly developed a reputation for practical reality. The demographics of the workforce also posed for higher office. Inman was proud to find later excellence in several skill areas and was challenges to management. VADM Inman that almost all the people on the list went on invited to work at an elite “think tank” at People concluded that the Agency had able leadership, to senior positions, including two who became NSA, studying the future of cryptanalysis and The cultural and demographic changes of the as most senior people were still from the World Deputy Directors. language problems. 1970s were reflected in different ways within War II generation. He believed that what he the Agency workforce. called the “Korean War generation” was well Based largely on the success of Inman’s initiative, When the status of the Office of Equal NSA henceforth carefully orchestrated the Employment Opportunity (EEO) was in doubt, selection and professional education of the Mrs. Kenny convinced the NSA Director that Agency’s future senior and mid-level managers. the EEO should answer directly to him, thereby Equal Opportunity Challenges giving the EEO the status needed to be effective. Its successor organization, the Equal From its inception, minorities and women were Employment Opportunity and Diversity (EEOD) under-represented in management at NSA. Directorate still reports to the Director today. Making accommodations for disabilities was not yet common, but The Federal Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and subsequent legislation, Mrs. Minnie Kenny, through her superior gave agencies guidance on how to provide job performance and commitment to the reasonable accommodations. Discrimination advancement of minorities in the Agency, n against individuals with an alternate lifestyle became an inspiration to all. was still the rule at NSA. These constraints on Agency personnel were inconsistent with the changing civil rights/equal opportunity climate in the United States and deprived the Agency of potential talent.

Minorities During World War II, the first African Americans in cryptology worked in segregated offices. Unfortunately, race policy at NSA was similar to other government organizations in the DC area. By the 1960s, however, the Agency’s Office of the Inspector General (IG) launched a thorough investigation of personnel at all levels, into the wide disparities among categories of employees.

Based on the results of the investigation that clearly showed a pattern of discrimination, VADM Inman and Ms. Ann Caracristi, who would go on to be the first woman to serve as the IG made strong recommendations to the Deputy Director, listen to Hall of Honor cryptologist Frank B. Rowlett describe the SIGABA machine. Director for the establishment of an Equal Mrs. Minnie Kenny

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Employment Opportunity (EEO) office and for Thanks to the changed climate for women that a positive program to educate the workforce Ms. Predmore’s suit brought about, those women on EEO issues. The Director accepted both already on board, as well as the new hires, were recommendations and initiated them in the afforded opportunities that previously might late 1970s. Since then, hiring and recruitment have been denied them. The system changed for practices have significantly improved minority them, as one NSA senior manager put it, “because representation in the workforce [Ms. Predmore] had the moxie, the guts to take on the Agency.” Gender Challenges Also during the 1970s, NSA found itself grappling Sexual Orientation with charges of gender discrimination. In addition to race and gender issues, NSA also confronted prejudices related to sexual Renetta Predmore had been noted as a promising orientation. In the late 1970s, prompted by a employee, likely to advance in grade at NSA. potential court case, VADM Inman approved However, she ran into the classic “glass ceiling.” the hiring of a homosexual who openly Predmore found credible evidence that she was revealed his sexual preference. Inman imposed the victim of gender discrimination in a promotion some conditions designed to minimize the cycle, and she appealed the decision internally. possibility of blackmail or other security When her appeal was rejected, she sued. On June risks feared by the Intelligence Community. 1, 1976, the United States District Court for the The person, a linguist, had to “out” himself National Security Agency District of Maryland issued a decision in a landmark in person to his entire family and obey local case that directly changed internal policies at NSA. laws on homosexuality. He also had to take an The federal court decision in her favor changed the annual polygraph examination. Historic Documents way promotions and eventually other important job decisions, such as field assignments, were handled. The prejudice at NSA about sexual orientation took longer to fall than those of gender and Document A – Department of Defense Directive Implementing National This June 1976 decision directed that all boards or race, but significant progress on all three was panels convened in the promotion process have a made over the ensuing decades. NSA recognized female member with an equal vote. Going forward, that mission can be accomplished only through Security Council Intelligence Directive 6 all promotion boards and career development and bringing together a diversity of views, skill sets, advancement boards were enhanced with minority race, ethnicity, and gender to best serve the Document B – Transcript of Lt Gen Lew Allen’s testimony before Congress and female representation. national security interests of our country. n Document C – Front page of USSID guidelines Document D – Memorandum describing U.S. response to dealing with “the Soviet microwave intercept problem”

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Document A: Department of Defense Directive that defined the authorities, functions, and Document B: Congressional testimony transcript of NSA Director, Lt Gen Lew Allen, responsibilities of the National Security Agency and Central Security Service in 1971. on NSA’s 1967-1973 “Watch List” operation. (Full transcript on DVD)

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Document C: Established in 1971, the USSID System provided timely procedural Document D: National Security Council Memorandum to the National Security Advisor suggesting guidelines for practitioners throughout the SIGINT system. mitigating measures against the Soviet microwave collection of critical U.S. government communications.

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n April 1981, Admiral Inman left NSA to become Deputy Director at CIA and was replaced by Lieutenant General Lincoln D. Faurer, USAF, NSA’s tenth Director. An accomplished Air Force pilot, Faurer Ipromoted revolutionary technological changes and developed a reputation as an innovator in the areas of secure communications and computer security. Faurer went on to serve in several important positions within the defense and intelligence communities, including Chief of the Defense Intelligence Agency’s Space Systems Division, Director for Intelligence at U.S. Southern Command, and the USAF Deputy Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence.

In 1980 NSA appointed its first female Deputy Director, Ms. Ann Caracristi. Ms. Caracristi came to work as a cryptanalyst with the Army Signal Intelligence Service in 1942. Initially, she sorted Japanese Army messages, but quickly advanced to cryptanalysis and then management.

Her expertise and professionalism in responding to a wide range of tough and demanding cryptologic problems and challenges allowed her to advance quickly. In 1959 she was promoted to a supergrade, and in 1975 she became the first woman in the history of NSA to be promoted to GS-18. Caracristi’s legacy and contributions not only inspired her female colleagues, but future generations of NSA employees of both genders. A Period of A Shift in Focus By 1980 it had become clear to U.S. policymakers that the USSR had no intention of giving up the battle to prevail over the United

President and Mrs. Reagan with LTG and Mrs. Odom at the dedication of new NSA buildings (OPS 2A/2B) - on September 26, 1986. (Video on DVD)

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States and the West. Consequently, Soviet Russia During this time, NSA used fixed stations, NSA also provided intelligence support to the and the Communist Bloc continued to be the airborne platforms, ground-based 1980 effort by U.S. policymakers to understand LEADERSHIP major focus of the cryptologic community. It communications satellite dishes, geosynchronous the background and reasons behind the political was also clear that other threats and challenges, and orbiting satellites and other assets to achieve turmoil in Poland generated by the Solidarity particularly issues such as terrorism, would its mission. It also worked in close coordination movement. One of the more critical pieces of become part of the mix. with the Service Cryptologic Elements in its intelligence revealed that the Soviets would DIRECTORS efforts against the Soviet threat. not invade Poland as they had Czechoslovakia VADM Bobby Ray Inman, USN The Reagan administration made defense, foreign in 1968. The success of the operation was due (July 1977 – March 1981) policy, and intelligence matters top priorities. While much of the NSA effort against the Soviets in part to the increased resources given to the To satisfy the administration’s objectives, NSA remains classified, there are some unclassified Agency to track, observe, and gain an in-depth received additional resources to shore up its examples of the Agency’s cryptologic success understanding of key intelligence targets. mission capabilities. These resources assisted during this time. the Agency in its efforts to adapt to new and In the midst of these successes, there were Lt Gen Lincoln Faurer, USAF different threats and to maintain a high level of In 1983 the Soviet Union deliberately shot down also constant reminders that both NSA and (April 1981 – May 1985) direct support to the military and civilian sectors KAL-007, a South Korean civilian airliner that the Nation faced a worthy adversary. In the of the government. had strayed into Soviet territory in the Far East post-Cold War period the former Soviet Union (See Document A at end of chapter). The Reagan is sometimes perceived as a lumbering giant By the 1980s intelligence gathering on the Soviet administration released to the public portions on the path to obscurity. However, there were target not only involved a large percentage of of voice intercepts that revealed that the Soviet also times when the USSR demonstrated that LTG William E. Odom, USA the cryptologic workforce, but also employed MiG pilot involved knew that the aircraft was it was still a formidable opponent. One of the (May 1985 – July 1988) highly sophisticated intercept, processing, and a civilian carrier. The tapes were able to show most compelling examples of its prowess was analytic equipment, which relied heavily on clearly that, despite this knowledge, the Soviets uncovered through Project GUNMAN. Equally sophisticated computing power. had ordered the pilot to shoot down the plane. impressive perhaps, was the ability of the Agency to discover what the Soviets were up to. VADM William Studeman, USN Project GUNMAN: (August 1988 – May 1992) Much More Than a Typewriter During the ‘80s NSA learned that the Soviets had planted a highly sophisticated “bug” in equipment, presumably in Moscow, used by a U.S. ally. This DEPUTY DIRECTORS led U.S. and Agency leaders to investigate the possibility that the Soviets had been able to Anne Z. Caracristi (April 1980 – July 1982) compromise U.S. equipment in the same way.

Project GUNMAN, as it was referred to, would be one of the most intense and secretive projects conducted by the U.S. Government Robert E. Rich at the time. America needed to know that the (July 1982 – July 1986) communications and activities of its foreign embassies around the world were secure. Any potential compromise to the integrity of U.S. operations abroad was simply unacceptable. Charles R. Lord The Agency’s first step in investigating the (July 1986 – March 1988) extent of the Soviets’ success was to swap out every piece of electrical equipment in the Courtesy Ronald Reagan Library U.S. Embassy in Moscow. Despite the obvious logistical and administrative challenges, any President Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev signing a treaty device that was plugged into a wall socket was Gerald R. Young (March 1988 – July 1990) reducing the size of their nations’ nuclear arsenals, signaling the end of the Cold War. removed and replaced.

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The next phase of the project was an intense Also during that year, largely in response to rising “The Year of the Spy” technical analysis of the collected items. tensions with Iran, President Reagan authorized Over the next few weeks a corps of experts the U.S. Navy to escort Kuwaiti tankers sailing The Soviet Union would prove to be a worthy adversary, not only in the realm of technology, but also from the COMSEC organization carefully through the Persian Gulf. During this potentially in exploiting the human frailties of well-placed individuals within the U.S. defense and intelligence examined each electrical device in exacting dangerous situation, NSA provided critical communities, such as John Anthony Walker and Ronald William Pelton. Because of these two high detail. Finally in late July, a technician, using cryptologic support to the U.S. Navy elements profile incidents, 1985 would be dubbed by the media as the “Year of the Spy.” x-ray photos of components taken from an involved in the operation. IBM Selectric typewriter, discovered a small Pelton and Walker Pelton was caught in 1985 when a KGB defector device capable of recording, storing, and By participating in these events, the Agency In the mid-1980s, U.S. Intelligence Community informed his U.S. handler that a “walk-in” transmitting the keystrokes of the typewriter. gained valuable experience in providing leaders expressed growing concern over the fact contact at the Soviet Embassy in Washington Next the other entities were checked for communications technology in direct support that numerous sophisticated signals collection had been a former NSA employee. This led to similar kinds of devices. In the end a total of of deployed U.S. military forces. The lessons operations against the USSR had become an FBI investigation that eventually identified 16 similar “bugs” turned up in typewriters learned from these operations would pay off increasingly less productive. Time would reveal the him as the spy in question. He was arrested on from the Moscow Embassy and the U.S. a few years later when NSA was called on to reason for their suspicions. Former NSA employee November 25, 1985. Consulate in Leningrad. support U.S. and allied military forces during Ronald William Pelton had been providing Operation Desert Storm. classified information to the Soviets on a wide Rather than seek a plea bargain, the Justice The third step in the operation was perhaps range of Agency sources and methods. Department, with NSA and CIA concurrence, took the most difficult. Knowing that the devices In addition to its activities against selected him to trial. During the proceedings great care was had been in place for at least five years, NSA nation states, the Agency was also dealing During his time at the Agency, Pelton had served taken to protect Agency sources and methods. The analysts were now duty bound to evaluate the with a growing list of transnational threats as a mid-level analyst jury found Pelton guilty, extent and duration of the compromise. and targets. in “A Group,” the and he was sentenced NSA organization to three consecutive life News of the operation eventually leaked out One of the most challenging of these emerging that targeted the terms plus ten years for to the press and became public knowledge, threats was the flow of narcotics into the Soviet Union. He had his crimes against the reminding the Nation that the Soviet Security United States. Over time, NSA and its partners worked the Soviet Nation. In 1992 Pelton Services were still highly capable foes. in the Intelligence Community became an problem for 20 years, wrote the Agency integral part of the effort to stop the entry of both in uniform and a letter of apology, Due to the Agency’s success in GUNMAN, narcotics into the country. as a civilian and saying “My actions other components of the U.S. Government was a specialist in were un-forgivable began to look to the Agency for technical Initially, NSA’s contribution to counternarcotics collection technology. [sic].” expertise and advice on a wide range had been limited, particularly after laws more Ronald William Pelton John Walker He had also written of security challenges. The Agency strictly defining foreign intelligence were an operational Soviet espionage assumed new responsibilities in keeping passed after congressional hearings in the manual for at least activities also affected the electronic communications of U.S. 1970s. However, as the flow of narcotics into one major collection project. Worst of all for NSA, the COMSEC side of Agency operations. During establishments overseas secure and safe. the United States posed a greater threat to he possessed a photographic memory. Due to the 1980s, it was discovered that since 1967 These responsibilities added a new and the national security, the Agency worked with financial concerns, he resigned from the Agency U.S. Navy Petty Officer John Walker, abetted by vital dimension to the Agency’s collective the appropriate authorities and institutions to in the 1970s. After resigning, his financial situation family members and a friend, had been stealing technical knowledge and abilities that would develop new collection guidelines. would go from bad to worse. and selling the punch cards that controlled U.S. better serve the Nation in years to come. cryptographic devices. This compromise enabled Counternarcotics were not the only non- Looking for a way to solve his financial troubles, in the Soviets to read U.S. Navy encrypted messages. A Worldwide Enterprise traditional area that the Agency became involved 1980 he visited the Soviet Embassy in Washington John Anthony Walker was given a life sentence for While most Agency assets were still devoted with during the decade. The rise of worldwide and offered his assistance. Over the next few years his crime. to the Soviet threat, other areas and regions terrorism in the 1970s required strong Agency the KGB questioned him extensively. Despite his around the world began to consume more of support to U.S. military leadership which was hopes for a big payday from his Soviet handlers, The discovery of Petty Officer Walker’s treachery the Agency’s attention in the 1980s. key in resolving several highjacking incidents. Pelton would be paid poorly by the KGB for the led to widespread adoption of Over-the-Air- From these incidents, the Agency would gain information he provided. However, the secrets Rekeying (OTAR) of cryptographic equipment. The In 1987 intelligence derived from Agency valuable insight into the workings of terrorist he would betray would end up costing the U.S. Walker and Pelton espionage cases of the 1980s operations confirmed that Iraqi dictator communications and networks. Unfortunately, millions of dollars and do grave damage to U.S. demonstrated the need for this new capability in Saddam Hussein had used poison gas against these new skills would be put to use many times intelligence operations. peacetime, as well as wartime. n the Kurdish population of his own country. in the future.

72 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 73 1980s 1980s

President Reagan Visits NSA to support military operations and set in motion a As had been the case in the past, the research Since its inception in 1952 NSA had been visited series of initiatives that would allow the Agency to element of this effort was crucial in developing The NSA by Vice Presidents Humphrey and Rockefeller, but fulfill its newly defined role. specific key supercomputer applications. never by the Commander-in-Chief. In September Recognizing this, the research directorate pressed Police Force 1986, however, the Agency would host its first By 1989, when President George H. W. Bush their requirement for a dedicated research presidential visit when President Ronald Reagan ordered an invasion of Panama to oust its facility and was eventually able, with the support After the departure of the U.S. Marine agreed to come to Ft. Meade to dedicate two new dictator Manual Noriega, NSA had become a vital of General Faurer, to build a state-of-the art guards in 1978, security functions at NSA buildings on the NSA campus. part of global military operations everywhere Supercomputer Research Center. were transferred to the Federal Protective and assisted with the planning and execution of Service, a division of the General Services The new structures, known as Operations 2A this successful operation. STU (III)-PENDOUS Administration (GSA). In October 1986 GSA and 2B, were shielded in copper to prevent Although the 1970s-era STU-II (Secure Telephone returned the authority for security measures unintended emanations from electronic The term combat support generally denotes Unit – second generation) had proved its worth, to the NSA Director, which facilitated equipment. With the addition of these two efforts by organizations like NSA to develop COMSEC leaders saw room for improvement and the establishment of a police force, fully structures, the main NSA complex on Fort information on enemy plans and operations sought to create the next generation of secure controlled and operated by the Agency. Meade became known as “the Big Four.” OPS 2B prior to their execution. However, for a communications devices to provide even higher would replace the Headquarters Building as the cryptologic organization, combat support levels of security and performance. The Agency’s newly established Security home of the Director (Video clip of dedication also involves protecting information on the Protective Force eventually assumed ceremony available on DVD). battlefield. The result was the STU-III (Secure Telephone all the functions of the previous units, Unit - third generation). The STU-III was including protection of NSA assets and Lieutenant General Odom From a cryptologic perspective, the Vietnam developed through a combined effort of Agency emergency services. The Agency’s In May 1985, Army Lieutenant General William E. War served as a laboratory for testing new and private industry partners well versed in commitment to ensure that all members of Odom, was tapped by the administration to replace technology in combat. NSA’s leadership, in communications technology. The new device the force were properly trained enabled General Faurer. Odom was an intellectual who had conjunction with the Service Cryptologic was a huge improvement over previous models, them, when needed, to serve alongside earned a master’s degree in Russian area studies Agencies, recognized that the lessons learned primarily because it could be produced at a neighboring state and municipal forces. and eventually a Ph.D. in political science. He also in the jungles of Southeast Asia could improve relatively low cost. By the end of the century, NSA had one had a close relationship with several administration future cryptologic support operations. The of the largest police forces in Maryland. leaders, including former President Carter’s demands of the climate and terrain of a Most importantly, the STU-III provided vastly Today the NSA Police continue to protect National Security Adviser, Zbigniew Brzezinski. proposed area of operation prompted the improved security, better voice quality, and NSA affiliates and buildings throughout Previously Odom had served as an Assistant Army cryptologic community to find innovative faster data transfer capability. The device was the NSA’s worldwide enterprise. n Attaché in Moscow and as a West Point professor. ways to support troops in the field. Increased first large-scale implementation of public key Prior to coming to NSA, he had been Assistant computerization would prove to be a significant cryptography and Over-the-Air-Rekeying, a concept Chief of Staff for Intelligence, U.S. Army. One of part of the solution to these challenges. that had been developed during the Vietnam War. General Odom’s priorities was to enhance the (See Document B at end of chapter.) Agency’s ability to meet the needs of national Included in this support was the new found ability intelligence policymakers. to use national assets – such as massive banks of The STU-III program proved to be one of the computers -- for tactical support to deployed forces. greatest success stories in the history of NSA. Backing the Attack This capability became an important factor as the Eventually, more than 350,000 units were fielded Throughout the 1980s, NSA stressed the need cryptologic community mobilized to support U.S. and remained in service well into the twenty- to improve timely and agile support to the and coalition forces in Operation Desert Storm at first century. military. To achieve this goal, General Faurer the beginning of the next decade. ensured that NSA was included in planning for Looking Overhead future military operations. A Computer on Every Desk In previous decades NSA and CIA disagreed over But protecting information on the battlefield SIGINT authorities and practices. In the 1980s In the mid-1980s, the Department of Defense was only one of many challenges of the time. NSA confronted similar issues with the National (DoD) worked with Congress to pass the On the home front, the Agency was seeking to Reconnaissance Office (NRO), the agency tasked Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense find ways to harness computer technology to with managing the Nation’s satellite programs. Reorganization Act of 1986 to realign functions serve its growing needs. NSA began to work While the NRO controlled technical aspects within DoD to achieve greater efficacy.T he Act toward the goal of putting a computer on every of the collection of foreign signals by satellite, Since 1986, NSA’s formally trained police force, using designated NSA as a Combat Support Agency. This analyst’s desk and investing in and developing NSA often was responsible for processing and state-of-the-art technology, has controlled entrance into designation clearly identified the NSA’s capacity supercomputer technology. disseminating the intelligence information NSA facilities.

National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 75 1980s 1980s culled from the operations. Due to the unsettled foreshadowed the current extensive division of labor, NSA’s leadership was not entirely integration of the Intelligence Community. comfortable with some NRO approaches, and the relationship became strained to the point Vice Admiral Studeman where action needed to be taken to ensure the As the decade came to a close, the Agency effectiveness of the program. welcomed its third Navy Director, Vice Admiral William O. Studeman. Studeman began his career In 1984 NSA and NRO hammered out as a Navy Air Intelligence Officer and later served an agreement that established a new in assignments for the Seventh Fleet and DIA. organization, the Overhead Collection His hard work and experience in the intelligence Management Center (OCMC). The OCMC, arena culminated in his being named Director modeled on Defense Special Missile and of Naval Intelligence. Studeman would exert Aerospace Center, was to be centered at NSA strong leadership through the challenging headquarters with an NSA affiliate as Director. and unexpected collapse of the USSR and The deputy of the entity would be from the successfully see the Agency through the Desert NRO with the CIA having authority over and Storm campaign. appointing the chief of requirements. In the end, the solution pleased all of the parties Admiral Studeman left NSA in 1992 to become involved and, most importantly, promoted Deputy Director of the CIA, where he later also effective operations. This collaboration served as acting Director. n National Security Agency Historic Documents

Document A – Presidential statement on the Korean flight KAL 007 shoot down Document B – Memorandum from NSA to Deputy Under Secretary of Defense on DoD proposal for public cyptography

President George H.W. Bush confers in confidence using a STU III device.

76 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency • Central Security Service 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 77 1980s 1980s

Document A – Presidential statement from Ronald Reagan reinforcing the U.S. and Japanese position on Document B – Memorandum from NSA Director, Vice Admiral Bobby Inman, to the Deputy Under the details and conclusion of the Korean flight KAL 007 shot down by the Soviet government. Secretary of Defense presenting his concerns about the DoD proposal for public cryptography.

78 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 79 1990s

SA and the CSS continued collecting signals from the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact nations throughout the 1990s, right up until the fall of the Berlin Wall Nand the disintegration of the Soviet Union. NSA analysts, drawing on vast experience, provided unique intelligence information of significant value to national decision-makers and policymakers in peace, crisis, and war.

While there was rejoicing over the fact that United States and the West had “won” the Cold War, the end of the Soviet threat forced NSA and the Nation to adjust to a strange new world where few, if any, rules existed, and where asymmetrical warfare was now the rule rather than the exception.

The monolithic Soviet target was quickly replaced by newer targets, including non- state actors who made good use of the latest technology. Widely available commercial products enabled rapid and radical changes in communications methods and procedures, and targets displayed a growing knowledge of communications security techniques.

Lifting the Cryptologic Curtain After the Cold War, NSA leadership began to consider ways that the Agency could be a bit more open in its relationship with the general public. From NSA’s inception, security and The End of anonymity had been the main watchwords and, since 1952, the curtain over the Agency had been pulled fully to the ground. Now, however,

The C-130 aircraft, pictured here landing at Fort Meade, was refurbished to resemble the C-130 downed by Soviets in 1958 and is the centerpiece of National Vigilance Park. 80a 60 Years of Defendingn Our Nation ENationalr Security Agency • aCentral Security Service 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 81 1990s 1990s

Photo by Sgt Jeff Wright In 1996, at the urging of Director Lt Gen Minihan, NSA created the National Vigilance Park LEADERSHIP (NVP). NVP was designed to honor those “silent warriors” who risked their lives performing airborne signals intelligence missions during the Cold War. The centerpiece of the park is a C-130 aircraft, refurbished to resemble the DIRECTORS reconnaissance-configured C-130-A downed by VADM William Studeman, USN Soviet fighters over Soviet Armenia in 1958. (August 1988 – May 1992)

The park also has on exhibit an Army RU- 8D Seminole that honors those involved in airborne cryptologic intelligence-gathering missions during the Vietnam conflict, and a U.S. Navy EA-3B aircraft to honor the seven U.S. VADM Michael McConnell, USN Navy crewmen who lost their lives in a similar (May 1992 – February 1996) aircraft during an operational mission in the Mediterranean in 1987.

Desert Storm Having led the Agency through the aftermath of Lt Gen Kenneth A, Minihan, USAF the collapse of the Soviet Union, Admiral Studeman (February 1996 – March 1999) remained at the helm during the Nation’s first post-Cold War military operation – Operation Desert Storm, the effort to free Kuwait from Iraq. NSA provided key SIGINT support during both Desert Shield, the buildup phase, and Desert Storm, the combat phase. Throughout Lt Gen Michael V. Hayden, USAF the conflict, the Agency supplied the United (March 1999 – April 2005) States and the coalition with the information they needed to prevail, while providing secure tactical Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell uses communications on the battlefield. NSA technology to communicate securely with the Pentagon during Operation Desert Shield. An Appreciative Leadership DEPUTY DIRECTORS Agency leaders began to ponder the prospect of addition, NSA began a series of locally based In recognition of NSA’s work during the conflict, raising it just a bit. math outreach programs to promote the study of President George H. W. Bush came to NSA to praise Robert L. Prestel cryptology to faculty and students at local schools. its employees for their support to Desert Storm. (July 1990 – January 1994) The move to openness would not be easy. The challenge was to engage the public enough The National Cryptologic Museum President Bush commended NSA employees as to demonstrate the critical role NSA plays in In the early 1990s Admiral Studeman took “the unsung heroes of Desert Storm.” He said, defending the Nation while protecting sensitive NSA’s public outreach programs to a new level “Our success in the Gulf could quite literally sources and methods. Despite earlier efforts, with the opening of the National Cryptologic never have happened without the dedication Museum. Located on the edge of the main NSA that’s on display right here through all the days William P. Crowell large portions of the American public remained (February 1994 – October 1997) suspicious of the Intelligence Community campus, the new museum, with free admission and all the nights of Desert Storm.” overall and of NSA in particular. and open access, quickly became a valuable tool to educate the public about the history General Colin Powell, Chairman of the Joint Under Admiral Studeman, NSA, for the first and success of NSA. The museum also served Chiefs of Staff, during Desert Storm also time, publicly stressed the contributions of the as a means for helping the greater world to visited NSA in 1991. He told the workforce that Barbra A. McNamara organization to the economy of the Central understand the indelible role that cryptology “no operational commanders, probably in the (October 1997 – June 2000) Maryland region and the state in general. In had played throughout human history. history of warfare, certainly in the history of

82 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 83 1990s 1990s “They Served in Silence”

At a junction of heavily traveled hallways in the employee, is a black granite rectangle, centered main NSA Fort Meade Campus stands a black with a triangle. The three points on the triangle granite wall flanked by flags. The NSA/CSS represent the cryptologists and their ideals Cryptologic Memorial Wall is intended to honor that form the foundation of cryptologic work: and remember those who have give their lives, dedication to mission, dedication to workmate, “serving in silence,” in the line of duty since and dedication to country. World War II. When the wall was originally installed, it listed The monument is a powerful symbol of six 146 names. Sadly, in the intervening years, decades of Cryptologic endeavor and the other cryptologists have also given their lives to determination of the NSA/CSS workforce to protect the country’s safety and liberty. At NSA’s continue in dedicated service to securing the 60th anniversary, the Memorial Wall honors the Nation’s future. memories of 170 fellow cryptologists.

The Memorial Wall, dedicated in 1996, was a Today’s workforce recognizes and honors the project driven by VADM Michael McConnell. ultimate sacrifice of those whose names are The striking monument, designed by an NSA engraved on the Cryptologic Memorial Wall. n

President George H.W. Bush describes NSA employees as “the unsung heroes of Desert Storm.”

American warfare, have had better insight into The Peace Dividend the strengths and vulnerabilities of the enemy.” As the Communist Bloc crumbled, America and its leaders began to call for a “peace dividend.” Vice Admiral McConnell For decades, the American people had been In May 1992, Admiral Studeman was willing to “pay any price and bear any burden” to succeeded as Director NSA/Chief CSS by defeat the Soviet threat. Now the Cold War was Vice Admiral J. Michael McConnell, USN. (See over. The Nation debated what could be done Document A at end of chapter.) A veteran of with funds previously invested in robust defense the Vietnam War, McConnell had spent most and intelligence budgets. Congress responded to of his career in intelligence, rising through the public’s call for cuts by mandating significant the ranks with assignments with the Director reductions in NSA’s personnel and budget. of Naval Intelligence; NSA (as Chief of the Naval Forces Division); DIA; and the Joint In response, Admiral McConnell tried to mitigate Chiefs of Staff. Upon assuming the position of the effects of downsizing by working to Director, he was immediately confronted with preserve NSA’s operational capabilities. At the the challenge of post-Cold War congressional same time he sought to save money by cutting mandates calling for downsizing in the the budgets of support elements, by reducing intelligence and defense communities. and consolidating overseas sites and personnel.

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to the challenge of securing communications. rumors were rife that NSA’s key components As more military and other government users might become separate organizations. required strong cryptography to protect communication devices or computers, it One Team One Mission became apparent that traditional methods of Citing the risk to networked information systems, producing cryptographic materials were no Minihan maintained that the best response to the longer adequate. NSA increasingly turned to problems confronting NSA was to consistently certification of commercial network security combine and coordinate as much as possible on products for government use. both sides of the cryptologic equation in carrying out Agency missions and objectives. Admiral McConnell confronted the question of public cryptography while dealing with the Minihan believed that by leveraging both downsizing of NSA. While the U.S. (and NSA) missions at once, NSA could be more effective. wanted to foster good protection for “friendly” He expressed the concept by coining the phrase entities in networked computers and cellular “ONE TEAM, ONE MISSION” and urged the United telephones, they were also concerned with States and its allies to work toward the goal of keeping strong cryptography out of the wrong “information dominance on the world scene.” hands. The proposed solution was “the Clipper Chip,” an arrangement by which the key to His efforts prompted the workforce to work publicly available cryptography would be kept more closely together and to look to the future. President Bill Clinton thanks in escrow, but would be available to the federal With the Agency’s two missions working in Lieutenant General Minihan Admiral McConnell for NSA support. government via a court-issued warrant when tandem, the stage was set for NSA to have a there were legitimate reasons for access. blended mission in the next decade with the emerging cyber challenge. Although workforce participants differed in their NSA and the Information Revolution The technology developed under Admiral evaluation of Future Day, dedicating a day to The 1990s saw the beginnings of the McConnell’s leadership was workable, but By the mid-1990s CSS had become a true unified discuss the future forced almost everyone at NSA Information Revolution. Advancement in the Clipper Chip itself was deemed politically system with its own unique seal and identity and to recognize the inevitability of change and to communications technology was happening unacceptable. Fearful of potential misuses, the has proven to be a vital contributor to the U.S. consider the directions it might take. rapidly, and it became increasingly difficult to public and their government representatives solidly intelligence and defense communities. keep pace with the changes. Simultaneously rejected the idea. Nevertheless, the encryption Public Outreach many in Congress and the Executive Branch technology created for the Clipper Chip found Today both organizations are fully integrated and Under General Minihan, NSA for the first began to view NSA as a lumbering agency that other applications and was adopted for certain continue to work together to protect the Nation. time opened its doors for the filming of a had lost its technical edge. For the first time, NSA uses within the government. documentary about the Agency. Minihan and its partners in the defense and intelligence Future Day and other Agency leaders recognized that communities were forced to justify their Lieutenant General Minihan As part of his program for encouraging NSA misunderstandings about the role and intent existence to Congress and the Nation. In 1996, Admiral McConnell retired, leaving NSA in personnel to turn their thoughts and energy of NSA’s activities had to be addressed in order the hands of Lieutenant General Kenneth A. Minihan, toward the challenges ahead, General Minihan to secure the American people’s trust and NSA was struggling to adapt to the technological USAF. Minihan had a long history of service in the proclaimed October 17, 1996, as “Future Day.” confidence. challenges of the new geopolitical climate, Intelligence Community, including prior service as a This day involved: as well as the tough realities of reorienting mid-level supervisor at NSA, command of a field site, Extending the Enterprise and retooling its workforce. Despite these and of the Air Force’s cryptologic component. Just • A complete worldwide stand-down of all In the 1970s and 1980s, NSA leadership grew challenges, Agency leaders were well aware of prior to assuming the directorship at NSA, Minihan but the most essential activities. concerned over the centralization of functions their responsibility to somehow find a way to held the post of Director at the Defense Intelligence • Traditional face-to-face discussion groups at Fort Meade. Partially prompted by the need maintain NSA’s mission to provide and protect Agency, a key NSA partner. convened by topic to talk about Agency to find adequate space for its personnel and America’s most important communications in an goals and how to meet new challenges. equipment, the Agency began to look at moving ever changing world. General Minihan assumed command during a time some assets away from the Fort Meade area. in NSA’s history when the Agency was struggling • Agency-wide chat rooms, used probably Clipper Chip not only with its missions, but also with its identity. for the first time, with General Minihan In this light, in 1980 a Remote Operating Facility Technology advances in the 90s forced the The end of the Cold War left NSA’s future as an participating and connecting with the (ROF) at Kunia was established on the Hawaiian Agency to take new and different approaches institution unclear. Budgets were shrinking, and workforce electronically. island of Oahu. Although living costs were high

86 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 87 1990s 1990s

• Capability of serving as alternate While NSA continued to support military inspections and assist in security patrols and communications centers customers from Fort Meade and field sites emergency responses. • Representation of all military services. around the world, the Agency also began pushing the resources of the enterprise Improving Computer Security closer to the warfighter. NSA personnel began In the late 1990s, the NSA Systems and Network The concept of “regional NSAs” was reinforced joining their CSS colleagues in deployments Attack Center (SNAC) tackled the difficult when NSA suffered a massive computer outage with military forces, providing tailored SIGINT question of how best to improve the security early in 2000, and the RSOCs, as components support to operations around the world. level of personal computers and servers that that could operate independently, picked up were part of national security systems. This led the essential missions until NSA was back Like the Cryptologic Centers, the NCRs, CSGs, to the need to discover software implementation in full operation. Today all four centers, now and Expeditionary SIGINT personnel ensured flaws, probe operational networks for known as Cryptologic Centers, are operational, continuity of operations for NSA’s customers weaknesses, and develop guidance to harden expanding, and provide redundancy in the and increased NSA’s ability to provide tailored systems against attack. event of an emergency. support in response to critical requirements. The SNAC made security configuration Expeditionary SIGINT Enhanced Security guidance publicly available on NSA’s web page, While resources were decreasing during The 1990s also saw an increase in the level of and released guidance for the Department of the 1990s, customer requirements for NSA’s physical security at NSA. Access became more Defense’s (DoD) Windows operating systems The aircraft on display at the National Vigilance Park honor services and products were not. To better serve restricted; no longer could family members and Unix-like operating systems. the “silent warriors” who died performing airborne signals the Agency’s increasingly diverse customer set, and pizza delivery people get close to the intelligence missions during the Cold War. NSA began deploying personnel as NSA/CSS fence line. After the Oklahoma City bombing Microsoft provided additional guidance representatives (NCR) or as part of Cryptologic in 1995, an NSA perimeter security fence with SNAC’s full cooperation and public Services Groups (CSG) to intelligence was constructed to surround the entire Fort recommendation. The settings from this effort there, Kunia had the advantage of proximity to community partners and military commands. the Commander in Chief, Pacific (CINCPAC). Meade campus. In addition, the NSA Police were adopted as a baseline for the DoD and Their mission was to act as an advocate for added a K-9 unit in 1998, which greatly by the National Institute of Standards and the customer, assisting them in navigating In the late 1980s, the cryptologic leadership improved the Agency’s capability to check Technology for its Federal Desktop Core the NSA enterprise and helping to interpret for explosives during commercial vehicle Configuration.T hrough this effort the federal began developing the Regional Security their requirements to NSA, in order to better Operations Center (RSOC) concept. Proven respond to them. NCRs and CSGs were also computer and communications technology charged with helping partners understand allowed NSA to delegate SIGINT authority what the cryptologic system could, and could to these regional centers, thus avoiding an not, do for them. overconcentration in the Washington area. In the years after Operation Desert Storm, Under the RSOC doctrine, each center would be NSA and its military partners in the CSS “hosted” by one of the military services so that began considering how best to extend this all services could be represented. type of close support to warfighters engaged in future operations. Changes in the nature In 1995 the centers opened and NSA began to of telecommunications and the capabilities transfer missions to them. The Kunia facility was needed to turn modern communications into given a new status as an RSOC. actionable intelligence for military consumers led to an increasingly close partnership Over the next decade, the RSOCs evolved from between the civilian and military components limited operations centers into mini “regional of the enterprise. Modern military commanders NSAs” in Georgia, Texas, Hawaii and Colorado were as interested in the strategic “big with the following mission benefits: picture” issues as they remained in the tactical environment on the battlefield. • Consolidation of cryptologic operations • Dispersion of facilities from the The increasing military activity of the late Regional Security Operations Centers, like the one in Hawaii pictured above, Washington, D.C. area 90s led to the birth of Expeditionary SIGINT. provide NSA with the redundancy needed in the event of an emergency.

88 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 89 1990s 1990s government produced a common body of Director of the Joint Command and Control information describing a security baseline. Warfare Center. After his assignment as DIRNSA, Hayden left NSA to become the first Principal Over time, NSA’s role in communications Deputy Director of National Intelligence, and later security expanded beyond the traditional goals served as Director of the CIA. of ensuring privacy among communicators. Officials realized that modern modes of At a speech at the American University in communication required concern over February 2000, Hayden acknowledged the protecting availability, integrity, authentication, public’s legitimate privacy concerns in the confidentiality, and nonrepudiation. new era of high-technology communications and noted that it was his goal to ensure that This expanded notion led to yet another name NSA worked with the appropriate judicial change - from the Communications Security and legislative oversight authorities to protect Organization to the Information Assurance American civil liberties. Directorate (IAD), encompassing the full breadth of the mission set aimed at keeping our national In addition to his public appearances, Hayden security information systems secure. engaged the press in unprecedented ways. Following the example set by General Minihan, In early 1999 General Minihan retired from active Hayden actively reached out to the press, duty and the NSA directorship and was awarded inviting journalists to his Fort Meade quarters for National Security Agency the National Security Medal by President Clinton. dinner and discussions on issues involving the (See Document B at end of chapter.) Two years Agency and its mission. earlier, he had written a note to the Agency Historic Documents workforce letting them know that the Cold War The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, was “not decided on the battlefield, but won brought this new openness to a temporary halt. through vigilance and technology.” The Cold War While NSA continued to operate the National Document A – Memorandum from Vice Admiral William O. Studeman was marked by battles not fought and lives not lost. Cryptologic Museum, Hayden believed it was “We can all take pride,” he wrote, “as intelligence better to lower NSA’s public profile during the professionals and Americans, in the role we played immediate aftermath of the crisis. bidding farewell to the workforce in securing peace for our country …” Y2K Document B – Presidential Memorandum awarding the National Security Lieutenant General Hayden Worldwide concerns arose about the NSA’s Directors throughout the 1990s possibility of widespread system failures recognized the value of sharing the NSA success as the century clicked over from the 1900s Medal to Lt Gen Minihan story with the American public. Directors and to the 2000s. This problem was referred to some senior NSA employees began meeting with as “Y2K.” At NSA, computer programs and both print and broadcast journalists and actively individual computers were diligently and sought to identify unclassified NSA stories that thoroughly checked out months in advance could be openly shared. to ensure that they would be able to handle the change to the new millennium. Each One of most proactive Directors in this area Agency component designated individuals was Lt Gen Michael V. Hayden, USAF. Appointed who were to be on site or on call at the time Director in February of 1999, Hayden would of the millennial changeover. bring a wide range of experience to NSA, including tours as Air Attaché at the U.S. Embassy With all the preparation, the Y2K problem in Bulgaria and Director for Defense Policy and ended up a non-event at NSA (and around the Arms Control at the National Security Council. world). The Agency’s methodical and well- documented approach to working through Like Lt Gen Minihan, Lt Gen Hayden served as such a monumental task, however, set the Commander of the Air Intelligence Agency and stage for its work in the 21st century. n

90 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 91 1990s 1990s

Document A - Admiral Studeman bids farewell to the NSA workforce. Document B – Presidential Memorandum awarding the National Security Medal to Lt Gen Minihan, the first presentation of this medal by President Clinton.

92 60 Years of Defending Our Nation National Security Agency National Security Agency 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 93 2000s and beyond

he Information Age, begun in the 1990s, was now progressing to the point where technologies previously only dreamed of, were being developed and surpassed, and Tcapabilities once available only to governments and businesses were now within reach of the general public.

For NSA, however, the great leaps forward were both a blessing and a curse. The Agency, like the rest of the intelligence and defense communities, benefitted immensely from the technologies brought about by the revolution in communications, but the need to keep pace could be daunting.

100 Days of Change During the 1990s General Minihan encouraged the NSA workforce to embrace a new way of thinking about the cryptologic challenges of the future. General Hayden sought to accelerate these changes and implemented the new technologies available to assist the Agency in dealing with the challenges of the new century.

To accomplish these goals, General Hayden commissioned a study of NSA’s organization and operations. He appointed two committees, one made up of in-house personnel and the other of cleared outsiders, and tasked them to make Adapt & recommendations for change. Based on their findings, in November 1999 Hayden instituted the “One Hundred Days of Change.” As part of the new program, he issued a daily “DIRgram,” a Director’s message to the

View of the National Security Operations Center floor, 2012. 94A 60 Years of Defendingd Our Nation juNational Securitys Agency • Centralt Security Service National Security Agency • Central Security Service 60 Years of Defending Our Nation 95 2000s 2000s

• Hiring senior leaders from outside the statement reassuring Americans that the Agency’s Agency to address insularity, including the essential activities had not suffered due to the LEADERSHIP newly-created position of Chief Financial outage and that no intelligence had been lost. Officer. General Hayden also added a new DIRECTORS position, Senior Acquisition Executive, to A New Approach his leadership team; In July 2001 NSA announced the • Holding Town Meetings to explain his GROUNDBREAKER contract for technical policies and vision to the NSA workforce; support for much of its electronic infrastructure as part of the transition to greater reliance on • Fostering working relationships with contractor support. After a lengthy process print and broadcast journalists by inviting of study and contract competition, a defense them to unclassified sessions inside NSA; consortium and a few small technology Lt Gen Michael V. Hayden, USAF • Eliminating most civilian promotion companies were selected for the effort. (March 1999 – April 2005) boards and returning authority for lower- and mid-level promotions to office Contractors managed assets, such as desktop supervisors. computers, telephones, and related equipment, freeing NSA technicians to concentrate on

specialized operational equipment. As part of In late February 2000, after 100 calendar days the program, incentives were offered to many had passed since his program of change began, of NSA’s technical employees to move into the Hayden noted that, although some goals were private sector. At the time, GROUNDBREAKER still to be achieved, the “most important change was the second largest U.S. Government of all” had occurred, namely, that employees and information technology outsourcing effort ever. GEN Keith B. Alexander, USA the Director were now “communicating freely, The program still exists today. (August 2005 to Present) Director Hayden and 100 Days of Change. frequently, and clearly.” Progress had been made, but all recognized more work needed to be done. Interoperability NSA/CSS workforce, highlighting a different While technology was rapidly changing the January 24, 2000 SIGINT side of the mission, NSA’s Information aspect of his transformation initiatives. (See In the late 1990s and into the 21st century, Document A at end of chapter.) Assurance personnel were also working hard to DEPUTY media sources began to claim that NSA was improve the means of protecting information. falling behind in its adoption of modern DIRECTORS The DIRgrams emphasized his basic themes of One of the most impressive of these new communications and computer technology. developments was the creation of the Secure open communication up and down the chain The concerns proved to be valid. On January Terminal Equipment device or STE, which of command and every employee’s personal 24, 2000, a software anomaly caused a massive became the successor to the STU-III. responsibility to foster beneficial change. computer failure. The STE was developed by IAD in partnership Among the changes implemented were: The outage was limited to the Fort Meade facility, with private industry in the late 1990s to meet William B. Black but NSA processing systems were affected for secure communications requirements raised (September 2000 - August 2006) • Creating a senior leadership team 72 hours. Fortunately, there were no signs that by the DoD and other government agencies. composed of the Director, Deputy the outage had been caused by malicious action Development began with a core version for Director, and the Directors of Signals or by an outside party. In addition, NSA was able offices with both digital ISDN (Integrated Intelligence (SID), Information Assurance to rely on other components of the cryptologic Services Digital Network) and analog PSTN (IAD), and Technology (TD). (The other system to handle aspects of the mission that (Public Switched Telephone Network) key component chiefs became associate required immediate processing. capabilities. Tactical, shipboard, and “data only” directors and advisors to the senior models would follow. leadership team.); News of the outage leaked to the media, • Eliminating SID’s internal divisions prompting General Hayden to go “on the record” In 2000 the device was radically upgraded, and to speed reporting information and with a broadcast journalist about the event. its modem was replaced with a commercial John C. “Chris” Inglis personnel shifts when crises arise; After service was restored, NSA issued a public model. This new commercial technology (August 2006 - Present)

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President Bush using a secure communication device on 9/11, reacting to World Trade Center bombing. Aerial view of the damage to the Pentagon. provided STE users with the interoperability In the midst of the disaster, there arose a strong although none of the warnings contained of expected action, time, or place that the U.S. needed to communicate with secure cell phones resolve among the Nation’s leaders and its specific information about targets or the timings could have acted on to prevent the attacks. on the new digital cellular networks. people to bring justice to those who had tried of any planned attacks. Some analysts believed to brutally undermine the very foundations of that the assassination of a major Afghan leader At a Joint Inquiry of the Senate Select Committee Most importantly for the future, the Secure American society. on September 10 might have been the event that on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Communications Interoperability Protocol these messages foretold. Committee on Intelligence on October 17, 2002, (SCIP) built in the new devices provided secure Since the 1980s, NSA had been involved in General Hayden stated for the record that, “Sadly, operations among different devices, regardless of counterterrorism efforts, but after the 9/11 Media reports stated that the day after the NSA had no SIGINT suggesting that al Qaeda was the actual communications system. attacks, NSA and the rest of the Nation would attacks NSA had published two reports that specifically targeting New York and Washington, examine its readiness to deal with such an might have predicted the tragedies had they D.C., or even that it was planning an attack on 9/11 unconventional enemy. only been processed faster. The reality was that U.S. soil. Indeed, NSA had no knowledge before On September 11, 2001, America, NSA/CSS, and NSA had two pieces of intercept collected prior September 11th that any of the attackers were in the world would be changed forever. The attacks “Something Was Imminent” to September 11 that indicated that something the United States.” that morning on the World Trade Centers and the In the summer of 2001, NSA analysts working of importance would happen on the 11th. Pentagon and the plane crash in Pennsylvania the terrorism target found more than 30 However, these intercepts contained nothing In June 2002, President George W. Bush visited killed thousands of innocent citizens. warnings that ‘something was imminent,’ beyond these vague hints – there were no details NSA to show his support for its work and

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United States and its allies in missions throughout cryptologic mission resulted in his selection as the battlespace. the first Commander of the U.S. Cyber Command (USCC), and his promotion to the rank of four- NSA’s strong commitment to serve the needs star general. He retains his position as Director, of U.S. military forces continued after the fall of NSA/Chief, CSS. Baghdad and after the defeat of the main Taliban forces. Indeed, as President Obama stated publicly, U.S. Cyber Command NSA was a key actor in the Special Forces- General Alexander assumed command of USCC Intelligence Community team that finally brought amid intense and growing national concern bin Laden to justice in May 2011. about developments in the cyber world. Given our society’s dependence on digital networks NSA’s support of U.S. foreign policy goals was and the growing number of threats to data clearly evident in Operation Iraqi Freedom. and networks, cybersecurity was fast coming SIGINT was a critical intelligence discipline to dominate official and private agendas. This relied on by U.S. and coalition forces in theater private and public attention only intensified as during the operation. NSA’s investments in its terrorist groups grew in their knowledge and use global SIGINT architecture, connected with a of digital technology, and as nations appeared to distribution of NSA functions to Cryptologic be behind some of the most worrisome cyber Centers in Hawaii, Colorado, Texas, and Georgia, trends and incidents. helped integrate SIGINT real-time support for battlefield commanders and gave strategic context These concerns prompted several new tasks for for national-level policymakers. These innovations, NSA and drew extensively upon the Agency’s articulated by Lieutenant General Keith B. expertise with all elements of cybersecurity. Alexander, USA, who succeeded General Hayden When the U.S. military reorganized its as Director in 2005, also helped prompt changes components for cyber operations in 2005, it Official USMC Photo by Cpl Eric C Ely, 2D in the overall strategy and priorities of the U.S. based its new unit for “network warfare” at Marine Division Intelligence Community. NSA and made the Director that component’s Commander. NSA also contributed to then- Lieutenant General Alexander President George W. Bush’s government-wide Secure communications used by deployed forces in Iraq. General Alexander’s ideas about how best Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative, to support the warfighter were influenced which was revised and expanded by President contribution in the war against terrorism. (See innovative partnerships with local allies, as well by his own combat experience in Operation Document B at end of chapter.) as bravery, skill, and effective communications Desert Storm, as well as previous tours as intelligence (both SIGINT and COMSEC) ousted Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence, U.S. Army, Afghanistan and Iraq the Taliban from power and dealt a stunning blow Commanding General of the Army Intelligence America’s decision to carry the fight to Osama bin to bin Laden and the al Qaeda network. and Security Command, and Director of Laden and the Taliban on their territory was fraught Intelligence at U.S. Central Command. In addition with risk. American forces had to fight a new kind During this effort, NSA and its Expeditionary to his B.S. degree from the U.S. Military Academy, of war that depended on speed, technology, and SIGINT personnel ensured that diverse customers General Alexander holds Master’s degrees in accurate real-time intelligence; more than ever received the different types of products they management, systems technology, physics, NSA was part of this fight.E ven prior to the War on needed. Whether the information was sent to the and national security from several prestigious Terror, the Agency had begun to retool and revamp highest levels of military and civilian leadership or academic institutions. General Alexander’s its operations to deal with the challenges of a new to the troops downrange, it was intelligence critical educational and professional background world driven by the need for continuous access to to achieving objectives and saving lives. enabled him to deal with the immense critical information and state-of-the-art technology. cryptologic challenges of the first decade of the Likewise, NSA’s Information Assurance personnel 21st century. As America’s armed forces engaged the enemy secured coalition networks and ensured secure in places like Afghanistan, the silent sentinels of communications for the warfighter. A corps of General Alexander’s innovative approaches NSA once again found themselves on the front language analysts, cryptologists, technicians, and to solving the challenges of the modern lines of the conflict.T he winning combination of engineers and others supported the military of the

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Looking Ahead momentum in the 1990s, NSA responded by use of Suite B cryptography, and increased While future challenges and technical advances working with the private sector to develop customer expectations for consumer-like remain unknown, NSA must maintain a creative secure cell phones (CipherTAC-2000, Sectera- products, the Information Assurance Directorate and versatile approach to its mission. GSM and QSEC-800), as well as a secure modem initiated a significant two-pronged change to enable laptop access to SECRET networks. to its business model. First, NSA renewed its Today’s most pressing threats include cyber With increased commercial use of Personal engagement strategy with the private sector terrorism, computer hacking, and debilitating Digital Assistants (PDAs), NSA developed the by updating and publishing a set of Protection computer viruses. Adversaries are constantly “Secure Mobile Environment Portable Electronic Profiles for commercial products/technology to trying to steal America’s digital information and Device” (SME PED), a hand-held communication raise the level of security. Second, NSA shifted compromise U.S. security. NSA protects both device with Type 1 encryption. This device to a commercial technology first approach, information and information technology that are provided secure voice and protected portable moving away from building government-owned essential to U.S. interests; defends critical U.S. access to SECRET networks enabling customers unique devices and infrastructure. Under this and Allied networks against attack; and helps to to send and receive classified and unclassified innovative process, called Commercial Solutions identify and correct vulnerabilities in technology voice calls as well as email and web browse on for Classified (CSfC), NSA supports the use of and operations. Together, these activities – government networks. composed and layered secure standards-based providing information assurance and enabling commercial devices and services to create computer network operations, along with the In response to rapid technology and trusted devices and systems that can safeguard collection of foreign signals intelligence – form environmental changes, growing commercial national security information and systems. the core of NSA’s mission.

NSA/CSS Threat Operations Center In 2004 NSA Director General Hayden established the NSA/CSS Threat Operations Center (NTOC) as a joint Information Assurance and SIGINT initiative to assess and report on foreign threats against U.S. information systems. While NTOC’s methods have changed and will continue to change with technology, its mission remains faithful to General Keith B. Alexander, USA, General Hayden’s vision: “to look for new, creative, Commander, CYBERCOM, Director NSA/Chief CSS and collaborative ways to leverage our industrial- strength SIGINT and IA capabilities to live on the net always, shape the net sometimes, own the net Barack Obama. When foreign intelligence when needed, and protect the net from those who malware infected U.S. military networks in wish to do the Nation harm.” 2008, NSA expertise played an critical role in Operation BUCKSHOT YANKEE, the network Recent world events and cyber’s unprecedented defenders’ successful campaign to mitigate the growth necessitated a change in the way computer security breach. NTOC conducted this mission. In 2010 NTOC transformed its operations center into a more Secretary of Defense Robert Gates considered robust construct, providing maximum situational all of these experiences, and acknowledged awareness of global network activities 24/7, 365 NSA’s expertise in the field, when he elected days a year. to co-locate Cyber Command with NSA at Fort Meade, and chose General Alexander as its first Supporting Wireless Communications Commander. Although a separate Department of The NSA Information Assurance Team has Defense organization, Cyber Command is able a long and successful history of customer to leverage NSA’s talented workforce, expertise, engagement and industry collaboration to fulfill and record of innovation when necessary to its responsibility for the security of National The NSA/CSS Threat Operations Center provides situational awareness accomplish its mission. Security Systems. As the mobile market gained on any adversarial attempt to exploit and attack our networks.

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Geographic channel in January 2012 and featured interviews with NSA leaders and Centers of cryptologists about the Agency’s critical role in protecting the country. Academic Hiring Boom NSA’s hiring efforts fluctuated over the last Excellence six decades as the demands on the Agency evolved. The ‘90s saw a decrease in hiring and The “Centers of Excellence” a push for retirements. However, after 9/11, program was started as a joint effort the trend reversed and the Agency was faced between NSA and the Department of with the need to hire more professionals than ever in the Science, Technology, Engineering Homeland Security (DHS) to reduce and Math (STEM) fields, foreign language, vulnerability in our national information intelligence analysis, and others. In 2004 NSA began an effort to hire between 1,200 and infrastructure by promoting and 1,500 new employees a year for the next six cultivating interest in Information years to meet the increasing demands placed on the ever-changing Intelligence Community. Assurance (IA). Educational institutions were invited to apply for NSA/DHS In 2011 NSA took its hiring efforts into certification. The applications were a new realm. To help recruit tech-savvy professionals to support the Agency’s cyber evaluated on specific criteria about security initiatives, NSA introduced several the faculty, coursework, and resources high-tech recruitment tools. These new digital communications – NSA Career Links devoted to IA. Smartphone application, Crypto Mobile Game application, and Smartphone tagging – were designed to entice prospective employees to This focus on promoting IA at consider a career with NSA. Both 2011 and universities led to the development 2012 saw two of the largest hiring efforts in Secure Mobile Environment Portable Electronic Device. of more professionals in IA-related the Agency’s history, with over 1,600 hires in 2011 and an expected 1,900 new employees disciplines, as well as recognition for The Mobility Mission Leader was appointed NSA’s Public Perception in 2012. the school and scholarship and grant in 2009 and a Mobility Mission Management As the years passed and the environment Office followed in the summer of 2010 to changed, so too did the outlook of NSA’s Future Goals and Missions opportunities for students. In 2012 prove the value of implementing the CSfC leadership, and once again NSA heightened The mission of NSA/CSS for 60 years has been NSA and the DHS jointly sponsored model to deliver assured Mobility solutions. its public profile. NSA’s senior leadership can to provide actionable Signals Intelligence to A matrixed NSA team created a highly be seen giving high-profile presentations at our customers, and to provide and protect several National Centers of Excellence successful pilot project using primarily technical conferences and events throughout the Nation’s most important communications, in IA programs for four-year colleges, commercial solutions to exchange secure the country, from General Alexander’s first all through the art and science of cryptology. graduate-level universities, and some voice and data on commercial mobile devices. appearance at the 2009 RSA Conference to NSA’s activities, products, services, and the Agency’s participation in a documentary information save lives and defend vital two-year colleges. NSA also launched NSA will continue to innovate, test, and with the National Geographic channel. networks. To stay ahead of the Nation’s a new National Centers of Academic stay at the cutting edge of the mobility adversaries, NSA is constantly adjusting and ecosystem to ensure anywhere, anytime For the first time since before 9/11, NSA improving its capabilities to protect the Excellence in Cyber Operations access for classified government users and to allowed documentary cameras to go behind Nation in this digital age. While technology, Program to ultimately yield a larger influence the direction of security solutions the closed doors of NSA and deep inside capabilities, and targets may change, NSA’s throughout the federal government and in the some of the Agency’s watch center floors. core missions of Signals Intelligence and pool of professionals with expertise in private sector. “Inside the NSA” aired on the National Information Assurance remain the same. cyber security. n

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National Security Agency Historic Documents

Document A – General Hayden DIRgram Document B – President Bush’s NSA address

NSA Deputy Director John “Chris” Inglis swearing in new employees.

These missions will continue to enable us Goal 4: Implementing Best Business Practices to discover our adversaries’ secrets, while Goal 5: Manifesting Principled Performance protecting our own, and to outmaneuver our adversaries in cyberspace, to provide our As General Alexander states in his foreword Nation the Information Advantage. to the NSA/CSS Strategy, “Our success will be General Alexander summarized his goals for the measured by how well we answer the Nation’s future in his Strategic Plan: key intelligence questions and how effectively we collaborate and integrate with consumers, Goal 1: Succeeding in Today’s Operations partners, and others to help them achieve Goal 2: Preparing for the Future their missions, and protect and defend their Goal 3: Enhancing and Leading an Expert Workforce information domains.” n

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Document A – DIRgram 57 from Lt Gen Hayden during implementation of his “100 Days of Change.” Document B-1 – Transcript of President George W. Bush’s remarks during his visit to the National Security Agency, January 2006 (Full transcript and photographs available on DVD).

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Document B-2

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work-life balance. Today NSA’s leadership is aware that a “whole person” –someone with An Agency Rich in Heritage balance between their professional and personal sides of life– can contribute more substantially to Secrecy and a Low Profile Dress Code the mission. From the moment an employee is hired on at In the early days, NSA had a dress code that NSA, he or she assumes a lifetime obligation to mandated business attire for all employees. Coat Job Diversification safeguard sensitive and classified information. and tie were required for men and conventional In the early years, it was not unusual for an Every new employee is educated in the business dress for women, which did not include employee to spend an entire career in a single need and requirement for secrecy, as well pantsuits. office or career field. By the 2000s, at least one as the importance of keeping a tour of duty or joint duty assignment at another low profile on the “outside” for In the 1960s, as fashion in society intelligence agency or military command would counterintelligence reasons. became less formal, dress be a prerequisite for high-level promotions. codes were relaxed for Gradually, however, the philosophy both civilians and military. Publications that produced the expression Eventually, many formal Employees in the early years, bound by NSA’s “NSA means No Such Agency” fashion practices, such as policy of anonymity outside the Agency, has morphed into one of more neckties, were abandoned were discouraged from publishing articles in openness. An iconic symbol of by almost everyone but academic or popular journals. Consequently, this transformation is the signpost senior leaders. NSA established a number of in-house journals, reading “The National Security such as the NSA Technical Journal, established in Agency” that was placed at its In the 2000s, employees 1956, and Cryptologic Spectrum, which started 2012 Armed Forces Week 5K Race entrance in the 1990s. dressed based on their in 1969. These two publications were combined function and the needs of the in 1982 as Cryptologic Quarterly, which is still softball and bowling. There were also clubs for Although the obligation for office. Leadership adopted published today. secrets to remain secret has the attitude that what was in handicrafts, travel, skiing, and games, and an art guild that exhibited members’ work. For a not changed, NSA has both an employee’s head was more In 1953 the Agency began publishing a simple time, there was a clown club and a drama club. a physical presence and a important than what was on four-page newsletter, which was replaced in 1964 NSA personnel also formed many types of music virtual one. The topic of a the body. with a slicker version, the NSA Newsletter. This groups, including the Parkway Brass and Parkway recent National Geographic paper ceased publication in 2000. documentary, NSA also has Chorale, who frequently perform at the Agency. Early NSA Newsletter.. Smoking its own web page, its Director Reflecting the norms of society, Activities In 1970 Admiral Gayler approved the formation of speaks at approximately smoking was widespread Over the years, NSA has sanctioned a number the Phoenix Society, intended for NSA retirees to 40 external events yearly, and its actions are throughout the Agency in the early days, with of after-hours activities and sports leagues, like followed, not always accurately, in the daily press. ashtrays a common sight on many desks. As help prolong friendships and interests developed the general public became more aware of the over the course of a career at NSA. dangers of smoking, NSA followed suit and began to work to adopt a smoke-free environment. NSA has also sponsored “learned societies,” such as the Crypto-Linguistic Association, the In February 1989, Director Studeman signed a CryptoMath Institute, the Pen and Cursor Society, memorandum prohibiting smoking in all offices, and the International Affairs Institute. limiting its use to designated areas in the cafeteria. This partial ban lasted till the end of the The Workforce year, when Studeman ordered that NSA be totally NSA Deputy Director John “Chris” Inglis sums up smoke-free by 1 January 1990. the NSA workforce in this quote, “Remarkable people with remarkable skills form the heart of Alcohol the National Security Agency.” One of the most intriguing NSA cultural facts was the presence of beer machines in the cafeteria Many factors, while they have evolved over the in the ‘70s and ‘80s. Eventually, the beer machines last 60 years, combine to create a diverse and were removed, although the story lingers as an stimulating environment that fosters a rich and interesting piece of trivia. rewarding career. The challenges of aggressively taking on an adversary or resolutely protecting Work-Life Balance the home turf bring out the best in people. By the late 1990s, NSA leaders and the Human The commitment and dedication of Agency Resources organizations established several personnel is one key factor that has not changed programs to help employees achieve a healthy over the years. NSA employees are dedicated, Winners of the Miss NSA contest, circa 1960s. NSA’s talented Parkway Chorale performs at many high-profile events. bright, loyal and serve the Nation in silence. n

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1952 1972 1991 1999 LTG Canine Central Security Desert Storm NSA Lt Gen Hayden 100 NSA’s first Director Service (CSS) provided key SIGINT Days of Change established a The CSS established support during this This initiative strong foundation a full partnership conflict. encouraged free, for the fledgling between NSA and the frequent, and clear organization. Cryptologic elements of communications the Armed Forces. up and down the chain of command. 1986 1962 1975 President Reagan 2001 2011 Lt Gen Allen 1993 9/11 Attacks Bin Laden Cuban Missile President Reagan, National During his On this day, NSA, brought Crisis SIGINT played accompanied Crytologic tenure, Gen America, and the to justice a critical role in by Mrs. Reagan, Museum Allen faced world changed NSA was a defusing this event dedicated NSA’s The Museum the Church forever. key actor in that had the world Operations 2A and tells the story of 1960 Committee’s the Special on edge. 2B buildings. the important Martin & Mitchell The investigation Forces- role that defection of these NSA into NSA IC Team cryptology employees to the Soviet collection responsible has played Union prompted tighter practices. for this throughout personnel security action. measures. history.

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

1952 1961 VENONA Specialist James The VENONA Davis killed in project exposed combat in Vietnam a massive Soviet The first Soldier espionage effort killed was an 1985 The Year of the Spy 2003 that threatened advisor to a South Former NSA employee Afghanistan & national security. Vietnamese Radio Ronald Pelton and Petty Iraq NSA’s strong 2010 Research unit. Officer John Walker were commitment to GEN Alexander & convicted of espionage. serve the needs U.S. CYBERCOM of the U.S. military Gen Alexander was and is evident was promoted in both conflicts. to the rank of four star general and named 1957 1974 Commander, U.S. The move to Ft. Meade Deputy Director Cyber Command One reason the site was Tordella in 2010. selected was because Dr. Tordella, who served 1996 it was deemed far as DDIR for 16 years, National Vigilance Park enough away from the was an early advocate The Park features three capital in case of a of the use of computers aircraft used in aerial nuclear strike. in cryptology. reconnaissance missions.

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National Security Agency Central Security Service

The NSA seal is a circle with a white The CSS seal displays all five Service border. In the semicircle border are the Cryptologic Components, which are comprised of the United States Fleet words National Security Agency and Cyber Command, the United States United States of America, separated by Marine Corps Director of Intelligence, a five-point silver star. In a blue field, an the United States Army’s Intelligence American eagle is displayed with wings and Security Command, the United inverted and talons clutching a silver key. States Air Force’s Intelligence, On the breast of the eagle is a shield, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance with a blue top, supported by thirteen Agency, and the United States Coast red and white stripes. In heraldry, the Guard Deputy Assistant Commandant eagle is a symbol of courage, supreme for Intelligence. Each are equally balanced around a five point star on power, and authority. The eagle in the which is centered the symbol of NSA/ NSA symbol symbolizes the national CSS, which provides the funding, scope of the mission of the Agency. A direction, and guidance to all of description of the shield taken from the America’s SIGINT activities. n Great Seal of the United States explains that the shield “represents the several states all joined in one solid compact entire, supporting a chief, which unites the whole and represents Congress.” The key in the eagle’s talons, representing the key to security, evolves from the emblem of St. Peter the Apostle and his power to loose and to bind. The shape of the seal, a circle, represents perpetuity of its continuance, the symbol of eternity. n

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NSA gratefully acknowledges the following Presidential Library and Museum entities and their staffs for their courteous contribution of materials for this 60th Anniversary publication: Harry S. Truman Library, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, John F. Kennedy Library, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon Library, Gerald R. Ford Library, Jimmy Carter Library, Ronald Reagan Library, George Bush Library, William J. Clinton Library, and George W. Bush Library. n

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