Südafrikas Atomwaffenprogramm: Gründe, Anfänge

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Südafrikas Atomwaffenprogramm: Gründe, Anfänge DIPLOMARBEIT Titel der Diplomarbeit „Südafrikas Atomwaffenprogramm: Gründe, Anfänge, Verlauf, Ende“ Verfasser Amin Aboufazeli angestrebter akademischer Grad Magister der Philosophie (Mag. phil.) Wien, im März 2008 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: 312 Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt: Geschichte Betreuer: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Mitchell Ash Inhaltsverzeichnis Abkürzungsverzeichnis ...............................................................................................4 Einleitung………………………………………………………………………..…………….6 Der Weg in die Apartheid ..........................................................................................16 Die Anfänge des Atomprogramms…………………………………………………..……23 Das Anreicherungsprojekt.........................................................................................33 Die letzten Schritte zur Bombe..................................................................................41 Veränderte Bedingungen…………………………………………………………………..45 Das Atomkraftwerk....................................................................................................50 Die Bomben………………………………………………………………………………… 53 Trägersysteme………................................................................................................59 Gab es Tests?............................................................................................................63 Die Hilfe von außen...................................................................................................70 Spekulationen und indirekte Bekanntgabe................................................................77 Die Frage nach dem Beginn und den Gründen des Atomwaffenprogramms ............83 Das Aufgeben der Atomwaffen und der Apartheid ....................................................89 Das Ende des Apartheid-Systems............................................................89 Die Aufgabe der Bomben .........................................................................99 Gründe fürs Abdrehen............................................................................110 War alles ganz anders?...........................................................................................114 Nukleare Entwicklungen im Post-Apartheid Südafrika ............................................117 Schluss……………………………………………………………………..………………124 2 Literaturverzeichnis .................................................................................................127 Anhang……………………………………………………………………………………..142 3 Abkürzungsverzeichnis ABC American Broadcasting Company AEB Atomic Energy Board AEC Atomic Energy Corporation ANC African National Congress AP Afrikaner Party Armscor Armaments Corporation of South Africa, früher Armaments Development and Production Corporation AZAPO Azanian People’s Organisation BOSS South African Bureau of State Security Calprods Calcined Products CBS Columbia Broadcasting System CDA Combined Development Agency CIA Central Intelligence Agency CNS Council for Nuclear Safety CODESA Convention for a Democratic South Africa COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DIA Defense Intelligence Agency ESKOM Electricity Supply Commission bzw. Elektrisiteitsvoorsieningskommissie FAPLA Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola FDP Freie Demokratische Partei FRELIMO Frente de Libertaçao de Moçãmbique FRG Federal Republic of Germany GfK Gesellschaft für Kernforschung HNP Herenigde Nasionale Party IAEA Internationale Atomenergieorganisation IAEO International Atomic Energy Agency IFP Inkatha Freedom Party LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory MK Umkhonto we Sizwe 4 MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NBC National Broadcasting Company NECSA Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa NIS National Intelligence Service NP Nasionale Party/ National Party/ Nationale Partei NRL Naval Research Laboratory Nufcor Nuclear Fuels Corporation OAU Organisation of African Unity OB Ossewabrandwag PAC Pan Africanist Congress (of Azania) PFP Progressive Federal Party PLO Palestine Liberation Organization PNE Peaceful Nuclear Explosives bzw. Peaceful Nuclear Explosions PP Progressive Party RENAMO Resistência National Moçambicana RSA Republic of South Africa bzw. Republiek van Suid-Afrika SABC South African Broadcasting Corporation SACP South African Communist Party SADF South African Defence Force SAFARI South African Fundamental Atomic Research SAHA South African History Archive SANDF South African National Defence Force SAP South African Party bzw. Suid-Afrikaanse Party SRC Space Research Corporation STEAG Steinkohlen-Elektrizitäts AG SWAPO South West Africa People’s Organization UCOR Uranium Enrichment Corporation UDF United Democratic Front UDF Union Defence Force UN United Nations UNITA União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola UP United Party URENCO Uranium Enrichment Corporation 5 Einleitung Südafrikas Übergang zur Apartheid fiel mit dem Beginn des Kalten Kriegs und dem Übergang zum Nuklearstaat zusammen.1 Der Übergang zur Demokratie wiederum wurde begleitet vom Aufgeben bzw. Abrüsten des militärischen Teils des Atomprogramms und der dazugehörenden Technologie und dem Ende des Kalten Kriegs. Das nukleare Abrüsten ging unter im Beenden der Apartheid; so wird es etwa in Allister Sparks’ ausführlicher Schilderung der Entwicklung, die zu den freien Wahlen 1994 führte, nicht erwähnt.2 Südafrika wurde, noch unter der international angesehenen, wenngleich gegenüber der schwarzen Bevölkerungsmehrheit ähnlich undemokratischen, Smuts-Regierung als Uran-Lieferant in den globalen nuklearen Konflikt integriert. Unter den Regierungen der Nationalen Partei wurde mit nuklearer Forschung begonnen, die in den Aufbau einer Nuklearindustrie, die die meisten Aspekte des Brennstoffkreislaufs bzw. der Brennstoffkette abdeckte und schließlich in ein militärisches Programm mündete. Das Atomwaffenprojekt war wie die Apartheid-Politik eine Sache der Afrikaaner, insofern, als sie in den einbezogenen Sektoren (Politik, Militär, Beamtenschaft und auch dem einbezogenen Teil der Wissenschaft) klar dominierten.3 Das Atomwaffenprogramm wurde bei der Offenlegung, die erst nach dem Abdrehen erfolgte, als rein defensiv deklariert. Südafrikas Atombomben waren lange so etwas wie ein offenes Geheimnis. Solange das Programm bzw. die Atomwaffen, existierten, wurde beides vom offiziellen Südafrika geleugnet, jedoch nicht ohne von Zeit zu Zeit versteckte Drohungen oder Frohlocken vorzubringen. Beobachter stellten seit den 1970er-Jahren Anzeichen fest, die wenig Zweifel daran ließen, dass Pretoria dabei war, sich ein Arsenal an Atomwaffen zuzulegen (siehe Abschnitt „Spekulationen und indirekte Bekanntgabe“). Erst mit der Bekanntgabe des inzwischen beendeten Programms durch Präsident De Klerk 1993 erfuhren die Spekulationen eine Bestätigung. Es gibt so etwas wie eine offizielle Geschichte des Programms, die von De Klerk in seiner Parlamentsrede 1993 skizziert und danach von den meisten „Insidern“ (vor allem dem 1 David Fig, Apartheid’s nuclear arsenal: Deviation from development. In: Jacklyn Cock, Penny Mckenzie (Hg.), From Defence to Development: Redirecting Military Resources in South Africa (Cape Town 1998) 163-180, hier 163. 2 Allister Sparks, Morgen ist ein anderes Land. Südafrikas geheime Revolution (Berlin 1995). 3 Afrikaner (auch Afrikander; deutsch meist „Afrikaaner“) ist die Eigenbezeichnung für die Gesamtheit der Afrikaans-sprachigen weißen Einwohner Südafrikas, die hauptsächlich niederländischer, deutscher und französischer Herkunft sind. Boer (Bure) bezeichnet im strengeren Sinn nur jene 6 auskunftsfreudigen Waldo Stumpf, dem langjährigen Chef der Atomic Energy Corporation) bestätigt und ausgeführt wurde.4 Dadurch wurden einige, wenn auch lange nicht alle, Details des Projekts bekannt. Es gibt begründete Zweifel an dieser offiziellen Version, die wahrscheinlich in Grundzügen stimmt; einiges daran ist jedoch lückenhaft und irreführend. Im neuen, demokratischen Südafrika (seit 1994) wurde keine Untersuchung über das Apartheid-Atomwaffenprogramm durchgeführt und kaum neue Informationen darüber preisgegeben. Die Entscheidungsträger und Mitarbeiter von damals sind zu einem großen Teil noch am Leben. Geltende Gesetze Südafrikas, wovon einige noch aus der Apartheid-Ära stammen, erschweren die Veröffentlichung von Details zum Programm.5 Alle Dokumente zum südafrikanischen Atomwaffenprogramm, die den allergrössten Teil der Primärquellen darstellen, sind, der offiziellen Version zufolge, vernichtet worden (siehe Abschnitt „Das Aufgeben der Atomwaffen und der Apartheid“). Außerdem haben Atomwaffenprogramme Geheimniskrämerei an sich. Primärquellen gibt es daher nur bedingt, etwa öffentliche Stellungnahmen und Publikationen von ehemaligen Verantwortlichen. Jene, die darüber öffentlich geredet oder geschrieben haben, sind anscheinend nicht immer vom Willen getrieben, die Wahrheit ans Licht zu bringen, sondern eher davon, das Programm und ihre Rolle darin in ein möglichst gutes Licht zu stellen. Jan van Loggerenberg, ein ehemaliger Stabschef der südafrikanischen Luftwaffe, Hannes Steyn, ein Physiker, der für den staatlichen Waffenkonzern Armscor arbeitete, und Richardt van der Walt, in Großbritannien ausgebildeter Physiker, der für die Atomic Energy Corporation, die Nachfolgebehörde des Atomic Energy Board, tätig war, sind drei Insider, die - in welchem Maß auch immer - in das Nuklearwaffenprogramm involviert waren. Ihr Buch „Armament and Disarmament“6,
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